Filho Et Al 2011 - Palynofacies Training Course Materials

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Organic composition (palynofacies analysis)
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ICCP Training Course on Dispersed Organic Matter
Chapter 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis)
João Graciano Mendonça Filho1, Taíssa Rêgo Menezes2, Joalice de Oliveira Mendonça1
1
Palynofacies and Organic Facies Laboratory (LAFO), Federal Universtry of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Brazil
2
Petrobras Research Center (CENPES), Brazil
Combaz (1964) introduced the term palynofacies in an important period for creation of
Organic Petrology, because at beginning was Palynology and Coal Petrology. Following the work of
Combaz at Compagnie française des pétroles, the palynofacies means the total assemblage of
microscopic organic constituents presents in a rock that remain after maceration in hydrochloric acid
(HCl) for carbonates and by hydrofluoric acid - (HF) for silicates, concentration and mounting using
normal palynological preparation procedures. This author used the microscope technique to observe,
in organic debris isolated from sedimentary rocks after the destruction of their minerals regularities in
proportions of the different components: spores, pollens, wood fragments, plant cells, amorphous
organic matter. Combaz called palynofacies the diagram of the proportions of the different
components (Durand, 2003).
Hughes and Moody-Stuart (1967) proposed the term palynological facies in the same general
sense as "palynofacies" of Combaz (1964) to include all organic elements. These authors and Batten
(1973) also applied the term in the concept of Combaz to refer to the general aspect of kerogen
preparation.
Quadros (1975) took the words Organopalynology and Organopalynofacies for the
investigation of organic matter in sedimentary rocks using techniques of microscopy towards Organic
Geochemistry in Petrobras Company.
Batten (1982a, 1982b) applied this concept not only for palaeoenvironmental and
biostratigraphic studies, as well as, for thermal maturity determination and source potential studies.
Leopold et al. (1982) showed that a palynofacies does not necessarily reflect the biologic
environment of the area near the basin of deposition but instead can be produced by a variety of
geological and geochemical taphonomic processes associated with sedimentation. This sort of
palynofacies is a product of the total sedimentary environment and is unlikely to be a palynobiofacies.
Powell et al. (1990) defined palynofacies as a “distinctive assemblage of HCl- and HF-insoluble
particulate organic matter (palynoclasts) whose composition reflects a particular sedimentary
environment”.
Traverse (1988) defined a palynofacies as “the assemblage of palynomorphs taxa in a portion
of a sediment, representing local environmental conditions and not typical of the regional
palynoflora”.
Tyson in 1993 published a pioneering contribution in the area of palynofacies analysis.
Traverse (1994) reported that since 1960 used the term palynofacies to refer to a more or less
local concentration of particular palynomorphs, indicating a sort of biofacies. The author believes that
the application of the word since then has been geologically oriented, and palynofacies is used
primarily to indicate information about the enclosing rock, especially its environment of deposition
should be called palynolithofacies. Beside this, the several papers edited by Alfred Traverse in 1994
(Sedimentation of Organic Particles) ranging from general overviews to detailed sequence-
stratigraphic studies.
Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 1

The book published by Tyson (1995) contains summation of the geochemical aspects of organic
facies analysis. This work integrates the geological and biological aspects of palynofacies research.
The modern palynofacies concept was introduced by Tyson (1995) and his definition of palynofacies
is: “a body of sediment containing a distinctive assemblage of palynological organic matter thought
to reflect a specific set of environmental conditions or to be associated with a characteristic range of
hydrocarbon-generating potential” and the definition of palynofacies analysis is: “the palynological
study of depositional environments and hydrocarbon source rock potential based upon the total
assemblage of particulate organic matter”.
Furthermore, the third volume of Jansonius and McGregor’s (1996) compendium of
palynology include two chapters (Batten, 1996, 1996a) with succinct and profusely illustrated
summaries and exposition of the subject, including its application to petroleum exploration.
According Mendonça Filho (1999) the palynofacies term refers to the study of the particulate
organic matter presents in sediments and sedimentary rocks using the organic matter isolation
methods for sample preparation (kerogen concentration) and applying microscopy techniques as
principal tool for acquiring data and statistical methods for its interpretation. In Brazil, Mendonça Filho
(1999) was the first to use the organic facies concept (Organic Geochemistry associated to
Palynofacies) based on the Tyson (1995) in the study of Upper Paleozoic rocks from the Paraná basin.
According to Batten and Stead (2005), palynofacies are “associations of palynological matter
(PM) in sediments, considered primarily in terms of the reasons for the association, which is usually
geological, but may be connected to the biological origin of the particles”. Spores, pollen, dinocysts,
acritarchs and all other palynomorphs are of course included in a palynofacies, but so are all other
visible organic particles in the palynological size range (roughly 2–250 µm) that occur in palynological
maceration residues. Such non-palynomorph PM is often referred to collectively as palynodebris.
Palynofacies is a powerful analytical tool when used in conjunction with geological and
geophysical information. It can be applied in the determination of kerogen types and their abundance,
providing clues concerning depositional environment and hydrocarbon-generating potential.
Palynofacies analysis involves the integrated study of all aspects of the palynological organic matter
assemblage, which include the identification of the individual particulate components, assessment of
their absolute and relative proportions, particle sizes, and their preservation states. It can be used in
diverse studies, such as: geology (stratigraphy, sedimentology, and palaeoenvironmental studies),
paleontology (biostratigraphic studies), petroleum exploration, environmental studies, etc. (Tyson,
1995). According to Fleisher and Lane (1999), palynofacies data can be still combined with ancillary
biostratigraphic information in a sequence-stratigraphic framework to help recognize reservoir–source
rock geometry.
According to Tyson (1995), the main uses of palynofacies include:
 Determining magnitude and location of terrigenous inputs (i.e. proximal-distal relationships
with respect to source);
 Determining depositional polarity (i.e. onshore-offshore axes);
 Identifying relative shallowing-deepening and regressive-transgressive trends in stratigraphic
sequences (and hence Sequence Tracts and Flooding Surfaces);
 Characterizing and to subdividing sedimentologically uniform facies, especially shales;
 Determining hydrocarbon source rock potential and to qualify the bulk rock geochemical
parameters;
 Estimating differences in primary productivity and watermass stratification (using absolute
and relative abundance of different types of organic-walled microplankton);
 Discriminating among environments, for example: oxic open marine, dysoxic-anoxic marine,
and brackish freshwater;
 Estimating differences in primary productivity and watermass stratification (using absolute
and relative abundance of different types of organic-walled microplankton).

5.1. Kerogen Groups:
The classification of organic particles has always been rather subjective. Classifications often
have a particular objective. Particles have been divided by their modification and thermal alteration,
their depositional environments, botanical classification, degree of terrigenous supply and thereby
distance from land, degree of degradation, and allochthonous and autochthonous fractions. It is
essentially a morphological classification but it also incorporates the broad areas of provenance of
particles (Traverse, 1988; Tyson, 1993, 1995).
The classification of dispersed kerogen constituents is based primarily on their appearance and
preservation state, using transmitted white light with ancillary observation employing fluorescence
methods (UV mode). Many classification strategies have been proposed (Burgess, 1974; Batten, 1981,
1982; Batten and Morrison, 1983; Whittaker, 1984; Boulter and Riddick, 1986; Hart, 1986; Traverse,
1988, Tyson, 1993, 1995, Mendonça Filho 1999, Mendonça Filho et al, 2010a, 2012) based on
degradational state and biological derivation (i.e., plants debris, phytoplankton, etc.). However, the
classification systems are still not standardized between studies.
There are many published kerogen classifications (Table 1). According to Tyson (1993), a
generally acceptable terminology for transmitted light work has proved elusive and they differ by the
degree of emphasis placed on different aspects of kerogen assemblage providing more detailed
subdivisions of the palynomorph, phytoclast and amorphous organic matter components by greater
attention to botanical source, morphology, and/or preservation states. The much more standardized
and systematic maceral terminology used by organic petrologists (in reflected light studies) should
never be used in transmitted light work. Macerals can only be properly defined on reflected light
characteristics; any other usage can produce pseudo-accuracy, unnecessary confusion and futile
controversy. However, regarding the kerogen groups and subgroups it is important to use a
classification system which gives the maximum information about the variables involved. This means
the classification system shall also emphasize the most relevant factors having in mind the objectives
of the study. In that case, a rigorous subdivision of the categories should be present to identify any
quantitative variation related to the main controls on the distribution of the organic matter and thus
use those factors in the determination of the palaeoenvironmental meaning. In the case of
Palynofacies the main objectives of Microscopy are (Tyson, 1995):
 To determine the origin of the organic matter (in terms of its botanical precursors);
 To determine the relative percentages of the different constituents;
 To determine the preservation state of the different constituents;
 To determine the hydrocarbon generating potential of the organic matter;
 To determine the degree of thermal alteration (maturity) of the organic matter;
 To determine the nature of the deposition palaeoenvironment (terrestrial inputs);
 To determine the Redox conditions (reducing versus oxidizing);
 To determine the Palaeosalinity (to differentiate fresh water, brackish or marine
environments);
Criteria used in optical kerogen classification
The main criteria used in optical kerogen classification are:
 Origin: biological source (based on definitive biostructure) and process of formation;
 Structure: structureless or structured;
 Type of structure (3 classes):
 Morphology (descriptive): shape and fabric;
 Measurable optical properties: reflectance, translucency, and fluorescence;
 Geochemical composition: indirect evidence only, fluorescence is essential;
 Preservation state: environmental oxidation, environmental biodegradation, and thermal
alteration;

Table 1: Correlation of published kerogen terminology, also indicating biological source and kerogen type (Tyson, 1993).
ICCP Training Course on Dispersed Organic Matter
In transmitted white light microscopy, the three main groups of morphologic constituents
recognized within kerogen assemblage are: Palynomorphs (organic walled constituents that remain
after maceration using HCl and HF acids), Phytoclasts (fragments of tissues derived from higher plants
or fungi), and Amorphous Organic Matter - AOM (structureless material derived from non-fossilizing
algae, or advanced tissue biodegradation, phytoplankton or bacterially derived AOM, higher plants
resins and amorphous products of the diagenesis of macrophyte tissues).
The three classes of structured particles are: Palynomorphs (discrete, coherent, recognizable,
individual or colonial entities), Biostructured Clasts (fragments which at least partially preserve
definitive original botanical features that indicate the original type of tissue from which they were
derived), and (non-bio) Structured Clasts (coherent angular to irregular particles with distinct outlines
that although not clearly attributable to a specific biological source, have a definite structure, shape
or fabric which indicates they are fragment of larger organized bodies or tissues and they often larger
than palynomorphs and lacking organic inclusions).
In the case of structureless particles observed in transmitted white light microscopy they
present no botanical features, no organized internal structure or fabric, and no consistent shape. Now,
they may be internally heterogeneous or homogeneous, hyaline (as in resin) or non-hyaline (as in
"AOM"), and they may be fluorescent or non-fluorescent depending on source and preservation
(Tyson, 1995). Now in the case of phytoplankton-derived "AOM", the most common type of
structureless material in marine or lacustrine sediments, the particles (as observed in TWL) appear
typically heterogeneous and microparticulate when viewed under fluorescence, they may have
common inclusions (e.g. Pyrite), they may show a lack of regular shape or size, they may have no
internal structure or fabric, often somewhat diffuse edges (but varies), less angular than phytoclasts
or zooclasts, and a "gritty gel" appearance. “AOM" may sometimes show "craters" or imprints where
mineral grains were once located but have been removed by acid treatment and it may often adheres
to the outside of other particles (Tyson, 1995).
Tables 2, 3, and 4 show the detailed classification system of the individual palynological
components based on Tyson (1995), Vincent (1995), Mendonça Filho (1999), and Mendonça Filho et
al. (2002, 2010a, 2012), indicating the appropriate use of the nomenclature for the observation of
kerogen under transmitted white light.
5.1.1. Phytoclast Group (Table 2)
The phytoclast term was introduced by Bostick (1971) to describe all particles with size clay or
fine-sand derived from higher plants or fungi. They are fragments of tissues derived from higher plants
or fungi and its autofluorescence depends on derived tissue. Phytoclasts can be translucent (non-
opaque) or opaque (black) and non-biostructured, biostructured, structured or "pseudoamorphous“.
Most are derived from the highly lignified mechanical support tissue of higher plants, i.e. wood (xylem),
once lignin is highly resistant to decay and tends to become selectively preserved and therefore
concentrated during decay. According to Tyson (1993, 1995), the original lignin content is 25-35% in
softwood and 18-25% in hardwood, but up to 70% or more in subfossil (archaeological) wood. Lignin
decay is mainly through “mouldering” by “white rot” fungi; this process requires oxygen. Wherever
oxygen is in short supply, e.g. in water (26 times less 02 than air), especially disoxic-anoxic water,
lignin/wood preservation is enhanced. This is why coals are formed in wet swampy environments.
Because it is mainly only the lignin-rich secondary cell walls that survives, even anaerobic degradation
of wood produces a major weight loss (70-80%), due to degradation of the cellulosic tissues. Except in
coals, it is mainly dispersed tracheid and other woody tissues which form the bulk of the phytoclast
population. Other tissues may also be present, e.g. the thinner-walled material derived from “ray”
tissues, but these are produced in lower amounts, and are less well preserved (due to their lower lignin
content). Gymnosperm (softwood/conifer) xylem is composed largely of tracheids-elongate cylindrical
cells. These often show characteristic "bordered pits", pores in the cell wall by which adjacent cells
communicate. Their pores have membranes, but these rarely survive, leaving only holes. Now,

