Vinyl

Handbook
Occidental Chemical Corporation (OxyChem), including its subsidiary, Oxy Vinyls, LP
(OxyVinyls), is a leading North American manufacturer of vinyl resins, chlorine and
caustic soda, key building blocks for a variety of indispensable products such as plas-
tics, pharmaceuticals and water treatment chemicals. Other OxyChem products in-
clude caustic potash, chlorinated organics, sodium silicates, chlorinated iso-
cyanurates and calcium chloride. For every product it makes, OxyChem’s market po-
sition is No. 1 or No. 2 in the U.S. Based in Dallas, Texas, the company has manu-
facturing facilities in the United States, Canada and Chile. OxyChem has been an ac-
tive participant in the American Chemistry Council's Responsible Care® initiative
since its inception in 1988.

Demonstrating their commitment to attaining the highest levels of safety and environ-
mental achievement, Responsible Care companies implement world-class manage-
ment systems, measure performance based on industry-wide metrics, and are sub-
ject to review by independent auditors.
Member of The Vinyl Institute - The Material for Life http://vinylinfo.org/

Vinyl Handbook © 2014 Occidental Chemical Corporation

Foreword
This handbook outlines recommended methods for handling, preparing and using vi-
nyl resin. It also includes information on the manufacturing, physical properties,
safety considerations and bulk handling of vinyl resin. Additional information and con-
tacts can be found at www.oxychem.com.

IMPORTANT: The information presented herein, while not guaranteed, was pre-
pared by technical personnel and is true and accurate to the best of our knowledge.
NO WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR OF FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE, OR WARRANTY OR GUARANTY OF ANY OTHER KIND, EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED, IS MADE REGARDING PERFORMANCE, SAFETY, SUITABILITY,
STABILITY OR OTHERWISE. This information is not intended to be all inclusive as
to the manner and conditions of use, handling, storage, disposal and other factors
that may involve other or additional legal, environmental, safety or performance con-
siderations, and OxyChem and its affiliates (including, without limitation, Occidental
Petroleum Corporation and OxyVinyls) assume no liability whatsoever for the use of
or reliance upon this information. While our technical personnel will be happy to re-
spond to questions, the safe handling and use of the product remains the responsibil-
ity of the customer. No suggestions for use are intended as, and nothing herein shall
be construed as, a recommendation to infringe any existing patents or to violate any
federal, state, local or foreign laws.

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction and Manufacturing Process 2

Principle Uses of Vinyl 4

Safety and First Aid 5

Regulatory Information 6

Vinyl Resin Property Effects on Rigid and

7
Flexible Applications

Vinyl Additives 10

Mixing Rigid Vinyl Powder Dryblends 12

Dryblending of Flexible Vinyl Compounds 16

Bulk Handling of Vinyl Resin 19

Silo Inventory: How Product Weight Can be

30
Calculated

Back
Contact Information
Cover

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 Introduction
Vinyl, also called polyvinyl chloride or PVC, is the world’s most versatile plastic since it
can be used in both rigid or flexible applications. OxyVinyls’ history with vinyl goes
back to the 1920’s with a scientist named Waldo Semon. Soon after he discovered
vinyl could be plasticized, vinyl-based products such as insulated wire, raincoats, and
shower curtains hit the market. Vinyl played a key role in the war effort and, in the sub-
sequent decades, vinyl further expanded its uses and became a staple of the construc-
tion industry. Today, vinyl is the second largest selling plastic in the world and em-
ploys over 100,000 people in the United States alone. Vinyl’s low cost, versatility and
performance make it the material of choice for industries such as health care, construc-
tion, aerospace, and textiles.

Vinyl is made by a series of processing steps that convert common table salt and hy-
drocarbon-based raw materials (petroleum and natural gas) into this versatile plastic.
Vinyl is comprised of over 56% chlorine derived from salt, and so is much less sensi-
tive to fluctuations in the world oil market than most other oil-dependent polymers.

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OxyVinyls offers a full product line of vinyl resins suitable for most applications. Our
Sales and Technical Service representatives are highly experienced and can help
make your vision a reality. Product data sheets are available on our website
(www.oxychem.com).

OxyVinyls also maintains the highest quality standards in our resin manufacturing
plants, all of which are ISO 9001 certified. Our reliable manufacturing operations lead
the industry with an integrated raw material position. This enables OxyVinyls to supply
customers consistently, even through major swings in the commodity business cycle.

Our products are manufactured under stringent safety and environmental standards
and guidelines. Vinyl products from OxyVinyls are available as dry powder in bulk
(railcars and bulk trucks) and packaged in bags. Export shipments can be in bags, bulk
bags, or other semi bulk packages.

OxyVinyls Manufacturing Sites

 Niagara Falls, Ontario
 Pedricktown, New Jersey
 Pasadena, Texas
 Deer Park, Texas
OxyVinyls Technical Center
 Avon Lake, Ohio
OxyVinyls Headquarters
 Dallas, Texas

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Principle Uses of Vinyl
 Bed Coverings
 Blood Bags
 Bottles
 Calendering
 Ceiling Tiles
 Custom Molding
 Door Panels
 Electric Cables
 Fence and Decking
 Flooring
 Furniture
 Home Playgrounds
 Inhalation Masks
 Insulation
 IV Bags
 Landfill Liners
 Medical Tubing
 Office Supplies
 Packaging
 Performance Sports Surfaces
 Pipe Fittings
 Pipes
 Plastic toys
 Pool Liners
 Roofing
 Seals
 Seat Coverings
 Shoes
 Signs
 Sports Equipment
 Surgical Gloves
 Truck Toppers
 Vinyl Siding
 Wall Coverings
 Windows

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 Vinyl Safety and First Aid

Read the SDS before use.

