COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES

URBAN SPRAWL AND ITS EFFECT ON THE PERIPHERAL

FARMING HOUSEHOLDS: THE CASE OF SHASHEMENE TOWN,
ETHIOPIA

BY

ABISHET TEFERA

AUGUST, 2018

ARBAMINCH, ETHIOPIA
 URBAN SPRAWL AND ITS EFFECT ON THE PERIPHERAL
FARMING HOUSEHOLDS: THE CASE OF SHASHEMENE TOWN,
ETHIOPIA

ABISHET TEFERA

ATHESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE
STUDIES ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
ART IN GEOGRAPHY.

AUGUST, 2018

ARBAMINCH,Ethiopia
DECLARATION

I assure that, this MA thesis is my original work and has not been presented for any
degree in any other university, and all sources of material used for this thesis have been
duly acknowledged.

Name: ___________________________________________
Signature: ___________________________________________

Confirmed by:

Principal Advisor:

Name: D/r Teshome Yirgu

Signature_______________

Co-Advisor:

Name: Ato Getu Lema

Signature: ______________

Place and Date of Submission: Arba Minch University, August, 2018.

 ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

ADVISORS’ THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

This is a thesis entitled “URBAN SPRAWL AND ITS EFFECT ON THE PERIPHERAL
FARMING HOUSEHOLDS: THE CASE OF SHASHEMENE TOWN, ETHIOPIA”. It is
studied by Abishet Tefera under my supervision. Therefore, I recommended that the
student’s thesis can be presented for review and open-oral presentation.

Name of Principal Advisor Signature Date

Dr.Teshome Yirgu ______________ _____

Name of Co-Advisor Signature Date

Ato Getu Lemma ______________ _____

EXAMINERS’ APPROVAL PAGE

As member of the board of the M.A thesis Open Defense Examination, we assured that
we have read and evaluated the thesis prepared by Abishet Tefera and examined the
candidate. We recommend that it is accepted as fulfilling the thesis requirement for the
Degree of Masters of Art in Geography and Environmental Studies.

Chairperson Signature Date

__ ____________
External Examiner Signature Date
__ _
Internal Examiner Signature Date
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Stamp of the Department Signature Date

____________________ ___________________________________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Above all first I would like to thank theAlmightyGodforbeingbymysideinallmyactivities
and giving me strength and patience to complete this research.

Secondly I extend my deepest acknowledge, gratitude and appreciation to my Principal

advisor Dr. Teshome Yirgu and my co-advisor Ato Getu Lemma and to the Department
of Geography and Environmental Studies of Arba Minch University.

Thirdly I wish to say a big thank to other staff members, Ato Tagay hamza, Ato Birhanu
Jima, and other individuals that they were giving me material and technical support.

Fourthly, I wish to express high recognition for the contributions specially Ato Fekadu
Reta, to the success of this thesis. I say thank you for your support. I am grateful for the
experiences and knowledge you shared with me and shall remember you.

I would also like to thank my family, my wife w/ro Bayush Abera and my sister Brutayte
Wanegnaw for all rounded support during my career.

At last but not least, I wish to express my gratitude to the household participants of the
study area and key informants of the study including Shashemenne Town Municipal
Authority, Administration and Communication Offices. I am very Grateful to you for
freely giving me your time, stories and insight in to the research. God bless you all.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................. i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. ii
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... iv
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Background of the study ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2. Statement of the problem....................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Objective of the study............................................................................................................ 4
1.3.1. General objectives .......................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2. Specific objectives: ......................................................................................................... 5
1.4. Research question .................................................................................................................. 5
1.5. Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 5
1.6. Scope and Delimitation of the study ..................................................................................... 5
1.7. Organization of the thesis ...................................................................................................... 6
1.8. Definition of operational terms ............................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................................. 7
2. LITERATUR REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 7
2.1. Urban Sprawl Concept .......................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Urban Development in Sub-Saharan Africa .......................................................................... 8
2.3. Urbanization and urban growth in Ethiopia .......................................................................... 8
2.4. Theories on urban expansion ................................................................................................. 9
2.5. Causes of Urban Growth and Sprawl .................................................................................. 10
2.5.1. Population growth ........................................................................................................ 10
2.5.2. Economic Growth......................................................................................................... 10
2.5.3. Speculation and Lack of Affordable Housing .............................................................. 10
2.5.4. Expectations of Land Appreciation .............................................................................. 11
2.5.5. Poor Public Policy and Regulation ............................................................................... 11
2.6. Effects of Urban Expansion................................................................................................. 11
2.6.1. Social consequences of urban sprawl ........................................................................... 11
2.6.2. Environmental consequences of urban sprawl ............................................................. 12

ii
 2.6.3. Economic consequences of urban sprawl ..................................................................... 12
2.7. Effects of urban sprawl on the livelihood of peripheral farming households...................... 12
2.7.1. Major negative effect of urban sprawl .......................................................................... 13
2.7.2. Positive effects.............................................................................................................. 15
2.8. Livelihood strategy of sub-urban households in Ethiopia ................................................... 16
2.8.1. Livelihood strategies .................................................................................................... 16
2.9. Policy and legislation issues of urbanization in Ethiopia .................................................... 17
2.9.1. Policies and Processes of Urban Expansion in Oromia ................................................ 18
2.10. Conceptual Framework of the study.................................................................................. 19
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................ 21
3. THE STUDY AREA AND METODOLOGY ........................................................................... 21
3.1. Description of the study area ............................................................................................... 21
3.1.1. Bio-physical condition of the study area ...................................................................... 21
3.1.2 Socio-demographic condition of the study area ............................................................ 22
3.2. Research design ................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.1. Data sources.................................................................................................................. 24
3.2.3. Sampling technique and sampling size determination.................................................. 24
3.2.4. Instrument of data collection ........................................................................................ 26
3.2.5. Data Analysis Technique .............................................................................................. 27
3.2.6. Ethical Consideration ................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................................... 29
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................... 29
4.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents ............................................................... 29
4.2. The effects of urban sprawl on peripheral farming households .......................................... 32
4.3. The existing livelihood status and Coping strategies of farmers whose .............................. 41
Livelihood is severely affected by urban sprawl. ....................................................................... 41
4.4. Role of Institutional and Policy related constraints of urban sprawl ................................... 45
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................ 57
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ......................................................................... 57
5.1. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 57
5.2 Recommendation .................................................................................................................. 59
6. Reference .................................................................................................................................... 60
Appendix .......................................................................................................................................... 1

iii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE

Table 3 1: sampling frame used to identify sample households. ..................................... 25

Table 4 1: Sex and Age of the respondents .................................................................... 30
Table 4 2: Demographic characteristics of respondents .................................................. 31
Table 4 3: Occupation of household head before expropriation ...................................... 31
Table 4 4: Years of living in Shashemene ................................................................... 32
Table 4 5: Effects of urban expansion before its implementation ................................... 33
Table 4 6: Land lost due to an expansion of town .......................................................... 36
Table 4 7: Perception about changes occurred ............................................................... 41
Table 4 8: believes about the new livelihood strategy .................................................... 42
Table 4 9: major problems farmers faced after expropriation ......................................... 44
Table 4 10: Farmers Source of Income after Expropriation ............................................ 45
Table 4 11: Awareness created before displacement ...................................................... 46
Table 4 12: Means of awareness of urban expansion and reaction of farmers ................. 47
Table 4 13: the benefit package due to the loose of land ................................................ 48
Table 4 14: benefit packages and compensation for expropriated peripheral farming
households. ................................................................................................................... 49
Table 4 15: Nature of compensation .............................................................................. 50
Table 4 16: Benefit packages promised and did not obtain ............................................. 51
Table 4 17: Access to credit facility ............................................................................... 52
Table 4 18: Farmers reaction on the amount of benefit packages and compensation....... 53
Table 4 19: Types of training in which the farmers participated ..................................... 54

iv
List of figures page

Figure 2 1: Conceptual Framework................................................................................ 20

Figure 3 1: Map of the study area .................................................................................. 21
Figure 4 1: land use land cover before expansion........................................................... 34
Figure 4 2: Annual incomes before expropriation .......................................................... 37
Figure 4 3: Annual income after expropriation............................................................... 38
Figure 4 4: Pattern of social relation after relocation ...................................................... 40
Figure 4 5: Government and others organization to improve the current status of farmer’s
livelihood ...................................................................................................................... 43

v
 List of Abbreviation

CSA: Central Statistical Authority

DFID: Department For International Development

ETB: Ethiopian Birr

FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

FDRE: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

FGD: Focus Group Discussion

HH: Household Head

IHDP: Integrated Housing Development Programme

MUDHC: Ministry of Urban Development, Housing and Construction

NGO: Non-Governmental Organizations

No: Number

NUPI: National Urban Planning Institute

ONRS: Oromiya National Regional State

OUPI:Oromiya Urban Planning Institute SGI smart growth index

OUWDB: Oromiya Urban Works and Development Bureau,

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Science

UGB : Urban Growth Boundary

UNCHS: United Nations Centre for Human Settlements

UNCRD: United Nations Center for Research and Development

UNECA: United Nation Economic Commission for Africa

UN: Habitat: United Nation Habitat

UN: United Nation

US United State

vi
 Abstract

In many ways urban sprawl is a phenomenon which ultimately converts the agricultural
land into urban land and it may affecttheperipheral farming household’slivelihood.
However, there is limited evidence in Ethiopia in relation to effect of urban sprawl on
livelihood of farming households around Shashemene town. Thus, the main objective of
thisstudy wastoevaluateurbansprawland itseffectsontheperipheral farming householdsof
Shashemenne town.Descriptive research methodwas applied using both qualitative and
quantitative approaches. A household survey was conducted with 228 sampled
households selected throughsystematic random sampling techniques. The
primarydatawerecollectedthroughquestionnaire,interviews,observationandfocusgroupd
iscussion,while the secondary data gathered from published and unpublished sources.
Furthermore,quantitativedatawasanalyzedusingdescriptivestatistics suchasfrequency
andpercentage;qualitativedatawereanalyzedbyusing narrativeanalysis.The results of
the study indicated that the horizontal expansion of Shashemenne town brought
significant negativeeffect on theperipheral farming household’slivelihoodboth
economically and socio-culturally. On top of this, the
expansionprogramwasnotparticipatory, andtheexpropriated
householdsdidnotgetopportunitytobargaininthedeterminationoftheamountandkinds
ofcompensations.Thecompensation andbenefitpackagesprovidedso
fardidnotcapacitatetheexpropriated farmers of the peri-urban area of thetown.There was
no post expropriation follow-up and rehabilitation support for expropriated peri-urban
farmers.Generally, urban expansion, expropriation and compensation program in the
future needs toinvolve theperipheral farming
household’sandcompensationshouldberevisedbothinkind and amount involving
rehabilitation support, skill developmenttraining and post expropriation follow-up.

KeyTerms:farming,household,Livelihood,peripheral,Shashemenne,Urban sprawl.

vii
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the study
The history of urban growth indicates that urban areas are the most dynamic places on the
Earth’s surface. Despite their regional economic importance, urban growth has a
considerable impact on the surrounding ecosystem (Yuan, 2008).

Until recently, the problem of urban sprawl was restricted to the developed world. But it
also exists in developing countries although in different form. For developing countries
sprawl is largely a result of necessity- people move to the city in search of better
employment and opportunity (Menon, 2004). This leads to an increase in size well
beyond the limits of the city. In contrast, sprawl in developed countries is results of
higher incomes, which in turn result in people preferring (and affording) to live in the
outskirts of the city, with open spaces at reasonable distances from cities (Haregewoin,
2005). Even though the causes and patterns of sprawl are different depending on the
context in which they occur, solutions proposed are similar with some modifications.
Prior needs and economic viability should be taken into consideration for best results.
’Concentrating growth’ is what many planners recommend as a measure against sprawl
for a sustainable city (Haregewoin, 2005).

Travisi and Camagni (2005) define sprawl as “the uncontrolled spreading out of a given
city and its suburbs over more and more semirural land at the periphery of an urban
area.” They further state that the sprawling process of expansion is disordered,
unplanned, leading often to inefficient and unsustainable urban expansion patterns.

Currently, more than half of the world’s population resides in urban areas and the
majority is in the developing countries. According to the United Nations report (UNFPA
2007), the number and proportion of urban dwellers will continue to rise quickly. Hence,
the number of urban population has increased dramatically from 200 million in 1900 to
about 2.9 billion in 2000.As a result, it is estimated to reach 5 billion by 2030 (Ademola
and Takashi, 2007). ). Although urbanization in developing countries is low, the pace of
Urbanization is at fastest rate.

1
In developed countries the future growth of urban populations will be comparatively
modest since their population growth rates are low and over 80% of their population
already live in urban areas. In contrast, developing countries are in the middle of the
transition process, when urban population growth rates are very high. The rapid increase
of urban population causes urban sprawl that is the extension of the urban perimeter
which cuts further into available productive land and encroaches upon important
ecosystems (UNPF, 2007).

According to United Nations (UNDESA, 2012), Africa will be one of the most rapidly
urbanizing regions.Thus, urbanization in Africa has brought many negative impacts both
on the urban as well as on the peri-urban farm communities throughout the continent. In
2000, 38% of the continents population lived in urban areas and the proportion is
expected to increase to 47% by 2015 and to double by 2050 (Thou, 2010). Such rapid
urban expansion has impacts on the peri-urban area in terms of changing in land use, new
forms of household composition, differential access to urban benefits such as health
infrastructure and employment and increased pressure on common natural resources
(Dejene, 2011).

The World Bank (2008) states that, as of 2007, Ethiopia has a population of 73.9 million,
but the current Population of Ethiopia will be more than 104 million, making the nation
the second most populous in Africa, after Nigeria (The CIA World Fact Book,2017).
Ethiopia is characterized by low level of urbanization even by African standard, where
only 16% of populations live in urban area. By this reason, it has recorded a relatively
high growth rate of urban population (4% annually), double that of rural areas. However,
such high growth rate is not often accompanied by development in socio-economic
services, infrastructure, economic and employment capacity of the urban centers to
support the growing population (Teller and Assefa, 2010).