angiosperm (flowering plant) wood contains less tracheids, but has similar but larger structures called
"vessels". Overall it has less lignin and is thus often less well preserved compared to gymnosperm
wood.
There are some criteria for phytoclast description in transmitted white light microscopy:
Edge translucency: opaque (black) and non-opaque (translucent);
Translucent color: orange-brown (± black thickenings), dark brown to black, yellow, and colorless;
Autofluorescence: moderate-strong green-yellow colors, weak (but clearly present), and absent;
Gelification: pervasive (massive, non-porous, homogeneous, ± subconchoidal fracture or slight);
Microstructure:
 Biostructured: definitive (tissue specific), "cellular" (one cell layer thick, e.g. cuticle),
cellular (several cells thick, e.g. cortex), bordered pits (various types, e.g. tracheids, cross-
hatched (ray tissue), and hollow tubes (tracheids or vessels);
 Non-definitive: ribs, thickenings (xylem fragments?), fibrous (without other structure),
and non-biostructured (no biostructure apparent but recognizably a fragment of a larger
organized body – outline) or pseudoamorphous (ghost or relict structure or with only a
characteristic outline);
Form/symmetry:
 "Laths", "blades" or “cylinders” (length:width ≥ 2-3);
 Equant (equidimensional, length:width ≤ 2-3);
 Acicular ("needles", few µm in width, length:width ≥ 2-3);
 Planar (thin sheets);
 Irregular and thin, ± branched, narrow (few µm) tubules (± septal);
Angularity: angular, rounded, and irregular
Outline: sharp (± clear internal structures), frayed or splintered (especially on short sides),
embayed, corroded and/or diffuse outline;
Size: variable
Opaque Phytoclasts (black wood): (Table 2)

This subgroup is represented by black or opaque in color even at grain boundary; sharp outline;
mostly no internal structure, but laths may show pits. The opaque (black) phytoclast fraction is
considered to often be a result of terrestrial post-depositional alteration, reflecting seasonal
fluctuations in the water column allowing exposure to sub-aerial oxidation, and also due to oxidation
during transport (Tyson, 1993, 1995). Opaque phytoclasts originate from partial mouldering and
oxidation processes (usually under subaerial conditions, e.g. in soils and on the land surface) or by
charcoalification (natural pyrolysis, not burning, where the effect of high temperatures in the absence
of oxygen that can occur in the middle of large natural wildfires; also a terrestrial process) (Cope, 1981).
Charcoalification also produces extensive weight loss (70-80%), similar to that by anaerobic
biodegradation. It is also mainly the most lignified part of the cell walls that are preserved. The
structure and morphology is still clearly visible, and the particles porous. Opaque particles produced
by mouldering are often less well preserved morphologically, and their cell spaces may have become
filled out. During charcoalification the wood shrinks, becomes brittle, and tends to break up into
elongate particles, which may then become widely dispersed by wind and water. The opaque or black
wood materials partly (but not precisely) equivalent to the inertinite maceral group, and has a high
carbon and low hydrogen content. It thus has no hydrocarbon potential, and is sometimes referred to
as “dead carbon”. TOC alone is thus a misleading guide to the hydrocarbon potential of sediments: it
is not just how much organic carbon is present, but what kind or organic matter, that counts. The black
material is also of no nutritional value, and so once produced it has a very high preservation potential

because nothing eats or degrades it (it may become smaller due to fragmentation, but does not
chemically degrade). It is thus selectively concentrated under those conditions under which other
organic particles are destroyed (e.g. oxic and highly oxidizing conditions). It may become concentrated
where sedimentation rates are low (Tyson, 1993, 1995; Vincent, 1995; Mendonça Filho, 1999;
Mendonça Filho et al. 2010a, 2012).
Table 2: Detailed classification system of the individual palynological components from Phytoclast Group
based on Tyson (1995), Vincent (1995), Mendonça Filho (1999), and Mendonça Filho et al. (2002, 2010a,
2012).
The darkening of particles through the burial and thermal maturation is not considered an
originating process of opaque phytoclasts. In this case, all the other organic particles will also be darker
in color as result of the increasing temperature. Subaquatic formation of black wood (from brown
wood) is now considered unlikely or rare.

About the shape they can be subdivided into:
 Equidimensional (equant), Plate 1, Figure 1: the length / width ration < 2;
 Lath (rectangular), Plate 1, Figure 2: where the long axis is larger than two or three times the
length of the short axis, exhibiting angular margins and clear outlines;
 Corroded, Plate 1, Figure 3: the particles present diffuse outlines (no angular or irregular),
with irregular or embayed appearance;
Plate 1: Opaque Phytoclasts (TWL). Fig. 1: Equidimensional (equant) (TWL); Fig. 2: Lath (rectangular)
(TWL) and Fig. 3: Corroded (TWL).
Non-opaque Phytoclasts (translucent or brown woods): (Table 2)

In immature sediments most of the woody tissue has an orange to brown color (± dark stripes
which are thickened ribs where the cell walls join). In very young and immature material they may also
be pale and yellowish. Some of the phytoclasts may be hollow cells; other “gelified” phytoclasts have
their cell cavities filled out by humic gels which are produced during diagenesis, enter the cells and
then precipitate and harden there. Many phytoclasts are just fragments of the sides of tracheids,
rather than whole tubular ones (Tyson, 1993, 1995; Vincent, 1995; Mendonça Filho, 1999, 2010a,
2012).
This series of yellow coloration or light brown or dark brown can be subdivided into:
 Undegraded: sharp outline (may be slightly irregular or splintered);
 Degraded: (more diffuse outline; irregular);
 Pseudoamorphous: (diffuse outline);
 Amorphous: (diffuse outline; amorphous appearance);
 In decomposition: (highly preserved);
Belong to this series: fungal hyphae, non-biostructured (no botanical structure), cuticle,
membrane, and biostructured. The term biostructure refers to definitive biologically-derived
structures; they can be subdivided in striate, striped, banded, and pitted.
Fungal Hyphae: (Plate 2, Figure 1)

They are fragments represented by fungal remains, they usually present a form of fungal
hyphae, resembling to a narrow thin tubes, which can be transparent or colorless.
Non-biostructured Phytoclasts: (Plate 2, Figure 2)

No botanical structure, translucent, generally brown in color. They can be lath or equant in
shape.

Cuticles: (Plate 2, Figures 3 and 4)
They are pale yellow-green to yellow in color, irregular, thin, with form of sheets and clear
outlines. Most cuticle tissue is produced by leaves. The epidermis (outer layer) of leaves has a single
layer of cuticle cells whose outer surface (and part of the side walls) is impregnated with resistant
materials called cutin and cutan. The cutan can survive on geological timescales and has good
fossilization potential. The cuticle cells also secrete a water-proofing wax layer, but this does not
survive diagenesis. During degradation the cellulosic tissues in the middle of the leaf degrade most
rapidly (either completely destroyed or partly converted to “phyllovitrinite”). The cuticle layer
therefore tends to detach as thin strips and sheets. Cuticle phytoclasts consist of thin, transparent
sheets. The original cells are no longer present, but one can see the cell outlines because these stand
out as ridges on the inner surface of the cuticle. Note that the particles are thin because only one layer
of cells is present, and (only part of) the wall of the outer surface of these cells is wholly preserved.
Cuticle is important because it has an oil-prone composition. It is the only common phytoclast to have
these properties. However, it is usually only present in coals and rocks in rather small amounts, and
only in sediments deposited near deltas or estuaries (Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Cuticles can demonstrate visible cellular structures (circular cellular walls), representing the
cutine layer of the epidermis (epidermal tissue) of leaves from higher plants, they usually present
strongly fluorescent. They present different forms and structure. Some cuticles still preserve its
stomata or they can also preserve more than one layer of tissues and they can be confused with others
types of phytoclasts (cuticle layer fragments associated with innermost part of epidermis). This
particular feature could be indicating that the land plants fragments derived from leaves;
Membranes: (Plate 2, Figures 5 and 6)

They are pale grey particles, thin, commonly transparent, with form of sheets and clear
outlines, demonstrating no visible cellular structures. Membranes represent the cutine layer of the
epidermis of leaves or branches from higher plants; can be strongly or weakly fluorescent.
Plate 2: Non-opaque Phytoclasts. Fig. 1: Fungal Hyphae (TWL); Fig. 2: Non-biostructured Phytoclasts
(TWL); Fig. 3: Cuticle (TWL); Fig. 4: Cuticle (under Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 5: Membrane (TWL); Fig.
6: Membrane (Fluorescence Mode).

Biostructured Phytoclasts: (Plate 3, Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4)
This subgroup is divided into 4 types:
 Striate: they show thin (regular) fibrous lineation (non-tracheids tissues);
 Striped: irregular or unequal stripes (may be thickenings) (non-tracheids tissues);
 Banded: regular and equal parallel sided (fusiform) thickenings (Wood Tracheids);
 Pitted: bordered or scalariform pits (Wood Tracheids);
Plate 3: Non-opaque Phytoclasts-Biostructured Phytoclasts. Fig. 1: Striate (TWL); Fig. 2: Striped (TWL);
Fig. 3: Banded (TWL); Fig. 4: Pitted (TWL).
Other types of patterns can also occur (Plate 4). “Nematoclasts” are helical “spring-like”
phytoclasts found early in the history of land plants (L. Ordovician-E Silurian); they represent primitive
tracheid-like structures, where only part of the cell wall was lignified. Similar things can occasionally
be seen in younger sediments (Tyson, 1993). Some thickening patterns (in secondary walls) in
individual tracheids (no lignified tissues) can appear in different forms, such as:
 Spiral (Plate 4, Figures 1 and 2);
 Helical (Plate 4, Figures 3 and 4);
 Pitted (Plate 4, Figures 5 and 6);
Plate 4: Others types of patterns. Fig. 1: Spiral (TWL); Fig. 2: Spiral (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 3: Helical
(TWL); Fig. 4: Helical (Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 5: Pitted (TWL); Fig. 6: Pitted (Fluorescence Mode).

