Confession

This is not my own tune. It is just a collection of data extracted from Code, Standards, and
other Textbooks.

Seithu Min

1.6.2018
 Table of Content
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ................................................................................................. 11
1.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 11
1.2. MASS AND GRAVITY ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.3. LOAD AND STRENGTH ......................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.1. TYPES OF LOADING ................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.2. STRENGTH .................................................................................................................................... 13
1.3.3. TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRESS ................................................................................... 13
1.3.4. SHEAR STRESS ............................................................................................................................ 14
1.3.5. TORSIONAL STRESS ................................................................................................................... 14
1.4. DEFORMATION OR STRAIN ................................................................................................................. 15
1.5. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY .................................................................................................................. 18
1.6. POISSON’S RATIO .................................................................................................................................. 19
1.6.1. ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ....................................................................................... 19
1.6.2. PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF MATERIALS .................................................................................... 20
1.7. DUCTILITY .............................................................................................................................................. 22
1.8. HARDNESS .............................................................................................................................................. 23
1.9. FATIGUE STRENGTH ............................................................................................................................. 24
1.10. CREEP.................................................................................................................................................. 25
1.11. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................................. 26
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ...................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.2 EQUILIBRIUM ................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.3 APPLIED LOAD & REACTION (REPRESENTATION OF FORCES) ....... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.3.1. Support and Reactions .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.3.2. Member Forces—Method of Joints ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.3.3. Member Forces—Method of Sections ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.3.4. Shear Forces and Bending Moment Diagram ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4 APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS ............................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.4.1. Introduction ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4.2. Example 2.1 - Statically Indeterminate Pin-jointed Plane Frame 1 Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4.3. Example 2.2 - Statically Indeterminate Pin-jointed Plane Frame 2 Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4.4. Example 2.3 - Statically Indeterminate Single-span Beam ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4.5. Example 2.4 - Multi-Span Beam ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4.6. Rigid-jointed Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
MEMBER DESIGN .................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
3.1. SECTION PROPERTIES..................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
3.1.1. The Centroid (Elastic Neutral Axis, ENA) ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.2. Moment of Inertia (2ND Moment of Areas) ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.3. Elastic Section Modulus.................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.4. Plastic Neutral Axis ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.5. Plastic Section Modulus .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.6. Bending Stress ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.2. PLASTIC COLLAPSE MECHANISMS ........................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
3.3. BUILDING EXAMPLE ....................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
3.3.1. Introduction ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3.2. Loads............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3.3. Material properties .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
MAIN SOFTWARE IN CURRENT DESIGN PRACTICE ....... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.
4.1. MAJOR ANALYSIS PROGRAM ................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Abaqus® .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
ANSYS ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
SAP2000 .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
ETABS ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Autodesk robot structural analysis professional .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
STAAD.Pro ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2. MAJOR DRAFTING PROGRAM................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
AutoCAD ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Autodesk Revit ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Rhino3D .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bentley MicroStation ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
METHOD TO MODEL COMPLEX GEOMETRY ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.1 BRIEF INTRODUCTION STRENGTH OF MATERIALS AND CONCEPTS OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ............ ERROR!
BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.2 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN CONCEPTS................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.3 LOAD ACTING ON THE STRUCTURES IS ULTIMATELY TRANSFERRED TO GROUND. . ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.
5.4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN ........................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.5 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ........................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.5.1. Deterministic Structures:................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.5.2. Types of Supports: - ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.5.3. Types of Beams: - ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.5.4. Types of Loading: - ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.5.5. Basic Analysis Terms & Examples ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.5.6. Types of Co-ordinate systems: - ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Global Co-ordinate system .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Local Co-ordinate System: - ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.6 STEPS IN ETABS AND SAFE ................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
HOW TO START A SOFTWARE ETABS 2015? ... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.1 SOFTWARE OPENING............................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.2 MODELING GENERATION, MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND BASICS............ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.3 HOW TO START A NEW MODEL IN ETABS? .......................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.4 HOW TO GENERATE SLABS ................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.5 HOW TO GENERATE WALLS.................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.6 HOW TO DRAW A CIRCULAR SLAB? ....................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.7 HOW TO DRAW CIRCULAR WALL? ......................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.8 MODEL MODIFYING TOOLS (EDIT - TAB) ............................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.7.1. Merge Joints: ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.7.2. Align Joints/Frames/ Edges (Short cut: - shift + Ctrl + M) :- ......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.7.3. Move Joints/Frames/Edges (Shortcut: Ctrl + M) ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.7.4. EDIT FRAMES: ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.7.5. EDIT Shells: - ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.7.6. Chamfer Slab Corner: ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.7.7. Reverse Wall Local Axes 3: ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.9 HOW TO MAKE TYPICAL STORIES .......................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.8.1. Concept of releasing the moments .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.8.2. How to activate and Check out the Local Axis for a particular frame sections ... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
