Alpema Standerd For Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exch
Alpema Standerd For Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exch
Alpema Standerd For Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exch
MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION
Second Edition
2000
Copyright 2000 by the Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger Manufacturers' Association. All
rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be included in another publication, including publications in electronic
media, without prior permission from ALPEMA. Companies and other organisations are, however,
welcome to make copies for use within that company or organisation. Copies can be downloaded
from the ALPEMA web site (www.alpema.org). When using your own copies, it is in your own interest
to ensure that you have the latest edition of the Standards.
Published by: The Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger Manufacturers' Association
(ALPEMA) - www.alpema.org
(i)
MEMBERSHIP LIST
(ii)
PREFACE
This is the Second Edition of the Standards of the Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger
Manufacturers' Association (ALPEMA). It is the result of the work by a technical committee of all the
Members to meet the objective of the Association to promote the quality and safe use of this type of
heat exchanger. The Standards contain all relevant information for the specification, procurement, and
use of Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers.
The First Edition, published in 1994, has proved extremely successful and popular. The ALPEMA
Members have reviewed the Standards every year since 1994 to consider whether updates are
required and what these should be. Changes in the industry, experience with using the Standards and
feedback from users has indicated that the time is right for the Second Edition. The additions and
amendments which have been made are summarised here.
1. A new Section 3.10 has been added to the end of Chapter 3 on the procedures to follow in
rectifying the non-conformities that occasionally occur in manufacture.
2. Chapter 4, previously titled Installation, has been re-titled Installation, Operation and Maintenance
to reflect more accurately its contents. The following changes have also been made to this
Chapter:
• In section 4.9.1, an additional warning to the user has been added on pressure protection.
• The recommended maximum cool-down and warm-up rates given in Sections 4.9.1 and 4.9.3,
respectively, have been increased.
• Section 4.11 on leak detection on-site, has been extended to give more detail and a new
Section 4.12 added on repair of leaks.
3. Section 5.12.2.4 on nozzle loading has been modified with respect both to the point of application
of the loads and the corresponding magnitudes of the typical allowable loads.
4. In Chapter 7, Section 7.3, which introduces thermal design, has been modified to emphasise the
existence of more advanced and detailed calculation methods than the basic one included in
Chapter 7. Also, Figure 7-3 and Figure 7-4, the typical specification sheets, have been tided up
slightly.
5. Section 8.3 on corrosion has been expanded to give more information and guidelines on the use of
brazed aluminium plate-fin exchangers in a variety of environments.
6. In addition to the above substantive changes, the wording has been revised in several places to
improve clarity and remove typographical errors. Also, minor improvements have been made to a
few of the Figures.
The Standards herein are recommended by The Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger
Manufacturers' Association to assist users, engineers and designers who specify, design and install
Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers. These Standards are based upon sound engineering
principles, research and field experience in the manufacture, design, installation and use of these
exchangers. These Standards may be subject to revision as further investigation or experience may
show is necessary or desirable. Nothing herein shall constitute a warranty of any kind, expressed or
implied, and warranty responsibility of any kind is expressly denied.
(iii)
Table of Contents
MEMBERSHIP LIST ii
PREFACE iii
2 TOLERANCES 13
(iv)
3.7.2 Cleaning 20
3.7.3 Drying 20
3.7.4 Flange Protection 20
3.7.5 Dummy Passages/Inactive Areas 20
3.7.6 Pressurising 20
3.8 SCOPE OF SUPPLY 20
3.9 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION FEATURES 21
3.9.1 Supports 21
3.9.2 Lifting Devices 21
3.10 NONCONFORMITY RECTIFICATION 21
3.10.1 Introduction 21
3.10.2 Procedures and Documentation 21
3.10.3 Side-bar-to-Sheet Joint Leak Rectification 22
3.10.4 Blocking of Layers 22
3.10.5 Other Rectification Work 22
5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS 35
5.1 SCOPE 35
5.2 DEFINITION OF A BRAZED ALUMINIUM PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGER 35
5.3 CODES FOR CONSTRUCTION 35
5.4 TYPICAL MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 35
5.5 DESIGN PRESSURES 35
5.6 TESTING 36
5.6.1 Pressure Test 36
5.6.2 Leak Test 36
(v)
5.7 METAL TEMPERATURE LIMITATIONS 37
5.7.1 Metal Temperature Limitations 37
5.7.2 Design Temperature 37
5.8 PERMISSIBLE TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADJACENT STREAMS 37
5.9 CORROSION ALLOWANCES 38
5.10 SERVICE LIMITATIONS 38
5.11 STANDARD SIZES 38
5.11.1 Parting Sheets 38
5.11.2 Cap Sheets 38
5.11.3 Side Bars 38
5.11.4 Fins 38
5.12 HEADERS AND NOZZLES 38
5.12.1 Headers 38
5.12.2 Nozzles 39
5.12.3 Flanges 40
5.13 EFFECT OF PRODUCTION PROCESS ON MATERIALS 40
5.14 ARRANGEMENT OF LAYERS 40
5.15 BRAZED ALUMINIUM PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGER AS A PRESSURE VESSEL 41
5.15.1 Fins 41
5.15.2 Parting Sheets 41
5.15.3 Side bars 41
5.15.4 Cap Sheets 41
5.15.5 Headers and Nozzles 41
5.16 SPECIAL FEATURES 42
6 MATERIALS 43
6.1 TYPICAL MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 43
(vi)
8 RECOMMENDED GOOD PRACTICE 57
8.1 THERMAL STRESSES WITHIN BRAZED ALUMINIUM PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGERS 57
8.1.1 Introduction 57
8.1.2 Failure Mechanism 57
8.1.3 Recommendations 58
8.1.4 Summary 58
8.2 FOULING AND PLUGGING OF BRAZED ALUMINIUM PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGERS 58
8.2.1 Fouling 58