Urbanization in Ethiopia faces a number of problems due to unplanned settlement and

slums which characterize some of the larger cities of the country. As cities extend into
rural areas, large tracks of land are developed in “leapfrog,” low-density pattern.A city is
an area containing a large number of people, formed by various sub-units that grow and
join together. As stated by Décio and Ugalde (2007) conurbation refers to the structures of
the parts grasped within the metropolitan structure. In recent years, the rapid expansion of
metropolitan areas has been termed “Urban sprawl” referring to a complex pattern of land
use, transportation and social and economic development. Pertaining to the type of urban

2
sprawl, it can be noted that Jaroslaw (2008) explains that a conurbation grows in a
spontaneous manner can be also artificially accelerated. In some case, this expansion is
undertaken overnight or within a few working days.

Shashemane is one of Ethiopian towns that experience fast rate of urbanization and most
densely populated urban settlements, even though the town has developed an extensive
range of measures to make it a healthier and more pleasant place for its citizens. The town
has shown great determination in its efforts to tackle difficult issues, such as housing
shortages, economic stagnation, and lack of electricity, developing sanitation and
transportation infrastructure, and generally providing adequate public services. But, the
town is one of the fast growing urban centers in Oromiya region where the ongoing urban
sprawl process captures the views of peripheral farmers who forced to leave their land
and property. Hence, the expansion of the town is becoming irregular, fast and creation of
displacement of farming community.

1.2. Statement of the problem

Rapid urbanization is major challenges that the developing world is facing today more
than any time in the past. Numerically expressed, urbanization denotes the increases of
population in the share of net rural to urban migration (UNFPA, 2007).

Currently urban expansion is increasing at an alarming rate in the developing countries.

This is due to fastest growth rate of world’s population and change in human settlement
preferences. This urbanization process manifested through the urban physical/horizontal
expansion to their peripheral agricultural farmlands. Such urban sprawl/expansion affects
more of the farmers in per-urban territory, especially in the developing countries and
more of the agrarian economy countries like, Ethiopia (Berhe, 2006).

Ethiopian urban centers are expanding in an unexpected rate resulting to farmer’s

displacement with concomitant loss of agricultural land, loss of agricultural production
and change of their livelihood.

Since urban sprawl impact brought sever problem on the livelihoods of suburban farming
community where life is becoming hard to survive in their livelihood, life is becoming
deteriorated from time to time compared to their previous income level, the job
security.The situations of the evicted people are very limited to agriculture and local hand
craft. The problem exposes the people to be jobless and as a result the society become
poor, which they cannot assist properly their family.Gittleman (2009); Feyera (2005) and

3
others had tried to study that whether the displaced people find new homes and what is
happening to them. However, the situation of displacement, relocation and its impact on
the life making of the ex-farmers around small regional townof Ethiopia are less studied.

The various studies previously conducted by different researchers early in Addis Ababa
and other cities focus on the impacts of urban expansion on the livelihoods of urban
fringe communities (e.g., Feyera Abdissa, 2005, Shishay Mehari, 2011). Studies made
thus far focused on large cities like Addis Ababa, Hawasa and Mekelle. These studies
found out that a large numbers of farm households have suffered due to development
related expansion on a local basisof Shashamanne town to its rural outskirts, overtaken
the wide, highly productive agricultural areas mostly used for crops production. This
condition motivated the researcher to consider the town urban sprawl and its effects on
the peripheral land’s resources. It has to be noted that the process of urbanization in the
town vicinity was continued to encroach on the fertile areas. But, the effect of this
expansion on the livelihood of the farm community is not assessed. The perceptions of
farmers on this expropriation, compensation process, the effect of urbanization on farm
land and urbanization procedures with in line the farmers’ interests are not yet assessed so
far. The extent of farmers’ participations and perception on the process is not yet
investigated.The multi-faceted effect of the processes of urban expansion on the
surrounding farming community needs to be clearly known in order to reduce the
negative impacts. The aforementioned realities delivered by different experts inspire
investigator to conduct a study toevaluate effect of urban sprawl on peripheral farming
households of the town Shashemene.

Therefore, this research is expected to have an important role in filling the evidence gap
related to effect of urban sprawl on the livelihood of households residing in the urban
fringes of Shashemene town.

1.3. Objective of the study

1.3.1. General objectives
The general objective of the study is to evaluateurban sprawl and its effecton peripheral
farming households of Shashemene.

4
1.3.2. Specific objectives:
The specific objectives of the study are:

1. To assess effects of urban sprawl on peripheral farming households.

2. To examinethe existing livelihood status and Coping strategies of farmers whose

livelihood is severely affected by urban sprawl.

3. To investigate the role of institutional and policy related constraints of urban sprawl.

1.4. Research question

1. What are the effects brought by urban sprawl on peripheral farmers?

2. What is the existing livelihood status and coping strategies will be used by farmers

whose livelihood is severely affected by urban sprawl.

3. Whatis the role ofinstitutional and policy relatedconstraints of urban sprawl?

1.5. Significance of the study

This study helps to identify the rate of urban sprawl and its effects on peripheral farming
households of Shashemene town, therefore, the Shashemene city administration can use
the results of this study as input to plan future development, enables to understand the
attitude and perception of the farmers towards urban expansion andworking with NGOs
to improve livelihood in the area, the study can also be used as reference material for
other similar or related studies by graduate students.

1.6. Scope and Delimitation of the study

This study has been undertaken in peripheral farming households of Shashemene town.
The nature of the study was in household level and rate of land coverage byhouse orother
things in the past ten years2003-2013 as a time scope and analyses focusing on the
implications and effects of fast urban sprawl on socio-economic condition of the rural
communities and its result on land use change. The study covers people located at
periphery of the town that previously lost their farm land due to the town expansion and
continue to earn their livelihood directly and indirectly from agriculture. In addition to
these, the intended research has limited to analysis the relationship between urban sprawl
and effects on peripheral farming households in the study area.

5
1.7. Organization of the thesis
Chapter one focuses on the introduction about urbanization, urban expansion and its
effect on the peri-urban agricultural community, statement of the problem, major and
specific objectives, the scope, and significance of the studyand description of the study
area. Chapter two also explains relevant review literatures. Chapter three describes the
methodology of the research. Chapter four presents major analysis part of finding,
interpretation and discussion that are obtained from sample household survey, interview
from key informants and focus group discussion. Finally chapter five forward the
conclusion and recommendation.

1.8. Definition of operational terms

Agricultural community:-refers to that community whose economic base and livelihood
sources are directly based on farming or /and raring of animals under traditional
production, distribution and consumption patterns.

Expropriation:-Refers to the right of the nation or state, or of those to whom the power
has been lawfully delegated, to condemn private property for public use, and to
appropriate the ownership and possession of such property without the owner’s consent
on paying the owner a due compensation to be ascertained according to law (Corpus Juris
Secundum , cited in Daniel, 2009 and Federal Negarit Gazeta 15 July, 2005 Pro. No.
455/2005)

Farming community: - is the community basically dependent on farming and relabeled

economic activities.

Leapfrog expansion of urban centers:-a type of sprawl whichoccurs in advanced

nations larger cities and characterized by jumping overthe available open spaces or
farmlands.

Livelihood:- Comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social
resources and activities required for a means of living (DFID, 2008)

Urban Expansion:-which is synonymous with urban sprawl is extension of the

attentiveness of people of urban settlement to the surrounding area whose function is
nonagricultural.

Urban sprawl: - refers to the horizontal encroachment of towns or cities towards their
fringes or outskirts at the expense of livelihood of peri-urban community.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATUR REVIEW

2.1. The Concept of Urban Sprawl

Not all urban growth is considered sprawl because what is sprawl to some may not be to
others. "Creating an urban growth model instead of an urban sprawl model allows us to
quantify the amount of land that has changed to urban uses, and lets the user decide what
he or she considers to be urban sprawl" (Wilson et al., 2003). Urban sprawl is
characterized by leapfrog land use patterns, strip commercial development along
highways, and very low-density single-use developments, all of which occur over a
relatively short period of time (Ewing, 1997). Sprawl is urbanization that takes place in
either a radial direction around a well-established city or linearly along the highways over
a given period of time (Sudhiraet al., 2004). Clearly, radial and linear are just two types
of map patterns that sprawl can take. Sudhiraet al. (2004) state that to understand the
complexity of urban sprawl, land use change analyses and urban growth pattern
recognition must be determined. Throughout the literature, there is ambiguity on the
distinction between urban growth and urban sprawl except to suggest that urban sprawl is
a type of urban growth.

Some sources have been defined it in terms of associated causes: urban sprawl is
generally believed to result from poorly planned, large-scale new residential, commercial
and industrial developments in areas not previously used for urban purposes (Zhang,
2001). However, there is one overriding theme in the recognition of urban sprawl: a
spatial-temporal signature unique to the phenomenon.

Urban sprawl can be described as low-density development occurring on the edge or

outside of a municipal area that does not follow a specific growth pattern (Tallinn, 2002).
As the word ’sprawl’ is a multidimensional phenomenon, it has caused much confusion.
Possible mathematical regressions attempting to explain sprawl from land use
perspectives such as the degree of compactness did not generate statistically significant
results (Wassmer, 2005) and hence the difficulty to mathematically define the term. The
Vermont Forum on Sprawl defines sprawl as: dispersed development outside of compact
urban and village centers along highways and in rural countryside (web page, 2011). In
her report, Revisiting Sprawl: Lessons from the Past, Burgess, (1998) defined sprawl as

7
"...expanding physical development, at decreasing densities, in metropolitan regions,
where the spatial growth exceeds population growth".

2.2. Urban Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

According to (UN Habitat, 2010).The world urban population reached a turning point in
2008, for the first time in history that more than half of its human population, 3.3 billion
people live in urban areas. Such rapid urban expansion is particularly notable in Africa and
Asia where the urban population will double between 2000 and 2030. By 2030, the towns and
cities of developing countries will make up 81 percent of urban humanity. All the horizontal
and vertical urban expansion is inevitable for the future but what basic issue to be considered
is the solution or compensation mechanism has to be updated as well those to be compensated
has to be trained to have information how to adapt and how to choose their best livelihood
approaches.

Sub-Saharan Africa remains the least urbanized region of the world and more than 60%
of the population, 570 million people, still live in rural areas Sub-Saharan Africa (2014)
Over the next few decades Africa will be one of the most rapidly urbanizing regions
UNDESA (2012), and with this transition is an expected rise in cardiovascular risk factors
and disease. Across sub-Saharan Africa, many adults migrate back and forth from rural
home communities to more urban areas for work and education; others have moved to
urban areas; and in still other cases, rural communities themselves have urbanized.

2.3. Urbanization and urban growth in Ethiopia

Ethiopia remains one of the least urbanized countriesin sub-Saharan Africa.Prior to 20thc,
the establishment and growth of the Ethiopian cities are said to be in response to
indigenous political, religious,economic as well military strategic, requirements. Despite
its failure to build a well-organized and large size urban settlement, theconstant shift of
the location capital cities of the empire during this period had accounted for the
establishment and growth of anumber of towns, particularly in north Ethiopia. For
instance Axum, Lalibela, and Gondar found in the 4th c, 11th c and 17th c,respectively
are some of the urban centers that served as capitals of nations. The factors that contribute
to the growth of urbanizationin Ethiopia include the establishment of central government,
the introduction of modern means of transport and communication,schools, hospitals and
modern business, Ethiopia’s contact with the outside world and the establishment of large

8
number of industriesand organized farms as intensified process of urbanization in
Ethiopia (Muluneh, 2003).

In Ethiopia, only 16% of populations live in urban area. Despite this, it has recorded a
relatively high growth rate of urban population (4% annually), double that of rural areas
(Teller and Assefa, 2010). The growth of cities presents enormous challenges as well as
opportunities for the nation. With little or no industry and manufacturing in rural areas,
urban centers are the main areas for non-agricultural production in Ethiopia. However,
urban centers in Ethiopia are characterized by massive housing problem around 70-90%
of urban population are living in sub-standard housing, low economic activities, growing
population, inadequate upgrading, etc. To reduce the problem the government has
implemented the project, Integrated Housing Development Programme (IHDP) where
houses are constructed by low cost for medium and low income groups. The goal is to
reduce the proportion of slum-dwellers by 50% by 2010 (UN habitat, 2008).

2.4. Theories on urban expansion

As Clark (1996) discusses, there are two major theories explaining urban expansion.

i) The primacy of economic benefits

ii) Role of urban social production

In urban area, as of economic benefits primacy theory, there are the agglomeration of
different economic activities and economies of scale resulting from it. Hence, to improve
economic benefits of production, people move to urban area from rural areas and/or even
one urban areas to another, rural-urban migration and urban-urban migration. This
increment on urban population stimulates urban latexes to grow towards peripheral areas.
The urban social production theory on the other hand argues that, urban is more
congested and congregate, and even much denser than rural and peripheral regions. Still,
the area has higher pulling power of attracting people in to it. This pulling force of urban
areas is however the result of continuous social interaction and internet work which
resulted finally in to the congregation of large people at smaller unit of land than rural
regions.

As sited by Frew (2010) in history of urban evolution, cites began to exist for many
reasons such as defense, trades, political or religious centers. What so ever the reason,
economic force are likely to reinforce the original impulse With industrialization, which

9
induced more intensive use of existing buildings, change in the pattern of uses and out
ward expansion in the peripheral areas is inevitable.

2.5.Causes of Urban Growth and Sprawl

Urbanization is closely linked with modernization, industrialization, and sociological
process of decision making. Most of the rapid urban sprawl in developing nations is due
to rural-urban migration (Free encyclopedia-2010).According to UN state report of the
world population (2007), urbanization occurs naturally from individual and corporate
efforts to reduce time and expense in community and transportation while improving
opportunities of jobs, educations, and housing and transportation statuses. However,
major contributing factor is “rural flight”. In rural areas, often on small farms, it is
difficult to improve one’s standard of living beyond basic subsistence’s (particularly in
developing countries case where rate of population growth outpaces resource production
rate). To such communities, their farm is very much dependent on unpredictable
conditions such as drought flood and pestilences. Hence, people make decision to migrate
to urban areas “rural flight”. This then contributes to urban pressure towards peri-urban
lands. National wise, according to Tegegne (2001) cited two most important actors
leading urban expansion is in-migration (both rural-urban migration and urban-urban
migration) and natural population increase.