Particular cases: (Table 2)
 Structured Phytoclast: Cross-Hatch structure (Plate 5, Figures 1 and 2)
 Pseudoamorphous and “Amorphous” and “in decomposition”:
 Pseudoamorphous and amorphous: They exhibit diffuse outline, it may light brown,
brown and dark brown in color. They start to show some features of AOM, but
homogeneous in appearance (flat fluorescence), no inclusions. They may exhibit
fluorescence. (Plate 5, Figures 3 and 4);
 In decomposition/Gelified (highly preserved): They exhibit irregular outline in

transmitted white light, they show fluorescence. These particles exhibit appearance
of physical decomposition but with chemical composition preservation (Plate 5,
Figures 5 and 6);
 Sclereids (Plate 5, Figures 7 and 8): They are generally opaque (black), but may be
translucent (dark brown). They represent a sclerenchymatic tissue cells, with thickened
secondary wall and impregnated with lignin and they can be classified as opaque (blacks)
or non-opaque (brown) components (Mendonça Filho et al., 2007, 2012; Mendonça et al.,
2007). Sclereids can be found in different parts of the plant (root, stem and leaf) with the
sustentation function and mechanical resistance and they can appear total or partially
charred by charcoalification (Cope, 1981), as result of natural pyrolysis, where the effect
of high temperatures in the absence of oxygen that can occur in the middle of large natural
wildfires.
Plate 5: Particular Cases. Fig. 1: Structured Phytoclast: Cross-Hatch structure (TWL); Fig. 2: Structured
Phytoclast: Cross-Hatch structure (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 3: Pseudoamorphous/Amorphous (TWL);
Fig. 4: Pseudoamorphous/Amorphous (Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 5: In decomposition/Gelified (TWL);
Fig. 6: In decomposition/Gelified (Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 7: Sclereids (TWL); Fig. 8: Sclereids (TWL).

5.1.2. Amorphous Group (Table 3)
The Amorphous Group consists of all particulate organic components that appear structureless
at the scale of light microscopy; including phytoplankton derived amorphous organic matter
(traditionally referred to as “AOM”), bacterially derived amorphous organic matter (also traditionally
referred to as “AOM”), higher plant resins, and amorphous products of the diagenesis of macrophyte
tissues.
Table 3: Detailed classification system of the individual palynological components from AOM Group based
on Tyson (1995), Vincent (1995), Mendonça Filho (1999), Mendonça Filho et al. (2002, 2010a, 2012).
Amorphous Organic Matter (AOM): (Plate 6)

Typical AOM (Amorphous Organic Matter) is directly or indirectly derived from phytoplankton
(taxa or parts which do not fossilize as recognizable structures, i.e. not as palynomorphs) or bacteria
(autotrophic or heterotrophic bacteria). They may be yellow, orange, brown or grey in color; irregular
particles; rounded to angular; gradational margins; homogeneous or heterogeneous; varied common
micro-inclusions; often strongly fluorescent, but can be variable. The amorphous material (especially
“AOM”) commonly acts as a matrix for a diversity of structured. AOM is the single most important
source of hydrocarbons, and the main type of kerogen in source rocks. The main sources of AOM are
the degradation of phytoplankton or bacteria (Plate 6); reworking of organic matter (phytoplankton,
Plate 6, Figures 1 and 2) by heterotrophic bacteria and bacteria activity products (autotrophic bacteria,
Plate 6, Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6) (Tyson, 1995; Mendonça Filho et al., 2010b, 2012).
The other component is amorphous organic matter terrestrially derived, which has been
reworked to different extent exhibiting high content of carbohydrates (Plate 6, Figures 7 and 8). This
AOM undergoes a microbiologic reworked in reducing conditions (plant material reworked by
heterotrophic bacteria colony), where various amorphization stages can be distinguished ranging from
subangular particles with neat boundaries to particles with diffuse limits (Plate 6, Figures 7 and 8) and
is associated predominantly to shales. In this case the derived amorphous organic matter is generally
associated with the highest TOC content (Mendonça Filho et al., 2010b, 2012).

AOM can be derived by bacterial activity (autotrophic-photosynthetic bacteria) producing a
bacterial mucilage and is associated with predominantly carbonate sediments. The mucilage (Plate 6,
Figures 9 and 10), Extracellular Polymeric Substance (EPS), is rich in lipids and proteins and extremely
resistant (higher preservation potential). Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and thiobacteria (sulphur
bacteria) are the main responsible for the production of the EPS (Mendonça Filho et al., 2010b, 2012).
These organisms do not normally fossilize as recognizable entities, but the dominant forms have a
filamentous growth habit (each filament consisting of a trichome – a chain of cells) surrounded by a
mucilagenous sheath (cover), and under certain conditions, their constituent cyanobacteria and
thiobacteria may be important sources of oil-prone amorphous organic matter and the microbial mats
are among the most productive ecosystems in the world (Tyson, 1995). This type of material can
appear in a pelicular AOM (sensu Combaz, 1980), in printing the organic matter with a crater aspect
(Plate 6, Figures 11 and 12), due to impression of the carbonate minerals following dissolution with
HCl. The pelicular AOM is generally associated with low TOC content (Mendonça Filho et al., 2010b).
The mucilaginous material also can suffer a microbiological reworking in reducing conditions
(heterotrophic bacteria colonies reworking the EPS produced by the autotrophic bacteria) and appear
as a dense, highly-fluorescent aspect, in a plate form, at times, with angular outlines (Plate 6, Figures
13 and 14). In this case the derived amorphous organic matter is usually associated with the highest
TOC content (Mendonça Filho et al., 2010b).
Plate 6: Amorphous Group. Fig. 1: AOM (TWL); Fig. 2: AOM (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 3: Bacterial AOM
(TWL); Fig. 4: Bacterial AOM (Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 5: Bacterial AOM (TWL); Fig. 6: Bacterial AOM
(Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 7: Plant Tissues AOM (TWL); Fig. 8: Plant Tissues AOM (Fluorescence Mode);
Fig. 9: Mucilage (Extracellular Polymeric Substance-EPS, TWL); Fig. 10: Mucilage (Extracellular
Polymeric Substance-EPS, Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 11: Pelicular Bacterial AOM (TWL); Fig. 12:
Pelicular Bacterial AOM (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 13: Plate Form Bacterial AOM (TWL); Fig. 14: Plate
Form Bacterial AOM (Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 15: Resin/Amber (TWL); Fig. 16: Resin/Amber
(Fluorescence Mode).

Resin and Amber: (Plate 6, Figures 15 and 16)
Resins are natural products of higher plants which occur either as internal cell- or void-filling
secretions, or as extracellular exudations on the plant (stem or leaf) surface and they are classified
within the Amorphous Group because they are inherently structureless. They should not be referred
to by the abbreviation “AOM”, which is traditionally reserved solely for material of a phytoplankton or
bacterial origin. Higher plant resins (microscopic amber) can be intracellular or extracellular; resistant
if not exposed to air; glassy (hyaline) shards easily rounded to beads; mostly produced by Angiosperm
trees in tropical climates and very oil-prone, but usually minor component (Tyson, 1995).
Amorphous Terrestrial Humic Materials:
The biodegradation of land plants (phytoclast degradation products, see pseudo-amorphous
and amorphous phytoclasts) often results in the production of primary intra and extracellular
amorphous material. They are rare even in coals, except when intracellular; they tend to be more
homogeneous than “AOM” and present no organic inclusions (Tyson, 1995).
5.1.3. Palynomorph Group (Table 4)

Palynomorphs are organic-walled microfossils present in a rock that remain after maceration
using HCl acid for carbonates and HF acid for silicates. Organic-walled microfossils are composed of
entirely unmineralized proteinaceous material, such as: chitinozoans, spores and pollen,
prasinophytes, acritarchs, and dinoflagellates. The term of palynomorph was introduced by Tchudy
(1961) to refer to all discrete HCl and HF-resistant, organic-walled (unicellular, multicellular, or
colonial) microfossil that may be present in palynological preparations. They are discrete, coherent,
individual or colonial entities and it can be subdivided into: terrestrial (sporomorphs) and aquatic
(marine and fresh water) subgroups (Tyson, 1995).
Sporomorph Subgroup (terrestrial palynomorphs) (Table 4)
The term sporomorphs was originally defined as a useful collective term for all terrestrial
spores and pollen grains. In this case, it would be all palynomorphs produced by land plants (although
some would exclude fungal spores). This subgroup is composed by two components: spores and pollen
grains (spores and pollen grains are not the same thing, they have a different position in the life cycle,
but both are a means of indirect or direct dispersal of gametes), with variable fluorescence properties
(Tyson, 1995).
Spores and pollen grains are parts of the reproductive cycle of plants and range in age from
Late Ordovician and Carboniferous, respectively, to Holocene. Although land derived, the grains can
be carried by wind and water currents into marine and nonmarine environments. The type and relative
abundance of spores and pollen grains provide useful paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic
information, and they are widely used for basinal and regional stratigraphic correlation.
Spores are produced by Bryophyte, Pteridophyte (fern type) plants and their primitive
ancestors (Plate 7, Figures 1 and 2). They first appear in the late Ordovician and continue to the present
day. The Pteridophyte life cycle is strongly dependent upon moisture for fertilization, so spores are
most common in humid/wet climates or microclimates. They are form in tetrads. About the shape,
spores are mostly triangular or circular; the most common type is the trilete spore, which has a Y-
shaped mark. Monolete spores (oval and have an “I”- shaped mark) are less common. Different forms,
sizes and ornamentation can occur and they may have a wide diversity of ornament on their outer
(“distal”) surface (spines, ridges, etc.).
Pollen Grain are produced by the seed-producing plants, such as Gymnosperms (e.g. Conifers),
Carboniferous-Present; Angiosperms (flowering plants), Early Cretaceous-Present (dominate global
flora from Late Cretaceous onwards) (Plate 7, Figures 3 and 4). They are produced in dyad, tetrads and
polyads, but only very rarely is a trilete mark visible. They are produced by the seed-producing plants.

The presence of dyad, tetrads and polyads (pollen grain agglomerates) are an indication of proximity
of a source area. Most pollen is circular or oval in outline.
Table 4: Detailed classification system of the individual palynological components from Palynomorph Group
based on Tyson (1995), Vincent (1995), Mendonça Filho (1999), Mendonça Filho et al. (2002, 2010a, 2012).

Characteristic types of Gymnosperm pollen grains are: bisaccate pollen (central body with two
hollow sacs which aid wind and water dispersal), late Carboniferous-present; Classopolis (small
spherical conifer pollen with equatorial striations), late Triassic-late Cretaceous and Monosulcate
grains, presenting oval shape, with a groove (sulcus) running length wise down the middle of one side,
Carboniferous-present. Angiosperm pollen grain are mostly spherical or oval, some Late Cretaceous
ones triangular. They are characterized by the presence of circular pores or grooves (colpi) on their
surfaces. They show complex wall structure and often rather smaller than other sporomorphs.
Fungal Spore (Plate 7, Figure 5)
Fungal spores are microscopic biological particles that allow fungi to be reproduced, serving a
similar purpose to that of seeds in the plant world although the mechanisms are different. Although
fungi evolved, at least as early as Silurian (Taylor, 1990 apud Tyson, 1995), fungal spores are apparently
uncommon before the Late Jurassic and only begin to be really abundant and diverse during the Late
Cretaceous and Paleogene. The presence of fungal spores can indicate a close proximity to, or
redeposition from, active fluvio-deltaic source areas (especially deltaic, estuarine, or lagoonal oxic
facies). When these organic particles are associated with high numbers of dinocysts and foraminiferal
linings, they can indicate upwelling1 areas (Tyson, 1995).
Freshwater (Organic-Walled) Microplankton (Plate 7)
Other subgroup from the palynomorph group is the fresh water microplankton. They belong
to the aquatic constituents from this group. The main components from this group belong to the
Chlorococcale Algae. There are 2 common forms, both colonial and exclusively freshwater:
Botryococcus and Pediastrum.
Botryococcus (Carboniferous to Recent) (Plate 7, Figures 6 and 7)
Algae from Botryococcus genus are irregular globular colonies of variable size (30-2,000µm).
The colonies often have several lobes (like miniature cauliflower heads) and they may show a vaguely
radial texture. More structure, including circular pits on the surface (cell cups), may be visible under
fluorescence. Usually a yellow glossy appearance in immature sediments and they can be orange-
brown, presenting a typically strong fluorescence. The stratigraphic record of the colonial freshwater
alga Botryococcus spans the Carboniferous to the present (about 360 Ma) and they occur widely in
lagoonal and lacustrine facies (they occur in marine sediments only by redeposition or transportation,
e.g. prodeltaic facies). They can tolerate elevated salinities, but only in lakes. Large modern blooms
occur in temporary lakes in the Australian Coorong Region; drying out of the lakes deposits the buoyant
algae, sometimes forming a rubbery mat-like deposit known as Coorongite. No equivalent ancient
sediments are known. Botryococcus-rich oil shale is referred to as Torbanite (first described from
carboniferous of the Edinburgh region); however, most of their kerogen is usually “AOM” (lamalginite
or fluoramorphinite). Torbanites have type I kerogen (organic facies A or AB) and are excellent source
rocks in some rift basins (Tyson, 1995). Botryococcus algae are very rich in lipids (hydrogen) and they
can liberate hydrocarbons (oil) in life (Canter-Lund and Lund, 1998).
Pediastrum (Early Cretaceous-Recent) (Plate 7, Figures 8 and 9)
The other most common genus of fossilizing Chlorococcale algae is Pediastrum. Flat “cog-
wheel”-shaped colonies (coenobia). According to Evitt (1969), the geological record of this genus
extends back to the Early Cretaceous, and at least as early as the Late Barremian. The colonies of
Pediastrum form characteristic non-mucilagenous, flat, discoidal units, which are one cell layer thick
and have a “cog wheel shaped” outline. The flat “cog- wheel”-shaped colonies are called coenobia.
The polygonal cells have a concentric arrangement and the outer cells have one or two triangular
points each (giving the teeth of the “cogs”). Mostly 30-200µm in diameter and they are common in
1 Upwelling: the process of upward movement to the ocean surface of deeper cold usually nutrient-rich waters.