8.2.2 Plugging 59
8.3 CORROSION 60
8.3.1 Process Environments Containing Water 60
8.3.2 Process Environments Containing Mercury 61
8.3.3 Atmospheric or Environmental Corrosion 62
8.3.4 Other Services 62
Notation 63
References 65
Index 67
(vii)
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Illustration of a Typical Multi-Stream Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger ............ 1
Figure 1-2: Components of a Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger ......................................... 4
Figure 1-3: Typical Assembly of Three Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers in Parallel ........ 5
Figure 1-4: Typical Header Configurations............................................................................................ 7
Figure 1-5: Typical Header/Nozzle Configurations................................................................................ 7
Figure 1-6: Principal Types of Fin ......................................................................................................... 8
Figure 1-7: Definition of Fin Dimensions ............................................................................................... 9
Figure 1-8: Examples of the Principal Distributor Types...................................................................... 10
Figure 1-9: Structure of an Individual Layer ........................................................................................ 11
Figure 1-10: Flow Arrangements ........................................................................................................ 11
Figure 2-1: Important External Dimensions of One Core using the Core Centre Line ......................... 13
Figure 2-2: Important External Dimensions of One Core using the Support Base Line ....................... 14
Figure 2-3: Important External Dimensions of a Manifolded Assembly of Two Cores: General
Flange Details ................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 4-1: Typical Sliding Guide Frame............................................................................................. 24
Figure 4-2: Typical Heat Exchanger Assembly of Three Cores Showing Shear Plate Supports.......... 25
Figure 4-3: Typical Heat Exchanger Assembly of Three Cores Showing Angle Bracket Supports ...... 26
Figure 4-4: Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Aluminium................................................................ 28
Figure 4-5: Typical Shear Plate Bolt Assembly ................................................................................... 28
Figure 4-6: Recommended Minimum Insulation Thickness (mm)........................................................ 30
Figure 5-1: Positions of the Three Reference Axes............................................................................. 40
Figure 7-1: Cross Sectional View of Fin and Parting Sheet................................................................. 45
Figure 7-2: Single and Double Banking .............................................................................................. 46
Figure 7-3: Typical Specification Sheet............................................................................................... 48
Figure 7-4: Typical Specification Sheet............................................................................................... 49
Figure 7-5: Pressure Loss Components ............................................................................................. 53
LIST OF TABLES
(viii)
CHAPTER 1
General Description and Nomenclature
1.1.1 Introduction
A brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger consists of a block (core) of alternating
layers (passages) of corrugated fins. The layers are separated from each other by
parting sheets and sealed along the edges by means of side bars, and are provided
with inlet and outlet ports for the streams. The block is bounded by cap sheets at the
top and bottom.
An illustration of a multi-stream plate-fin heat exchanger is shown in Figure 1-1.
The stacked assembly is brazed in a vacuum furnace to become a rigid core. To
complete the heat exchanger, headers with nozzles are welded to the side bars and
parting sheets across the ports.
The size of a brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger shall be specified by width W,
stacking height H and length L of the rectangular block. (Figure 1-2).
The three dimensions shall be given always in the same sequence as W × H × L,
e.g. 900 × 1180 × 6100 mm.
Figure 1-1: Illustration of a Typical Multi-Stream Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger
Figure 1-3: Typical Assembly of Three Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers in Parallel
1.2.4.2 Flanges
This option is available if the heat exchanger is to be connected to steel
piping or if installation of the heat exchanger without welding is desired.
Under this option, the manufacturer provides the heat exchanger with
aluminium flanges welded on the nozzles to fit with mating (normally steel)
flanges on the piping.
Serrated Fin
1.2.7 Distributors
There are various distributor types available for streams entering or leaving a block.
The principal distributor types are:
- side distributor (mitred or diagonal)
- end distributor (left, right or central)
- intermediate distributor (special)
Some typical examples are shown in Figure 1-8. Manufacturers may offer other
designs.
Special designs of distributor are offered for two-phase streams entering a block
(Reference 4).
(a) (b)
A B C
B is in counterflow to A
C is in cross-counterflow to A
D is in co-current flow to B
D E E is in crossflow to D
2 TOLERANCES
Standard tolerances for the external dimensions of brazed aluminium plate-fin heat
exchangers are shown in Figure 2-1 and Figure 2-2. The core centre line (Figure 2-1) and the
base line of supports (Figure 2-2) are used here as datum lines to illustrate these dimensions.
However, manufacturers may use other reference datum lines. The purchaser and
manufacturer may adopt other tolerance values upon agreement.
Figure 2-3 shows the tolerances for a manifolded assembly of two cores. Here, the base line of
the supports may also be used as a datum line as shown in Figure 2-2. Details for flanges are
also shown in Figure 2-3.