2.5.1.Population growth
Often, one comes across population growth as the main cause of urban problems and
urban expansion (Haregewoyin, 2005). According to B. Bhatta (2010), rapid growth of
urban areas is the result of two population growth factors; firstly, natural increase in
population, secondly migration to urban areas.

2.5.2.Economic Growth
Expansion of economic base (such as higher per capita income, increase in number of
working persons) creates demand for new housing or more housing space for individuals
(Boyce 1963, Giuliano 1989, Bhatta 2009b cited in Bhatta 2010).

2.5.3.Speculation and Lack of Affordable Housing

Speculation about the future growth, future government policies and facilities may cause
premature growth without proper planning and Lack of affordable housing within the city
forces people to set their residences in the countryside(Clawson 1962; Harvey and Clark
1965 B cited in Bhatta , 2010).

10
2.5.4.Expectations of Land Appreciation
Expectations of land appreciation at the urban fringe cause some landowners to withhold
land from the market (Lessinger 1962; Ottensmann 1977B cited in Bhatta, 2010).

2.5.5.Poor Public Policy and Regulation

Generally outside of the main city is lesser controlled and loosely regulated. As a result,
many developers and individuals find these places more suitable for new construction.
Loosely regulated public regulations also fail to control the new construction in a
compact and sustainable manner (B. Bhatta, 2010).

According to the above literature, the major factors that can aggravate urban expansion
entirely discussed. The population growth (natural increase through birth and migration
from rural to urban) is one factor which is also common in Ethiopian context (there is
high rate of urbanization and high population growth) and each additional population
demands addition land for house construction; therefore, urban expansion can take place.

2.6. Effects of Urban Expansion

B. Bhatta, 2010 discussed Consequences of urban expansion may have both positive and
negative impacts; positive implications of urban growth include higher economic
production, opportunities for the underemployed and unemployed, better life because of
better opportunities and better services, and better lifestyles. On the other hand, urban
expansion has negative impacts on social, physical environment and economy.

2.6.1.Social consequences of urban sprawl

Urban sprawl results in displacement, dislocation and segregation of urban neighbors in
general and neighboring farmers in particular that result in social makeup disorder.
People in the extended urban areas “live still partly rural and where many of the residents
live in the country side but are not socially and economically of it”. They usually do not
participate in the planning and design of resettlement and dislocation options as well as
the distribution of associated costs or benefits. Since social infrastructure is concentrated
in the center people in the extended area rely on proximity to facilities. This involves long
commute or travel for work, market and other basic social needs. Specifically, low-
income households will continue to live in such sever social constraints in the periphery
(Carter, 1995).

11
According to Mejia (1999) there is also a possibility of urban neighbors isolation from the
city development and sandwiched between the rich creating class differences. This began
to accelerate the migration of the disadvantaged groups particularly the farming
community who already inhabited the area. Even urban rich or middle class incomers
whose income permits to commute perhaps many could be attracted to the liveliness and
benefits of the facilities in the center. Thus the community in the periphery could face
problems of survival strategies, solidarity network, and systems of power to which the
social and economic activities are linked to their original location.

2.6.2.Environmental consequences of urban sprawl

Egypt lost more than 10 percent of the country’sproductive farmland to extended urban
settlement (Minwuyelet, 2004). On the other hand, urban expansion is not accompanied
by environmental protection system. Urban waste relay on open canals, open drains in the
road side and holes in the ground as regular means of waste disposal particularly in
expansion areas. This exposes the dwellers to sanitation related disease and air pollutions.

2.6.3.Economic consequences of urban sprawl

In developing countries people are migrating from rural areas to urban centers and from
the center the poor also move to the periphery for urban renewal or squatting. These areas
need provision of infrastructure like road, power line, water pipes and drainage line. This
requires high development cost that draws on the financial capacity of the municipal
government. In many cases the municipality cannot afford to provide and people remain
deficient of basic means of life. Because of this most of the residents are exposed
relatively to high cost of living (Todaro, 1997). Also limited work opportunity in the area.
The challenge is more intense to the dislocated and evicted farming community since they
lose their means of livelihood.

2.7. Effects of urban sprawl on the livelihood of peripheral farming

households

Economic, legal, and private sectors participation are forces that derive urbanization and
change in settlement pattern on per-urban zones. Each of these forces can either positively
or negatively influence the livelihood of farmers in per-urban area. The intervention of
central government was considered as the primarily factor for expansion of peri-urban
Bangkok (Jonkory, 2009).

12
Due to government intervention by installation of large scale infrastructure to increase the
supply of serviced land and accommodate urban growth, the demand for new economic
activities was raised. Accordingly, large parts of predominantly agricultural lands have
therefore converted to residential, commercial, industrial and other urban land uses. The
land conversion influences the change of economic base of the per-urban areas. Various
factors are contributed in rapid change in per-urban areas. However the pattern and pace
of change in developed and developing countries are quite different. The main deriving
forces in Europe and America are: re-distribution of companies in periphery-urban areas
with relatively cheap land price, more activities of research and development located in
the areas with beautiful scenery and environment, and demand of low density residential
lands leads to sprawl towards peripheral -urban areas. On the other hand, the factors that
lead to peripheral -urbanization in East Asian countries were foreign direct investment,
easily availability of cheap labor force and development of residential houses with cheap
land prices (Yuan, 2008).

2.7.1.Major negative effect of urban sprawl

Urbanization has also some negative effects to its surrounding peri-urban areas in
different aspects especially, in relation to displacement of farmers from their farmland
and to degradation of valuable agricultural land. This is because as the nation’s
population increase, cities must grow spatially to their peri-urban areas to accommodate
more people and to serve different services for them. In Ethiopia, the urbanization was
increased from 5%in 1950 to 16% in 2000, on average 4.3%per year. Furthermore, it is
estimated that by 2025, the World’s, African’s, and Ethiopian’s population rate will reach
58%, 52%, and 32% respectively (Wabster, 2005).The reason for an optimistic prediction
towards the urbanization growth is that, it will have the following negative effects of
urban expanding on their peri-urban areas.

2.7.1.1. Loss of farmland

As pointed out by Dayong (2004) uneven urban expansion will occupy considerable
valuable farmland around urban centers, which causes to sensitive contradiction and
conflicts with the farmers who are displaced from their farmland. Urbanization negatively
affects the peri-urban areas in different ways. As urban centers, expand by occupying
fertile farm land, and displacing farmers cause to reduce the amount of production and
number of family farmers and move to the nearby urban centers.

13
In Ethiopia, land taking by regional governmental for expansion of cities and towns is
raising rapidly because urbanization leads to outward expansion of cities and results to
change in land use and landscape where by the federal and regional agencies and the
municipality are expropriating of agriculture land for public purposes. In addition, the
federal law on rural land expropriation and compensation, have been crafted by the
agencies that are taking land seem to disfavor that are losing the land (Solomon, 2006).

As a result, the farmers with their large family size will be exposed to unemployment and
poverty (food insecure) for the reason that they are not well educated and skilled rather
depending on their agricultural production. It is understood that, people without basic
qualification or literally skilled are unable to compete and get job in the labor market.

2.7.1.2. Solid waste disposal and land degradation

Urban centers produce more solid waste products than they can absorb within their own
borders. Predominantly urban centers pollute the rural landscape. Industrial, residential
and institutional waste in urban area is often dumping directly on to the farmland of their
peri-urban areas. These solid wastes, hazardous, plastic, and medical product wastes
degrade or structurally change in its size and quality of production of the landscape. In
consonant with this McGranahan and Tacoli (2004) claimed that inadequate and improper
municipal waste collection and disposal methods are increasingly becoming major
sources of land degradation in the peri-urban areas and in turn affect the health and
quality of life of the peri-urban residents.

2.7.1.3. Enclosed (suburbs) surrounding villages to urban territory

Tostenen and Tvedten (2002) stated that expansion is one of the causes/effect of
population growth of urban centers. According to them, about 10-15% percent of urban
growth of the developing world stems from boundary expansion or change while their
livelihood style is based on agriculture which is not the core issue of the urban centers
administration unit.

2.7.1.4. Over-exploitation of natural resources

According to McGranahan, Satterthwaite and Tacoli (2004), rapid urbanization leads to
over exploitation of renewable and non-renewable resources of their peri-urban areas
(especially, land). Because people who live in urban areas have vary and different
consumption pattern than these who live in the peri-urban areas. The demands made by
urban centers greatly exceed the carrying capacity of their own territory. Urban centers, in

14
view of; Kamete, Tostenen and Tvedten (2002), take up 2% of the earth’s surface but
consumes 75% of the world’s resources. They draw on the material resources of vast and
scattered peri-urban areas and are dependent on the skin capacity of the environment to a
degree, which greatly exceeds the immediate area. This results over exploitation of
resources of the peri-urban areas and finally degradation and environmental pollution. As
noted above, the world’s resource use is concentrated in urban centers. Urban consumers
account for most consumption of fire wood, charcoal, construction materials and land for
urban expansion and infrastructure provision which leads to the depletion of rural-based
natural resources such as farmland, forests, wildlife and quarry sites, hence often results
irreversible damage to the human environment (McGranahan, Satterthwaite and Tacoli,
2004) Urban expansion causes conflict .

2.7.2. Positive effects

Urban centers have positive role/impact on the development of their surrounding peri-
urban areas through different ways. The following are the major ones:

2.7.2.1. Center of market area

According to Satterthwiate and Tacoli (2004), the surrounding area of urban centers are
mostly engaged in agricultural production either for local consumers or as links to
national and export markets, urban centers act as access to market which is the pre-
requisite to increasing rural agricultural incomes. Proximity also contributes to minimize
the risks of perishable products to produce timely to market areas and to get affordable
transportation.

2.7.2.2. Center for production & distribution of goods & services

People who live surrounding urban centers can have possible access to both private and
public services such as health, education, banking, postal & telephone and services of
different professionals (lawyers) and private services like wholesale and retail, sales of
manufactured goods and other practical activities are more likely (Tegegn 2002).

2.7.2.3. Access to employment

As to the view of Kamete and Tvedten (2006) assure that people who live around urban
centers, because of their proximity, have a better access to employment and modern way
of living than those who far rural dwellers. Besides, urban centers create employment
opportunities through the development of small and micro enterprises and cooperatives.

15
2.8. Livelihood strategy of sub-urban households in Ethiopia

The economies of the developing countries are growing at lower rate than population
growth. Especially, fast growing urban population and economic problems have rapidly
increased the number of urban poor. Due to lack of alternative means to regular
employment, urban poor has several survival strategies. The main strategies are
categorized as urban strategies and rural strategies. The urban strategy is divided into two
urban non-farming strategies and urban farming strategies. The urban non-farming
strategies include all income-generating activities outside income derived from
agriculture. These are mainly household activities (cooking and washing) and economic
activities which include informal enterprises (open air vehicle repair and washing), metal
works, carpentry, petty commodity trade, local brew making, formal employment, house
maid and daily labor. Similarly, urban farming strategies are activities deployed on farm
by those who have access to a piece of land outside or within the city boundaries. “In
order to make ends meet, many poor urban households fall back on farming activities,
either within the city boundaries or in the rural areas.

From economic point of view assets that is seen as capital from which livelihoods are
constructed include natural (land, water and the bio-network), economic/financial (basic
infrastructure, cash, credit and saving, tools and technology), human (labor, skill,
knowledge, ability and health), and social (institutions, affiliations, social claims and
network‟ (Ellis, 2002).

2.8.1. Livelihood strategies

People living on peri-urban area develop a multi-strand, risk reducinglivelihood portfolio
to come with the changes in the interface. For instance, the people on theperi-urban area
of Nyuhururu, Kenya shifted from extensive to intensive farming practice inresponse to
declining agricultural land. Previously, a fallow system was practiced where cropland was
rotated with grazing field, a practice that optimizes soil nutrient utilization
andregeneration. With reduction in farm lands, fallow system has largely abandoned and
shifted tointensive system where crops are grown in the same piece of land year after year
(Mandere et al.,2010).

On the other hand, decline in agricultural land triggers peri-urban farmers to produce high
valuecrops in response to urban market. In addition, some families often diversify their
livelihood byengaging in various forms of off-farm activities available in the area.

16
However, lack ofeducation, skills and means to access to credit facilities are factors that
limit the opportunities ofthe poor on the peri-urban to start new income generating
activities. Therefore, the poor aregenerally engage in low paid casual employment, petty
trading and little returns from farmingactivities (DFDI, 2008).

2.9. Policy and legislation issues of urbanization in Ethiopia

“All persons who have been displaced or whose livelihood has been adversely affected
as a result of the state [government development] programs have the right to
commensurate monitory or [and] alternative means of compensation with adequate state
[government] assistance.”FDRE constitution 44(2)

As can be bluntly understood, there is national constitutional provisions that state the
right of every persons to claim for the unequivocal and commensurate compensation for
their property and land when any government-led developmental programs are founded to
adversely affect their livelihood that is based on the land.

For most developing nations like Ethiopian, land means all the part and parcel of their
livelihood and hence life. For such nations, land is, among many other things, the means
to secure the very basic needs to their lives mainly the food. Therefore, the right to land is
equivalently to mean right to food and hence the right to life. Right to life is the Universal
fundamental human right. In relation with this, Ethiopia has ratified different
International Covenants and agreements including, but not limited to, the International
Convention of Economic, Social, and cultural Rights (ICESCR) which protects the right
to food (Article 11) as right to life and Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the 1977’s
additional protocols on Humanitarian law. The FDRE constitution defines all of them as
per Article 15.

For an agrarian community, land is also the physical and natural capital through which
they ensure the wellbeing of their family such as provision of health and educational
services to their children. Therefore, the wellbeing of the agrarian family child, that is
human capital dimension of the livelihood, is by large extent dependent on the respecting
and protection of their parents’ right to land. Hence, through this window, we can see
that, right of farmers’ to land means the right of their children. In line with this, Ethiopia
has ratified Conventions on Right of Children (CRC) Article 24 &27. And, the FDRE
constitution well defines this as per Article 36(1,a& d). Given the different existing laws,
policies and programs, as well provisions of international treaties to which Ethiopia is a

17
signatory, the right to food could be said one of the fundamental rights under the national
law. It seems to be therefore, a logical fallacy attempting to ensure the Right to food and
food security among agrarian community without maintaining their right to land which is
a common denominator to all components of their livelihood.