6.8.3. Smart Selection Process .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.8.4. How to create a spring support? ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.8.5. Loading and Analysis...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.10 CONCRETE FRAME DESIGN ............................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.9.1. View/Revise Preferences ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.9.2. View/Revise Overwrites ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.9.3. How to Choose and customize Load Combinations ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.9.4. Meshing of Slabs............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.9.5. Concrete Design .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.9.6. Design of Shear Wall ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.9.7. Wind Load Analysis ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Seismic analysis in ETABS-2015 .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.11 STEEL FRAME DESIGN ..................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Procedure for steel Design ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Example 1 ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Example 2Design of Factory roof truss; refer the following section trial sizes Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.12 DETAILING AND BOQ ..................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.13 COMPOSITE STRUCTURES ................................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN ACCORDING TO 1997 UBC ................... ERROR!
BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Regular Structures: .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Irregular Structures: ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Design Base Shear: .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Displacement and Drift: ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
P −  Effects: ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Applicability: ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
GUIDE FROM ACI & IS ........................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
MNBC 2016, ASCE7, IBC & UBC ............................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
MODELING, ANALYSIS &DESIGN OF RC BUILDING ....... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.
Plan View (Unit in m)...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Elevation View ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Material Properties for Concrete (Unit in kg and cm) ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Section Properties ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Story Height Data ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Static Load Cases............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Wind Load Cases (UBC97) ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Static Lateral Force Parameters (UBC-97) ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Static Lateral Force Case ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
STEP BY STEP ................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Start Model with Template ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define Material Properties ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define Member Sections ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Draw the Members ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define Load Cases and Assign Loads ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define Mass Source ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define the Design Codes .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assign Rigid Diaphragm and Mesh the Frame ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Add Load Combinations .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Set Analysis Options ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Run Analysis .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Run Concrete Frame Design and View the Results ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Run Shear Wall Design and View the Results ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reinforcement Details in Pier .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reinforcement Details in Spandrel .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Check Story Drift ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE ......................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Plan View (Unit in m)...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Elevation View ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Material Properties for Concrete (Unit in kg and cm) ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Section Properties ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Story Height Data ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Static Load Cases............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Wind Load Cases (UBC97) ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Equivalent Static Force Parameters (IBC2000) ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Equivalent Static Force Case ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
STEP BY STEP ................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Start Model with Template ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define Material Properties ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define and Assign Section Properties ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
NOTE FOR REINFORCING INFORMATION FOR BEAM ......................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
 NOTE FOR REINFORCING INFORMATION FOR COLUMNS ................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Draw Shear Wall and Define Pier Labels .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define “Similar Stories” Option ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Modify Floor Plan at “STORY8” to “STORY10” ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Modify Floor Plan at “BASE” to “STORY7” ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assign Auto Mesh Options at Shell Panels........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assign Supports ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assign “DEAD” and “LIVE”Load .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define and Assign Wind Load Case ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define Static Load Case for Equivalent Seismic Force ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Run Analysis and ViewResults ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Run Concrete Frame Design and View Results ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Run Shear Wall Design and View Results ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reinforcement Location for Pier ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
MODAL RESPONSE SPECTRA ANALYSIS ......... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Plan View (Unit in m)...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Elevation View ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Section Properties ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Story Height Data ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Static Load Cases............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Modal Response Spectra Parameters (IBC2000) ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Wind Load Cases (UBC97) ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
STEP BY STEP ................................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Open Existing Model and Unlock Model.......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Delete Existing Seismic Static Load Case ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Define Response Spectrum Function................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Specify Response Spectrum Cases ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Run Analysis .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
View Modal Analysis Results .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
View Results for Response Spectral Analysis ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
APPENDIX .................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
SAMPLE DRAWING ........................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 1 Units of Measurement: U.S. System