lacustrine facies, although rarely in the same samples as abundant Botryococcus, because they
compete to the same environment. Most species prefer higher nutrient concentrations and reflect
higher productivity settings. Nevertheless, they cannot tolerate elevated salinities, and thus tend to
occur in lakes of wetter climates and can be redeposited into marine sediments. Pediastrum-rich
sediments often have a type I or type II composition and they are typically dominated by
“AOM”/fluoramorphinite (note Pediastrum appears as lamalginite in reflected light). They can
represent important source rocks in Cretaceous and Cenozoic rift basins (e.g. W. Africa, China,
Indonesia and Brazil). Pediastrum-rich oil shales do not have a specific name (Tyson, 1995).
Zygnemataceae Family (Carboniferous-Recent) (Plate 7, Figures 10 and 11)
The Zygnemataceae are an extant Family of hydro-terrestrial, filamentous or unicellular,
uniseriate (unbranched) green algae which produce acid-resistant spores. The filaments are septated
and reproduction is by conjugation. The family is notable for its diversely shaped chloroplasts, such as
stellate in Zygnema, helical in Spirogyra, and flat in Mougeotia. The Zygnemataceae are cosmopolitan,
but though all generally occur in the same types of habitats, Mougeotia, Spirogyra, and Zygnema are
by far the most common. Palynomorphs of probable zygnematacean affinity often referred to as
“acritarchs”, occur frequently in sediments of Late Palaeozoic to Holocene age. Only the filamentous
algae spores are preserved. In Recent zygnematacean algae the form, size and markings of the spore
wall are very important for species identification. The majority of species have spores of constant form,
only a very few are polymorphic. The forms are of four primary types (globose, obovoid, ellipsoid and
quadrangular) of which a number of variation are known (Grenfell, 1995). The filamentous
Zygnemataceae algae inhabit a great variety of freshwater habitats including cold, swift flowing
streams; warm, stagnant pools and moist soils and peats. Most species prefer stagnant pools, ponds
and ditches (Hoshaw and MacCourt, 1988).
It was reported the occurrence of Zygogonium in acid, peaty soils. These soils were flooded in
winter but were dry in summer. The Zygogonium species was described as being hydro-terrestrial.
Species of Mougeotia are found in shallow, freshwater environments such as ponds, lake margins,
ditches and swamps and they are common in acid environments and Sphagnum bogs (Prescott, 1951).
Most Recent species of the Zygnemataceae form zygospores in clean, oxygen rich, stagnant and
shallow freshwater. In the fossil record, the presence of a non-marine depositional environment may
be inferred when the following are fairly abundant. Such non-marine environment would include
fluvial and lacustrine facies where swamps, marsh and shallow, stagnant yet oxygenated water bodies
persisted. Studies of extant Zygnemataceae indicate that they inhabit a wide range of hydro-terrestrial
habitats but most species prefer fluvial and lacustrine facies. The presence and abundance of fossil
zygnematacean spores are potential indicators of palaeoenvironment (Grenfell, 1995). Based on the
zygospore record; the Zygnemataceae range from the Carboniferous to the Recent. The morphological
evolution of the different spore types may have happened during the Early Carboniferous, or earlier.
The deposition of sporopollenin in the spore walls was an important life-strategy for surviving critical
periods. It also contributed to persistence of the walls of the zygospores (sexual spores) and
aplanospores (asexual spores) of Zygnemataceae in the fossil record (van Geel and Grenfell, 1996).
Scenedesmaceae Family (Early Cretaceous?-Recent) (Plate 7, Figures 25, 26, 27 and 28)
Scenedesmus is a genus of algae, specifically of the Chlorophyceae. They are colonial and non-
motile. The most extant Scenedesmus consist of one, two, or a linear series of four or eight oval to
elongate cells 5-30µm long with broadly rounded, truncated or tapered extremities; more rarely there
are as many as 16 or even 32 in a row, depending on nutrient conditions. In common with Pediastrum,
Scenedesmus has a history that goes back at least as far as the Cretaceous. Extant species live mainly
in freshwater habitats (lakes, ponds, temporary pools, bogs). They may be especially abundant in small
to medium sized water bodies that are enriched with nutrients. The dimensions of individual cells and
of coenobia are constrained by environmental factors. Growth and reproduction can generally be
expected to be retarded and ultimately to cease altogether, with increasing salinity. Scenedesmus and

Pediastrum may succeed diatoms in certain hypereutrophic, physically variable ponds and lakes, and
perhaps some lowland rivers (Batten, 1996).
Most fossil records of the Chlorococcales also clearly derive from sediments that accumulated
in fresh water or in environments under considerable freshwater influence. Those found in marine
deposits are usually thought to have been transported by streams from fluvial or lacustrine habitats.
Evidence of eutrophication may be indicated when these algae dominate palynomorph assemblages
particularly if they occur together with abundant amorphous organic matter (Batten, 1996). The
recognition of comparable algaenans (very resistant biomacromolecules) recovered from species of
Scenedesmus, albeit in very small amounts, suggests that these algae may also have the potencial to
contribute to generation of hydrocarbons.
Gloeocapsomorpha (Wicander et. al., 1996) (Plate 7, Figures 29, 30, 31 and 32)
Gloeocapsomorpha prisca - is the principal organic component of middle Ordovician marine oil
shales known as Kukersites (organic rich sediments containing 20-60% total organic carbon) first
described from the Baltic Basin, Estonia. On morphological and geochemical evidence, G. prisca has
been described as a cyanobacterium, a non-photosynthetic, mat-forming prokaryote, an extinct green
alga and an alga closely related to, or congeneric with Botryococcus. Part of the problem in classifying
G. prisca is that its morphology is superficially similar to that of other cyanobacterial and chlorophyte
groups, making definite assignment on purely morphological grounds difficult. Detailed morphological
studies of the type material of G. prisca have indicated that it includes at least three morphotypes
reflecting growth stages of the colonial organism and/or overprinting effects due to fossilization.
The Kukersite is composed only of G. prisca, which occurs as several morphotypes that
probably reflect in situ compression of the colonies. G. prisca is a fossil form of the extant
cyanobacterium Gloeocapsa (this conclusion is based on the fact that both taxa have cells enclosed in
a thick, layered or lamellated sheath, and both underwent cell division that produced colonies with a
distinct, botryoidal appearance). But other views have changed this conclusion on the grounds that
similarity of form does not necessarily reflect systematic relationships and affinities.
Because the morphologies of Gloeocapsomorpha and Botryococcus are similar, they are closely
related or even congeneric. If so, Gloeocapsomorpha should be classified as a chlorophyte. However,
examination of the wall structure of Gloeocapsomorpha and Botryococcus reveals significant
differences. In G. prisca colonies the cell voids are completely ensheathed by thick, multilayered walls
and do not open to the surface of the colonies. Furthermore, the outer layer of the cell walls, and
hence of the colony, is smooth. In B. braunii, cells are commonly held in small depressions or cups
within the colonial matrix and are surrounded by abundant mucilage. When the mucilage is removed,
the outer layer of the cell wall is dimpled, with the depressions associated with the cell cups. The
Gloeocapsomorpha is considered an ancient form of the modern cyanobacterium Gloeocapsa.
Extant members of Gloeocapsa are predominantly of fresh water or terrestrial origin,
commonly occurring as gelatinous mats wet rocks, whereas G. prisca is always associated with marine
megafossils and microfossils. Thus, Gloeocapsa's ecology seems inconsistent with the thick
accumulations of kukersites and G. prisca rich sediments in Ordovician marine rocks. Botryococcus,
another commonly cited alga with which Gloeocapsomorpha might have biological affinity, is also a
predominantly fresh water genus. However, it is tolerant of brackish conditions, and there are
unconfirmed reports of it occurring in highly saline environments. And there is report of Botryococcus
sp. forming stromatolitic mats in a hypersaline lake.

Marine (Organic-Walled) Microplankton (Plate 7)
Other subgroup from the Palynomorph Group (Table 4) is the marine organic-walled
microplankton. They belong to the aquatic constituents from this group as well as freshwater organic-
walled microplankton (Botryococcus and Pediastrum).
The fossil record of the organic-walled microplankton (OWM) is very incomplete. Only a
fraction of the original plankton biomass and taxa are preserved, generally only those parts of the life
cycle that produce resistant “cysts” or similar structures, probably made of Algaenan- type substances.
Marine Microplankton includes dinocysts, acritarchs and prasinophytes. They exhibit variable
fluorescence properties and some taxa may tolerate brackish conditions. Late Precambrian and
Palaeozoic OWM are dominated by the Acritarchs and Prasinophytes. The period of low global sea
levels in the carboniferous to E. Triassic resulted in elimination of most Acritarchs, and sediments of
this age contain very little OWM. In the Mid-Late Triassic, as sea-level raised again, the cyst-forming
dinoflagellate cysts (dinocysts) “evolved”, becoming common and diverse by the end of the M. Jurassic,
dominating over the Acritarchs except in marginal marine environments. Dinocyst diversity is
correlated with the global sea level and was highest during the Mid Late Cretaceous; they continue to
the present day. Prasinophyte algae range in age from Precambrian to the present.
Prasinophyte algae: (Plate 7, Figures 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17)
Prasinophyte algae are present an Age range from Precambrian to Recent. Fossilizing
structures produced by small quadriflagellate phytoplankton which do not themselves fossilize.
Modern flagellates occur in fresh to hypersaline waters, but fossil forms are exclusively marines. The
fossilizing structures are referred to as phycomata (singular: phycoma) to distinguish them from cysts;
this is because they are not dormant, but the cell contents are actively dividing and growing during
life. The phycomata are buoyant (due to internal lipid globule), float and thus have a pelagic
distribution, occurring widely in shallow or deep waters. They are only sedimented when ingested or
the living content has emerged. As the whole life cycle occurs in the surface water, it is described as
“holoplanktic”. The mero/holo plankton (i.e. Dinocyst or Acritarch to Prasinophyte) ratio decreases
offshore. Although occur a wide distribution, seldom these algae are common except in marine organic
rich black shales (AOM-rich), where they may be the dominant OWM. Phycomata have a very oil prone
composition (= telalginite); this may result in a rich organic facies. Most, like Tasmanites (Plate 7,
Figures 12 and 13) are spherical, large (50-2,000µm), smooth, and thick-walled. Some have an
equatorial flange (Pterospermella, Plate 7, Figures 14 and 15), others have surface divided into
polygonal fields (Cymatiosphaera, Plate 7, Figures 16 and 17) (Tyson, 1995).
Acritarchs: (Plate 7, Figures 18 and 19)
Evitt (1963) introduced the name Acritarchs to describe a variety of diverse OWM which do
not have characteristic dinocyst features (i.e. no paratabulation). They are marine microplankton of
unknown biological affinity. Acritarchs are a polyphyletic group of palynomorphs whose name means
“of uncertain origin” (incertae sedis) and may include cysts, egg cases, etc. They range from
Precambrian to Holocene in age.
Most are “spiny” (“acanthomorphs”). Fossil Prasinophytes were originally classified as
Acritarchs. They are excellent biostratigraphic indices for Proterozoic through Devonian strata but are
less important in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. They are most diverse during the Ordovician-Silurian,
where along with Prasinophytes they are often the only palynomorphs (as sporomorphs not evolved
or very rare). Distribution pattern indicates they were mostly marine phytoplankton. As they have no
formal taxonomic status, and the organisms which produced these palynomorphs are either extinct or
unknown, the acritarchs have been classified entirely on the basis of morphological characteristics.
Post-Palaeozoic Acritarchs are less diverse, mostly simple, small (10-20µm), spiny forms with a central
spherical body. Acritarchs occur abundantly in fine-grained rocks and are geographically widespread
(Tyson, 1995). They have been used for paleoecology, paleogeography, and thermal maturity
(sometimes also used for palynomorph color).