By the very nature of them, both urbanization and agriculturalist are the two counter
competing processes of socio-economic development. Under such conditions, there
should be the “rules of games” which maintain the benefit equilibrium among the
stakeholders of both processes.

Thus, as it is obliged by International laws to respect, protect and fulfill the rights of its
citizen to food and other basic securities, the national is expected to formulate and
enforce laws and policies –“rules of games”- which frame-up every development
programs and activities in such a way run across their equilibriums.

2.9.1. Policies and Processes of Urban Expansion in Oromia

In Ethiopia policy specialization (designing policy for different sectors such as Urban
Policy, Agriculture and Rural Development Policy, Education Policy, and others) is a
recent observable fact. However, still policy categories are large enough requiring more
specialization. Consequently, the country lacks policy on urban expansion other than
Proclamations and Directives. Here, Proclamation No. 455/2005 and regulation
No.135/2007 are the two legal grounds designed in relation to landholding, displacement
program and compensation mechanisms of urban centers in the country (FDRE, 2007).

The proclamation further stated that a rural landholder, whose land is dispossessed for
specified period of time (provisional expropriation), in addition to the compensation paid
for land dispossessed, shall be paid until repossession of the land compensation for lost
assets based on average annual income secured during the preceding five years. The
valuation of land and other assets dispossessed should be carried out by certified private
or public institutions or individual consultants on the basis of valuation formula adopted
at federal level. Besides, it is indicated that the displaced household should leave the land
within 90 days (minimum duration to be given) from the day on which the compensation
is paid (Ibid).

The proclamation also indicated that identifying and analyzing policy issues and process
of urban expansion in Oromia National Regional State (ONRS), an attempt has also been
made to access different policy documents and manuals related to urban issues. ONRS

18
has designed and implemented Proclamation No. 65/2003 by which the local urban
governance was established. The Proclamation was designed to establish urban institution
that facilitates urban spaces for development, work and residence in the region (ONRS,
2003).

The region has designed and implemented Proclamations and directives adopted from
Proclamations and Directives prepared at federal level. For instance, recently, the region
has designed Proclamation No.147/2007 which provides the establishment of Oromia
Bureau of Land and Environmental Protection. This was to ensure proper administration
and regulation of urban and rural land and preparation of land use planning in the region
(ONRS, 2009). In this regard, the analyses of the above Proclamations revealed that due
attention is given to institutional establishment and their power and duties in the affairs of
urban centers in the region. However, these proclamations did not clearly and adequately
state the issues of rural neighborhoods while promoting urban expansion in the region.
However, the Directive No. 99/2007 designed by Oromia Bureau of Urban Works and
Development stated that Municipalities in the region should plan and prepare land for
different purposes depending on the request and the process should be transparent to the
residence of a particular Municipality. In addition, the directive stated that the land should
not be given without the consent of the community from which the land is to be taken
(Oromia Urban Works and Development Bureau, OUWDB, 2007).

2.10. Conceptual Framework of the study

The conceptual framework presented below shows that rapid urban sprawl is caused by a
number of factors like Population growth, Rural-urban migration, Urban-urban migration,
poor management. These causes are bringing either positive or negative consequences/
impacts for farming communities on the peri-urban areas. Moreover, these farm
households then adversely affected by loss their livelihood sources of incomes due to the
urban expansion and expropriation process to different socio-economic problems like;
high cost of living, loss of farm land, high development cost, high rent of houseand
poverty and food insecurity, unemployment and migration, and finally environmental
effect like, water run-off, water and air pollution, land degradation, solid waste disposal,
over exploitation of natural resources.

19
Coceptual fremework

Cause of urban sprawl Effects of urban

sprawl
-population growth

-Rural-urban migration

-Urban-urban migration
Negative effect Positive effect
-poor management
-center of market

-center of production
and distribution of
Policy response goods and services

-access to employment

Social effect Economic effect Environmental effect

-displacement -High cost of living -water run off

-dislocation -loss of farm land -water and air pollution

-segregation -high development cost -land degradation

-problem of housing -high rent of house -solid waste disposal

-over exploitation of
natural resources

Figure 2 1: Conceptual Framework

Source: developed by the researcher, 2018

20
 CHAPTER THREE

3. THE STUDY AREA AND METODOLOGY

3.1. Description of the study area

Shashamanne, the capital town of West Arsi Zoneof Oromiya Region, is located 250km
south of AddisAbaba, the capital city of Ethiopia, with a surface area of 12,868 ha. The
town is located between 7011'09"N - 7013'19" N latitude and 38035'02"E - 38037'05"E.

The town shares bounder line with MajaDama and BulchenaDanaba kebele to the west,
Alelu Luilukebele to the north, Awashodongukebele to the east andIdoLburqa and
AlalchaHarabatekebele to the south. It is located almost at the center of the zone.

Figure 3 1: Map of the study area

Source: Ethio- GIS, 2017.

3.1.1. Bio-physical condition of the study area

Topography of the study area

Physically, Shashemene town covers about an area of 18.57km2. The town is located on a
plateau with an elevation ranging from 1,826 to 2,107 meters abovemean sea level.The
mountain ridge in the south-east of the town is called Abaro ridge. The urbanized area of

21
the town is slightly dissected by numerousvalleys formed by the four major river systems
crossing the city from south-east tonorth-west (OUPI, 2010).

Climate of the study area

The climatein Shashamanne is characterized by the average maximum andminimum

temperature of 24.3°C in May and 7.5°C in December, respectively. The average annual
rainfall in Shashamanne amounts to 1200mm. The main wet season takes place from June
to September, causing about 70% of annual rainfall with the highest peak in August.
Another small peak of rainfall is observed in April (OUPI, 2010).

Economic Activities

The town is economically important and expanding quite rapidly. This is due to its
location as a cross road and a junction point for most towns located in the southern part of
the country. It serves as an international high way routes connecting Ethiopia with Kenya.
The town also lies with the rift valley of Ethiopia; it closes to the lakes and holy day
resorts of Hawasa, Langano, and Shalla Abijata Park. These condition led Shashemene to
be integrated economically with in the surrounding areas. As a result trade and catering
activities accounted for about 53%of the local economy in terms of employment
creatures.

Other components of the urban economy include public administration and service
manufacturing, agriculture and related activities, construction and the like Shashemene
town administrative report (2013).

3.1.2 Socio-demographic condition of the study area

Shashamanne’spopulation has been observed since the 1990s, with an annual growth rate
of 6%.This can partly be attributed to population growth due to higher migration
fromrural areas to the town rather than the natural increase of (2.9%), and thepopulation
in the town was 102,062 (51,477 male and 50,585 female) (CSA, 2007).Because of
demographic uncertainties, such as high net migration, and naturalpopulation increment,
currently, the exact number of inhabitants is not reallyknown. However, when projected
using 6% annual growth rate, the town’s totalpopulation in the structure plan are 240,540
inhabitants in 2011. This figureencompasses 13,946 residents from the former Kuyera
Town, the current sub-city ofShashamanne, and 85,693 occupants from peasant
administrations (PA) adjacent tothe urban periphery that are incorporated into the town

22
vicinity during planning.According to the projection by OUPI, Shashamanne is expected
to host 295,898inhabitants by 2020 (OUPI, 2010).

Shashemene town has different religious followers among them Orthodox, Muslim and
Protestant, are found and regard of ethnic group Oromo, Amhara, Gurage, Silte,
Wolayita, Kembata and majority are from Oromo ethnic group.

Livelihood

Alivelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses andshocks and
manage to enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in thefuture, while not
undermining the natural resource base.

On the other hand, decline in agricultural land triggers peri-urban farmers to produce high
value crops in response to urban market. In addition, some families often diversify their
livelihood by engaging in various forms of off-farm activities available in the area.
However, lack of education, skills and means to access to credit facilities are factors that
limit the opportunities of the poor on the peri-urban to start new income generating
activities. Therefore, the poor are generally engage in low paid casual employment, petty
trading and little returns from farming activities in the study area.

3.2.Research design
The study has employed a cross-sectional survey design. It involves data collected at a
defined time. The purpose of the cross sectional design is to find the prevalence of the
outcome of interest for the population or sub groups within the population at a given
point.In order to address the stated objectives the researcher used both qualitative and
quantitative types. This is because the proposed study needs the collection of statistical
(numerical) data for the quantitative method. Qualitative method has also applied to
describe the existing conditions of sprawl of the Shashemenne town options that are hold
and processes that went on regarding to the urban sprawl to periphery of Shashemene
town.

The study adopted both qualitative and quantitative research methods ina
qualitativeapproachbased on its purpose and the nature of the problem under the
investigation. For information obtained through questionnaires, quantitative approach was
used. For information gathered using interviews, FGD, and field observation, qualitative
approach used to evaluate perception, attitudes, and experiences of concerned bodies
regarding the issues under study.
23
3.2.1. Data sources
In order to attain the main goal of the research, primary and secondary sources of data
was collected and used.

The primary data wascollected from expropriated farmer households, the key informants
(influential elders, previous municipal staff members), youngsters, eldersand women.

Secondary sources are diverse in number such as municipality and Kebele report, various
registers, government reports(CSA), publications (like books, journals, research reports
and papers, magazines),documents available on different profiles on world wide web and
the likes, and land use regulations and government policy document.

3.2.3. Sampling technique and sampling size determination

The samples selection of the study population for which questionnaire has been
distributed were rural-households in the urban fringe and families who have resided in the
formerly rural areas before the encroachment of the town and now classified under
Shashemenetown.A systematic random sampling technique was employed to assure the
representativeness on-target group-household who were expropriated in the peri-urban
area of Shashemene town. Whileout of the six surrounding kebeles of the town, three
kebeles i.e. (“MejaDemba”, “Ale Luilu” and “Awashodongu” rural kebeles) were
purposively selected,because there was rapid prevalence of urban expansion due to
favorability of the topography. This is due to the fact that the majority of farming
communities were displaced from these three kebeles. According to Shashemene town
Municipality profile, 2017 from the year 2003 to 2013within ten years 470 household
were expropriated from their farm land. In each peripheral kebele`s, a list of the
expropriated households was generated from roasters of the Municipality. Out of 470
total populations the researcher selected 216 samples populationto form the sampling
frame for systematic random sampling, 95% Confidence level and 5% precision level has
been used at criteria. To determine and calculate the sample size indicated below and
presented in Table 3.1.below. The sample size has been drawn by Yamane (1967)
formula:
N
=
1 + N( )
Where:

n-is desired sample size

24
N- is target population of the study

e-is margin of error

= = 216
( . )

Table 3 1: sampling frame used to identify sample households.

Name of Kebele Total displaced households Sample size(HHs)

M F Total M F Total

Awasho 173 25 198 80 11 91

Ale Luilu 157 13 170 72 6 78

MejaDemba 85 17 102 39 8 47

Total 415 55 470 191 25 216

Source:Municipality and Kebele Document, 2017

Following listing the number of households, systematic random sampling technique has
been conducted, because, it spread more evenly over the entire population through which
names of household heads was taken from the list following constant number gap.

The formula nth= N/nto determine interval size

Where:- N is the total population

n is the specified sample

Then nth=198/91 = 2

For example, kebele Awasho has 198households, and we need to take 91 out of the
210sample households. Thus by dividing 198/91, we get 2 constant (sample interval).
Thus, we took every 2nd household from the list.
In addition to probability sampling, purposive sampling has also used to select ten
respondents for interviews. Seven were from peripheral farming households and three
from urban municipal office members and experts responsible for urban planning and
three FGD from each kebeles.

25
3.2.4. Instrument of data collection
The most important instruments havebeen employed to generate relevant information
were questionnaires, key informant interviews, field observation and focused group
discussion. The data enumerator has visited each randomly selected respondent on pre
agreed mutually convenient time.

Questionnaire

To get relevant information from randomly selected representatives of expropriated

farmer’s questionnaires were developed both in qualitative and quantitative methods.
Structured questionnaires were developed consisting of both close-ended and open-ended
questions which were administered for the selected households. From close-ended
questionnaire, the researcher was incorporated dichotomous (yes/no), scale or rating
questions (Likert scale) and list questions. Unstructured questionnaire consisting of open-
ended questionnaire was prepared for representatives of selected expropriated farmers and
urban municipality administrative officials. The questionnaires were prepared on the basis
of different issues (topics) indicated in the objectives of the study, which were
categorized under: background of the respondents; attitude and perception (awareness) of
expropriated farmers about urban expansion; issues of benefits and compensation; effect
of urban expansion on their livelihood; the implication of constitutional and other legal
rights.

Key Informant Interviews

For getting good result on the study, the researcher was used an in-depth interview and
semi structured questionnaire. The key informants were from urban land management
experts and the town municipality official’sby using purposive sampling method. The
interview was conducted to explore(acquire) deep information about the issues of benefits
and compensation paid, the implication of constitutional and other rights of the
expropriated farmers, the present situation and anticipate future direction of the livelihood
strategies of the farmers in the peri- urban areas.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

Focus group discussion was used to make triangulation in asserting information gathered
using structured and unstructured questionnaire. The participants of FGD were 3 from
(“MejaDemba”, “Ale Luilu” and “Awashodongu” rural kebeles). Each participant was
selected purposively as a quota system from community representatives, women and

26
youths based on their feelings and knowhow to the loss of farm lands, expropriation and
compensation system. The author was held one group discussion in each of the three
selected sample kebeles. The discussion was helped the author, to understand the attitude
and perception of farmers about the major effects of urban expansion, changes in the
livelihood, relationship of farmland size and food security and farmer’s adaptation
mechanisms.

Observation

First hand data on the field was collected by direct observation on the selected areas for
this study. The researcher has observed and collected the necessary visual information’s
with the help of camera from the existence and level of urban sprawl. Observation used
by the researcher in order to get more information to accurate the information obtained
from the other tools. Observation checklist has also been used by researcher to conduct
field survey systematically, especially environmental change.