For spare and replacement exchangers these tolerances shall also be applied.
Figure 2-1: Important External Dimensions of One Core using the Core Centre Line
Figure 2-2: Important External Dimensions of One Core using the Support Base Line
3.3 INSPECTION
3.4 NAMEPLATE
3.6 GUARANTEES
Manufacturers are prepared to grant a thermal performance guarantee and a mechanical
guarantee. Details shall be agreed upon by the purchaser and the manufacturer.
The following sections give an indication of terms of guarantees which may be expected from
the manufacturer.
3.6.3 Corrosion
After delivery the manufacturer assumes no responsibility for any defect of the
equipment due to corrosion, except where the manufacturer has expressively accepted
the conditions and/or substances which have caused such corrosion.
3.7.1 General
Brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers will be suitably protected to prevent
damage during shipment. If there are no special instructions from the purchaser, the
following terms shall apply.
3.7.3 Drying
The manufacturer will ensure that all pressure chambers are sufficiently dry before
shipment.
3.7.6 Pressurising
To avoid ingress of any moisture or dust during transport, brazed aluminium plate-fin
heat exchangers will be shipped with flanges and nozzles hermetically sealed and all
pressure chambers pressurised with dry, oil-free nitrogen gas or air to between 0,2 and
1,2 bar g.
All connections must carry warning labels stating that the heat exchanger is under
pressure.
WARNING: REMOVAL OF END CLOSURES IS ONLY ALLOWED AFTER
REDUCING THE PRESSURE TO ATMOSPHERIC IN THE RELEVANT CHAMBER
BY THE INSTALLED GAUGE/VALVE.
The purchaser and manufacturer may agree that pressurising the heat exchanger for
transport is not necessary. In that case it may be considered necessary to ship the heat
exchanger packed in a plastic foil with a humidity-absorbing agent inserted.
3.9.1 Supports
Generally all brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers are provided with supports.
Any exceptions are to be agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer.
The supports are designed to accommodate the weight of the heat exchanger and its
contents, during both operating and test conditions.
For purposes of support design, manufacturers provide a design margin for external
loads from nozzle, wind and seismic events. This margin is provided by, or is available
upon request from the manufacturer. As an alternative, the purchaser may supply the
manufacturer with the external loadings for the manufacturer's support design.
Wind and seismic loads will not be assumed to occur simultaneously.
Support details are described in Chapter 4 of these Standards.
3.10.1 Introduction
Rectification work on a brazed plate-fin heat exchanger block is necessary if a
nonconformity occurs during the manufacturing process. This section describes
procedures and purchaser notifications to resolve a nonconformity.
The manufacturer judges the severity of the nonconformity and reviews contractual
requirements in determining the involvement of the purchaser in deciding disposition.
Unless there are contractual requirements to the contrary, the following procedures are
followed in performing nonconformity rectification.
4.1 GENERAL
It is normal for brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers to be installed in the vertical
attitude, warm end up. There are, however, some exceptions to this such as reversing heat
exchangers for air separation or cross flow sub-coolers. Heat exchangers are normally
supplied with all the necessary supports to facilitate site installation.
Generally, mounting supports are, if possible, positioned in the warm half of the block. This
reduces movement at the juncture of the bracket to the support beam during start-up and shut-
down cycles.
In addition to the main supports, there may be a need for an additional sliding guide to restrict
movement from the vertical plane. Several aspects need to be considered to determine if such
a device is necessary, for example:
- Physical dimensions of the heat exchanger
- Weight of the heat exchanger
- Site conditions (earthquake, wind, pipeload etc.)
- Relative position of the main support plane to the centre of gravity of the heat exchanger.
Upon request, the manufacturer will provide values for the allowable forces and moments
which may be applied at the junctions of the header tank to nozzle of the heat exchanger. The
Purchaser should then ensure that these values are not exceeded for all connecting pipe runs
(refer to Section 5.12.2.4 and Table 5-1 for typical values).
If the connecting pipe joints between the heat exchanger and the purchaser's pipework are to
be made by means of welding, then this must be done using the relevant qualified weld
procedures and welders. The weld filler materials used must be those approved for welding the
materials to be joined. Details of the nozzle material are normally marked on the heat
exchanger nozzles as well as being stated on the relevant drawing. The manufacturer should
be asked if the installer has any doubts on this matter.
*
Trade name
24 • STANDARDS OF THE BRAZED ALUMINIUM PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGER MANUFACTURER'S ASSOCIATION
CHAPTER 4
Installation, Operation and Maintenance
Figure 4-2 shows a typical assembly of three heat exchangers with a Shear Plate Support
Arrangement. The heat exchangers are supported at the upper warm end and guided at the
lower cold end.
Figure 4-2: Typical Heat Exchanger Assembly of Three Cores Showing Shear Plate Supports
Figure 4-3: Typical Heat Exchanger Assembly of Three Cores Showing Angle Bracket Supports
For estimated clearances of up to 4 mm, clearance may be achieved by drilling the mounting
hole in the support bracket oversize. For larger clearances, the support bracket must be slotted
in the direction of the movement. For larger two-directional movements, clearance is
maintained by slotting both support bracket and support beam, with the slots being positioned
at 90° to each other.
4.8 INSULATION
On completion of all field testing the heat exchanger will require to be insulated.