Name of Unit Abbreviation Use in Building Design

Length
Large dimensions, building plans,
Foot ft
beam spans
Small dimensions, size of member
Inch in.
cross sections
Area
Square feet ft2 Large areas
Small areas, properties of cross
Square inches in.2
sections
Volume
Large volumes, of soil or concrete
Cubic yards yd3
(commonly called simply “yards”)
Cubic feet ft3 Quantities of materials
Cubic inches in.3 Small volumes
Force, Mass
Pound lb Specific weight, force, load
Kip kip, k 1000 pounds
Ton ton 2000 pounds
Pounds per foot lb/ft, plf Linear load (as on a beam)
Kips per foot kips/ft, klf Linear load (as on a beam)
Pounds per square
lb/ft2, psf Distributed load on a surface, pressure
foot

Kips per square foot k/ft2, ksf Distributed load on a surface, pressure

Pounds per cubic lb/ft3 Relative density, unit weight

foot
Moment
Foot-pounds ft-lb Rotational or bending moment
Inch-pounds in.-lb Rotational or bending moment
Kip-feet kip-ft Rotational or bending moment
Kip-inches kip-in. Rotational or bending moment
Stress
Pounds per square lb/ft2, psf Soil pressure
Poundsfoot
per square lb/in.2, psi Stresses in structures
Kips perinch
square foot kips/ft2, ksf Soil pressure
Kips per square inch kips/in.2, ksi Stresses in structures
Temperature
Degree Fahrenheit °F Temperature
TABLE 2 Units of Measurement: SI System

Name of Unit Abbreviation Use in Building Design

Length
Large dimensions, building plans,
Meter m
beam spans
Small dimensions, size of member
Millimeter mm
cross sections
Area
Square meters m2 Large areas
Small areas, properties of member
Square millimeters mm2
cross sections
Volume
Cubic meters m3 Large volumes
Cubic millimeters mm3 Small volumes
Mass
Mass of material (equivalent to
Kilogram kg
weight in U.S. units)
Kilograms per cubic
kg/m3 Density (unit weight)
meter
Force, Load
Newton N Force or load on structure
Kilonewton kN 1000 newtons
Moment
Newton-meters N-m Rotational or bending moment
Kilonewton-meters kN-m Rotational or bending moment
Stress

Pascal Pa Stress or pressure (1 pascal = 1 N/m2)

Kilopascal kPa 1000 pascals

Megapascal MPa 1,000,000 pascals
Gigapascal GPa 1,000,000,000 pascals
Temperature
Degree Celsius °C Temperature
Conversion factors

Given the dual use of SI and British Imperial Units in the UK construction industry,
quick and easy conversion between the two systems is essential. A selection of useful
conversion factors is:
1 kg = 2.205 lb 1 lb = 0.4536 kg
Mass
1 tonne = 0.9842 tons 1 ton = 1.016 tonnes
1 mm = 0.03937 in 1 in = 25.4 mm
Length 1m = 3.281 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m
1m = 1.094 yd 1 yd = 0.9144 m
1 mm2 = 0.00153 in2 1 in2 = 645.2 mm2
Area 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
1 m2 = 1.196 yd2 1 yd2 = 0.8361 m2
1 mm3 = 0.000061 in3 1 in3 = 16390 mm3
Volume 1 m3 = 35.32 ft3 1 ft3 = 0.0283 m3
1 m3 = 1.308 yd3 1 yd3 = 0.7646 m3
1 kg/m3 = 0.06242 lb/ft3 1 lb/ft3 = 16.02 kg/m3
Density
1 tonne/m3 = 0.7524 ton/yd3 1 ton/yd3 = 1.329 tonne/m3
1N = 0.2248 lbf 1 lbf = 4.448 N
Force
1 kN = 0.1004 tonf 1 tonf = 9.964 kN
1 N/mm2 = 145 lbf/in2 1 lbf/in2 = 0.0068 N/mm2
Stress and 1 N/mm2 = 0.0647 tonf/in2 1 tonf/in2 = 15.44 N/mm2
pressure 1 N/m2 = 0.0208 lbf/ft2 1 lbf/ft2 = 47.88 N/m2
1 kN/m2 = 0.0093 tonf/ft2 1 tonf/ft2 = 107.3 kN/m2