3.2.5. Data Analysis Technique

The collected data from different sources organized into meaningful facts and made detail
explanation. This is to mean that, data was analyzed and interpreted both quantitatively
and qualitatively. Data gathered using questionnaire coded, verified and entered to
Statistical Package for Social Science. Then, tools of descriptive statistics such as mean,
standard deviation, range, percent, etc. were used to analyze the data collected using
questionnaire. Based on results, interpretation and discussions were made about urban
expansion activities in the study area. Quantitative data gathered by survey was used to
determine changes in assets, while qualitative data obtain from informant interviews,
focus group discussions and observation and assessment of the researcher were used to
explain such changes and identify determinants of change, including adaptive strategies
and issues related to urban expansion.

3.2.6. Ethical Consideration

The research was conducted by an individual with a post graduate for the fulfillments of
Master of Arts Thesis in Araba Minch University. Household heads were asked their will
or consent to be a respondent of the study. The people whom they were used for the
sample were not inanimately mentioned and were confidential for the information they
gave. The questionnaire was translated in to local language, forinformation wouldkeep
confidential, and clearly tell the objective of the study, keeping confidentiality, ensuring

27
participation by willingness. The information of the respondents was done in a right,
ethical and responsible procedure and the human and democratic rights of the respondents
were kept with secret. The study is free from any sort of political, religious and personal
biases.

28
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
Demographic characteristics of the respondents provide the readers with a picture of the
demographic composition of the respondents. Accordingly, demographic characteristics
of the respondents in this study comprise sex, age, educational status, and marital status,
occupation of household and years of livingof the sample households in the town.These
are the most important demographic variables which are employed in census, sample
survey and different research activities. The age structure of a given population is
important to know the ratio between economically active and dependent population. The
sex structure is also important to predict the future fertility performance of a population.

4.1.1. Sex of the Respondents

Accordingtothesurvey, majorities(88.9%)oftherespondentsweremalesandabout11.1%of
samplehouseholdswerefemales.Since the major respondents for this study were male
heads of households, it was not possible to make equal number of male and female
participants to be included in the study. The 11% female respondents were those whose
husbands were died for those who are divorced separated (Table 4.1). To support this idea
a similar study conducted in Tigray region about Urban Expansion and Farmers''
Perception in Axum Town, Ethiopia reported 70% of the respondents were male (Abrha
and Gebremedhin 2015).Women tend to rely more heavily than men do on informal
support networks, Such as they help of friends, neighbors, or relatives for child care.
4.1.2. Age of the Respondents

The Table 4.1, belowshowsthat, the majorityoftherespondents were withintheage

category of 30-64years that is about (78.7%) andtheremaining
13.0%isundertheagecategoryofabove 65years. This implies that most of the people who
were expropriated their land were found in the working age category.As shown in the
below table most of the expropriated farm household heads are in the working age
group that invariably requires alternative job opportunity. In the previous location
theirlivelihood was based on agriculture and existing assets.

29
Table 4 1: Sex and Age of the respondents

No Variable Category Household(N= 216)

frequency Percentage

1 Sex Male 192 88.9

Female 24 11.1
2 Age 18-29 18 8.3

30-64 170 78.7

>65 28 13.0

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.1.3. Marital Status of the Respondents

Regarding their marital statustherespondent’sTable 4.2, 2.8%weresingle,(81.9%) were

married, 9.7% were divorced and 5.6%showsthat widowed. This shows thatthe majority
of the respondents of the sample households in the study area were married who are
expected to have family members that depend on them. This implies that urban expansion
was not only affecting the livelihoods of farm household heads but also their families.
4.1.4. Educational Level of the Respondents

Table 4.2, shows that, 67.1% of them were illiterate, 19.0% were able to write and read,
9.3% were elementary (grade1-6), 3.7% were junior school (grade 7-8), 0.9% were
high school (grade 10-12) and 0.9%. Another study done on impact of urban
expansion on livelihood of farmers in Northern Ethiopia reported that 61% of the
farmers had 0-4grade. Based on the findings of this study, the farmers in the study
area are less educated compared to farmers in similar setting in Northern Ethiopia.

4.1.5. Family Size of the Respondents

Table 4.2 below shows that, in the study area, more than (90%) of the respondents had
family size more than 4. This indicates that the areas around the study town are highly
populated. There are many studies that link large family size as a challenge for livelihood
and food security. A study conducted in Nigeria documented that large family sizes were
significantly lower in food security index compared with small family size households.
Large family size is risk factor for household food insecurity and they recommend that

30
government should promote family planning services (Olayemi, 2012). This implies that
urban expansion will not only affect the farm household heads residing in the urban fringe
but also the livelihoods of their family. When expropriated resulted in the loss of job all
family members can be affected because of the potential decline in the family’s income.
In farm families, effects can be felt even more directly, because often multiple family
members are employed on the farm. Thus, a farm loss implies a need for retraining on the
alternative off-farm activities of not only the household heads but also a spouse and older
children in the family. So, this has an implication that the municipality should consider
during urban expansion for sustainability of the livelihoods of family members.

Table 4 2: Demographic characteristics of respondents

No Variable Category Household(N= 216)

frequency Percentage
1 Marital Single 6 2.8
status Married 177 81.9
Divorce 21 9.7
Widowed 12 5.6
2 Level of Illiterate 145 67.1
education Read and write 41 19.0
Primary 1-6 20 9.3
Junior 7-8 8 3.7
Secondary 9-12 2 0.9
3 Family 1-3 14 6.5
size 4-6 144 66.7
7-9 46 21.3
> 10 12 5.6
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.1.6. Occupation of household head

Majority of the respondentsTable 4.3, below (64%) of the sample households in the study
area had major occupation as farming.The same is true in a study conducted in Tigray
region reported that 85% of the farmers close to Axum Town had major occupation as
agriculture (Abrha and Gebremedih 2015). The study in Tigray region added that Even if
farmers live very near to cities, their means of livelihood is highly dependent on
agriculture. From these studies, It is clear that the role of urban expansion diversify the
livelihood of farmer is very low. Therefore,the urbanexpansion is directly affecting the
livelihood of peripheralfarming community.
Table 4 3:Occupation of household head before expropriation

31
Variables Category Household head
Frequency Percentage
Occupation Merchant 7 3.2
Daily labor 27 12.5
Private 5 2.3
Farming 138 63.9
Others 39 18.1
Total 216 100
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.1.7. Years of stay in shashemenne

Table 4.4below showsthat most of the respondents in the study area lived thereabove
20 years. This means, the farmers around the study town were living there for very
long time before the expansion of the town. As an alternative development strategy,
it can be important to find solutions for rural urban migration than displacing the
farmers who were living there for all these years. Beyond its economic and
production aspect, relocating farmers who lived in the area all their life is also
negative since rural community usually associated social and cultural values towards
their community and established social relations that can lead to frustration and lack
of satisfaction in life.

Table 4 4: Years of living in Shashemene

Variables Household head

Category
Frequency Percentage
<1
2 0.9
Years of living in Sheshemenne
1-5
3 1.4

14 6.5

35 16.2
6-10
49 22.7
11-15
113 52.3
16-20
100
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2. The effects of urban sprawl on peripheral farming households

The Effect of Urban Expansion programs before Actual Expropriation
32
Table 4.5, indicates that most of expropriated farmers have frustration because of lack of
orientationhowtoliveinurbanareawere61.6%,farmers whofearofinadequate
attentionfromtownadministration were 12.5% whiletheother25.9% were inadequate
provision of new skills and knowledge on newly urban form of the life.

This study shows us the urban sprawl and its effects on peri-urban area agricultural
community began even before actual implementation of the expansion program.Even
though most of farmers know that one day government can expropriate their land, when
they hear their land going to be expropriating they may frustrate, this is
becauseofthelackofnewknowledgeonnewlyurbanformoflife.

In the FGDof kebeles the participants stated in their discussion that:-

“In our village there were many known farmer who had large hectares of land with
different kind of crops, fruits, vegetables, etc but one day they heard that
their land is going to be taken for the purpose of urban development; this
event made them un happy”.(March 18, 2018).

The key informants from Shashemenne town Municipality Land Development and
Management experts also agreed with this study results during the interview and
discussion which was conducted with them. According to their explanation:-

“Some of the farmers got un happy when they heard that their land was going to be
expropriated”.(March 18, 2018).

This implies that land for farmers is everything; they have special attachment with it, i.e
socio-cultural, psychological, emotional, and economical attachments. And also land is a
sign of prestige for them.

As a result, thefarmerswiththeirlargefamilysizewillbeexposedtounemploymentand
povertyforthereasonthattheyarenotwelleducatedandskilledrather
dependingontheiragricultural land andproduction.It is understoodthat,people without
basic qualification or literally skilled are unable to compete and get job in the labor
market.

Table 4 5: Effects of urban expansion before its implementation

33
 Effects of urban expansion before its implementation Frequency Percent

Frustration because of lack of orientation on where and 133 61.6

how to live in urban settlement

Inadequate attention from the administration in 27 12.5

community development activity

Inadequate provision of new skills and knowledge on 56 25.9

newly urban form of the life

Total 216 100

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.1. Usesof Land by farming households before expropriation

As shown in Figure 4.1, from the total of 216 sample respondents 83.3% of sample
households were agricultural land,4.6% of the respondents have their own residential land
and 12.1% of them had grass land (grazing) before expropriation.AsEyaya, 2014 and
Muluwork, 2014 stated theeverincreasing demandsofperi-
urbanlandbroughtbyrapidurbanizationhaveledtothegradual squeezing out of farming as a
means of livelihood to peri-urbancommunity. And thisintensepressure
decreasesavailableagriculturallandintheareawhichhasanegativeimplicationinenhancing
foodsecurity.The loss of farmlands of the peri-urban farmers due to urban expansion
increased the risk of landlessness, joblessness, and food insecurity.

The impact of urban expansion on the agricultural land is the most series impact on
farmers because land is the most important economic base for the rural residents. As
urban expansion consumes agricultural land, lands become smaller and smaller. Small
farm lands cannot produce enough to feed themselves and their families and provide for
the market. Accordingly, decrease in agricultural land holding and food production ranks
at the top of the problem imposed on rural societies.

Figure 4 1: land use land cover before expansion

34
 200
180
160
140
120
100 83.3
80 Frequency (N=216)
60 Percentage
40
20 12.1
4.6
0
agricultural residential grazing

Types of land holding

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.2. Size of expropriated land and cause of expropriated of farmers

In relation to size of land lost due to expansion, two third of respondents (67.6%) reported
that they had 1to 2 hectare agricultural land, which is more than the national average of
farm land holding.The major purpose of expropriation of farmers from their land was
residential 94.0%, followed by industrial 2.8%, commercial agriculture 1.9% and real
state 1.4% table 4.6,below. A similar study stud conducted in Gurage Zone also reported
that most of the towns in the area are expanding and the expansion did usually result in
lost livelihood and food security problem among the farming families displaced from
their land due to urban expansion (Muluneh, 2003).The same study also reported that the
major reasons for the expansion of urban areas in Ethiopia are expansion of government
offices, new transport lines and communication, schools, hospitals, modern businesses,
new industries owned by foreign investors. It was reported by the farmers that during the
expropriation, only small plot of land for private housing was left for them.

Teller and Assefa, (2010) reported that, growth of cities presents enormous challenges as
well as opportunities for the nation. With little or no industry and manufacturing in rural
areas, urban centers are the main areas for non-agricultural production in Ethiopia.
However, urban centers in Ethiopia are characterized by massive housing problem around
70-90% of urban population are living in sub-standard housing, low economic activities,
growing population, inadequate upgrading, etc. To reduce the problem the government
has implemented the project, Integrated Housing Development Programme (IHDP) where

35
houses are constructed by low cost for medium and low income groups. The goal is to
reduce the proportion of slum-dwellers by 50% by 2010 (UN habitat, 2008). However,
the farming community that already use the lands surrounding the urban areas didn’t get
due attention during displacement (Teller and Assefa, 2010). As a result the farmers that
left the land for new construction sites resulting from urban expansion are living in living
conditions worse than their initial situation (UN Habitat, 2008).This implies that majority
of the farmers were lost their land and the process affects their annual production and
income. The FGD members were also said that due to the loss of a plot of farmlands they
were highly affected in terms of total production and income that decreased per year.

Table 4 6: Land lost due to an expansion of town

Variables Response Frequency Percentage

Amount of land lost <0.5 he 28 13.0
0.5-1 he 42 19.4
1-2 he 146 67.6

Total 348 he 216 100

Purpose of land lost Industrial 6 2.8

because of urban
expansion from Residential 206 95.3
farmers Commercial 4 1.9

Total 216 100

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.3. Annual agricultural income of farmers before expropriation

The study shows that, Figure. 4.2below the sample households of respondents46.3%,
27.8%, 9.3%, 6.9%, 9.3% and 2.8% shows that these households used to earn an average
annual income above 50,000, 41,000-50,000 , 31,000-40,000 ,21000-30,000, 11,000-
20,000 and <10,000 of the households used to earn an average annual income
respectively. As urban centersexpand by occupying fertile farm land, and displacing
farmers cause to reduce the amount of production and number of family farmers and
move to the nearby urban centers (Dayong, 2004).Thus, the majority measure a
household’s financial capital as one of the livelihood element, an average annual income
these households used to earn before urban expansion and are earning currently and the
house hold’s average number income before expansion, which was in the form of savings,

36
had been measured in the area.Before urban expansion over these community’s
residences, most of households earn an average annual income of more than50,000 ETB.

Figure 4 2: Annual incomes before expropriation

250

200

150
100
100
Frequency
46.3
50 27.8 Percent (%)
9.3 6.9 6.3 2.8
0

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.4. Effect on annual agricultural income of farmers after expropriation

Figure 4.3, out ofthesamplehouseholdsofrespondents73.1%,usedtoearnanaverage

annualincomebelow 10,000.This shows thatmost of households usedtoearnanaverage
annualincome less than 10,000 ETB after expropriation of their land and their income was
highly reduced.As pointed out by Dayong (2004) uneven urban expansion will occupy
considerable valuable farmland around urban centers, which causes to sensitive
contradiction and conflicts with the farmers who are displaced from their farmland.
Urbanization negatively affects the peri-urban areas in different ways.