Dinoflagellate Cysts (Dinocysts): (Plate 7, Figures 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24)
Dinoflagellates are the resting cysts of marine, unicellular red algae. Dinoflagellates present a
cellulosic composition and do not fossilize; only the resistant resting cyst produced during the sexual
part of the life cycle survives. The life cycle alternates between active asexual planktic flagellate cells
which live in the surface waters (using their flagellae to swim), and the dormant benthic resting cysts
(zygotes) produced during the sexual phase of the life cycle. This part planktic and part benthic life
cycle is described as “meroplanktic” (spending part of their life as a motile flagellate phase, and part
as a benthic resting cyst). The fossil record of dinoflagellates is almost entirely confined to forms that
have a meroplanktonic life; cysts are produced abundantly only by these forms. They occur abundantly
in Upper Triassic to Holocene sediments and are excellent biostratigraphic indices because of their
rapid evolution and widespread geographic distribution. Dinoflagellate cysts occur predominantly in
marine rocks but also are present in Cretaceous and Cenozoic lacustrine facies. Cysts are produced
abundantly only by those meroplanktic. Even those dinoflagellates that produce cysts do not do so to
the same extent; in some species 50-85% of the motile individuals may produce cysts (e.g.
Operculodinium, Plate 7, Figures 20 and 21), whereas in others (e.g. Spiniferites, Plate 7, Figures 22 and
23) the corresponding value may be only 0,2-3,0% (Dodge and Harland, 1991). Dinoflagellates live in
unstable shallow shelf waters. Organic walled cysts are not produced in permanently stratified waters
like the modern (oxic) ocean, nor apparently in some ancient deep shelf basins. Most dinocysts in
ocean sediments have been redeposited from the shelf. The morphology and diversity of dinoflagellate
assemblages can be used to differentiate marine environments (Tyson, 1995; Vincent, 1995).
Dinocyst Morphology
The most characteristic feature of dinocysts is their “paratabulation”: The surface is divided up
into a series or rectangular or polygonal areas (paraplates), which reflect similar features on the living
Dinoflagellate that produced the cyst. The paraplates may be defined by ridges, ornament, or the
distribution of spines (“processes”). They are used in species identification, and thus in dating; marine
palynostratigraphy of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic is based primarily on dinocysts. The most commonly
recognized classification of dinocyst morphotypes was introduced by Downie and Sarjeant (1966).
There are 3 main morphologies (do not reflect function) (Figure 1): proximate (single-walled and lack
significant processes – “spines”, they have often good paratabulation and may have small spines);
chorate (these cysts are essentially single-walled and have long processes; long spines which are ≥ half
the central body diameter) and cavate (cavate cysts have two or more distinctly separated wall layers;
often poor paratabulation and seldom have spines) (Tyson, 1995). According Fensome et al. (1996),
cavate cysts are usually proximate, but may be proximochorate or chorate. Various types can be
recognized (circumcavate, bicavate, cornucavate, suturocavate and holocavate).
Figure 1: The dinocysts morphologies: proximate; proximochorate; chorate (Lingulodinium

machaerophorum) and cavate (Subtilisphaera) (modified Sargeant, 1982).

Plate 7: Palynomorph Group. Fig. 1: Spore (TWL); Fig. 2: Spore (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 3: Pollen
Grain (TWL); Fig. 4: Pollen Grain (Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 5: Fungal Spore (TWL); Fig. 6: Botryococcus
(TWL); Fig. 7: Botryococcus (Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 8: Pediastrum (TWL); Fig. 9: Pediastrum
(Fluorescence Mode); Fig. 10: Elliptical Zygospore (genus Debarya and Spirogyra) (Fluorescence
mode); Fig. 11: Spherical Zygospore (genus Zygnema) (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 12: Tasmanites (TWL);
Fig. 13: Tasmanites (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 14: Pterospermella (TWL); Fig. 15: Pterospermella
(Fluorescence mode); Fig. 16: Cymatiosphaera (TWL); Fig. 17: Cymatiosphaera (Fluorescence mode);
Fig. 18: Acritarchs (TWL); Fig. 19: Acritarchs (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 20: Dinocysts: Operculodinium
(TWL); Fig. 21: Dinocysts: Operculodinium (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 22: Dinocysts: Spiniferites (TWL);
Fig. 23: Dinocysts: Spiniferites (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 24: Bloom of Polysphaeridium sp.
(Fluorescence mode); Figs. 25, 26, 27, and 28: Scenedesmus (Fluorescence mode). Figs. 29 and 31:
Gloeocapsomorpha prisca (Fluorescence mode). Figs. 30 and 32: Gloeocapsomorpha prisca (TWL).

Zoomorph Subgroup (Table 4, Plate 8)
Zoomorph subgroup is composed by animal-derived palynomorphs (discrete unitary animal-

derived particles, whether whole or damaged, are classified as zoomorph palynomorphs) including
foraminiferal linings, chitinozoa and scolecodonts. It is identifiable as fragment zoomorph
palynomorphs (Tyson, 1989 and 1995).
Foraminiferal Test Linings: (Plate 8, Figures 1 and 2)

They are the most common type of zoomorph. They are tectinous linings derived from certain
marine benthic foraminifera (organic linings to calcareous shells). Fossilizable linings appear to be
produced mainly (or entirely) by benthic foraminifera and the linings of planispiral foraminifera are
generally predominant (Tyson, 1989 and 1995). The linings are typically dark brown in color, although
their outer chambers are often more thin-walled and translucent. Generally non-fluorescent, but some
(thinner, lighter ones) may occasionally fluoresce. They are a good indicator of marine or brackish
marine shelf conditions (foraminiferal linings are an important indicator of normal marine conditions)
(Muller, 1959; Tschudy, 1969; Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Scolecodonts: (Plate 8, Figure 3)
Scolecodonts are the part-calcified and chitinous mouth parts of benthic polychaete annelid
worms (tooth-like jaw mechanisms); they have a geological range from early Ordovician to Recent, but
appear to have been most abundant during the Ordovician to Devonian. They occur almost entirely in
marine sediments (Tyson, 1995).
Chitinozoa: (Plate 8, Figure 4)
Chitinozoans are an extinct marine organic-walled, flask or bottle-shaped microfossils (50 μm
to 2 mm in size) that occur in rocks of Ordovician to Devonian age. The biological affinities of
chitinozoans are poorly understood (organisms of uncertain affinity), but they may be eggs of marine
metazoans. The chitinozoan test is made of a highly resistant pseudochitinous substance and they are
excellent biostratigraphic indices and useful paleoenvironmental markers. Chitinozoa have proved to
be very useful in biostratigraphic dating of those Paleozoic fine-grained metasediments in which all the
organic matter is opaque. They also have potential as thermal maturity indices; because with the
progressive thermal alteration the test changes from translucent and amber colored to brown and
finally black (opaque) (Tyson, 1995).
Plate 8: Palynomorph Group, Zoomorph and Zooclast Subgroups. Fig. 1: Zoomorph - Foraminiferal test
linings (TWL); Fig. 2: Zoomorph - Foraminiferal test linings (Fluorescence mode); Fig. 3: Zoomorph -
Scolecodonts (TWL); Fig. 4: Zoomorph - Chitinozoa (TWL); Fig. 5: Zooclast - Tintinnids (TWL); Fig. 6:
Zooclast - Crustacean egg (TWL).

Zooclast Group: (Table 4, Plate 8, Figures 5 and 6)
Zooclast Group is a different group from the organic matter comprising animal-derived organic
particles (e.g. graptolites, crustacean eggs, tintinnids, insect cuticle fragments, and other arthropod
cuticle fragments). They are material of definite animal origin (has specific morphological
characteristics). Zooclasts are unknown organic particle, structured, fragmentary particle (clast),
angular broken outline, obviously not a whole discrete entity (spines, slits, hairs, joints, etc.) and those
particles identifiable as fragmented zoomorph palynomorphs are not classified as zooclasts. The most
common varieties of zooclasts include arthropod exoskeletal debris, organic linings from some bivalve
shells and ostracod carapaces and graptolite fragments (Tyson, 1989 and 1995).
Sileceous and Calcareous Microfossils: (Plate 9)
In palynofacies studies, sample preparation techniques involve methods of freeing organic walled
microplankton from rock matrix using standard non-oxidative procedures. The mineral matrix must be
treated with HCl and HF acids to remove carbonates and silicates. Thus, any shelly microfossil content,
relative to carbonate or silica content of the mineral matrix, is removed by HCl and HF acids and are
usually not preserved in the organic matter assemblage. However, after the procedure for removing
the rock matrix by acids (kerogen Isolation) it is possible to preserve some siliceous or even calcareous
microfossils (diatoms, radiolarians, foraminifers, etc.) in a minor fraction, mainly when they are
pyritized.
Plate 9: Kerogen Concentrate strewn slide. Fig. 1: Frustule of centric diatom (TWL); Figs. 2 and 3:
Pyritized frustules of centric diatoms (TWL); Fig. 4: Pyritized frustule of pennate diatom (TWL) and Fig.
5: Pyritized frustule of pennate diatom (RWL).
Undifferentiated and Uncertain Palynomorphs:
In Palynofacies, the terms "undifferentiated palynomorphs" and "uncertain palynomorphs"
are used to define components that cannot be identified for different reasons:
Undifferentiated Palynomorphs: This category of palynomorphs includes organic particles, which
cannot be confidently assigned to any subgroup from palynomorph assemblage (e.g. sporomorphs or
organic-walled microplankton) because of their state of preservation or lack of diagnostic features.
The amount of undifferentiated particles tends to increase in frequency distally (Tyson, 1993, 1995;
Vincent, 1995; Mendonça Filho, 1999), i.e. ther term is used for those organic particles that not have
any distinguishing features (an undifferentiated mass), mainly due to their preservation state, but the
analyst knows that this is a palynomorph
Uncertain Palynomorphs: This category of palynomorphs includes organic particles, which cannot be
determined because of lack of analyst knowledge to recognize diagnostic features to identify the
organic particles (Tyson, 1993, 1995; Vincent, 1995; Mendonça Filho, 1999), i.e. the term is used for
those organic particles that cannot be identified by a complete lack of knowledge of the analyst to
recognize its distinctive features.