1 kN/m = 68.53 lbf/ft 1 lbf/ft = 0.0146 kN/m

Line loading
1 kN/m = 0.03059 tonf/ft 1 tonf/ft = 32.69 kN/m
Moment
1 Nm = 0.7376 Ibf ft 1 1bf ft = 1.356 Nm
1 N/mm2 = 145 lbf/in2 1 lbf/in2 = 6.8×10−3N/mm2
Modulus of
elasticity 1 kN/mm2 = 145032 lbf/in2 1 lbf/in2 = 6.8×10−6kN/mm2

Section 1 mm3
= 61.01 × 10−6 in3 1 in3 = 16390 mm3
modulus 1 cm3 = 61.01 × 10−3 in3 1 in3 = 16.39 cm3

Second
moment of 1 mm4 = 2.403 × 10−6 in4 1 in4 = 416200 mm4
area 1 cm4 = 2.403 × 10−2 in4 1 in4 = 41.62 cm4

Temperature x°C = [(1.8x + 32)]°F y°F = [(y–32)/1.8]°C

Notes:

a 1 tonne = 1000 kg = 10 kN.

b 1 ha = 10,000 m2.
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1.1. INTRODUCTION

The strength of a material is almost always the first property that the engineer needs to
know about. If the strength is not adequate, then the material cannot be used and other
properties are not even considered. The next property to be considered is often the stiffness
or elastic modulus because this determines how far a structure will deflect under load. In this
chapter, the basic concepts of force, stress, strength, strain, and elastic modulus are
introduced.

1.2. MASS AND GRAVITY

In the MKS SI system, the mass of an object is defined from its acceleration when a force
is applied, for example, from equation (1.1)

f = ma (1.1)

where

f is the force in Newton, m is the mass in

kg, a is the acceleration in m/s2. Gravity is
normally the largest force acting on a structure.
On the earth’s surface, the gravitational force on
a mass m is given by equation (1.2)

f = mg (1.2)

where

g is the gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2 (32.2

2
ft./s ).

The gravitational force on an object is called its weight.

Thus, an object will have a weight of 9.81 N/kg of mass.
An approximate value of 10 is often used for g to give the
commonly used value of 10 kN weight for a mass of 1 tonne
(=1000 kg). In the US customary system of units,
force is generally measured as a weight in pounds and, if this
is done, a constant term for g = 32.2 ft./s2 must be included in
equation (1.1)
 1.3. LOAD AND STRENGTH

1.3.1. TYPES OF LOADING

In engineering, the term strength is always defined by type, and is probably one of the
following (see Fig. 1.1), depending on the method of loading.

1. Compressive strength

2. Tensile strength

3. Flexural strength

4. Shear strength

FIGURE 1.1 Compression, Tension, Flexure and Shear

A force acting on an object becomes a load on the object, so force and load have the same
units. In some structures, the compressive and tensile forces are not immediately apparent
(Fig. 1.2)
 1.3.2. STRENGTH

The strength of a material is a measure of

the stress that it can take when in use. The ultimate strength is the measured stress at failure,
but this is not normally used for design because safety factors are required.
To minimize dependency on geometrical factors, load and deformation are normalized to
engineering stress and engineering strain
F
Engineering stress: σ= (1.3)
A0

Where
F = instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross section (N)
A0 = original cross-sectional area before applying load (m2)
So unit of stress is MPa = 106 N/m2 or psi (1 MPa = 145 psi).

1.3.3. TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRESS

In order to define strength, it is necessary to define stress. This is a measure of the internal
resistance in a material to an externally applied load. For direct compressive or tensile loading,
the stress is designated σ, and is defined in equation (1.3), and measured in Newton per square
meter (Pascal) or pounds per square inch psi. (See Fig. 1.3)
Load W
Stress, σ =
Area A (1.3)

FIGURE 1.3 Load and Stress

 1.3.4. SHEAR STRESS
Similarly, in shear the shear stress  is a measure of the internal resistance of a material to
an externally applied shear load. The shear stress is defined in equation (1.4) (see Fig. 1.4):

Load W
Shear Stress,  =
Area resisting shear A0 (1.4)

 = tan( )

FIGURE 1.4 Shear Stress and Strain

1.3.5. TORSIONAL STRESS

Torsion is a variation of pure shear (structural member is twisted as in fig. 1.5A(d)).
T
=
J