According to the information obtained during focus group discussion, before

expropriation they did not worry for what they eat and drink but after expropriation they
began to worry how they can survive. During observation the researcher also witnessed
that some families’ life condition was highly deteriorated. And when they are asked
concerning the amount of earning annually they get, they claim that their previous earning
from their livelihood was better and more secured than the outcome of livelihood
currently they are engaged in. Therefore, if the expropriated farmers were supported by
the municipality in different activity they became effective, competitive and profitable.

37
For example, one informant said that, “I gets annual earnings of >50,000 birr and even
there are other benefits in kind that are not included in the monetary calculation but after
expropriationthe amount of earning is drastically reduced”. (March 18, 2018).

However, the amount of earning he gets after the expropriation is drastically reduced.
Because, as it was mentioned in above, a variety of opportunities were missed. They had
more diversification opportunities of living. In addition to that, they have missed the
opportunity to raring of various types of live stocks, cultivating of vegetables and raising
forests. After expropriation they earn as less as 10,000birr per annum apart from their
house and plot of land.Unlike the previous time, household members are engaged in a
variety of survival strategies compared to the previous one where almost everybody
engaged in similar type of livelihood strategy. Regarding the difference of earning
between the previous and current life making strategy, other informant said that;

“Since our source of income was generated from diverse sources (milking,
renting, selling the firewood, pottery e.t.c). I do not know the exact figure
(estimated >50,000 birr/annually). And unlike the previous time, I become idle in
this new urban setting (no opportunity to get income by selling products of
something), the only source of income for our family is my husband’s wage from
daily laboring which is not regular. There is also lack of integration to the new
life style in urban area. Through this kind of activities 60 or 70 birr can be
earned.”(March 18,2018).

Therefore, agricultural income lost in this study refers income obtained after land lost due
to the town expansion over the farmer’s land. It includes income obtained from crop
production, vegetable, and other income obtained from grass land sales and rent.

Figure 4 3: Annual income after expropriation

38
 250

200

150
100
100 73.1 Frequency
50 Percent (%)
4.6 3.2 3.7 7 8.3
0

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.5. Effect on Social relationship and value after expropriation

Figure 4.4, indicate, of the sample households of the respondents 1.9% their social
relationship value now indicate that very high, 26.9% of the respondents social
relationship value now shows that high, 49.1% of the respondents urban sprawl on social
relationship value now exposed moderate, 21.3% of the respondents expansion urban on
social relationship value now were low and 0.9% is very low in the town. This indicated
that mostrespondents social relationship value now were moderate in the town.Social
relationship is used in a community that brings people together for common purpose and
associated with many desirable outcome such as faster social and economic development,
greater helpfulness of political system, and better. Social capital includes the features of
social organization, such as trust, social norms and networks that can improve the
efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actionhealth (Braun, 2007citedin Meron,
2014).

In Ethiopian context particularly in rural parts of the country social relation is very strong
and it is an instrument to bond every community. So that no one wants to become out of
this bondage. According to the study results, previously by a large extent, the social
capital is known to be built by the social relationship in a given household, within and
with vicinity in a certain community social assets of the dislocated
farmingcommunityhave changed due to urban expansion. According to information
obtained from

39
focusgroupdiscussionrevealedthatthesocialassetsusuallymanifestedthrough
focusgroupdiscussionrevea hroughsocial
institutions such as Idir, Iqub, and Mahiberthatbringsthemto
Mahiber
worktogetherwerealreadyabandoned.Similarly,thesociety’soriginalsocialg
worktogetherwerealreadyabandoned Similarly,thesociety’soriginalsocialgroupingsamo
ngkinintherurallifesuchasinco
kinintherurallifesuchasincoffeeceremonywerelimitedtoafewhouseholdsbecauseof
edtoafewhouseholdsbecauseof
dispersionoftherelatives and neighbors indifferentlocation.

On the other side in the urban life neighbors are serving

erving each of their own lives but
previously neighbors in the rural life were obliged to help during illness, poorness, and
other problems using their cultural institutions but now noo one has concern about others
different problems or households wellbeing. Therefore, ass a modern society, the social
relationship in urban areas is very much limited and hence most of the time it is less
important.

Figure 4 4: Pattern of social relation after relocation

250

200

150
100
100 Frequency
49.1 Percent (%)
50 26.9 21.3
1.9 0.9
0

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.2.6. Effect on feeling

eeling about changes occurred related to the town expansion and the
change in their life style

Table 4.7, below regarding to the Feeling about changes occurred related to the town
expansion and the change in their life style of the expropriated peripheral households was
4.6% were dissatisfied, 7.4% were indifferent, 79.6% were dissatisfied and 8.3% were
very much dissatisfied.

40
This indicates that most household respondents feeling towards changes occurred related
to the town expansion and the change in their life style not satisfied. The study done in
Tigray by Alemu (2015) reported that satisfaction of displaced farmers due to urban
expansion also support the findings of this study. Farmers are generally less satisfied
about their current situation.

Table 4 7: Perception about changes occurred

Perceptionlevel Frequency Percent (%)

Satisfied 10 4.6
Indifferent 16 7.4
Dissatisfied 172 79.6
very much dissatisfied 18 8.3
Total 216 100
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.3. The existing livelihood status and Coping strategies of farmers whose

Livelihood is severely affected by urban sprawl.

4.3.1. Beliefs of the affected community towards the newly livelihood

Strategy

The study shows that, as table 4.8, below the households had been asked whether their
households secured their livelihood through the newly chosen livelihood strategy or not.
Accordingly, 91.7% believed that their households had not secured their livelihood while
the rest, 8.3%, had believe that the way they turned on become favorable to
them.Necessity refers to the involuntary approaches adopted by expropriated farming
community due to the eviction from access to land, loss and desertion of previous assets
(Ellis 2000:55). In literature the implication of this approach is considered as negative.
The result is ‘a last resort rather than an attractive alternative to livelihood’ (Ghosh and
Bharadwaj, 1992:154, as quoted by Ellis 2000:56). In this respect, the livelihood strategy
adopted by the expropriated farming community in the study area can be characterized as
survival or necessity rather than having a choice from different alternatives.
Furthermore, data from key informant and focus group discussion participants, only a few
who had better power even before well managed their livelihood in post- urbanization
periods followed by those households that migrated in to rural areas and persuaded their

41
former livelihood strategy at a declined size of the farm.Others like, those who remained
in their original residents with only 500 meter square and granted with an inadequate
compensation however turned in to the status as they called “Urban made poor” with the
manifestations of uneducated children, non-promissory livelihood like labor work
etc.Therefore, it is fair to say that although these households had their own endeavor to
engage themselves in different livelihood strategies and alternatives, each of the
household’s educational background, economic status they had before, the family size
they had accommodated, the lack of institutional interventions all limited the output from
the newly chosen livelihood.
Table 4 8: believes about the new livelihood strategy

Variables Response Frequency Present(%)

Is the new livelihood favorable to secure Yes 18 8.3

their livelihood?
No 198 91.7

Total 216 100

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.3.2. Governmentand others organizationto improve livelihood of the expropriated

farmers

To address problems related to urban sprawl and associated expropriation of farmers from
their farmland, respondents were asked about who should be the right responsible body to
improve their status and livelihood. Almost all of the respondents (94.9%) replied that the
government is responsible to address the problem as it’s indicated in figure 4.8,
below.According to the study result as well as FDRE constitution article 89, the
government needs to be the sole owner of the intervening process under the rational that
the town development program had been and is being run by it.
Governmentalinstitutionsasacentraltransformingstructureforanylivelihoodandunderwhose
leadershiptheurbandevelopmentprogrambeing run,shouldfollow-upthepost expropriation
livelihood condition of the evicted farming communityandassistthembased on their ability
and interest in such a way that their family secure their livelihood.

While others said not only the government but also NGOs, and private investors should
be responsible in the activity. The idea of displaced farmers was supported by the key

42
informants and FGD members. To improve and secure the livelihood of the evicted HHs
it should be the responsibility of every citizen.

Figure 4 5: Government and others organization to improve the current status of farmer’s
livelihood

3
8

Government
NGOs
Private investors

205

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.3.3. Major problems faced by farmers

As indicated in Table 4.9, below farm households in their post expropriation time face
many livelihood adjustment difficulties. 35.2% of the respondents complained that due to
lack of adequate knowhow of financial utilization, the compensated money lasted for
short duration with them and faced lack of money to finance their needs and wants.
11.1% of them also faced unemployment due to lack of skill to work in urban area. The
remaining29.6%and 24.1% respondents said that they faced problems from the city
administration because the town administration didn’t follow up them how they live and
what lacks for them, also they complained thatdiscrimination by the new settlers and lack
of strong social capital such as Debo and Jigi that brings them to work together and
traditional and cultural ceremonies of burial, Idir/Shengo and weeding were already
neglected/lost.Urban expansion is associated with a decline of agricultural land. The area
of cultivated land is negatively correlated with agricultural intensity, and off-farm labor
transfer causes labor scarcity in the agricultural sector (Li Jianget al.,2013). Similarly, the
society’s original social groupings among families such as in coffee ceremony, holiday
ceremony’s and other interactions were limited to a few households because of dispersion

43
of the families and relatives in different location. Also the dislocated farm household’s
life was deeply related with their animals and use animal by-product as energy source.
This life style was not accepted by the pre-urban settlers and resulting conflict among
them.

Table 4 9: major problems farmers faced after expropriation

problems farmers faced after expropriation Frequency Percent (%)

Lack of knowledge in financial utilization 76 35.2
lack of follow- up from the concerned institutions 64 29.6

Lack of skill (knowledge) for job opportunity 24 11.1

Discrimination by the new settlers 52 24.1
Total 216 100
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.3.4. Farmers coping strategies for their livelihood

Table 4.10,the study shows that the livelihood condition and coping mechanisms of
farmers after expropriation by identifying the farmers’ source of income. As the table
below shows that of respondents’ 31.5% source of income was depends on daily labor
works, engaged in small business9.7%,4.6% depend on remittance4.6% shifted in to
poultry and dairy farming and 49.5% rent land from other and continue farming. Peri-
urban rural households have various sources of income and other resources including a
range of farm, nonfarm, and off-farm, which together provide a variety of exchange
entitlement for food, and cash constitute livelihood system (Belayneh, 2002 cited in
Muluwork, 2014). The sustainability or vulnerability of livelihood of a household is
therefore a function of the interplay between households’ access to different livelihood
capitals (resources), the existing context, the mediating process (institutions,
organizations, and social relations at work), the activities, and the resulting livelihood
strategies that a household pursue (ibid).

To support this idea, the FGD participants from “MejaDemba, Ale Luilu, Awashodongu,”
kebele, agreed in their discussion that:-

“Regarding the livelihood source, previously, there were agricultural products,

forest products, milk and milk products, poultry and others that support their
livelihood (for consumption and sale). Although they were produce surplus,

44
 they led stable life since they have diversified source of income. They sell
products of handcraft like pottery, grasses, trees for fuel wood and
construction. At the times of shock, they can depend on either one of the
aforementioned sources. They argue that the outcome of previous livelihood
strategies were more dependable and enhancing their life in many aspects.
They used to finance the needs and wants of their family adequately but now,
although they are engaged in some sort of livelihood, they are easily affected
by inflation of the prices of goods and services”. (March 20, 2018).

The study shows that, Shashemene town administration has a responsibility of enabling
the expropriated farmers and their family to cope with their problems and rebuild
sustainablelivelihood. However, the study results shows thatmost of the respondents
were engaged in rent land from other as a coping mechanism, this is
themainjobopportunitythatwasavailablefor
expropriatefarmingcommunityinthestudyarea. The other opportunity for their
livelihood strategy was, daily labor,
thisisalowpayingjobbecauseitdoesn’tdemandhighlevelofeducationorskill.It is not
permanent work, one day they may get on the other day they might not. The reasons
is limited to the absence of demandable and marketable knowledge and skills as most of
them were illiterate, low availability of the job itself, as well as the lack of experiences
in searching and access job in urban setting.

Table 4 10: Farmers Source of Income after Expropriation

Farmers coping strategies for their livelihood Frequency Percent (%)

Engaged in daily labor 68 31.5
Engaged in small business 21 9.7

Depend on remittance 10 4.6

Shifted in to poultry and dairy farming 10 4.6
Rent land from other 107 49.5
Total 216 100
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.4. Role of Institutional and Policy related constraints of urban sprawl

Role of Institutional on urban sprawl

45
In this section survey results conducted from respondents, the information obtained from
key informants during interview and focus group discussions which were focused on the
role of government on rehabilitation support, post expropriation follow-up of the
expropriated farmers and Policy related constraints was interpreted and discussed.

4.4.1. Awareness Creation on Expropriation and Urban Expansion Program

The farmers in the study area were also asked if there was any awareness creation done
before the expropriation of farmers was implemented. More than half of the farmers
replied that there was awareness creation (63.9%) while the rest 36.1% replied there was
no awareness creation done as indicated in the following table 4.11.Awareness and
participation of the community in development is the bases for its sustainability. As
OBUWD directive No. 99/2007, the process of urban expansion should be transparent to
the residence of a particular Municipality and the land should not be given without the
consent of the community from which the land is to be taken. Based on this point, an
attempt was made to assess the participation and awareness of affected community on the
expansion program going on in their area and the change in their livelihood. This result
shows that even if there was effort to create awareness about the expropriation in the
study area, the effort done was not enough to reach all the farmers.

Table 4 11: Awareness created before displacement

Variables Response Frequency Present(%)

Awareness created before expropriation Yes 138 63.9

No 78 36.1

Total 216 100

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.4.2. Means of awareness creation of urban expansion and reaction of farmers

With regard to the awareness of respondents table 4.12, below,77% were through public
orientation, 15% remain that through official training, and 8% indicate both. This
indicated that the most respondents of awareness about urban expansion of sample
households were through public orientation. On the other hand, the focus group
discussion based data shown us that this community had been informed via different
means that the land was to be taken for the town’s development with which the key

46
informants also agreed. The same result was reported by other researchers based on
research conducted on similar subject matter. For example, a study conducted in Sebeta
town reported that expansion of the town during the last few years made significant
impacts on livelihood of farming community on peri-urban area: agricultural land
fragmentation, land insecurity, and loss of farmer’s property on the land. On the other
hand, the non-farm economic sector developed in the area was not capable to absorb
evicted households. In addition, rehabilitation mechanisms used by the town municipality
mainly an arrangement of cash compensation was found to be inadequate to replace their
resource base, which is land. As a result, most of the families exposed to further
economic, social and cultural impoverishment. Therefore, to ensure sustainable urban
development, government should make sound planning prior to displacement without
treating livelihood of vulnerable groups of people living on peripheral area (Dejene
2011). The farmers were also asked about their reaction following decision to take their
lands. Most of the farmers decided to leave their lands without objection (Table 4.13
below), the reason for leaving their lands without objection can be due to the less
information farmers got and also expectation to get higher compensation and other
benefits as it’s reported by Abrha and Gebremedhin (2015). It was also evident from the
discussion done with the farmers, the administration did do a collective bargaining and
left latter on. On the other hand, claimed that they were forced to leave no matter how
they objected the displacement and only the smallest number, agreed the expropriation
without any objections.