5.2. Kerogen (individual organic particle) Counting
For obtaining data in palynofacies studies a counting of the organic particles (organic
constituents from kerogen) is requested. Tyson (1995) suggested a basics counts of 500 with additional
counts of specific categories of special interest if occur in low numbers. Based on the model of Tyson
(1995), Mendonça Filho (1999) states that 300 to 500 particles are necessary to estimate the amount
of organic matter present in a sample (300 particles should be enough to count particulate organic
matter). According to Traverse (1988), with 500 counts, a component with is 5% of the total (i.e. 25
counts) has a standard deviation of about 20%, such that 66% of all analyses should lie in the range 5%
± 1% (25 counts ± 5 counts), with the number of counts being five times larger than the standard
deviation. By the comparison, for a total count of 200, a minor (5%) component has a 32% (60%
greater) standard deviation (10 counts ± 3 counts), and components which are less than 5% of the
counts have little statistical significance (Tyson, 1995). More detailed discussion about the kerogen
counts in palynofacies studies can be found in Vincent (1995); Piper (1995) and Mendonça Filho (1999).
The organic particles are assigned according to the classification system (Tables 2, 3 and 4) and
the counting data may be obtained making a series of non-overlapping traverses across the slide and
recording only those particles that pass directly under the cross-wires (very center of the field of view),
omitting any remaining particles. This counting is made through the covering of the strew slides with
three transverse lines using a vertical or horizontal cross graduated reticule (scale), using ocular with
10X and objective 20X magnification and to count only those particles which pass under the very centre
of the field of view in the crossed lines from the reticule (Figure 2).
The counting data can be recorded on counting sheets. Everything is counted except for very
small dispersed particles and any contaminants (identified by color, relief, or form); unrecognizable
fragments of palynomorphs which had less than half of the original form are ignored. Two separated
counts of 300-500 particles (for the kerogen group), and 300 particles (for the palynomorph group) are
necessary to enable the recalculation of individual subsets.
Figure 2: Palynofacies Counting (TWL and UV fluorescence mode). Only the particles which are in the
line of the crossed graduated reticule.
Tyson (1995) suggested that would need two totally separate counts to determine the
percentage assemblage compositions of the total kerogen and palynomorphs analysis by using the
total kerogen yield and the percentage of total palynomorphs within the kerogen count. It may need
to supplement the basics counts of 300-500 with additional counts of specific categories of special
interest if occur in low numbers. For key ratios, set a minimum target number for the sum of the two
categories involved (e.g. 50), and if this is not reached during the ordinary 300-500 total count, keep
counting alone until this target is attained. Although, according to Traverse (1988), 200-300
palynomorph counts might be viewed as sufficient for determining the overall nature of the
palynomorph population. The additional counts can be used to determine an optimum number of total

counts necessary to achieve a reliable percentage for the least numerically abundant particle of
interest in a given study.
For the less abundant components, low count totals can significantly limit the reliability of the
derived variables. Additional counts of certain categories (at least 50 particles) are thus needed to
provide sufficient counts for some important ratios (e.g. opaque equant:lath ratio). After counting the
slide was systematically scanned for any rare palaeoecological indicators that were not recognized
during the counting process; this is particularly important when working with samples from marginal
facies (e.g the presence o rare marine plankton will make a big difference in the interpretation) (Tyson,
1993, 1995; Vincent, 1995; Piper, 1995; Mendonça Filho, 1999).
The particulate organic components are separated in 3 main groups of the kerogen:
Phytoclasts and Palynomorphs groups (both of which are structured), and Amorphous group
(structureless), and their subgroups. The quantity of categories within of the kerogen groups is
dependent of the objective of each study. For source rock potential definition (descriptive) a simple
kerogen classification (from 4 to 6 categories) are generally sufficient (fluorescence is also used). These
number of categories may describe the hydrocarbon potential but do not have the detail to show how
it correlates with environment, and are thus of limited value as a basis for predictive modeling. In order
to determine the hydrocarbon generating potential of the kerogen we only need to determine the
relative abundance of the following categories: inert (“dead carbon”), gas-prone (“humic”), oil-prone
(“sapropelic”), and very oil-prone (“sapropelic”). For this study to be developed of a reliable way it
requires fluorescence as well as transmitted or reflected white light microscopy. Nevertheless, for a
correlation between source rock potential and environmental conditions (genetic) would be necessary
a more detailed kerogen classification (a greater quantity of data) with at least 10 categories, and up
to 30 or more. In this case, more emphasis is given to the nature of the palynomorphs (most diagnostic
particles for environmental characterization), and to preservation states. It is preferable separate the
counts of the total palynological organic matter, and the total palynomorph assemblage. The
fluorescence observations must be made, but it can be done separately from the counts. The types of
criteria on which categories should be assessed are mainly based on biological provenance of the
particles and the preservation states of the various particle types (partly a reflection of the distance or
duration of transport and the redox status of the depositional and early diagenetic environment, but
also the inherent resistance of the source material). Besides of any ecologically significant groupings
that may be reflected by the particle types (e.g. marine vs. freshwater aquatic palynomorphs,
ecologically diagnostic indicator species where these are known, terrestrial vs. marine phytoclasts, etc.)
or any consistent or significant variation in size or shape likely to be reflected in the hydrodynamic behavior
of the particles (Tyson, 1989, 1993, 1995).
5.3. Data Representation

After the obtaining of the palynofacies absolute data through the particulate organic
constituents counting methods, it is necessary to transfer the data from the recording sheets to a
computer using a scientific database or spreadsheet program. The absolute values obtained through
the counting must be transformed to percentage values and they must be put in form of graphs.
According to Tyson (1995), Vincent (1995) and Mendonça Filho (1999), the percentage data are used
because they are easy to determine. Most palynofacies studies deal primarily with the characterization
of the kerogen assemblage in terms of the relative contributions of its constituents (generally
percentages based on relative numeric particle frequencies) and they are based on percentage
frequency (the frequency of any component related to that of the total population of particles
presents) and relative frequency ratios (the numeric frequency of any component related to that of
any other component, not the total particle population). For the data closure all results must sum
100%. It is better to use subset percentages, rather than total particle percentages (e.g. express
different phytoclasts as a percentage of the total phytoclasts, rather than as a percentage of the total
particles, sporomorphs as a percentage of the total palynomorphs, rather than as a percentage of the

total particles). Such independent subset percentages can be cross-plotted against each other. The
number of counts in each subset must be significant (total counts at least 300, with extra counts for
key ratios). For within-sample comparisons, percentages of one component are always correlated
using the same sum (i.e. that which corresponds to 100%). The percentage data for each subset can
then be compared with values from the other subset(s) in order to evaluate real correlations that may
exist within the data.
Statistical treatment of data is essential in order to make use of the data in the right form. Raw
data collection in only aspect of any experiment; the organization of data is equally important so that
appropriate conclusions can be drawn. There are many techniques involved in statistics that treat data
in an appropriated manner. Cluster Analysis can be still used as a method of recognizing particulate
organic components assemblages and to do a statistical treatment to order the data. This method
arranges the components into a hierarchical classification called a dendrogram. Dendrograms are
constructed from the statistical distance or similarity between samples, based on their component
distribution. The components having the highest degree of similarity are clustered first, then others in
successive order, until all components are paired into clusters. The results of the cluster analysis show
groupings, or palynofacies, which are often characteristic of specific environments.
The first stage in data interpretation should be based upon the use of exploratory plots. Two
common means of showing such data are best avoided, namely pie-charts (where 360o = 100%) and
strip logs (where a uniform full column width indicates 100%). An effective way of graphically plotting
percentage data is to use Ternary (triangular) diagrams. The main advantage of ternary diagrams is
that the data are ploted with a spatial separation that is useful for grouping samples into empirically
defined associations or assemblages. To plot these diagrams, the percentage values of the three
components must sum to 100% and each corner of the diagram corresponds to a sample with 100%
of the component named at that corner (Figure 3). A sample with zero % of this component (e.g. X)
would plot on the line which forms the opposite side of the triangle (Y-Z). Because the three
components sum to 100%, only two of the three % values are needed to plot the position of a sample.
The third can be used to check this is done correctly (Tyson, 1995).
Figure 3: Ternary diagram representation.

Types of the ternary diagrams
One of the more complete diagrams used in palynofacies studies is the APP diagram (AOM-
Phytoclast-Palynomorph ternary diagram) because it correlates the percentage of the 3 main groups
of kerogen recognized in transmitted white light (Figure 4).
Tyson (1985, 1989, 1993, and 1995) adopted a convention where the most proximal
component is always plotted at the top (apex) of the ternary diagram, and the component most
associated with distal and reducing conditions is plotted in the left hand corner. This author uses an
AOM-Phytoclast-Palynomorph plot (1993, 1995) to characterize the kerogen assemblages. The plot
can pick out the differences in relative proximity to terrestrial organic matter sources, kerogen
transport paths and the redox status of the depositional subenvironments which control AOM
preservation. The top to base of the triangle thus represents a proximal to distal transition, and the
left to right of the diagram reflects a change from reducing to oxidizing (“redox'). Note that as AOM
increases, it gets harder to see the palynomorphs due to “masking”. Although use of fluorescence
allows more of these palynomorphs to be seen, it is best not used during counting, as palynomorphs
are a small volumetric fraction, and their abundance has little influence on geochemical properties
compared to the AOM. The samples with more than 60% palynomorphs are very rare, and so the lower
right hand corner of the diagram is usually empty (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Ternary AOM-Phytoclast-Palynomorph kerogen plot based on relative numeric frequency

data (Tyson, 1985, 1989, 1993, and 1995).
In the APP diagram applied to marine palynofacies (Tyson 1993, 1995) it is possible to define 9
fields using the percentages of the 3 main groups from the kerogen (Figure 5). These 9 fields represent
different environmental conditions, from a highly proximal shelf or basin environment to a distal shelf
or basin environment. Palynofacies assemblages 'start' at the proximal (phytoclast) corner as the
shallowest sediments are generally both proximal (high phytoclast supply) and oxic. The assemblages
then change in response to the above processes. Table 5 show a key to marine palynofacies fields
distinguished on ternary APP diagram according to Tyson (1993, 1995).

Some potential problems with interpreting APP diagrams and distinction of marine
palynofacies fields can occur, because the APP diagram takes in consideration just the percentages of
the 3 main kerogen groups. However, these problems can be solved when are known the
characteristics of each group in relation to their subgroups, subsets or even individual organic
components. The main problems, according to Tyson (1993, 1995), are in the definition of the basinal
facies. The basinal facies is distinguishable because it is assumed to have dysoxic-anoxic conditions
and thus AOM-dominated assemblages (Field IX in APP diagram). This is not always the case. If the
basin is oxic, the basinal facies will not plot in a distinctly separate area, and certainly not in the AOM
corner. Now, moderately oxic basinal facies will have high phytoclasts and palynomorphs and very oxic
facies may be very dominated by phytoclasts and thus would appear proximal. In this case, other
criteria may be needed to separate oxic proximal and distal facies. For example, in proximal facies the
phytoclasts will be mostly brown (non-opaque); whereas in (highly oxic) distal facies the percentages
of black (opaque) material will be high (see also other proximal-distal phytoclast and palynomorphs
criteria in the item 5.4. Trends in the kerogen group distribution). Besides this, high percentages of
AOM do not necessarily mean oil-prone dysoxic-anoxic source rocks. To determine the source rock and
organic facies significance of APP plots the preservation state of the AOM must be checked using
fluorescence.
It is worth mention that in palynofacies field IX, the relatively high AOM percentages could
suggest, besides a environment related to a distal suboxic-anoxic shelf, originally defined by Tyson
(1993, 1995), a environment related to a carbonate shelf or a restricted marine environment or even
a lagoon environment (Menezes et al., 2008; Mendonça Filho et al., 2010a) owing to differences in the
palynofacies assemblages in relation to the depositional conditions.
Figure 5: Ternary AOM-Phytoclast-Palynomorph kerogen plot and the palynofacies fields and
environments. Note: Palynofacies field IX could be related to carbonate shelf or restricted marine
environmental or lagoon environmental (modified Tyson, 1985, 1989, 1993, 1995; Menezes et al.,
2008; Mendonça Filho et al., 2010a, 2012).