The following is a summary of health and safety information and is not intended to be
complete. For complete information, read the current Safety Data Sheet (SDS). To ob-
tain a SDS, contact OxyChem’s Health, Environment, Safety, and Security (HESS) De-
partment or go to www.oxychem.com.

Toxicological Information
Acute Toxicity: OxyVinyls resin is non-toxic by oral route
and is unlikely to cause skin irritation. VCM (vinyl chlo-
ride monomer) is not present at levels that would pro-
duce an acute toxic effect.
Chronic Toxicity: Available evidence indicated that pure
vinyl resin is not metabolized in mammals. Some stud-
ies show pulmonary fibrosis from inhalation of high lev-
els of resin particles. Most resin is large enough in di-
ameter to not be respirable. VCM is not present at lev-
els that would produce chronic toxicity.

Personnel Protection
Vinyl resin is a solid, white granular powder.
While the resin has little toxicity, fumes pro-
duced during processing may irritate respira-
tory tract, skin and eyes. Personal protective
equipment (PPE) is recommended. PPE rec-
ommended is: Safety glasses or goggles,
chemical resistant gloves, suitable protective
clothing, and under certain circumstances an
approved respirator with dust, mist and fume
filters.

First Aid
Inhalation: If adverse effects occur, remove to un-
contaminated area. If irritation occurs, get medical
attention.
Skin Contact: Wash contaminated areas with soap
and water. If irritation occurs, get medical attention.
Eye Contact: Flush eyes with plenty of water for at
least 15 minutes. If irritation occurs, get medical
attention.
Ingestion: No hazard expected. If large amounts
are ingested, get medical attention.

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 Regulatory Information

Read the SDS before use.

The following summary of regulatory information is not intended to be complete. For
complete information, read the current Safety Data Sheet (SDS). To obtain a SDS,
contact OxyChem’s HESS Department or go to www.oxychem.com.

OSHA Regulatory Status: This material is considered hazardous by the OSHA Hazard
Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200)

CERCLA Sections 102a-103 Hazardous Substances (40 CFR 302.4): If a release is

reportable under CERLA section 103, notify the state emergency response commis-
sion and local emergency planning committee. In addition, notify the National Re-
sponse Center at (800) 424-8802 or (202) 426-2675.
Hazardous Component CERCLA Reportable Quantities:
Vinyl chloride 1 lb (final RQ)

OSHA Specifically Regulated Substances: OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1017 (vinyl chloride);

The U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration specifi-
cally regulates manufacturing, handling and processing of vinyl resin. Such regulations
have been published at 29 CFR 1910.1017. It is necessary that handlers and proces-
sors of vinyl be familiar with these regulations.

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 Vinyl Resin Property Effects on
Rigid & Flexible Applications
OxyVinyls suspension grade resins are used in a
wide range of rigid and flexible applications. The
physical properties described below determine many
of the important bulk handling, processing, health/
safety and end use characteristics a vinyl customer
requires.

Inherent Viscosity (IV)

A solution viscosity test is used by OxyVinyls to measure the Inherent Viscosity of our
resins. IV value characterizes the average molecular weight of the vinyl resin chains.
The larger the number, the higher the average molecular weight of the resin. Molecu-
lar weight has a major influence on two important resin characteristics: physical proper-
ties and ease of processing. As molecular weight increases, attainable physical prop-
erties tend to increase. In contrast, processability and melt flow are usually enhanced
as molecular weight decreases. A balance between vinyl’s properties and the type of
process is an important consideration.

Apparent Bulk Density (ABD)

Apparent bulk density is the amount a
given volume of resin will weigh without
compaction. The larger the value, the
denser the product. It is usually shown
in units of g/ml (or g/cc), but is easily
converted into English lbs/ft3. ABD is an
important characteristic that can influ-
ence production rate, melt fusion, and
dimensional stability in an extrusion
process. It is also used for calculating
the amount of resin inventoried within a
silo. ABD properties can be especially
sensitive to static build-up on the resin’s
surface, effectively reducing density.

Resin Color (L*, a*, b*)

Resin color is displayed by three color coordinates: “L*”(lightness), “a*” value (green-
red) and “b*” value (blue-yellow). Transparent and light colored applications are nor-
mally the most sensitive to resin color. Our labs utilize the CIELAB Illuminant C and 2
Degree Observer Specular Included standard to quantify the color of our products.

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7
Heat Loss (HL) or Volatiles
Heat loss (also known as Volatiles) is the amount of moisture that can be removed
from resin when heated. Most production resins are in the 0.1% range when delivered.
If the heat loss is too low, static build-up on the resin surface becomes a concern, cre-
ating flow issues. If heat loss is too high, resin flow and processing issues may be en-
countered. Some customer may have difficulty removing the excess steam that is pro-
duced in the melt phase of their operation. This can trap gas bubbles within the melt
which can undermine the impact strength or create appearance problems in the end
product.

Flow Time (FT)

Flow time is the measure of time required for a given amount of
resin to flow through a standard metal funnel. The longer the
time, the slower the resin flowed through the device. Typically,
vinyl resin FT values range between 6 and 14 seconds. Flow
usually indicates how well a resin can be bulk handled and its
resistance to bridging in the feed hopper. Depending on the
dryblend recipe, it may also determine how well the material will
fill the screw flights of an extruder/molding machine. Like ABD,
flow time is sensitive to static build-up which will increase the
amount of time required for processing.

Particle Size (PS)

Particle size and distribution are important properties in both bulk handling and proc-
essing. PS results are shown as the percent resin weight retained on a set of US
Standard Sieves ranging from #40 to #200. The coarser resin remains on the #40 and
#60 sieves, while finer particles are retained or pass through the #200 mesh.