For heat exchangers mounted within a cold box the minimum insulated distance, in mm,
between the heat exchanger and cold box wall is taken from Figure 4-6. The void space
between the heat exchanger and wall must be packed with insulant. This may be either
expanded perlite or rockwool. For perlite a density in the range of 60 to 80 kg/m3 is normally
used. When packing with rockwool care must be taken to avoid damage to the heat
exchanger's connections. Prior to start-up, a continuous dry oxygen-free nitrogen purge is to
be connected to the cold box.
For stanchion (pedestal) or frame mounted heat exchangers, the minimum thickness of
insulation is also to be taken from Figure 4-6. The insulation used for this type of heat
exchanger is usually of the spray-on polyurethane foam type. After application of the insulant,
the heat exchanger must be sealed with a weatherproof jacket.
4.9.3.1 Warming Up
Warming up shall be performed with gas and only after all liquid has been
drained from the heat exchanger.
On attainment of ambient temperature the heat exchanger is to be purged
with oxygen free nitrogen of dewpoint -40°C or less. When a sterile internal
atmosphere has been achieved then the heat exchanger should be blanked
off using blind flanges. If the shut-down is to continue for any length of time,
the streams should be pressurised with dry nitrogen to a pressure of 0.2 to
1.2 bar g.
4.10 MAINTENANCE
Other than the directives and recommendations outlined, no routine maintenance should be
required. A log of all plant operational events which might affect the heat exchanger should be
kept. The log should record details of all start-ups, shut-downs and any plant malfunctions
together with any available routine operational data.
Problems with brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers are rare. However, if problems
develop, advice should be sought from the manufacturer. Rectification of problems should not
be attempted without prior consultation with the manufacturer.
Extra care is required when investigating problems associated with heat exchangers installed
in cold boxes:
The nitrogen purge for the cold box must be disconnected.
WARNING: PERSONNEL MUST NOT BE ALLOWED INTO THE COLD BOX UNTIL THE
UNIFORM LEVEL OF OXYGEN IN THE BOX ATMOSPHERE HAS REACHED A MINIMUM
OF 19% BY VOLUME.
A continuous alarm type monitor of the oxygen level in the cold box should be kept. The
monitor should be checked at regular intervals of one hour by a second monitor. All monitoring
should be at face level of working personnel.
If only part of the box insulation is to be removed to effect access to the heat exchanger, the
working cavity so formed must be secured with scaffolding and planking to prevent the residual
insulant from collapsing. If welding is to take place, the cavity should be lined with polyethylene
sheeting or similar material.
WARNING: FOR PERSONNEL SAFETY, COLD BOXES INSULATED WITH PERLITE
SHOULD BE COMPLETELY EMPTIED PRIOR TO PERMITTING PERSONNEL ACCESS
INTO THE COLD BOX.
WARNING: COLD NITROGEN GAS CAN ACCUMULATE AT GROUND LEVEL AND HAVE
FATAL RESULTS THROUGH ASPHYXIATION.
4.11.1 Introduction
External leaks will be evident by the appearance of localised freeze spots or vapour
cloud on the outer casing of the insulation. In the case of heat exchangers installed in
a cold box, an increase in or contamination of the purge gas flowing out of the cold box
purge valve will be evident. The smell or sound of the escaping fluid may also be
discernible.
5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS
5.1 SCOPE
These Standards apply to all vacuum-brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers.
In theory, there is no limit to the size of a brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger core since
the internal pressure forces are resisted by the internal structure (fins, sheets).
However, the wall-thickness and diameter of the headers, nozzles and piping connections for a
given internal pressure will limit the practical size of the heat exchanger core.
5.6 TESTING
5.11.4 Fins
Typically, fin height, thickness and density, vary within the following limits:
Fin height 3.8 mm to 12 mm
Fin thickness 0.15 mm to 0.61 mm
Fin pitch 1.15 mm to 4.5 mm (22 fpi to 6 fpi)
Not every manufacturer will use the whole range of these dimensions. In addition, as a
result of the restrictions of manufacturing tools, not every combination of fin dimensions
can be produced, e.g. large thickness with many fins per inch (fpi) may be excluded.
5.12.1 Headers
Headers are fabricated from half cylinders with welded end caps. Some typical
configurations are shown in Chapter 1, Figure 1-4. Headers are usually made either
from standard pipe sizes or formed from plates.
At elevated design pressures, the resulting required wall thickness of large diameter
headers may exceed a reasonable or producable value. In that case, the use of
multiple headers of smaller diameter is common practice.
The use of reinforcing pads around nozzles, common on conventional cylindrical
pressure vessels, has limited application to headers as a result of the restricted
distance from the block surface to the nozzle.
Mr = Mx +My +Mz
2 2 2
Fr = F x + F y + F z
2 2 2
Table 5-1: Typical Resultant Forces and Moments Allowable at nozzle-to-header intersection
Nozzle size Moments (Nm) Force (N)
Inches Resultant Moment Resultant Force
Mr Fr
2 60 405
3 165 750
4 330 1330
6 765 1800
8 1080 2770
10 1350 3370
12 1650 4500
14 1950 5400
16 2320 6450
18 2700 7500
20 3000 8250
24 3600 10300
5.12.3 Flanges
Dimensions and facing of aluminium flanges shall comply with the applicable code, e.g.