Table 5: Key to marine palynofacies fields distinguished on ternary AAP diagram (Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Besides the APP diagram, there are several others diagrams to represent the palynofacies data
and to interpret its results. Suites of ternary diagrams can be used to highlight different aspects of
palynological organic matter assemblages, such as:
 Total kerogen (palynological organic matter) population;
 Total palynomorph population:
 Total sporomorph population;
 Total organic-walled microplankton population;
 Total phytoclast population:
 Total woody phytoclast population;
 Total brown (non-opaque) biostructured woody phytoclast population;
More detailed explanations about the graphic representation of palynofacies data and other
ternary palynomorph plots can be found in Tyson (1993 and1995, Chapter 25, item 25.8).

Ternary diagram for describing total palynomorph assemblages:
SMP (Figure 6): in this diagram the palynomorph assemblage is represented by the content of spores,
microplankton and pollen grain and indicates the proximity from the continental source area and
onshore-offshore depositional environments and transgressive-regressive trends (Federova, 1977;
Traverse, 1988; Duringer and Doubinger, 1985; Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Figure 6: Spore-Microplankton-Pollen Grain plot (Federova, 1977; Traverse, 1988; Duringer and
Doubinger, 1985; Tyson, 1993, 1995).
DSA (Figure 7): in this diagram the palynomorph assemblage is represented by the content of
dinocysts, sporomorphs and acritarchs to characterize shallow marine (neritic), brackish marine, or
non-marine to brackish depositional environments and to indicate the salinity conditions in the
deposition sites and the level of marine influence in marginal continental environments (Burger, 1980;
Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Figure 7: Dinocysts-Sporomorphs-Acritarchs plot (Burger, 1980; Tyson, 1993, 1995).

PAD (Figure 8): in this diagram the palynomorph assemblage is represented by the content of
prasinophytes, acritarchs and dinocysts and indicates the salinity conditions in the deposition sites
and the position in the marine environment. Stratified marine shelf or basin, hypo or hypersaline
marginal marine and unstable marine shelf (Tyson, 1993).
Figure 8: Prasinophytes-Acritarchs-Dinocysts plot (Tyson, 1993).
D+PCA (Figure 9): in this diagram the palynomorph assemblage is represented by the content of
dinocysts + prasinophytes, chlorococcales algae (Botryococcus + Pediastrum) and acritarchs and
indicates mainly the salinity conditions in the deposition sites and it can serve to distinguish different
environments (Tyson, 1993).
Figure 9: Dinocysts+Prasinophytes-Chlorococcales Algae-Acritarchs plot (Tyson, 1993).

GPG (Figure 10): in this diagram the dinocysts assemblage is represented by the content of gonyalacoid
(chorates), peridinioid (cavates) and others gonyalacoids and indicates the position in the marine
environment (Tyson, 1993).
Figure 10: Gonyalacoid (chorates)-Peridinioid (cavates)-Others Gonyalacoids plot (Tyson, 1993).
APB (Figure 11): in this diagram the palynomorph and AOM assemblages are represented by the
content of AOM, Pediastrum and Botryococcus and indicates the salinity conditions in the deposition
sites and it can serve to distinguish the trophic state in lacustrine environments (Mendonça Filho et
al., 2010a; 2011; 2012).
Figure 11: AOM-Pediastrum-Botryococcus plot (Mendonça Filho et al., 2010a; 2011; 2012).

5.4. Trends in the Kerogen Groups Distribution (Palynofacies Parameters)
According to Tyson (1995) the choice of palynofacies parameters depends upon the objectives
of the study and upon the kerogen and palynomorph classifications used to collect the data.
There are a number of kerogen and palynomorph parameters that are commonly used in
palaeoenvironmental studies, and their interpretation is based on just a few major variables, namely
proximal-distal variations (proximality), redox conditions, palaeosalinity, palaeoproductivity and
watermass stability (Tyson; 1993). The most important of these variables controlling the parameter
trends is the palynological concept of proximality (proximal-distal variations), which has been derived
from analogous concepts in sedimentology dealing with lateral variations in sediment character with
increasing distance from siliciclastic sediment source (or distance from the main sediment transport
path) (Tyson; 1995). According to Tyson (1993, 1995), the concept of proximality used in palynofacies
studies is a hybrid one involving a number of interrelated factors, such as: the actual proximity to the
fluvio-deltaic point source(s) of siliciclastic sediment and terrestrial organic matter (phytoclasts), the
magnitude (discharge rate) of the fluvio-deltaic point source(s), the magnitude and nature of terrestrial
primary productivity in the sediment source area, the relative total duration of transport (intermittent
or continuous) between the particle source area and its final site of deposition, and the gradient in
palaeoenvironment between the source area and site of final deposition (e.g. palaeoslope,
environmental energy, siliciclastic sediment accumulation rate). It is a summation of all the observed
changes in palynological organic matter assemblages that occur along a proximal (near source) to distal
(far from source) transect. Proximal-distal variation is best indicated by the terrestrial components (i.e.
sporomorphs and phytoclasts; also reworked palynomorphs and freshwater algae).
A proximal facies is one presumed to be deposited near (or nearest) to the fluvio-deltaic point
source(s) and it shows the highest siliciclastic sediment accumulation rate. These facies contain the
greatest degree of relative and absolute terrestrial influence and they have experienced the least
transport and thus least modification of their organic matter assemblage (size sorting, degradation,
fragmentation, or oxidation) prior to burial. Proximal facies are often, but not always, coarser
sediments deposited under higher energy conditions (greater mean size or higher silt or sand content).
The lateral proximal-distal changes that occur in these facies reflect the palaeogeography and bottom
topography and hence they influence the sediment transport path. Now, vertical proximal-distal
changes reflect transgressive-regressive trends and relative progradation or retrogradation of deltas.
Relative distal shifts in palynofacies may also reflect climatically driven changes in either the magnitude
of discharge at the sediment source or terrestrial primary productivity in the drainage basin (i.e. less
material produced or supplied). Sediments deposited adjacent to arid continental settings may thus
appear more distal than those deposited at equivalent distances from land under humid continental
settings. Redeposition processes may make offshore palynofacies (distal) to present characteristics of
a proximal facies (e.g. near submarine fans, in turbidites). Similarly, bypassing may make a proximal
site appear more distal than it really is Tyson (1993, 1995). A full explanation and a better description
for these parameters can be found in Tyson (1995).
5.4.1. Phytoclast Group

Terrestrial organic particles generally become less abundant, smaller, more oxidized (more
refractory) in a distal direction. Changes in the terrestrial components are largely a function of the
hydrodynamic equivalence (selective transportation) and selective degradation / preservation (Figure
12). Phytoclasts are mostly transported the same way as silt or sand, and are thus preferentially
deposited in such sediments (nearshore, higher energy or turbidites). The absolute abundance of
terrestrial particles away from their source is decreased with the distance (distal, offshore areas), most
of it happens very quickly (in nearshore areas, proximal). The terrestrial organic fraction is largely
deposited in prodelta facies or trapped in estuaries, relatively little escapes to be deposited in offshore
areas (distal). With increasing distance/time less resistant materials are selectively destroyed,
concentrating the relative proportion (but not amount) of refractory material distally. The opaque

(black):non-opaque (translucent) phytoclast ratio increases because the non-opaque material is lost
(by selective degradation or selective deposition), not because the latter is converted to opaque
material (Tyson, 1993, 1995).
A high percentage of phytoclasts in the kerogen assemblage can reflect high supply,
preferential preservation and/or any selective sedimentation due to the hydrodynamic equivalence of
the particles or preferential sedimentation depending on the nature of the assemblage (Figure 12).
Poorly sorted assemblages of mixed composition containing tissues which would not normally be
preserved are characteristic of proximal settings close to the parent flora, where there is sufficient
supply to dilute other kerogen groups (Table 6). This situation generally characterizes inner shelf
settings as most terrestrial organic matter in estuarine systems sediments, large amounts only reach
the outer shelf when markedly high discharge occurs, or the shelf is particularly narrow. A higher
percentage of brown phytoclasts is usually found close to the fluvial source where they dilute any black
phytoclasts, palynomorphs or AOM that are present. Non-biostructured non-opaque phytoclasts are
dominant in more proximal settings where they may be very dark in color due to oxidation. With
greater transport distally, the previously dominant brown non-biostructured material is finally
removed from the system by either selective deposition or selective degradation. There is a
corresponding percentage increase in the more refractory tissues (xylem tissues – stripes and
tracheids), and an overall decrease in size of the phytoclasts due to break-up of particles during
transport. These results in changing proportions of the different phytoclasts groups along a proximal-
distal transect. Opaque (black) phytoclasts have greater resistance to degradation than the brown
fraction, and will therefore survive when most other material has been selectively destroyed.
Dominantly refractory phytoclast assemblages are characteristic of oxidizing situations where
only resistant (lignitic) woody material survives, such as fluvial and delta top settings where there is a
strong chance of post-depositional oxidation. There is a general decrease in the percentage of
phytoclasts in a distal direction as a result of decreasing absolute abundance away from their source,
and increasing dilution by palynomorphs or AOM. In some cases a high percentage of phytoclasts may
indicate oxidizing conditions where only the most refractory material survives. The relative percentage
of opaque particles also often increases in more distal settings and their size becomes smaller and the
particles more lath-shaped as a result of prolonged transport and comminution of the fragments. The
hydrodynamic equivalence of phytoclast material leads to high percentages occurring in sediments of
predominantly coarse silt/fine sand grain size; in terrestrially dominated facies it is this relationship
that largely controls TOC values (Parry et al., 1981; Wollast, 1983; Tyson, 1989, 1993, 1995; Vincent,
1995, Piper, 1995; Mendonça Filho, 1999).
Cuticle (membrane) debris is derived primarily from leaves. They are considered to be the most
buoyant type of terrestrially-derived organic matter, only deposited from the suspended load when
energy conditions were particularly low. Thus, high percentages of cuticles (membranes) have been
found in deltaic distributary and prodeltaic facies (Fisher, 1980; Parry et. al., 1981; Tyson, 1993,
Vincent, 1995).
Charcoal particles like sclereids (Mendonça Filho et al., 2007; Mendonça et al., 2007), which
are derived from natural pyrolysis (natural forest fires), are transported by weak currents and are
deposited in distal areas as fall-out from the airborne fraction of particulate charcoal associated with
forest fire smokes.
The particle size of tracheids, charcoals and cuticles (membranes) have all been shown to
decrease in an offshore direction, but phytoclasts particle size is also strongly affected by the
granulometric composition of the sediment, proximity to source, and any fragmentation during
sample preparation (Tyson, 1993; Vincent, 1995; Mendonça Filho, 1999).

Figure 12: Particulate organic matter hydrodynamic equivalence (selective transportation and
selective degradation and/or preservation) (Mendonça Filho et al., 2009; 2011).