Elevated levels at either extreme can

create issues for the customer. Due
to their larger size, coarse particles
can be difficult to break down, espe-
cially in rigid, low shear processes.
These oversize materials can create
surface appearance defects (gels) in
extruded parts. In contrast, excessive
fine particles can cause dust and flow
issues, and are especially susceptible
to static build-up.

Contamination
Contamination represents darker colored vinyl particles created during the RVCM strip-
ping or drying process. Results are provided in particles per unit weight of resin. Ap-
plications most sensitive to these particles include transparent, light colors and thinner
films.

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Residual Vinyl Chloride Monomer (RVCM)
RCVM is the amount of unpolymerized monomer remaining in the vinyl polymer after
the polymerization reaction is completed. The amount of monomer remaining inside
the resin is extremely low. RVCM is normally shown in parts per million (ppm). OxyVi-
nyls resins consistently meet industry and government standards.

Gels
Gels in rigid applications are resin particles that break down or melt at a slower rate
than surrounding material. Film grade resins, our highest quality product, contain a
lower number of these particles per volume. Applications that are transparent, thin, or
for which surface appearance is critical are especially sensitive to gel content.

In flexible applications, gels can be due to the presence of either ppm-quantities of

resin grains that are of higher molecular weight than the main resin being used in the
compound, or they can also be due to the presence of resin grains that for some rea-
son (such as slow-absorbing resin particles or raw resin leaking into finished dryblend)
contain lower concentrations of plasticizer than the grains of the main dryblend mate-
rial.

Porosity
The volume of the air space inside the
resin grains surrounding the primary resin
particles is referred to as porosity. This
quantity, typically expressed as cubic centi-
meters of air volume per gram of resin, is
the volume in the resin grains into which
plasticizer flows when it is first added to the
resin being blended. The term “porosity”
as used in North America is very similar to
the property “Cold Plasticizer Absorption”
which is a term frequently used in Europe.
For additional information, see the section,
“Dryblending of Flexible Vinyl Resins.”

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119
 Vinyl Additives

For vinyl to be useful, additives are required to turn the resin into a finished product.
Listed below are some common types of additives utilized in vinyl formulation.

Thermal Stabilizers
Vinyl is a heat and light sensitive polymer.
The addition of the thermal stabilizer is critical
when a compound is subjected to heat, melt
processed, and formed into a product. The
function of the stabilizer is to delay the degra-
dation that occurs at elevated temperatures.
Vinyl degrades by dehydrochlorination and
oxidation reactions. The stabilizer functions by
absorbing hydrogen chloride, displacing active
chloride atoms, free radical scavenging, dis-
ruption of double bond formation, and deacti-
vation of degradation by-products, peroxide
decomposition and ultraviolet energy absorption.

Processing Aids
A processing aid can reduce or increase melt viscosity, increase shear heating/work
level during processing, and reduce uneven die flow. It can also increase the melt’s hot
strength for downstream sizing and improved cell structure in a foam process.

Plasticizer
Plasticizers are materials that are added to PVC to make the materials flexible. They
function by dissolving into the amorphous regions of the polymer, effectively lowering
the glass transition of the amorphous portion of the chains to below the temperatures
at which the materials will be used (for example, room temperature or lower).

Impact Modifiers
Certain applications require higher impact strength than vinyl would otherwise provide.
Specific families of impact modifiers can enhance vinyl’s outdoor weatherability, chemi-
cal resistance, flame/smoke and tensile strength performance.

Blowing Agents
Chemical blowing agents are designed
to produce a cellular structure within vi-
nyl’s polymer melt. These additives af-
fect the melt density, increasing vinyl's
natural thermal insulation and sound
deadening capability.

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Lubricants
Lubricants influence the melting point, internal shear, melt viscosity, and metal release
characteristics of a vinyl compound in a process. There are three types of lubricants
determined by their effect on the melt:

External Lubricants–Delay fusion of

the melt and provide metal release by
lubricating between the compound
and the hot metal processing sur-
faces.

Internal Lubricants–Provide lubrica-

tion at the molecular level, reducing
internal shear and the melt viscosity
of the compound.

External/Internal Lubricants–These
materials provide both external and
internal lubrication characteristics,
depending on the combination of
chemical groups contained.

Alloying Polymers
Alloying polymers with vinyl permits a potentially wider range of property balance de-
pending on type of polymer added. Some of the changes could be: viscosity, thermal
& chemical resistance, impact resistance, weatherabilty, and processability.

Pigments
There are three main reasons to use pigments in PVC compounding: to achieve opac-
ity, UV protection, and to achieve a given color.

Fillers
There are many types of fillers which can be used with
vinyl including: metal carbonates and silicates, gypsum,
clay, alum, barytes and wood flour. The most common
are metal carbonates, mainly calcium carbonate and
clay. Calcium carbonate is available in ground and pre-
cipitated grades with a range of particle sizes. As a gen-
eral rule, the finer the filler grade, the better the impact
performance of the finished product.

UV Stabilizer
UV stabilizers are added to vinyl to reduce degradation of the vinyl application due to
UV radiation. These stabilizers reduce the penetration and absorption of the UV rays,
thus increasing the weathering characteristics of the vinyl product.

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 Mixing Rigid Vinyl Powder Dryblends
Mixer and Cooler
The high intensity mixer and cooler units are the heart of a vinyl processor’s blending
system. A vinyl formulation typically contains numerous ingredients in addition to the
vinyl resin. A mixer’s function is to disperse and distribute a range of types/particle
size materials as uniformly as the pressures of cycle time and productivity permit.
Batch consistency is critical to the downstream transfer, process, and, ultimately, end
-product performance.

After the blend has cooled, the powder compound should be screened to remove
mixer blend flakes that tend to build up on the walls, baffle, and blades. Normally a
#10 screen mesh for pipe and #30 mesh for siding are sufficient. If retained, these
flakes can cause both surface appearance imperfections and undermine product
properties.