ANSI B16.5 or DIN. Usually, ring joint (RJ) or raised-face (RF) flanges are selected.
Bolt holes shall straddle natural centre lines.
5.15.1 Fins
As well as their thermal performance behaviour, fins have to be selected by the
manufacturer for their ability to resist the pressure loadings as structural members.
These loads essentially produce tensile stresses in the fins. The maximum allowable
design pressure for the individual fins shall be determined either by calculation or by
burst-test methods. The same fin corrugation may be acceptable up to different design
pressures, depending on the requirements of the applicable codes.
6 MATERIALS
Remarks *1 : Maximum applicable temperature is as per ASME Sec. VIII, Div.1, where the official unit is British (degree F).
*2 : Maximum applicable temperature is as per AD-Merkblätter/Vd-TüV, where the official unit is Metric (degree C).
*3 : Maximum applicable temperature is as per Japanese High Pressure Gas Safety Law, where the official unit is Metric
(degree C).
*4 : They may be clad
Remarks *1 : Maximum applicable temperature is as per ASME Sec. VIII, Div.1, where the official unit is British (degree F).
*2 : Maximum applicable temperature is as per AD-Merkblätter/Vd-TüV, where the official unit is Metric (degree C).
*3 : Maximum applicable temperature is as per Japanese High Pressure Gas Safety Law, where the official unit is Metric
(degree C).
*4 : They may be clad
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger has special features and advantages which
make it quite different from other types of heat exchangers:
1. A very large heat transfer surface area can be made available per unit volume of heat
exchanger. This surface area is composed of primary and secondary (finned) surfaces.
Even taking into account the fin efficiency of the secondary surface, the effective surface
area per unit volume can be typically five times greater than that of a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger.
2. A range of fin types is available. The fin type is selected to suit the characteristics of a
stream. For example, serrated, wavy and perforated fins (Chapter 1, Figure 1-6) are
particularly suitable for gas streams.
3. One heat exchanger can incorporate several streams and heat can be exchanged
simultaneously amongst several streams in a multi-stream heat exchanger. Suitable
headers and distributors also permit streams to enter and leave the heat exchanger at
intermediate points along its length as well as at the ends.
7.2.1 Primary and Secondary Heat Transfer Surfaces and Thermal Length
Heat is transferred from or into a stream within a finned passage. The primary heat
transfer surface within the heat exchanger consists of the bare parting sheet and the fin
base directly brazed to the parting sheet (Figure 7-1).
The secondary heat transfer surface is provided by the fins. The effectiveness of the
secondary surface to transfer heat is given by the fin efficiency.
Per unit area of each parting sheet:
the primary surface is given by : 2(1 - nt),
the secondary surface is given by : 2n(h - t)
where n is the fin density (m-1), i.e. number of fins per unit length
t is the fin thickness (m)
h is the fin height (m)
The thermal length of a brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger is defined as the
effective length of the finned region between, but not including, the distributors.
Single banking is the normal arrangement where each warm stream layer (W) is
adjacent to a cold stream layer (C). The thermal efficiency of this fin arrangement is
given in Section 7.4.5.
Double banking is also illustrated in Figure 7-2. Here, two layers of equal height are
provided for a warm stream with a large flow rate within the allowable pressure drop.
More than two layers can also be used. The thermal efficiency of double banking is
also given in Section 7.4.5.
In double banking, the parting sheet between the two layers becomes a secondary
surface and the fin efficiency is reduced because of the increased length of the heat
path along the fins.
where
∆Ti +1 − ∆Ti
LMTD i = (3)
ln (∆Ti =1 ∆Ti )
∆Ti ; ∆Ti+1 : Temperature differences between warm and cold streams at each end of
section i (K).
This LMTD can be used for counter-flow or parallel-flow.
For cross-flow and cross-counter-flow, however, the LMTD must be corrected. Details
are given in Reference (1).
For a multi-stream brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger, the MTD must be
obtained from the two composite temperature-enthalpy curves for the combined warm
and combined cold streams. Further information can be found in References (1) to (4).
where
r : Fouling resistance of a stream (m2K/W)
Equation (5) can be used for single phase streams, i.e. all vapour or all liquid flow. For
two-phase condensing or vaporising flows, various equations are available for
predicting the two-phase heat transfer coefficient; given for example in Reference (4).
A manufacturer, however, will use calculation methods based on experience with two-
phase streams.
The Colburn factor, j, is highly dependent on the type of fin, its nominal geometry and
details of manufacture, as well as the Reynolds Number of the stream. Information
about the Colburn factor j can also be obtained from Reference (2).
Heat transfer coefficients of each stream must be calculated locally where the
thermodynamic and/or physical properties of the stream change rapidly, for example, at
a phase-change or in the super-critical state. For these conditions, a step-by-step
calculation along the stream will be necessary.
1 + γ 2β
B = e (13)
1− γ
A1 : Primary heat transfer surface of a stream (Figure 7-1) (m2)
A2 : Secondary heat transfer surface of a stream (Figure 7-1) (m2)
η1 : Passage fin efficiency for single banking (-)
η2 : Passage fin efficiency for double banking (-)
lp G m 2 G 2
∆P = 4 f + K m (15)
2 ρ 2ρ
dh
where
f : Fanning friction factor (-)
lp : Passage length (m)
dh : Hydraulic diameter of passage (m)
Gm : Mass velocity (mass flux) of stream (kg/m2s)
ρ : Density of a stream (kg/m3)
K : Expansion, contraction or turning loss coefficient (-)
∆P : Overall pressure drop (Pa)
Herringbone or Smooth but in waves Often used for gas high high
long-lanced of about 10 mm streams with low
serrated pitch, or serrated with allowable pressure
long serration pitch drop
8.1.1 Introduction
As with any pressurised heat exchanger, stresses in each component of a brazed
aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger must be maintained within allowable limits.