Table 4 12: Means of awareness of urban expansion and reaction of farmers

Variables Response Frequency Percentage

Means of awareness Through public orientation 107 77

Through official training 20 15

Both 11 8

Total 138 100

Response Frequency %
Reaction of farmers Agreed without objection 170 78.7
when asked to leave Objected but left force fully 28 13.0
convinced through bargaining 18 8.3
Total 216 100
Source: Field Survey, 2018
47
4.4.3. Promised and Executed Compensation and Benefit Packages

When asked if the farmers received the benefit package as result of the land taken from
them, more than (92.6%) as indicated in table4.13 below reported that they did get the
benefit package.In many developing countries, the governments pay to farmers a
compensation package of that includes different components. In china, for example, the
compensation includes three components, these are compensation for the land itself,
resettlement subsides and compensation for improvements to the land and for crops
growing on the requisitioned land. It is also stated in the literature that the local
governments are permitted to pay the sum of resettlement subsides and land
compensation up to 30 times of the previous three years average output value on the
acquired land (Treeger and Dayong, 2004 cited by Shishay,2011).

Accordingly, compensation in Ethiopia can be paid either in cash or in kind or in both. It

also refers to the compensation to be paid for a private property situated on the
expropriated land holding. The Civil Code of Ethiopia adopts principle of indemnity by
stating that “the amount of compensation or the value of the land that may be given to
replace the expropriated land shall be equal to the amount of the actual damage caused by
expropriation” (Girma, 2013). But most of the expropriated farmers and FGD members
were opposing the current compensation,even if the amount of benefit given was not
comparable to the market value and overall benefit they get from their farmland over long
period of time.

Table 4 13: the benefit package due to the loose of land

Variables Response Frequency Present (%)

Obtained the benefit package Yes 200 92.6

No 16 7.4

Total 216 100

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.4.4. Benefit packages and compensation for expropriated peripheral farming

households.

Table 4.15, showsthatthereweremanypromisesthatweretoldby the town

administrationtothefarmerswhose landhadbeenexpropriated
48
 andhencewhoselivelihoodelementshadbeenaffectedinone wayorinanother. Of the
households 78.7% were given money compensation, 1.9% training to develop skill and
19.4% housing plot. To support this idea the researcher held interview with one of the
Shashemene land development and management coordinator:

“he replied that the town administration had been promised to provide compensation and benefit
packages to the displaced peri-urban agricultural community through kebele
meeting; but due to the shortage of finance, the town administration couldn’t
keep the promise and provided only money compensation and housing
plots"(March 25,2018).

In relation to this, however, the amount of compensation, skill training and housing plot is
not comparable with the benefit farmers could get by cultivating on the farmland as usual.
The frustration of farmers also increases as the local price of land and cost of living
increase from time to time which made the monetary payment given earlier very small
compared to the current market price (Abrha and Gebremedhin, 2015; Dejene, 2011)

The study shows that, most of farmers had negative attitude on the compensation and
expropriation. The compensation process was less participatory and the land securities of
farmers' were risked. Farmers were not in a position of defending their farmland from an
encroachment. The food security a problem of farmers close to town was found to be very
severe. Town administration needs to be more sensitive for farmers' livelihoods in any
urban expansion planning process. The compensation process should consider the fertility
status of the farmland and the family size of the farm households.

Table 4 14: benefit packages and compensation for expropriated peripheral farming
households.

Promised benefit packages and compensation Frequency Percent

In monetary term 170 78.7
Training to develop skill 4 1.9
housing plots’ 42 19.4
Total 216
Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.4.5. The nature of compensation

Table 4.15,shows that mostofthehouseholds 94.0%were not enough to support their

49
 Livelihood in sustainable base, During FGD (Awasho, DidaBoke and Alelu Elu kebele)

“the members argue that the amount of compensation provided by the town administration was
inappropriate at the same time the method of property valuation was not clear. But
the key informants from Shashemene town Municipality did not agreed with this
idea; according to their explanations, committee was formed by the town
administration and the valuation was done by compensation rules and regulation.
However, they accepted that the amount of compensation provided to the
expropriated farmers was not enough to sustain their livelihood and replace their
income that was previously earned from agricultural land; it needs to revise of the
regulation of compensation”. (March 20, 2018).

With the above situation, the investigator concluded that the evicted farmers for the right
to have a house for residence fulfilled and was performed according to the proclamation
No. 455/2005. The proclamation of landholdings expropriation for the public purposes
and payment of compensation Article 8, sub Article 3 and 4 says that anybody whether
urban or rural residence subjected for expropriation of land has a right to get money
compensation and a plot of land for the construction of house for residence, (proclamation
No. 455/2005).

The investigator can conclude that government proclamation in relation to application of

compensation for evicted farmers regardless of the issue of equity and fairness, the
intervention made by various parties including the local urban government in order to
rehabilitate the evicted farmers through the provision of various kinds of supports to
make themdiversifying the income sources; the study result indicated that supports were
generally it was unsatisfactory.

Table 4 15: Nature of compensation

Variables Response frequency Percentage

Could the compensation support Yes 13 6.0

livelihood in sustainable way?
No 203 94.0

Total 216 100

Source: Field Survey, 2018

50
4.4.6. Benefit packages promised

Table 4.17, showsthatthereweremanypromisesthatweretoldby the town

administrationtothefarmerswhoselandhadbeenexpropriated
andhencewhoselivelihoodelementshadbeenaffectedinonewayorinanother. Of the
households 94.4% were promised by the government body to provide other compensation
and 5.6%were not promised access to services like (road, electricity and water).

The farmers were also asked if they reviewed all the benefit packages promised, and
almost all of them (94.4%) replied that they did not get all the benefit promised.

One of the positive sides of peri-urbanisms is linked with proximity and accessibility of
areafor strong urban influence such as access to markets, social services and urban
jobopportunities. However, lack of wage opportunities, limited access to investment
funds, poorlevels of education and a declining access to natural resources restrict the
ability of the poorcommunity to accumulate savings and easily access these
infrastructures (DFDI, 2008).With regard to the study area, some farmers in peri-urban
areas particularly those who locatednearby the town access social services such as
electricity, school, health centers, water supply,urban markets, telephone and other.
However, for poor farmers it becomes difficult to accesssome of these services due their
very low income to afford them.

Table 4 16: Benefit packages promised and did not obtain

Variables Response Frequency %

Is there any compensation that was Yes 204 94.4

promised to you and did not obtain like
No 12 5.6
(road, electricity and water etc.)?

Total 216 100

Source: Field Survey, 2016

51
4.4.7. Access to credit facility

As indicated in table 4.18 below, majority of the farmers (88%)interviewed also reported
that there is not possibility to get credit services in their area.

Supplying credit facilities for the displaced household has a central role in re-establishing
and improving their livelihood and to start-up new business activities that support their
lives.Although proximity to the urban center exposes the area in accessing many types of
financialinstitutions operating in rural and urban area, there was lack of awareness among
the farmerstake this advantage. High collateral requirement by credit and saving
institutions was also theother reason for low accessibility of credit facilities.

Table 4 17: Access to credit facility

Variables Response frequency Percentage

Is there Possibility to get credit? Yes 26 12

No 190 88

Total 216 100

Source: Field Survey, 2018

4.4.8. Farmer’s satisfaction about the amount of benefit packages and compensation

Table 4.19, shows that satisfaction towards the compensation for sample house hold who
obtained compensation benefit. Hence, most of the households (80.6%) were highly
dissatisfied and discouraged with the compensation provided. This is why most of the
money that was received from compensation was mostly spend on consumption. Some
respondents put the money in the bank and draw it for consumption rather than investing
on agriculture or other type of investments. Other studies also reported similar results
because at the time of displacement, the farming community did not had any saving and
business skills and they were not in a position to start small business using the money
obtained from compensation (Abrha and Gebremedhin, 2015; Dejene, 2011).This result
shows that most of the sampled households were not satisfied with compensation
obtained. Their reason for the dissatisfaction is that the compensation provided was not
enough to sustain their livelihood and replace their income that was previously earned

52
from agricultural land. Although, in some case awareness was given on the way to use the
compensation money, but this was not done in integrated manner.

Table 4 18: Farmers reaction on the amount of benefit packages and compensation

Satisfaction level Frequency Percent

(%)
Highly satisfied 2 0.9
Indifferent 28 13.0
Satisfied 12 5.6
Highly discourage and dissatisfied 174 80.6
Total 216 100
Source: Field Survey, 2018
4.4.8. Training given to expropriated households

Table 4.20, shows that out of the farmers who received training on how to use the
compensation and benefit package most of the evicted farmers (44.9%) participated in the
training ofown business development, 2.8% financial management or saving,13.0 %basic
skill trainingand the rest 39.4% participated on technical training for livelihood means.
Even if training have been given, as its been started above, the farmers were not in a
position to start business alternatives due to the increase cost of living, sending of most of
the fund given as compensation on other expenses as well as overall lack of sound
business ideas that can replace farming (Abrha and Gebremedhin, 2015; Dejene, 2011).
The key informants from the Town Administration stated that due to limitations of
finance, skilled and committed man power the training given to the expropriated farmers
was not satisfied them. Because after taking their compensation and before applying in to
practice they think that the training packages and other technical advisory services will
not make them beneficial. The survey data and the information gathered from focus group
discussions were also similar to the data gathered from key informants of the
Municipality.

53
Table 4 19: Types of training in which the farmers participated

Types of training Frequency Percent

Own business development, management 97 44.9
Financial management/ saving 6 2.8
Basic skill training 28 13.0
Technical training for livelihood means 85 39.4
Total 216 100
Source: Field Survey, 2018
4.4.9. Policy related constraints of urban sprawl

It was evident from this study that the local administration and government system did
not actively participate in the farmer’s decision making process. In addition, farmers
didn’t get full benefit from the promised compensation and other services. Overall, the
farming community were not paid due attention in planning of the urban displacement. In
relation to policy related issues, the implementation process of urban expansion and
associated expropriation is being done disregarding what is clearly documented in our
Constitution. The constitution clearly shows that all households need protection for their
basic livelihood alternatives and rights. For farming community, the farmland they use is
their basic right to work on but the one-sided development plan implementation did make
farmers victim of the development than benefiting them.

The World Bank, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and other international
bodies highly recommend the importance of rehabilitation support for expropriated
farmers as part of their compensation (Zemenfes, 2014). Both the Federal and Regional
laws also recognize and direct that displaced farmers be fully and properly rehabilitated
following the expropriation exercise.

The various legal documents review as part of this study reveals that the country has a
proclamation and regulation that indicate the procedures of land acquisition for any
development particularly for urban development. To appropriate the required land for
urban services and land acquisition/expropriation for public interest/purpose such as
development of infrastructure, social service, urban expansion and investment by legally
authorized body Woreda Administration or Town Administration for public purpose.
FDRE Proclamation No. 455/2005 and regulation No.135/2007 state the legal procedure
to be followed to acquire land for public purpose. They also outline the procedures to be
followed in land acquisition as well as that have to be taken into consideration in

54
determining compensation to a person whose landholding has been expropriated and
organs that shall have the power to determine and the responsibility to pay compensation
and not only paying compensation but also to assist displaced persons to restore their
livelihoods (Federal Negarit Gazeta, 2005, 2007).

These legal frameworks are developed in response to the growing demand of urban center
for residential, infrastructure, investment, social and other services as the urban dwellers
increasing from time to time. In order to acquire land for public purpose a municipality
should pay commensurate compensation for a landholder whose land is to be
dispossessed and for the properties situated on the land and permanent improvement
made on the land.

According to Proclamation No. 455/2005 legislation, a rural landholder whose land has
been permanently dispossessed, in addition to the compensation paid for properties
dispossessed and land improvements, a household should be entitled displacement
compensation. The proclamation stated that displacement compensation for rural
landholding should beequivalent to ten times the average annual income he/she secured
during the past five years preceding the expansion program (FDRE, 2005).

According to the study result as well as FDRE constitution article 89, the government
needs to be the sole owner of the intervening process under the rational that the town
development program had been and is being run by it.
Governmentalinstitutionsasacentraltransformingstructureforanylivelihoodandunderwhose
leadershiptheurbandevelopmentprogrambeing run,shouldfollow-up thepost expropriation
livelihood condition of the evicted farming communityandassistthembased on their ability
and interest in such a way that their family secure their livelihood.

It is also evident from our national constitution that the government has been given the
responsibility to ensure that all the farming households in the country get the right to get
farmland to work on for their daily living and livelihood. However, other studies also
indicated that there is gap in implementation of the existing rights of farmers in relation to
the farmland. So far, more attention is given for the demand from urban side while the
farming community gets less attention from local officials that implement government
policies (EFDRE Constitution 44 (2)).

55
However, in Shashemenne town Administration, as survey results shows, very few
expropriated farmers were benefitted from any form of rehabilitation support and post
expropriation follow-up.

To sum up the institutional and policy arrangements about handling the problems faced
by farming communities during the process and after expropriation from their farmlands
due to expansion of urban lands is that there are ample legal and policy background, but
the available policy and legal aspects are implemented poorly without due attention to the
needs and priorities of the farmers.

56
 CHAPTERFIVE

5. CONCLUSIONANDRECOMMENDATION
5.1. Conclusion
The finding of the study shows that most of the study area society is illiterate; more than
(80%) of the society educational level is not greater than grade eight and also they have
large family size. So the society cannot have different opportunities for job competition or
creation and this people need further assistance from government institutions in training
different skills and knowledge to solve their livelihood inconsistency and to cope up their
problemsbyhaving their own alternative job opportunities within their locality.