Mixing Procedures
The procedures described below are basic and have successfully evolved over many
years of trial and error. They should be considered starting points in developing a
process that is optimized for your specific operation and recipes.

Photo courtesy of Zeppelin®

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Procedure A
1. Start high-intensity mixer at low speed and add resin.
2. Shift to high speed and add stabilizer.
3. Add all dry ingredients.
4. Mix until temperature reaches 88°C (190°F), then drop into cooler.
5. Cool at 43°C (110°F).

Procedure B (double batching)

Procedures A and B have proven to be very successful over the years. They have
been followed by siding, pipe and cellular vinyl processors with excellent extrusion
quality. Procedure B was developed to optimize productivity. It increases mixer capac-
ity by 150 to 175% with minimal increase in cycle time. This is called a one-to-one dilu-
tion or double batching. A mix at this level of dilution extrudes very well, but ratios
above 1.2 to 1 have experienced consistency problems.

Example: Your entire cooled powder blend consists of:

500 lbs PVC resin
6 lbs Liquid tin stabilizer
50 lbs Dry additives (fillers, lubricants, impact modifier, & pigments)
556 lbs Total

High-intensity mixer & cooler procedure:

1. Start mixer at low speed and add 250 lbs of PVC resin
2. Shift to high speed and add all 6 lbs of stabilizer
3. Add all 50 lbs of dry additives
4. Mix until the dry blend reaches 88°C (190 F), then drop into cooler.
5. Add the remaining 250 lbs of PVC resin to the cooler.
6. Mix and cool the powder blend to 43°C (110 F) or lower.
7. Transfer or pack as usual.

Note: To prevent metal graying of siding powder compound, the titanium dioxide
should be held out until 5-6°C (10°F) before dropping from the mixer.
Problems
The three most common problems encountered in mixing rigid vinyl are:
1. excessive amperage on the mixer,
2. no vortex, and
3. fluffy powder.

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High Mixer Amps
Usually caused by overloading the mixer with resin or other ingredients, this problem
can be corrected by changing the batch size.

Poor Vortex
High batch size may also prevent a vortex from forming. No vortex usually indicates
poor mixing, which can cause the extruder amps to vary. Inconsistent extrusion
amps may affect impact properties and dimensional tolerances of the end products.
Maintaining a deep vortex in the powder can correct these problems.

Fluffy Powder
Dryblends displaying this charac-
teristic have frequently been af-
fected by static build-up. The
static may have been acquired on
the resin during conveyance from
the bulk car, mixer or the silo sys-
tem. Many times, the powder will
appear wet and “snowballs” can
be formed. When exposed to
steam, the powder will change
from “flour” to “sugar” in texture
again.

Static retention on resin or blended compound is highly dependent upon the amount
of moisture present. Consequently, it is more of a problem during the winter or in arid
locations, when relative humidity is very low.

One practical technique devised to address this problem is water addition to the
mixer. By adding a small amount of water to the mixer during blending (8 to 30 oz
per 600 lb batch), the amount of static can be dramatically reduced. The water is
preferably added after the stabilizer addition and the mixture is allowed to proceed as
normal. A portion of the water will vaporize into steam, immediately reducing the
static within the blender. The remaining water helps to dissipate any static generated
as the powder is cooled and transferred to the day bins. Mixing procedures that util-
ize a high drop temperature tend to aggravate static problems.

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Please note: Some Oxy resins are anti-stat treated to inhibit static build-up. How-
ever, mixing over 77°C (170°F) can destroy the anti-static properties of these resins.
To retain these properties while still achieving good mixing, Procedure C should be
followed.

Procedure C (Modified double batching)

By following this procedure, the antistatic properties of only half the dry blend’s resin
will be broken down. The remaining half of the resin retains enough of these proper-
ties to diminish static problems downstream.

Example: Your entire cooled powder blend consists of:

500 lbs PVC resin
6 lbs Liquid tin stabilizer
50 lbs Dry additives (fillers, lubricants, impact modifier, & pigments)
556 lbs Total

High-intensity mixer & cooler procedure:

1. Start mixer at low speed and add 250 lbs of PVC resin
2. Shift to high speed and add all 6 lbs of stabilizer
3. Add all 50 lbs of dry additives
4. Mix until the dry blend reaches 88°C (190°F), then drop into cooler.
5. Cool the dry blend to 77°C (170°F) or below, then add the remaining 250 lbs of
PVC resin to the cooler.
6. Mix and cool the powder blend to 43°C (110°F) or lower.
7. Transfer or pack as usual.

Note: To prevent metal graying of siding powder compound, the titanium dioxide
should be held out until 5-6°C (10°F) before dropping from the mixer.

For additional information, OxyVinyls’ Technical Service Group is available to provide

guidance.

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 Dryblending of Flexible Vinyl Compounds
The optimum process for dryblending flexible vinyl compounds in different applications
depends on many factors including: available mixing equipment, downstream proc-
esses, the compounds being produced, and desired balances between quality and pro-
ductivity. The information below provides insight into these factors. In addition, the
Technical Service Group at OxyVinyls is available to discuss various aspects of this
subject, and there are many excellent references that go into more detail.

Addition of Plasticizer
As the first step in producing a flexible dryblend, plasticizer is added to the resin in ap-
propriate mixing equipment. It is important to distribute the plasticizer uniformly onto
the vinyl powder. In equipment like a ribbon blender, the plasticizer should be sprayed
uniformly onto the mixing resin, keeping the plasticizer directed away from the heated
walls of the blender. In high speed mixers, the plasticizer should be added into the
rolling vortex, again keeping the plasticizer stream off the walls and making sure that
the blender is set up to provide a continuously turning vortex that is homogeneous
from top to bottom.