Pressure loads, externally applied loads (e.g. piping forces and moments), and
thermally induced loads produce stresses which must be maintained within permissible
limits to prevent component damage or failure.
Manufacturers design each brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger for the intended
design pressure loads; users are provided with details of allowable external loads that
may be exerted on the exchanger. A margin above the stresses created by these loads
is made available by the manufacturer for thermally-induced loads which may occur in
service. In this section the mechanism by which thermal stresses are induced is
explained.
Recommendations are given for the measures to be taken in the operation of brazed
aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers so that the overall combined stresses remain
within allowable limits during standard and non-standard operating conditions.
8.1.3 Recommendations
To reduce the possibility of component damage or failure during the operational
conditions described above, the following recommendations are made:
1. Limit the pressure and external loads to those allowed (stated) by the
manufacturer.
2. As with any heat exchanger, bring the brazed aluminium plate-fin exchanger to or
from operating or derime conditions slowly to avoid excessive thermal stress. This
is of particular importance when introducing a liquid or two-phase stream due to
the heat capacity of the stream and its ability to transfer heat rapidly to or from the
components. Recommended rates for start-up and shut-down, cool-down, warm-
up, deriming, etc. are presented in Chapter 4.
3. Limit the temperature differences between adjacent streams at any point in the
heat exchanger to those recommended in Chapter 5 or by the manufacturer.
Temperature differences recommended in Chapter 5 are general to all brazed
aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers. Other recommendations may be provided by
the manufacturer when supplying a heat exchanger for a particular application.
4. Exercise particular care in applications where a liquid is totally vaporised within the
heat exchanger. Boiling to total dryness can produce large temperature
differences and also induce flow instabilities. The manufacturer's recommended
allowable temperature differences for these applications must be strictly adhered
to. Also, the design of the process plant must ensure that stable flow occurs.
5. Design and operate the plant equipment and piping connected to the heat
exchanger to prevent flow excursion and instabilities (for example, intermittent
slugging of liquid to the exchanger). This is particularly important with boiling
streams.
6. Limit cyclic or frequently repeated temperature fluctuations of any stream to ±1°C
per minute.
8.1.4 Summary
Brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers are robust exchangers which are very
tolerant of large steady-state stream-to-stream temperature differences. Being
relatively compact and rigid structures, brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers are
susceptible to damage if subjected to transient or continuously unsteady operating
conditions which produce excessive thermal stressing. Excessive thermal stressing can
be avoided by following the precautions (recommendations) outlined above, thus
helping to ensure long life of the heat exchanger.
8.2.1 Fouling
Fouling is generally not encountered for processes in which brazed aluminium plate-fin
heat exchangers are traditionally used: air separation; hydrocarbon separation and
liquefaction of gases.
In the case where a degradation of thermal performance is observed with little or no
change in pressure drop of the product, fouling may be suspected.
Recommended actions are as follows:
8.2.2 Plugging
Plugging is defined as being the obstruction of fin channels inside a brazed aluminium
plate-fin heat exchanger as a result of solid particles having entered the unit.
The effect of plugging on a brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger may be very
serious for its thermal performance since, generally, the plugging medium will not be
distributed evenly to all passages, and uniformly within the width of the passages and
will thus cause severe maldistribution. Simultaneously, the pressure drop of the
plugged stream will increase significantly.
WARNING: IN THE CASE OF EXTREMELY SEVERE PLUGGING, THE SAFETY
ASPECTS OF THE PLANT MUST BE CONSIDERED.
8.2.2.1 Prevention
Plugging of brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers can be prevented by
following these recommended actions.
- The end closures of brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers should
always be maintained during manufacture until the connection of nozzles
or flanges to the plant pipework.
- The cleanliness of the connecting pipes should be checked to make sure
that rust, debris, dust, etc. can not enter the heat exchanger.
- Filters on the feed streams should be installed at any location where
there is a possibility of contaminating the process fluid.
Recommendations are provided by manufacturers as to the mesh size,
and filter types, etc., depending upon maintenance considerations, for
specific applications. A mesh size of 177 microns (80 Tyler) is capable of
covering most applications
8.3 CORROSION
Brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchangers are satisfactorily used in many processes without
experiencing corrosion problems. However, as with any heat exchanger, when corrosion is
possible, caution must be exercised both on the choice of process fluids and the environment
to which the brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger is exposed. Purchasers/operators
should contact the manufacturer to determine the best course of action to avoid corrosion
problems.
WARNING: CAUTION MUST BE EXCERCISED BOTH IN THE CHOICE OF PROCESS
FLUIDS AND THE ENVIRONMENT TO WHICH HEAT EXCHANGERS ARE EXPOSED
WHEN CORROSION IS POSSIBLE.