Where
T = torque exerted on any cross section of the shaft.
J = polar moment of inertia (m^4).
 = distance from axis of shaft.
Torsional forces produce a rotational motion about the longitudinal axis of one end of the
member (shaft) relative to the other end (see fig1.5A.), called twist angle:
T L
=
J G
Where
L = length of shaft.
 1.4. DEFORMATION OR STRAIN

When the members of structure are applied by load, deformation will be appeared; i.e they
will be transformed in shape and size as shown in figure below.
Deformation or strain may be elastic or plastic. Figure 1.5C shows the stress on an object,
and the resulting strain as it is loaded and then unloaded. If the strain is elastic, the sample
returns exactly to its initial shape when unloaded. If plastic strain occurs, there is permanent
deformation.
If the material exhibits plastic deformation (yields), and does not return to its original
shape when unloaded, this is clearly unacceptable for most construction applications. Figure
1.5B shows a stress– strain curve for a typical metal. As the load is applied, the graph is
initially linear (the stress is proportional to the strain), until it reaches a yield point. If the load
is removed after yield, the sample will not return to its original shape, and is left with final
residual strain.
For a brittle material (such as concrete), strength is defined from the stress at fracture, but
for a ductile material (e.g., some steels) that yields a long way before failure, strength is often
defined from limits to the residual strain, after loading and unloading.

FIGURE 1.5A Load and Deformation

In engineering, strain is not a measure of force, but is a measure of the deformation
produced by the influence of stress. For tensile and compressive loads:
Increase in length x
Strain =
Original length L (1.5)
li - lo ∆l
Engineering strain: ε= = (1.5)
lo lo
Where
li = instantaneous length
lo = original length before applying load
Δl = deformation elongation or change in length at some instant
Unit of strain is m/m or unitless. Sometimes expressed as percentages.
 FIGURE 1.5B Yield and fracture Deformation

Strain is dimensionless, so it is not measured in meters, kilograms, etc. The commonly

used unit is micro strain (mstrain), which is a strain of one part per million.

For shear loads, the strain is defined as the angle γ (see Fig. 1.4). This is measured in
radians, and thus for small strains:

Shear displacement x
Shear strain =
Width B (1.6)
The shear strain γ is defined as the tangent of the strain angle θ (see figure 1.4)
 = tan ( )
Shear stress and strain are related as
𝜏 = G
Where G = modulus of rigidity (shear modulus of material, MPa).

FIGURE 1.5C Elastic and Plastic Deformation

Note;The arrows show the sequence of loading and unloading during a test.
Normal stress and strain are related as σ=Eε

Where E = modulus of elasticity or young’s Modulus (GPa; psi). It will define in next section.

Testing of Materials
 1.5. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

If the strain is “elastic,” that is, on the linear part of a graph of stress versus strain, Hooke’s
law may be used to define Young’s modulus as the gradient:
Youngʼs modulus, E = Stress (1.7)
Strain

Thus, from equations (1.4), (1.5) and (1.7)

W L
E= x × A (1.8)

Where W/x may be the gradient of a graph of load versus displacement obtained from an
experiment.
The Young’s modulus is also called the modulus of elasticity or stiffness, and is a measure
of how much strain occurs due to a given stress. Because strain is dimensionless, Young’s
modulus has the units of stress or pressure.
In reality, no part of a stress–strain curve obtained from an experiment is ever perfectly
linear. Thus the modulus must be obtained from a tangent or a secant. The difference between
an initial tangent and secant modulus is shown in Fig. 1.6.

FIGURE 1.6 Tangent and Secant Modulus

 1.6. POISSON’S RATIO

Poisson's ratio is a measure of the amount by which a solid “spreads out sideways” under
the action of a load from above. It is defined from equation (1.9). A material like timber which
has a “grain direction” will have a number of different Poisson’s ratios corresponding to
loading, and deformation in different directions.

Lateral strain
Poisson's ratio = (1.9)
Strain in direction of load

1.6.1. ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Elastic deformation is the deformation in which stress and strain are linearly proportional.
See figure 1.6. So, the slope of line is E which may be thought as the stiffness or material’s
resistance to elastic deformation.
Elastic deformation is reversible (nonpermanent), specimen returns to its original shape
when applied load is released, see figure 1.5C.
Axial deformation is usually accompanied with lateral reductions, see figure 1.5B.
If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in the z direction) and the material is isotropic then
 x =  y (negative). Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain:

 lateral x y
= =− =−
 axial z z (1.10)
For many metals and alloys the value of Poisson’s ratio ranges between 0.25 and 0.35.