As soon as the plasticizer is added to the resin, a significant portion of it very quickly
migrates inside the resin grains to occupy the very small air spaces surrounding the 1µ
primary resin particles inside the main resin grains. Photos showing both typical 150µ
resin grains and the primary particles and air spaces within the grains are shown below
and on the following page.

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With typical plasticizers such as phthalates, trimellitates, adipates, etc., the migration of
the plasticizer into the grains happens very quickly, within 2 to 3 seconds, even at
room temperature. With polymeric plasticizers and long-chain plasticizers, the migra-
tion is somewhat slower, but it still happens quickly.

Plasticizer Temperature
To produce the highest-quality dryblends, the plasticizer should be added to the resin
at fairly low temperatures. A temperature of 43 oC (110oF) is commonly recommended
in that this temperature is essentially achievable year-round, even in the summer.
Temperatures even lower than this, for example resin coming from a cold silo in winter,
are not detrimental. In cases where faster cycle times are desired, the plasticizer can
be pre-heated before being added to the mixer. Doing this shortens cycle times, since
the blend reaches dryup temperatures more quickly, but for the most critical cases, this
procedure results in slightly lower quality dryblends.

As soon as the plasticizer is added to the mixer and throughout the initial heating
stage, the vinyl resin-plasticizer mixture consists of essentially unplasticized primary
resin grains which are in close proximity to the plasticizer that migrated inside the grain
and extra plasticizer, which remains around the outsides of the resin grains, resulting in
a somewhat sticky (“wet”) feel to the mixture.

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Creating Dryblend
As the temperature of the mixture increases, approaching 85 oC (185oF), both the mole-
cules of plasticizer and the chains of the polymer begin moving (vibrating) faster and
faster. As this movement becomes more vigorous, the plasticizer begins to dissolve
into the unplasticized regions of the vinyl primary particles, creating plasticized vinyl.
As this process continues, most of the plasticizer is no longer present on the outsides
of the vinyl grains and it becomes uniformly distributed within the vinyl grains. At the
same time, the blend which was initially sticky because of the free plasticizer that was
present on the surfaces of the particles at lower temperatures now becomes dry and
free-flowing again. This part of the process is known as dryup.

As the mixture becomes dry, the easier flow is

readily obvious from curves of the mixer amps
with time (and temperature), and the finished
dryblend can either be dropped to a cooler and
transferred to storage, or it can be used immedi-
ately in the next step such as being fed directly
into a compounding extruder, tubing extruder,
calender, etc.

Finished Dryblend Temperature

The exact temperature at which the blend
should be considered finished and ready to drop
will depend on many of the factors mentioned
earlier. For example, trimellitate formulations
often require 5o to 10oC (41o to 50oF) higher
temperatures to achieve dry-up than common
phthalate plasticizers. Also, especially in
screws that are somewhat feed-limited, a dry-
blend that is still slightly wet, such that one can
form a “snowball” when pressing with ones
hand, will feed faster in the extruder.

For additional information, OxyVinyls’ Technical

Service Group is available to provide guidance.

Page 18 20
 Bulk Handling of Vinyl Resin

Several factors should be considered when designing a bulk handling system. The
equipment investment required to install a facility for handling bulk resins can be high.
Processors usually require a volume of 3 to 4 million pounds per year to justify the
cost. For those at or above this volume, significant savings can be gained by purchas-
ing OxyVinyls resin in bulk.

Potential Savings Realized

 Lower Product Cost - Direct cost savings can be realized. Bulk railcar and bulk
truck purchases are normally lower than bag pricing.
 Reduced Contamination - The cost associated with bag contamination (paper,
cardboard, skid debris, etc.) will be eliminated.
 Lower Labor Cost - A fully automatic receiving, storage, and in-plant delivery sys-
tem can be operated by one person.
 Floor Space Savings - Warehouse space normally assigned to bag, Gaylord, and
super sack storage can be used for finished product storage or production space.
 Automated Integration with Production - The entire process of unloading, stor-
age, delivery, and metering of material into production equipment will eliminate
costly distribution problems and delays.
 Safety and Housekeeping - Self-cleaning, non-contaminating, totally enclosed
dust collection and recovery systems can be employed for a cleaner plant.

Photo courtesy of Ee-Jay Motor Transports, Inc.

Pneumatic Bulk Material Handling Systems

Resin in dry bulk is classed as a free-flowing material. Reliable systems can be de-
signed and are available from a number of suppliers for railcar and truck, bulk unload-
ing and in-plant handling. All bulk material handling systems utilize air to convey indi-
vidual particles of plastic material in a given volume and simultaneously move the resin
and air at high velocity through a piping system. Described are three types of systems
available for handling vinyl resin in a pneumatic conveying system.

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19
Vacuum System
One choice for conveying vinyl resin from several places to a single point is the nega-
tive pressure conveying system (vacuum system, Figure 1), which uses a high veloc-
ity air stream. The ambient air enters the suction side of a positive displacement
blower. The pulled air passes through material and draws it into the air stream. The
material and air is separated by a filter receiver at the terminal point of the system. A
rotary valve is used to meter the material out of the receiver into the silo, hopper, etc.

Figure 1
Negative Pressure Conveying System

Pressure System
Another choice for conveying vinyl resin is the pressure system (or positive pressure,
Figure 2), which uses compressed air. The product is introduced to air through a
sealing device on the discharge side of a positive displacement blower. The air and
product are moved by the action of pressure to a vented filter receiving bin.

Figure 2
Positive Pressure Conveying System

Page 20 22
 Figure 3
Vacuum/Pressure System

Vacuum/Pressure Systems
A combination of both technologies described previously. (Figure 3)

Generally, the positive pressure conveying system is the most efficient. More pounds
of material per pound of air can be handled due to the higher air density system.