During thelast few years large tracts of land were transformed from agricultural use to
urban land usessuch as residential,industrial, and commercial purpose. Therefore, peasant
farmers living onedge of Shashemenne town were loss their fertile agricultural land with
minimum appropriation of compensation packages. This phenomenon seriously
influences their livelihoodwhich was themain interest of this study.

Large numbers of farmers wereexpropriated in previous years due to rapid expansion of

the town. The town was expanding in alldirection over the surrounding rural villages and
vacant area that were previously covered byforest and green land. Hence, rapid expansion
of the town further exacerbate marginalizefarming community who depend their
livelihood on agriculture.

The rapid expansion of the town over rural village located on the edge has found to be
atremendous economic, social, political and environmental impact in recent years. One is
landscarcity to widely engage in agricultural activities. Due to marginalization of
agriculturallands, it became difficult for the farmers in the area to satisfy their family’s
consumption letalone to obtain higher production and supply for markets. The survey
results of sampledhouseholds indicated that the loss of crop lands in which most farmers
depends theirlivelihood holds the highest share from the total lands lost. This has a
negative implication interms of in attaining food security in the area.

As this study examinedthe urban sprawl brought significant negative impacts on the
peripheral agricultural community. Thus, most of the farmers havefrustrationand
fearofinadequate attentionfromtownadministration becauseoflackof orientation how to

57
live in urban area. As a result of the town expansion, the peri-urban agricultural
community of Shashemenne town lost their fertile farmland.
Beforeurbanexpansionoverthese community’s residences,most of householdsearn an
average annual income range of >51,000 ETB. However,after expropriation of their land,
themajority of households usedtoearnanaverageannualincome less than 10,000
ETB.Moreover,thesocial capital and value of the expropriated farmers with that of the
new urban community was very low. Therefore, this study had assessed and found that
urban sprawl has adversely affected the farmland, financial and social capital of the peri-
urban area agricultural community.

Most of the farmers in the study area are engaged dailylaborer, small business, renting
land and depend on remittances. Since almost half of them rent land for agriculture, the
farmers are exposed to additional cost of production since the existing cost of basic
agriculture production inputs such as fertilizer, seeds and chemicals are getting expensive.
Due to combination of factors, almost all farmers believe that the current situation can’t
improve their livelihood. The farmers also lack business skills that are needed to have
better living in urban setting.

It was evident from this study that the local administration and government system did
not actively participate in the farmer’s decision making process. In addition, farmers
didn’t get full benefit from the promised compensation and other services. Overall, the
farming community were not paid due attention in planning of the urban expansion. In
relation to policy related issues, the implementation process of urban expansion and
associated expropriation is being done disregarding what is clearly documented in our
Constitution. The constitution clearly shows that all households need protection for their
basic livelihood alternatives and rights. For farming community, the farmland they use is
their basic right to work on but the one-sided development plan implementation did make
farmers victim of the development than benefiting them.

Finally, the town administration could not help the expropriated peripheral farming
community in restoration and rehabilitation of their livelihood status. There is no
organized action extended to the expropriated farming community by government to help
the affected and cope up with the circumstances.Asacoping mechanism, most of the
household in the study area engaged in daily labor after expropriation. Daily labor works

58
are not permanent and mostly seasonal therefore, it has not guarantee for sustainability of
the livelihood of the farmers.

Moreover, resettlement and rehabilitation program as a mandatory procedure is not well

understood by the town administration officials. For this reason, today, one cannot be sure
about the obligations of the town administration in providing rehabilitation support for
expropriated farmers. As a result of low concern given by government institutions
towards rehabilitation program, livelihood of expropriated farmers is negatively affected.

5.2 Recommendation
In the analysis part we observed the effect of urban sprawl on the agricultural land use in
Shashemenne town. The effect was great and continuous. Thus, to tackle the problem
exerted on both rural and urban residents, the following mechanisms are recommended by
the investigator.

1. adult education and life skills training to tackle the illiteracy problem
2. family planning and women empowerment to reduce the family size
3. decision making process should be win-win type and also participate farming
community than simply informing decisions made already which the farmers had
little say to change
4. strength the existing livelihood farmers are engaged in already through
government planning and support example credit facilities for small business,
market skills, trainings
5. revise the compensation and benefit package as per the current market situation
6. Laws and regulations of expropriation and compensation needs further study to
make urban development win-win between farmers and the new development.
7. strength vertical developments of urban areas since the displacement of farmers
did bring negative consequences which can’t be addressed easily

59
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 Appendix

ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITYSCHOOL OF GRAGUATE STUDIESCOLLEGE OF

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIESSCHOOL OF GEOGRAPHY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIESQUESTIONNAIRE
Dear respondent:-The main aim of this questionnaire is to collect data as input for the
study titled as -Urban Sprawl and its effects on peripheral farming community: the case of
Shashemene town, west Arsi zone, oromiya, Ethiopia.Whose sole purpose is to qualify
the requirement for awarding the Masters of Art Degree (MA) In Arbaminch University,
College of Social Sciences and Humanities, School of Geography and Environmental
Studies. Therefore, thanking in advance for your co-operation, I assure you that each
pieces of information collected via this tool are to be very much confidential except for
the purpose pointed out here above.
Please note that:
 There is no need to write your name.

 each question has its own instruction to follow

 Return the questionnaire to the research assistant, as soon as you complete filling
it.

Thank you
Section I. Respondent Background info
information
Note- you are required to tick the right mark ( ) in the appropriate boxes
1. Kebelee A, Awasho B, DidaBoke C, Alelu Elu
2. Age A. 18-29
29 B. 30-65
30 C. >65
3. Sex A. Malee B. Female
4. Marital status of household head -
A. Single B) Married C) Divorced D) Widowed
5. Level of education
on attained

1. Illiterate4. Junior(7
Junior(7-8)
2. Read and Write
te 5. Secondary (9-12)
3. Primary (1-6)
6) 6. Tertiary (12 +)
6. Family size A, 1-33 B, 4- 6 C, 7-9 D, above 10
7. Occupation of household head –
a) Merchant b) Daily labor c) Private
Private d) Farming e)
Others
8. How long for you have been livings in Shashemene (in years)?
a) <1 c) 6-10 e) 16
16-20
b) 1-5 d) 11-15 f) >20
Section II: Specific objectives and questionnaire to achieve the stated objectives

Objective 1:-Effects of urban sprawl on peripheral farming households.

Land use/land cover dynamics of the study area.

1. Did you have lost your land due to an expansion of town? A. YesB. No
2. If your answer for question number 1 is yes, what type of land was it?
A. Agricultural B. Residential C. Grazing D. Other (specify)
_______________
3. How much hectares of land
land was taken due to urban sprawl? A. Less than 0.5
hectare
B. 0.5-1
1 hectare C. 1-2
1 hectare D. above 2 hectare
4. What is the purposeof displacement of farmers from their possession?
A. Industrial B. Real estate C. Residential D. Commercial agriculture E.Others
E
(mention)
5. Was the loss of your plot of lands affect on your yearly production? A. Yes B. No
6. Do you aware of the urban expansion program in your vicinity? A) Yes B) No

2
7. If “Yes”, how? A) Through public orientation B) Through official training C)
Both D) Other
8. What was your reaction when you’re asked to move from your former possession?
A) Agreed without objection B) Objected but left force fully C) Objected but
convinced through bargaining

9. What was average annual total income you used to get before expropriation in ETB?
A) Above 50,000 C) 31,000-40,000. E) 11000-20,000
B) 41,000-50,000 D) 21,000-30,000 f) Less than
10,000
10. What was the effect of the expansion programs you faced before itsactual
implantation?
A. Frustration because of lack of orientation on where and how to live in urban
settlement
B. B. In adequate attention from the administration in community development
activity
C. In adequate provision of new skills and knowledge on newly urban form of
the life
D. Other, specify ________________________________________________
11. How was your social relationship and value within your community after the
displacement? A. Very high B. High C. Moderate D. Low E. Very low
12. Have you obtained the benefit package due to the loose of your land?
A) Yes B) No
13. If yes, in what kind you compensated?
A. ) In monetary term C) Alternative land
B. ) Training to develop skill D) Others
(mention)________________
14. What is your reaction on the amount and kind of benefit package allotted to you?
A. ) Highly satisfied B) Satisfied C) Indifferent D) highly discouraged and
dissatisfied
16. In which of these skill acquired training did you have participate?
A. Own business development, management and supervision
B. Financial management/ saving
C. Basic skill training

3
 D. Technical training for livelihood means
17. Could the compensation you obtained were enough to support your livelihood in
sustainable base? A) Yes B) No
18. Is there any compensation that was promised to you and did not obtain?
A) Yes B) No
19. If your answer is “yes” what kind of compensation? ----------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Objective 2:- The existing livelihood diversification/status and Coping strategies of
farmers whose livelihood is severely affected by urban sprawl
20. What are types of off-farm activities available in your area where you and local
people engage in to obtain a earning during the last years after displacement due to an
expansion of the town and increase of industries in and around the town?
A. Daily labors
B. Employment in factory
C. Self-employment in cottage industries, such as hand crafts, etc
D. Employment in government organization
E. Employment in non-government.
F. Others (specify) __________________________
21. In which of the above income earning activities did most of local people engaged
widely?
________________________________Why____________________________
22. Is it possible for local community to get sufficient credit from credit and Saving
institutions operated in the area to start new business? A, Yes B. No

23. If no, what are the problems and opportunities in relation to obtaining saving? and
credit service in the area?
Opportunities____________________________________________________
Problems_________________________________________________
24. What is you’re feeling about the change occurred related to the town expansion and
the change in your life style?
A. Strongly satisfied
B. Just satisfied
C. Indifferent
D. dissatisfied

4
 E. very much dissatisfied
F extremely dissatisfied
G. other

25. After the displacement is there any farm land left for your livelihood? A) Yes B)
No
26. If “yes” is it producing enough production for you and your family annual
consumption?
A) Yes B) No
27. If your response for question number “26” above is “no”, what is your coping
strategies for your livelihood?
A) Engaged in daily labor B) Engaged in small business
C) Depend on remittance D) Shifted in to poultry and dairy
farming
E) Rent land from others and continue farming F) others
28. What did your family decided to do as an individual or group after land disposition?
A) Raised common business B) Followed each of their livelihood strategies
C) Disintegrated D) other, specify _______________________
29. Do you believe that the way they turned on become favorable to them to secure their
livelihood? A) Yes B) No
30. What do you think is major problems you and your family faced while coping up with
the urban type of livelihood strategies?
A) Lack of knowledge in financial utilization
B) Lack of due follow- up from the concerned institutions
C) Lack of skill (knowledge) for job opportunity D) Discrimination by the new
settlers
E) Others, specify__________________________________________________
31. Who do you think it is responsive body to improve the current status of your
livelihood?
A) Government B) NGOs C) Private investors D) All
32. What do you think as better to be done to improve your survival strategies status?
................................................................................................................................................

5
Objective: -3. The role of institutional and policy related constraints of urban
sprawl.

33. What was your level of satisfaction towards institutional capacity dealing with
rehabilitation of displacement farmer?

A. Strongly satisfied D. dissatisfied

B. Just satisfied E. very much dissatisfied
C. Indifferent f. extremely dissatisfied F. other
33. If your answer to Q 33 is either dissatisfied or very much dissatisfied, did you apply
your disappointment? A. Yes B. No
34. If your answer for Q 34 is yes, to which institution did you apply?
A. Government institution D. private organization
B. Community leader’s e. other
C. Civil society organization
36. Does displacement / dislocation scheme considered different aspects of social and
economic activities of the peripheral farmers? A) yes B) No
Focus Group Discussion Questionnaires
1. Discus the negative impacts of urban expansion
2. Had you discussed on the issues of compensation and benefit packages?
3. Did you agree on a given (promised) compensation?
4. Discuss about the rehabilitation support and post-expropriation follow up are
being made to you by government before and after dislocation?
5. Discuss the copying mechanisms of the community at household levels and new
means or sources of income, job opportunity, social and cultural influences
6. Who is, to you, the responsive body to reduce the negative effects of urbanization
on your livelihood and to take first actionrehabilitation of your livelihood
strategies and means?

For some people urbanization is said to be the better way of life and hence they advocate
for it; however, it becomes opposite to others and hence they appear strongly against it. In
whose side are you? and, why?

An Interview Guideline to key informants/ Manager and experts of Shashemene

town Municipality, as well as Kebele Administrators/

Part I: Background of Respondents

6
1. Address: kebele____________________________________
2. Level of education_____________________________
3. Your position in this organization________________________________
4. Year of services in this organization ______________________________
Part II. Interviews about town expansion
1. What do you think about the effects of urban expansion on peri-urban area agricultural
community of Shashemene Town?

2. What benefits and compensations have been given so far or promised to peri-urban
area agricultural community whose livelihood is affected by urban expansion?

3. Do you think the amount of compensation paid for evicted farmers adequate while
considering farmers’ economic back ground, living cost and land productivity?

4. Do you think current laws and regulation of compensation has effect on the
appropriateness of compensation

5. As a government institution, what is your organization’s role to internalize negative

externalities of urbanization on that peri-urban area agricultural?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________

Thank you!!

7
Sample Sites Profiles

The sample sites were mostly residential with a few industrial developments and
community features that have been encroaching on peri-urban arable lands. Each of these
developments has had somewhat different characteristics as far as sprawl patterns and
community features are concerned. The other samples that were considered to represent
examples of urban sprawl pattern as expansion, linear, leapfrog and cluster in various
sites of the study area are shows an example of urban sprawl encroachment on fertile
agricultural land in Ale Luilu,Awashodongukebele, MejaDemba kebele peasant
administration.

Industrial Zone Sprawling in Ale Luilukebele.

Photo by author: 03-04-2018

8
Urban Sprawling on fertile agricultural land Awashodongu kebele

Photo by author: 03-04-2018

Urban Sprawling on river catchment area agricultural land Awashodongu kebele

Photo by author: 03-04-2018

9
Urban encroachment on fertile agricultural land MejaDemba kebele
Photo by author: 03-04-2018

10