Since it is difficult to insure the leak tightness of any heat exchanger insulation system
it is important that safety systems which use water to control fire hazards do not
expose the heat exchangers to sea, brackish or other forms of salt water. This water
could become trapped between the heat exchanger insulation and the heat exchanger
metal surfaces resulting in corrosion of the exposed surfaces. Even tap water can
result in corrosion under these conditions, and manufacturers should be contacted
regarding procedures to be used to dry the cores.
Notation
SI IMPERIAL
A Effective heat transfer surface of a passage or layer m2 ft2
Ad Designed or estimated overall effective heat transfer surface m2 ft2
Ar Required overall effective heat transfer surface m2 ft2
A1 Primary heat transfer surface of a stream m2 ft2
A2 Secondary heat transfer surface of a stream m2 ft2
B Defined by Equation (13), Chapter 7 - -
C Coefficient, defined by Equation (14), Chapter 7 W/m3K Btu/ft2 F
Cp Specific heat J/kg K Btu/lb F
dh Hydraulic diameter of passage m ft
f Fanning friction factor - -
F Force N lb
Gm Mass flux/velocity of a stream kg/m2s lb/ft2 hr
h Fin height mm in
H Stacking height of a core mm in
j Colburn factor for a finned passage - -
K Expansion/contraction/turning loss coefficient - -
lp Passage length mm in
ls Serration length or distance between crests on herringbone fins mm in
L Core length mm in
LMTD Logarithmic mean temperature difference K F
M Moment Nm lb ft
MTD Mean temperature difference K F
n Fin density m-1 in-1
p Fin pitch mm in
Pr Prandtl number - -
Q Overall heat duty; heat to be transferred W Btu
r Fouling resistance m2K/W ft2F hr/Btu
s Distance between the extreme bolts in a given plane mm in
t Fin thickness mm in
U Overall heat transfer coefficient between streams W/m2K Btu/hr ft2F
V Volume of heat exchanger or exchangers m3 ft3
W Width of core mm in
X Required clearance distance mm in
Greek
αl Coefficient of linear expansion at average temperature m/m K ft/ft F
αo Effective heat transfer coefficient of a stream W/m2K Btu/hr ft2F
α Heat transfer coefficient of a stream W/m2K Btu/hr ft2F
β Defined by Equation (11), Chapter 7 - -
γ Defined by Equation (12), Chapter 7 - -
∆P Overall pressure drop N/m2 (Pa) lb/in2
∆T Local temperature difference between warm and cold streams K F
∆TR Temperature range at support K F
η1 Passage fin efficiency for single banking - -
η2 Passage fin efficiency for double banking - -
λm Thermal conductivity of fin material W/m K Btu/hr ft F
ρ Density of stream kg/m3 lb/ft3
φ Unperforated fraction of fin - -
Subscripts
c Cold stream w Warm stream
i Section x,y,z Direction
References
(1) Ward, J.A., "Effectiveness-NTU Relationships", Data Item 86018, Engineering Sciences Data
Unit, London, 1986.
(2) Kays, W.M. and London, A.L., "Compact Heat Exchangers", McGraw Hill, New York, Third
Edition, 1984.
(3) Taborek, J. and Spalding, D.B., "Heat Exchanger Design Handbook", Hemisphere Publishing
Corporation, 1983.
(4) Taylor, M.A., "Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers - Guide to Their Specification and Use", HTFS, 392.7
Harwell, Oxon, OX11 0RA, UK. 1987.
Index
Acceptable Fluids ........................................... 2 Corrosion ......................................................60
AD-Merkblätter ............................................. 35 Acidic Environments ..................................61
Aftercooler ...................................................... 2 Alkaline Environments ...............................61
Air Separation Unit(ASU) ................................ 2 Atmospheric or Environmental...................62
Air test .......................................................... 36 Environments containing Mercury..............61
Ammonia .................................................... 2, 3 Water ........................................................60
Angle Bracket Support Arrangement ............ 26 Corrosion Allowances ...................................38
Argon ............................................................... 3 Damage ........................................................33
AS 1210........................................................ 35 Definition.......................................................35
ASME VIll, Div. 1 .......................................... 35 Dephlegmators ...............................................2
Asphyxiation ................................................. 32 Deplugging....................................................60
Atmospheric Corrosion ................................. 62 Description
Banking General .......................................................1
Multiple ..................................................... 46 DESIGN
Single........................................................ 46 HYDRAULIC .......................................45–55
Beams THERMAL ...........................................45–55
Support ..................................................... 23 Design Code .................................................17
Block (core) .................................................... 4 Design Pressures..........................................35
Blocking of Layers ........................................ 22 Design Temperature .....................................37
Burst test method.......................................... 41 Distributor
Butane ............................................................. 3 Central ......................................................10
Cap sheet ....................................................... 4 Diagonal ....................................................10
Cap Sheets................................................... 41 Double Entry/Exit.......................................10
Carbon Dioxide........................................... 2, 3 End..............................................................9
Carbon Monoxide ....................................... 2, 3 Intermediate ................................................9
Cascade Cooling ............................................... 3 Mitre ..........................................................10
Chillers ........................................................... 2 Side.............................................................9
Chlorine .......................................................... 2 Special ........................................................9
Choice of Fin Geometry................................ 54 Split Flow...................................................10
Cleaning ................................................. 20, 59 Distributor fins.................................................4
Solvent ...................................................... 59 Drawings.......................................................18
CODAP......................................................... 35 Approval and Change................................18
Code Data Reports ....................................... 19 for Record .................................................18
Codes for Construction ................................. 35 Information ................................................18
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion ................. 28 Proprietary Rights......................................19
Colburn Factor.............................................. 50 Drying ...........................................................20
Cold Boxes ................................................... 32 Dummy Passages.........................................20
Components Dutch Pressure Vessel Code ........................35
of an Exchanger .......................................... 4 Ethane .............................................................3
of Manifolded Exchangers........................... 5 Ethylene ...........................................................3
Condenser Exchanger
Overhead .................................................... 2 block (core) .................................................1
Condensers .................................................... 2 cap sheets...................................................1