For isotropic materials, elastic modulus and shear modulus are related to each other and
to Poisson’s ratio as:
E = 2G ( 1 + v ) (1.11)

In most metals G =~ 0.4E .

Many materials are elastically anisotropic; elastic behavior varies with crystallographic
direction. For such materials, elastic properties are completely described only by the
specification of several elastic constants depending on the characteristics of the crystal
structure.
Modulus of Elasticity Shear Modulus Poisson’s
Materials
GPa 106 psi GPa 106 psi Ratio

Aluminum 69 10 25 3.6 0.33

Brass 97 14 37 5.4 0.34

Copper 110 16 46 6.7 0.34

Magnesium 45 6.5 17 2.5 0.29

Nickel 207 30 76 11.0 0.31

Steel 207 30 83 12.0 0.30

Titanium 107 15.5 45 6.5 0.34

Tungsten 407 59 160 23.2 0.28

 1.6.2. PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF MATERIALS
For most metallic materials, elastic deformation persists only to strains of about 0.005. As
the material is deformed beyond this point, the stress and strains are no longer linearly
proportional (Hook’s law is not valid) and permanent (no recoverable) or plastic deformation
occurs, see figure 1.7.
From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation corresponds to the breaking of bonds
with original atom neighbors and then reforming bonds with new neighbors as large numbers
of atoms (or molecules) move relative to one another; upon removal of the stress they do not
return to their original position.
Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic deformation will result when a
stress is applied. Need to know the level where plastic deformation begins, or where the
phenomenon of yielding occurs.
The initial departure from linearity of the stress-strain curve is called the proportional
limit, point P in the figure shown which may not be determined very precisely.
So, a straight line is constructed parallel to the elastic portion of the curve at the strain
value of 0.002 (strain offset method). The stress that corresponds to the intersection is defined
as the yield strength  y (Mpa) – used strength instead of stress because it is a metal property
whereas stress related to load.
For materials with nonlinear elastic region; yield strength is defined at some amount of
strain (e.g. 0.005).
Some steels and other materials exhibit what is called a yield point phenomenon (see part
b in figure): at the upper yield point, plastic deformation is initiated with actual decrease in
the stress. Continued deformation fluctuates slightly about some constant stress value named
lower yield point. Then stress increases as strain increases. For metals that display this effect,
the yield strength is taken as the average stress associated with lower yield point.
The magnitude of yield strength for a metal is a measure of its resistance to plastic
deformation (ranging 35 MPa for low-strength aluminum to 1400 MPa for high-strength
steels).
FIGURE 1.7 Elastic and Plastic Strain

FIGURE 1.7a Elastic Strain

FIGURE 1.7b Plastic Strain

 1.7. DUCTILITY

A material that deforms and elongates a great deal before failure is said to be a ductile
material. (Steel, for example, is a ductile material.) The percent elongation, short for percent
elongation at failure, is the total plastic strain at failure.
So Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at
fracture.
A material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed
brittle. See figure.
Ductility is expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent reduction in
area.
Percent elongation, %EL

 lf - l 0 
% EL =   X 100 (1.12)
 l0 
Where lf = fraction length
lo = original gauge length (commonly 50 mm)
Percent reduction in area, %RA

 A0 - Af 
% RA =   X 100 (1.13)
 A0 
Where Af = cross-sectional area at fracture
Ao = original cross-sectional area
Both Af and lf are measured subsequent to fracture and after the two broken ends are
repositioned back together.
Most metals processes a moderate degree of ductility at room temperature, however, some
become brittle as the temperature is lowered.