Reliable dilute phase bulk systems for vinyl resin should meet the following criteria:
1. Linear velocity of 5000 ft/min average.
2. Air flow to filter area ratio should be 5.5 SCFM/ft2.
3. Hopper cone angle is recommended to be 60º, but not below 45º.
4. Bulk density of the material will be 30-40 lbs/ft3.
5. Filter type should be pulse jet, continuous cleaning.
6. Storage capacity should be two times bulk container capacity.
7. Air sources are positive displacement blowers (oil free).
8. Storage silos should be bolted or welded: aluminum, epoxy coated carbon, or
stainless steel depending on the corrosiveness of the local environment.
9. Level switches should be paddle wheels or capacitance.
10. Conveying lines should be light weight (Schedule 5 or 10) aluminum or stainless
steel.
11. Elbows should be very long sweeping stainless steel.
12. Rotary valves should be stainless steel.
13. Dust filter frames should be epoxy-coated carbon steel, or stainless steel.
14. Filter bags should be made from polyester or other compatible materials.

Note: Rotary valves must be monitored for preventive maintenance. The close toler-
ances must be maintained or resin particles can get between the two surfaces and
build up excessive frictional heat that will cause the resin to fuse. This milled resin
can flake off into the product stream and cause plugging of the bulk system.

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21
Some companies use fluidized “pressure vessel” conveying systems that have no ro-
tating parts in the product stream. Following are other advantages offered by pres-
sure vessel conveying:

1. Two or more weighed ingredients in the same vessel attain some mixing action.
2. Flexibility to convey two dissimilar materials in separate batches without having to
change rotary lock gearing or speed.
3. Conveying at higher pressures, which use smaller lines and denser flow patterns
than rotary locks.

Figures 4, 5 and 6 illustrate pressure vessel conveying and its adaptability to the ac-
cepted pressure and combination pneumatic conveying system.

Figure 4
Vacuum/Pressure System

Figure 5
Combination System

Page 22 24
 Figure 6
Complete Vacuum/Pressure System Using Pressure Vessel

Operation
Vessel is filled to level control or weight limit. Fill and vent valves close and the vessel
is pressurized. Material and air flow to receiver.

Bulk Shipping Equipment

OxyVinyls offers bulk shipments of both general purpose and specialty film grade resin
in both railcars and trucks. The railcars are specifically designed for pneumatic bulk
unloading; interiors are lined with a special non-toxic, non-contaminating material to
protect the vinyl products. Rigorous and exacting standards are maintained for inspec-
tion, cleaning and loading of each car.

Figure 7
Resin/Powder Bulk Handling System - Powder Compounds

Page25
23
 Figure 8
Resin/Powder Bulk Handling System - Cube Compounds

Figure 9

Diagram courtesy of ACF Industries Inc.

Preparatory Steps for Unloading
1. Open at least one top hatch on the hopper car being unloaded to avoid risk of col-
lapsing the bulkheads. A filter must be applied to the open hatches to eliminate
foreign contamination. This is not required for cars with hatch vents.
2. Place resin containment tray below the outlet caps to catch spilled material.
3. Remove the caps from both sides of outlet and secure on cap hangers. The valve
cannot be rotated for operation unless both caps are removed. Apply a filter to the
nozzle opposite the one used for vacuum connection to eliminate dirt, insect and
debris contamination from the surrounding area.
Page 24 26
4. To prevent static buildup, connect grounding strap to the hopper car body and the
transfer line to ground.
5. Connect pneumatic line to the outlet nozzle using a sliding joint which will allow
rotation of the control valve during unloading.
6. Support the pneumatic line adjacent to the nozzle connection to avoid excess fric-
tion when the control valve is rotated. If a large, heavy air filter is used on the op-
posite side, this should be supported also.
7. Avoid sharp bends in transfer hoses.
8. Start the pneumatic system.

Unloading Operations
1. Initially the outlet nozzle will be in the closed position with the center arrow in line
with the position indicator.
2. Rotate the control handle. As unloading continues, it is desirable to empty the far
side of a railcar compartment or the cab end of a bulk truck first so that vacuum is
not lost (because there is no material to block airflow drawn from the compart-
ment or truck body above) before the resin in a given section has been completely
consumed.

Clean-Out Operations
1. After the flow of material stops (indicated by a sharp decrease in vacuum), rotate
the control handle counterclockwise until material flow starts again. Continue op-
eration until material flow ceases (Figure 10A).
2. Rotate the control handle clockwise until material flow starts. Continue the clock-
wise rotation until desired material-to-air ratio is achieved. This is best determined
by listening for the proper sound of material flow (Figure 10B).
3. When material flow ceases, rotate control handle clockwise a bit further.
4. To complete cleanout, rotate the control handle wide open alternately clockwise
and counterclockwise several times, pausing several seconds each time at closed
position so vacuum will clear tube.
5. Return control handle to closed position (Figure 10C).

Figure 10
Clean-Out Operations

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25
Preparing the Car for Return Transit
1. Shut off vacuum system.
2. Remove hatch filters, check inside of car to see that unloading is complete. Close
the hatch and secure in closed position.
3. Disconnect conveying hose from discharge nozzle.
4. Remove the filter on side of car opposite vacuum connection.
5. After making certain that valve is in closed position, apply caps to both discharge
nozzles and secure.

Special Note – Interrupted Unloading

If unloading is to be discontinued before the compartment is empty, rotate the end
adaptor handles and control valve to the “closed” position. Allow the vacuum system
to run for a short period (2 minutes) to clear powder from the bottom of the control
valve tube.

Adjustable pneumatic outlets (Figure 11) are designed to provide the following ad-
vantages:
1. easy and complete clean-out without disassembly;
2. optimum flow control for all pellets and powders;
3. easier operation because of reduced torque requirements;
4. improved locking device for end cap;
5. new higher strength handles;
6. the provision for product sampling from either side of the outlet.