Connection Options inlet ports.....................................................1
Flanges ....................................................... 6 layers (passages) ........................................1
Stub Ends ................................................... 6 multi-stream ................................................1
Transition Joints .......................................... 6 outlet ports ..................................................1
CONTRACTUAL INFORMATION ................. 17 parting sheets..............................................1
Cool-down .................................................... 31 side bars......................................................1
Core (block) .................................................... 4 size..............................................................1
Core Volume FABRICATION........................................17–22
Estimation ................................................. 52 Failure Mechanism........................................57
STANDARDS OF THE BRAZED ALUMINIUM PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGER MANUFACTURER'S ASSOCIATION • 67
Index
Field Testing................................................. 29 Helium Recovery ............................................... 3
Filters ........................................................... 31 Helium test.................................................... 36
Fin Corrugations ............................................. 8 Hexane ............................................................ 3
Fin Dimensions............................................... 9 HYDRAULIC DESIGN ............................ 45–55
Definition..................................................... 9 Hydrogen ......................................................... 3
Fins Per Inch (FPI)...................................... 9 Hydrogen Sulphide ......................................... 2
Percentage Perforation ............................... 9 Inactive Areas............................................... 20
Fin Geometry Injury............................................................. 33
Choice of................................................... 54 Inspection ..................................................... 17
Fin Types........................................................ 8 Manufacturer’s .......................................... 17
Fins .............................................................. 41 Purchaser’s ............................................... 17
Herringbone ................................................ 8 Third Party ................................................ 17
Perforated ................................................... 8 INSTALLATION ...................................... 23–34
Plain............................................................ 8 Insulation ...................................................... 30
Serrated...................................................... 8 Japanese HPGS Law.................................... 35
Wavy........................................................... 8 Layer Arrangements ..................................... 40
Fixing Bolts................................................... 27 Leak Detection.............................................. 32
Flange Protection ......................................... 20 Leak Rate ..................................................... 37
Flanges ........................................................ 40 Leak Test...................................................... 36
Flow Arrangements ...................................... 11 Air ............................................................. 36
Co-Current Flow........................................ 11 Helium....................................................... 36
Counterflow............................................... 11 Length ............................................................ 4
Cross-Counterflow .................................... 11 Lifting............................................................ 23
Crossflow .................................................. 11 Lifting Devices .............................................. 21
Flow Fluctuations.......................................... 57 Lifting lugs .................................................... 21
Flow Velocities in Nozzles ............................ 39 Limits of Use
Fluids Maximum working pressure......................... 2
Acceptable .................................................. 2 Maximum working temperature ................... 2
Fouling ......................................................... 58 Minimum design temperature ...................... 2
Fouling Resistance ....................................... 51 Liquefaction ...................................................... 3
Freeze Spots ................................................ 32 Liquefied Natural Gas ........................................ 3
Freon ............................................................... 3 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) ............................... 3
General Description........................................ 1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)........................... 3
GENERAL DESCRIPTION ....................... 1–11 Liquefiers ........................................................ 2
GOOD PRACTICE ................................. 57–62 Liquified Natural Gas (LNG)............................ 2
Guarantees................................................... 19 Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference ... 50
Consequential Damage............................. 19 Main Exchanger.............................................. 2
Corrosion .................................................. 19 Maintenance ................................................. 32
Thermal and Mechanical........................... 19 MAINTENANCE...................................... 23–34
Guide Frame MATERIALS ........................................... 43–44
Sliding ....................................................... 24 Materials of Construction ........................ 35, 43
Handling ....................................................... 23 Mean Temperature Difference ...................... 47
Header MECHANICAL STANDARDS ................. 35–42
Dome .......................................................... 7 Mercury..................................................... 3, 61
Inclined Ends .............................................. 7 Metal Temperature Limitations...................... 37
Mitred Ends................................................. 7 Methane ........................................................... 3
Standard ..................................................... 7 Module Construction ....................................... 6
Header/Nozzle Configurations ........................ 6 Mounting Bolts .............................................. 27
Headers.......................................... 4, 6, 38, 41 MTBE .............................................................. 3
Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Stream........... 50 Multi-Component Refrigerants........................... 3
Heat transfer fins ............................................ 4 Multiple Banking ........................................... 46
Heat Transfer Surface .................................. 47 Multi-Stream ................................................. 46
Height............................................................. 4 Nameplate .................................................... 17
Stacking ...................................................... 1 Data .......................................................... 18
Helium ............................................................. 3 Manufacturer’s .......................................... 17
Helium Leak Test.......................................... 34 Purchaser’s ............................................... 18
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