FIGURE 1.8 Brittle and Ductile

Note; For building structure, Ductility
is a measure of the ability of a structural
system to deform beyond its elastic load carrying capacity without collapse. This allows a redundant
structure to absorb energy, and continue to resist forces and support loads, while successive plastic hinges
are formed. For applied static loading, collapse of the structure occurs when a sufficient number of hinges
have formed to produce a mechanism. In the case of cyclic seismic loading, the structure undergoes
successive loading and unloading and the force-displacement relationship follows a sequence of hysteresis
loops. The overall ductility or toughness, of the structure enables large displacements to occur during a
high magnitude earthquake without collapse of the structure or endangering life safety. However, damage
may be sufficiently severe to render the building unusable.
 1.8. HARDNESS

Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (small

dent or a scratch).
Many hardness tests have been developed over the years:
Early tests used natural minerals with a scale based only on the ability of one material to
scratch another that was softer.
Quantitative and some arbitrary hardness indexing scheme was developed and terms
Mohs scale (range: 1 on the soft end for talc to 10 for the diamond).
Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed in which small indenter is forced
into the surface of a material to be tested under controlled conditions of load and rate of
application.
The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured and then related to a hardness
index number; softer material ➔ larger & deeper indentation ➔ lower hardness index number.
Rockwell Hardness Test is most common test to measure hardness. Easy and no need
for special skills.
In this system, a hardness number is determined by the difference in depth of penetration
resulting from the application of an initial minor load followed by a larger major load (mirror
load used to enhance accuracy).
Based on such loads, there are two types of tests:
a) Rockwell test:
minor load = 10 kg;
major load = 60, 100, and 150 kg . Each is represented by a letter
b) Superficial Rockwell test
minor load = 3 kg;
major load = 15, 30, and 45 kg
Superficial tests are frequently performed on thin specimens.
Specification is indicated by hardness number followed by sale identification (HR+ scale
symbol)
Ex. 80 HRB → Rockwell hardness of 80 on the B scale (1/16 in ball)
Ex. 60 HR30W → Superficial Rockwell hardness of 60 on the 30W scale
For each scale, hardness may range up to 130, however; if hardness values > 100 or < 20
they become inaccurate and it is best to use the next harder or softer scale.
Shown is a modern apparatus for making Rockwell hardness test where hardness is read
directly, and each
measurement
requires only a few
seconds.
 1.9. FATIGUE STRENGTH
A material can fail after repeated stress loadings even if the stress level never exceeds the
ultimate strength, a condition known as fatigue failure.

The behavior of a material under repeated loadings is evaluated by a fatigue test. A

specimen is loaded repeatedly to a specific stress amplitude, S, and the number of applications
of that stress required to cause failure, N, is counted. Rotating beam tests that load the
specimen in bending are more common than alternating deflection and push-pull tests but are
limited to round specimens.

If a material is continually loaded and unloaded (e.g., the springs in a car), the permanent
strain from each cycle slowly decreases. This may be seen from Fig. 1.9. Eventually, the
sample will fail, and the number of cycles it takes to fail will depend on the maximum stress
that is being applied.

FIGURE 1.9 Fatigue Cycles to Failure

 1.10. CREEP

Creep is the slow irreversible deformation of materials under load. It is surprisingly large
for concrete, and tall buildings get measurably shorter during use (the guide rails on the lifts
sometimes buckle).

FIGURE 1.10 Elastic and creep deformation of concrete

When a reinforced concrete member is loaded, an initial deformation occurs as shown in

Fig. 1.10. Experimental studies show that this initial deformation increases with time under
constant loading.

The total deformation is usually divided into two parts: (l) initial deformation (2) a time
dependent deformation named creep.

After the occurrence of the immediate deformation (point Ao to point A), the creep
deformation starts rapidly (point A to point B) and then continues at a much lower rate till
almost it becomes a flat curve at infinity. More than 75% of the creep deformation occurs
during the first year and 95% in the first five years. If the load is removed at point B,
immediate recovery occurs (point C), followed by a time dependent recovery till point D
(creep recovery). The member will never recover all the developed deformation and there will
be a non-recoverable deformation called permanent deformation.

The creep deformations are within a range of one to three times the instantaneous elastic
deformations. Creep causes an increase in the deflection with time that may lead to
undesirable deformation of the member. Thus, the deflection must be investigated to ensure
that the deformations are within the allowable limits of the code.
 1.11. CONCLUSIONS

• In the MKS system, force is defined from mass and acceleration, and is measured in Newton.

• Stresses may be compressive, tensile, flexural, or shear.

• The strength of a material is the stress at failure.

• Strain is a measure of the deformation produced by a stress.

• The elastic modulus is the ratio of stress/strain.

• The Poisson’s ratio is a measure of strain perpendicular to the load.

• Creep is a measure of long-term deformation under load.