Figure 11
ACF Adjustable Pneumatic Outlet

Covered Hopper Car Unloading

Since many bulk commodities tend to compact in transit and may not flow freely at
destination, mechanical assistance is sometimes required in unloading hopper cars.
Various devices are available that assist unloading while protecting the car itself.
Unloading personnel should be familiar with the various methods in order to prevent
damage to the cars.

Page 26 28
Vibrators
The most commonly used device to assist unloading is the vibrator. It also is the saf-
est if used correctly. However, vibrators can damage the car’s structure if improperly
used. There are vibrators that are operated by air, electricity, hydraulic drives, or in-
ternal combustion engines. Vibrators are fitted into a bracket or shoe found on the
car’s side slope sheets. There are two types of vibrators in general use: piston and
rotary. Because of the manner in which the loads are applied, the car’s structure can
tolerate a larger force output from the piston type.

In using a vibrator to help unload a Center Flow covered hopper car, the following
precautions should be taken:
1. Vibrators should be applied only to the vibrator bracket welded to the outlet slope
sheets.
2. They should be used only on the compartment being unloaded and should
not be operated continuously – only intermittently to initiate flow.
3. They must be turned off as soon as the compartment is empty. Continued opera-
tion may damage the car body since there is no loading to absorb the vibration
shock. There are other less commonly used methods of unloading, some of
which are not recommended. (See below)

Table 1

Unloading Specifications
Vibrator Piston Type Rotary Type
Operating Frequency Force in Pounds
Revolutions/Minute A B A B
1000 4000 3800 2400 2300
1500 3400 3200 2150 1900
2000 2700 2200 1700 1305
2400 1900 1200 1200 800
2700 1300 800

The Operating frequency and force output must not exceed those listed in Table 1.
A. Weight of vibrator plus adapter under 65 lbs with maximum operating frequency of
2700 rev/min.
B. Weight of vibrator plus adapter under 95 lbs with maximum operating frequency of
2400 rev/min.

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27
Pressurization
Because they are not designed
to withstand internal pressure,
conventional center flow cars
cannot be pressurized safely.
Pressurization of such cars is
strictly prohibited since it is ex-
tremely dangerous to the car
and operating personnel.

Vacuum Unloading
If a car is being unloaded by a
vacuum method, the compart-
ment’s hatch must be open or
equipped with a vacuum relief
device. Otherwise the car could
collapse or implode since it can- Photo courtesy of Ee-Jay Motor Transports, Inc.
not withstand negative pressure.

Poling or Air Lancing

Poles or air lances are frequently used by unloaders to dislodge hung-up cargo or
assist its flow to the outlet area. (An air lance is metal or plastic pipe with holes
through which air is introduced into the cargo to assist the poling operation.) When
the poles or air lances are used in lined cars they should be fitted with rubber or
plastic tips and extreme care should be exercised to make sure the car’s lining is
not damaged. If the car is equipped with fluidizing-type outlets, the poles or lances
should never touch the fluidizing membranes.

Sledge Hammering
Using a sledge hammer (or any hammer) on the side of a car to help unloading is
never recommended. Not only are the effects minimal in speeding up unloading, but
it can damage the car’s paint finish and interior lining. If it is believed that local ham-
mering really will produce worthwhile results, a rubber mallet should be used care-
fully.

Car Shakers
Some unloading facilities utilize car shakers,
which are powerful devices that are affixed to the
top or side of the car. Do not use car shakers
since the entire car’s structure can be damaged.

Page 28 30
Localized Tube Moisture
Unloading issues due to condensation within the compartment can occur. Over time,
the excess moisture collects in the bottom valve and tube areas impeding resin flow.
Unloading personnel have found that scooping 20 to 35 lbs of saturated resin from the
tube allows the dry resin above to transfer normally.

Photo courtesy of Ee-Jay Motor Transports, Inc.

Frozen Tube Moisture

As air temperatures fall below freezing, the condensed moisture described above be-
comes a larger problem. Under no circumstance should extreme heat be applied to
the compartment walls to melt the frozen blockage. Severe damage to both the rail-
car’s inner liner and to the heat sensitive resin will occur. Instead, either place the rail-
car at a location to thaw or contact OxyVinyls for further instructions.

Bulk Trucks
Bulk trucks are unloaded by pressurizing them with a positive displacement blower.
The blower is normally part of the truck. These trucks can unload themselves. They
blow vinyl resin/powder into a vented silo or receiving bin. Again, ensure the truck
and transfer lines are connected to a ground to eliminate static buildup.

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29
 Silo Inventory: How Product Weight Can be Calculated
Inventory control requires a close assessment of the amount of resin in a silo at any
given time. This can be done with a few simple calculations.

It is important to know three (3) values:

1. Apparent Bulk Density (ABD) of the vinyl resin
2. the silo’s internal volume,
3. the product’s height within the silo.

ABD is defined as the mass (weight) of the resin divided by the total volume it occu-
pies. Normally it is expressed in g/ml (or cc).

Metric ABD to English Conversion

Example #1: If the ABD of resin or dryblend powder is 0.550 g/ml, then the conversion
to English units would be E = KM.
Where: E = English units
K = 62.4 lbs/ft3/g/ml
M = metric ABD units = 0.550 g/ml
E = (62.4 lbs/ft3/g/ml) (0.550 g/ml) = 34.32 lbs/ft3

Silo Volume Calculations

The internal volume of a silo is calculated using the following formula: V = π r2h.
Where: V = Volume, ft3
π = Constant Pi = 3.14
r = Radius in ft
h = Height in ft a

Calculating Total Volume

Example #2: For a silo that is 12 ft in diameter and 56 ft high, the total volume ca-
pacity would be as follows:
(Radius is one half the diameter & assumes no conical bottom section.)
V = π r2h
V = (3.14) (6 ft)2 (56 ft) = (3.14) (36 ft2) (56 ft)
V = 6330 ft3 total

Page 30 32
Calculating Partial Volume
Example #3: The volume can be calculated by the measured height of the vinyl resin
within the silo. If the vinyl has been measured at 20 ft below the top of the 56 ft high
silo, the calculation is:
V = π r2(h1-h2)
V = (3.14) (6 ft)2 (56 ft - 20 ft) = (3.14) (36 ft2) (36 ft)
V = 4069 ft3

Calculating Bottom Cone Volume

Please note: In both examples #2 & #3, the bottom silo cone volume needs to be
added to these calculations with the following formula:
Vc = 1/3π r2h
Vc = Volume of Cone
π = Constant Pi = 3.14
r = Radius in ft
h = Height in ft

Example #4: Using silo volume and ABD, it is simple to calculate the total capacity of
a resin or dryblend powder using the following formula: P = (ABD) (V)
Where: P = Pounds of resin
Vinyl ABD = 34.32 lbs/ft3
Silo Volume = 6330 ft3

P = (34.32 lbs/ft3) (6330 ft3)

P = 217,246 pounds total

At minus 20 ft. from the top, the poundage would be:

P = (34.32 lbs/ft3) (4069 ft3)
P = 139,648 pounds

Note: In both cases, cone volume has not been incorporated into the calculation.

The data tables and graph provided in this section shows silo poundage for a range
of different ABD materials and silo heights used in our examples. By using these cal-
culations and knowing your raw materials, ABD and silo dimensions, you can now gen-
erate your own graph. The more accurate your ABD and your measurement of silo
depth, the more accurate your inventory will be.

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31
The calculations assume there is no compaction of the product. A general rule of thumb
is compacted ABD of resin will increase the density by 0.10 g/ml or 6.24 lbs/ft3.

If more accuracy is needed, you will need to place a known poundage in your silo.
Knowing the volume of the silo, you can calculate the ABD of the material in a full silo
with the formula:
ABD = P/V.
Where: P = Pounds of product
V = Volume of silo

Example #5: If you transfer 180,000 lbs of resin into your 12 ft. diameter silo and it fills
4069 ft3 of volume, then:
ABD = 180,000 lbs / 4069 ft3
ABD = 44.23 lbs/ft3

This calculation provides the most accurate poundage calculation for your inventory.

Example: Silo Inventory Data Tables & Graph

Full Silo/Product Height: 56 ft high Product Height: 46 ft high
ABD Silo Volume Product Amount ABD Silo Volume Product Amount
g/ml lbs/ft3 ft3 lbs g/ml lbs/ft3 ft3 lbs
0.50 31.20 6,330 197,500 0.50 31.20 5,195 162,100
0.51 31.82 6,330 201,400 0.51 31.82 5,195 165,300
0.52 32.45 6,330 205,400 0.52 32.45 5,195 168,600
0.53 33.07 6,330 209,300 0.53 33.07 5,195 171,800
0.54 33.70 6,330 213,300 0.54 33.70 5,195 175,100
0.55 34.32 6,330 217,300 0.55 34.32 5,195 178,300
0.56 34.94 6,330 221,200 0.56 34.94 5,195 181,500
0.57 35.57 6,330 225,200 0.57 35.57 5,195 184,800
0.58 36.19 6,330 229,100 0.58 36.19 5,195 188,000

Page 32 34
 Product Height: 36 ft high Product Height: 26 ft high
ABD Silo Volume Product Amount ABD Silo Volume Product Amount
g/ml lbs/ft 3
ft 3
lbs g/ml lbs/ft3 ft3 lbs
0.50 31.20 4,069 127,000 0.50 31.20 2,939 91,700
0.51 31.82 4,069 129,500 0.51 31.82 2,939 93,500
0.52 32.45 4,069 132,100 0.52 32.45 2,939 95,400
0.53 33.07 4,069 134,600 0.53 33.07 2,939 97,200
0.54 33.70 4,069 137,100 0.54 33.70 2,939 99,100
0.55 34.32 4,069 139,700 0.55 34.32 2,939 100,900
0.56 34.94 4,069 142,200 0.56 34.94 2,939 102,700
0.57 35.57 4,069 144,800 0.57 35.57 2,939 104,500
0.58 36.19 4,069 147,300 0.58 36.19 2,939 106,400

Product Height: 16 ft high Product Height: 6 ft high

ABD Silo Volume Product Amount ABD Silo Volume Product Amount
3
g/ml lbs/ft ft3 lbs g/ml lbs/ft 3
ft3 lbs
0.50 31.20 1,809 56,400 0.50 31.20 678. 21,200
0.51 31.82 1,809 57,600 0.51 31.82 678 21,600
0.52 32.45 1,809 58,700 0.52 32.45 678 22,000
0.53 33.07 1,809 59,800 0.53 33.07 678 22,400
0.54 33.70 1,809 60,900 0.54 33.70 678 22,900
0.55 34.32 1,809 62,100 0.55 34.32 678 23,300
0.56 34.94 1,809 63,200 0.56 34.94 678 23,700
0.57 35.57 1,809 64,300 0.57 35.57 678 24,100
0.58 36.19 1,809 65,500 0.58 36.19 678 24,600

35
 OxyVinyls

Headquarters
5005 LBJ Freeway, Suite 2200
Dallas, Texas 75244-6119
(877) 699-8465 (toll free)
www.oxychem.com

Emergency Numbers
Normal business hours : (877) 699-8465
After hours emergency : (888) 434-9779

Sales
sales@oxyvinyls.com

Customer Service/ Technical Service

(877) 699-8465 (toll free)
Customer_service_oxychem@oxy.com

The Vinyl Institute

http://vinylinfo.org/
(571) 970-3400

Vinyl Handbook : June, 2014

36