Table 6: some differences between proximal (deltaic) and distal (shelf/basin) environments based on
the phytoclasts percentage. In this table it can be observed the behavior of the phytoclasts
components with the variations in the environmental conditions (Tyson, 1993, 1995).
PROXIMAL (DELTAIC) DISTAL (SHELF/BASIN)
High absolute abundance Low absolute abundance
High relative abundance (high supply) Low-moderate relative abundance (selective preservation)
Large coarse fraction Small coarse fraction

Poorly sorted Better sorted (low skewness)
Brown/vitrinitic dominant More black/inertinitic
Less biostructured More biostructured
Black equant > lath Black equant > or = lath
Cuticle fairly common Cuticle rare
The phytoclast assemblage changes in agreement with the increase of the distance from the
continental source area. There is a natural sequence of phytoclast destruction according to the lignin
content and inherent resistance to the destruction: the first component to disappear of the
assemblage are non-opaque non-biostructured after this there is a sequence of destruction of these
components (according to its content in lignin and its resistance to the destruction) and the last
components to disappear are opaque phytoclasts (Figure 13).
Non-opaque (translucent): opaque (black) phytoclast ratio
Opaque material can be produced by either the oxidation of non-opaque particles during
prolonged transport or even post depositionally, or as charcoal by natural pyrolysis (natural forest
fires) (Tyson, 1993). These particles are commonly reported as being dominant in coarse grained, high
energy, organic-poor facies such as distributary channel sands and point bars (Fisher, 1980; Denison
and fowler, 1980; Parry et al., 1981; Baten, 1982a and 1982b, Bustin, 1988; Tyson, 1989, 1993, 1995).
This realationship has lead to the development of the idea that opaque phytoclasts are
hydrodynamically equivalent to sand grade material (Fisher, 1980; Denison and fowler, 1980; Parry et
al., 1981; Tyson, 1989, 1993, 1995). According to Whitaker et al. (1992), blade-shaped opaque
phytoclasts are the most buoyant material in the kerogen assemblage; they are resistant to
degardation and can be concentrated in high energy environments. There is an increase offshore in
fine grained opaque phytoclasts relative to non-opaque material and the transition from non-opaque
to opaque phytoclasts is primarily a subaerial effect that happens before the particles enter the sea;
the subsequent ratio reflects relative preservation (opaque greater than non-opaque) and size sorting
(as opaque particles are generally smaller) (Tyson, 1989, 1995). Habib (1982), shows that the kerogen
assemblages of oceanic sediments are typically dominated by small (<20µm), equidimensional, opaque
to semi-opaque particles, especially during transgressive periods of low terrestrial organic matter
supply.
Equant: lath opaque phytoclast ratio
The morphological form of the opaque phytoclast is important to do some interpretations
about the phytoclast assemblage. According to Whitaker et al. (1992), lath-shaped black wood is
supposedly extremely buoyant and is selectively transported to more distal settings where it is

commonly dominant. This relationship may also be partly due to the fact that the lath material is the
result of break down of larger particles (lath or equant in shape) and is extremely resistant in nature.
In this case, relative decreases in the equant:lath opaque ratio can therefore be used to indicate a shift
to more distal deposition (Parry et al., 1981; Van der Zwan, 1990, Gorin and Steffen, 1991; Tyson, 1989,
1993, 1995; Vincent, 1995) and its opposite trend can also occur (Frank and Tyson, 1995). It would
appear that the equant:lath sorting trends are also partly size dependant with lath-shaped particles
increased in some high energy, proximal facies as they can be significantly larger than any equant
particles (Tyson, 1995; Frank and Tyson, 1995).
Figure 13: The proximal-distal relationship based on the phytoclasts types: selectively preserved
phytoclast types at different points on a relative proximal-distal gradient (after Tyson, 1993, 1995;
Vincent, 1995; Mendonça Filho 1999; Mendonça Filho et al., 2010a, 2010c, 2012).
Phytoclast Preservation Index (PPI)

A Phytoclast Preservation Index (PPI) has been used for a better visualization of the variations
of the relative proportions of the different constituents of the phytoclast fraction deriving from the
differences in the energy conditions of the environment, the variations in the proximal-distal trend
and the history of the transport and oxidation processes. According to Vincent (1995), this index is
conceptually similar to that defined in Hart (1986).
The PPI is calculated using the degradation pathway of the woody particles presented in Table
2 (Mendonça Filho et al., 2010a; modified from Tyson, 1995; Piper, 1995; Vincent, 1995; Mendonça
Filho, 1999), where the preservation characteristics of each subgroup are represented by a numerical
scale that gives to each phytoclast group a value correlated to the resistance to degradation of the
woody organic components and cuticular tissues (score).
The PPI has been calculated by assigning each phytoclast type a number (score) between 1 to
10 based on its perceived resistance to degradation: score 1 represents the least refractory
components, which indicate depositional conditions near to the parent flora (non-opaque non-
degraded particles and phytoclasts in decomposition/gelified and in process of transformation in
amorphous particle), and score 10 refers to the material which is more resistant to the oxic
degradation, because with the increase of high energy conditions the phytoclast fraction tends to
become progressively dominated by more refractory material (Table 7). This derives mainly from the
stronger degradation suffered by the more fragile components and the consequent selective

preservation of the most refractory types (opaque phytoclasts and biostructured non-opaque
phytoclasts of the tracheid type).
The index is calculated by taking the percentage of each type of total phytoclasts (in this case
only the total of those phytoclast types included in the calculation of the index), dividing this by 100,
then multiplying the product by its “score” and summing the results for all six phytoclast types, as
follow:
PPI = ∑ {(%phytoclast type/total phytoclast)/100} x score (where ∑ = sum of)
A low PPI represents a predominance of fresh undegraded phytoclasts and identifiable higher
plant remains (cuticle) over degraded and refractory material; a moderate index suggests an equal
abundance of phytoclast types; a high index level occurs when refractory phytoclasts dominate (the
maximum possible index, 10, represents 100% of opaque phytoclasts). Therefore, the index should
increase from proximal to distal settings. Thus, the PPI values generally increase towards the more
distal portions of the depositional site.
Table 7: Phytoclasts Preservation Index (PPI) ranking of each type of phytoclast included on its
calculation (Mendonça Filho et al., 2010a; modified from Tyson, 1995; Piper, 1995; Vincent, 1995;
Mendonça Filho, 1999).
5.4.2. Palynomorph Group

The percentage of palynomorphs is primarily controlled by dilution by either AOM or
phytoclasts and, therefore, it is highest in settings where these two parameters are reduced. The
percentage of palynomorphs in the kerogen assemblage is therefore highest in moderately oxidising
settings with low AOM preservation, and in situations removed from the immediate vicinity or active
fluvio-deltaic sources of phytoclasts. Palynomorphs are hydrodynamically equivalent to silt or clay and
are thus concentrated in finer sediments. Smaller and more buoyant particles increase in proportion
offshore. They are also associated with situations characterized by initial low phytoclast production or
transport (as in arid climates associated with little vegetation and low runoff). In such cases the
detailed interpretation is dependent upon the composition (nature) of the palynomorph assemblage.
Where the assemblage is dominated by sporomorphs, high palynomorph percentages usually occur in
low energy, distal, moderately oxidizing situations where buoyant or wind-blown pollen grain
(especially bisaccates) have become preferentially concentrated, though usually in low to moderate
absolute numbers. Bisaccates and other pollen grain are often concentrated in low energy distal
environments, whilst dinocyst-dominated assemblages may reflect areas of high primary productivity.
Sorting effects can also lead to concentrations of palynomorphs in sediments rich in medium-fine silt
grade material; with they are hydrodynamically equivalent. Now, the coarse phytoclast fraction, if
initially present, has usually been deposited before such areas have been reached, and does not
therefore dilute the palynomorphs. If the palynomorph assemblage is dominated by dinocysts, high

palynomorph percentages (and high absolute abundances) may also be related to areas of high
primary productivity. Areas of coastal upwelling are typically associated with arid conditions on the
adjacent land areas, and are therefore usually poor in phytoclasts (Tyson 1993, 1995).
The sporomorph dominant percentage from the total kerogen can be interpreted as oxidizing
environments with relatively low “AOM” preservation and moderate proximity to fluvio-deltaic
source(s), but without dilution by phytoclasts. In hypersaline environments with low production of
fossilizing organic walled microplankton and plant debris the wind-blown pollen grains are dominant.
Because of their hydrodynamic equivalence, the bisaccates or small simple pollen grains have been the
main sporomorphs concentrated in distal stability stratified depositional environments (with low
dinocyst production). The sporomorphs dominant percentage of total palynomorphs is dependent on
the proximity to a fluvio-deltaic source and on the productivity of fossilizing plankton, especially
dinoflagellates. Therefore, the highest percentages are found in proximal areas where lowered
salinities suppress any plankton production and sporomorph input is high. High percentages are found
at sites near to the parent flora, characterized by an over representation of locally derived
sporomorphs and high variability (Muller, 1959; Davey and Rogers, 1975; Tyson, 1993; Vincent, 1995;
Mendonça Filho, 1999).
The spores’ dominant percentage of total sporomorphs (with the presence of significant
percentages of spores) indicates substantial Pteridophyte vegetation and humid conditions. Now, the
predominance of spores over pollen grain indicates proximity to the parent flora (proximality). As
spores are produced in lower numbers than pollen grains and transported less efficiently, the
percentage then decreases offshore. The thick-walled spores' percentage of total spores decreases
away from source due to hydrodynamic equivalence, larger and/or denser spores (ornamented) being
generally deposited first. However, these spores can also be selectively concentrated in any coarse
sediment as there are no other palynomorphs of similar hydrodynamic equivalence. In relation to the
bisaccates dominant percentage of total pollen grain; due to their buoyancy, bisaccates pollen grains
are selectively transported to more offshore settings, their percentage increasing in relation to other
pollen grain, relatively high percentages therefore indicate a (relatively) distal setting (Tschudy, 1969;
Habib, 1982; Traverse, 1988; Tyson, 1989, 1993; Vincent, 1995; Mendonça Filho, 1999). Table 8 shows
some differences between proximal (deltaic) and distal (shelf/basin) environments based on the
sporomorph percentage.
Table 8: Some differences between proximal (deltaic) and distal (shelf/basin) environments based on
the sporomorph percentage. In this table it can be observed the behavior of the sporomorph
components with the variations in the environmental conditions (Tyson, 1993, 1995).
High absolute abundance Low absolute abundance
Spore > Pollen Pollen > Spore
Large/Thick > Small/Thin Small/Thin > Large/Thick
Spore: Bissacate ratio high Spore: Bissacate ratio low
More tetrads Less tetrads (usually)
More megaspores Megaspores very rare
More reworked palynomorphs Less reworked palynomorphs

The freshwater organic walled plankton as Chlorococcales algae (Botryococcus and
Pediastrum) are known to be exclusively freshwater in origin and most fossil records of its occurrence
are from lacustrine, fluvial, lagoonal and deltaic facies. The Chlorococcales dominant percentage of
organic-walled plankton can be interpreted as close proximity to, or redeposition from, areas of
freshwater input (Table 9). However, their buoyant nature means that the colonies are often flushed
out to outer shelf settings. High percentages of Botryococcus and Pediastrum may therefore indicate
proximality to a fluvio-deltaic source, and its presence in assemblages has been used to indicate at
least some fresh water input to a system (Riding et al., 1991; Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Table 9: A summary of main characteristics of the palynomorph (freshwater algae) assemblage (Tyson,
1993, 1995).
Environmental factor:
Parameters: Distal Upwelling
Proximal → Increasing
Anoxic Redeposition (with sand arid
Distal trend % Sand
Facies hinterland)
% Plankton/
low→high→low decreases decreases may increase increases
Palynomorphs
% Chlorococcales/
high→low decreases usually low may increase decreases
Plankton
% Reworked may
high→low decreases increases decreases
Palynomorphs Increase
The marine plankton dominant percentage of total kerogen occurs in oxidizing environments
with low "AOM" preservation but high productivity and distal shelf areas removed from river inputs,
with adjacent land areas poorly vegetated (e.g. arid areas). The organic-walled plankton dominant
percentage of palynomorphs can be interpreted as shelf areas removed from active sporomorph input
(i.e. from active fluvio-deltaic sources), arid areas with poor vegetation and low runoff (i.e. low
sporomorph production and supply), or areas of high shelf productivity, e.g. coastal upwelling regimes
(Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Prasinophyte algae (pelagic organic bodies: phycomata) dominate the marine palynomorph
assemblage when production of other groups was suppressed, especially in dysoxic-anoxic facies. The
prasinophyte dominant percentage of organic-walled microplankton can be interpreted as a stably
stratified water masses with low in situ production of cyst-forming dinoflagellates, and low
redeposition of dinocysts from adjacent shelf areas, dysoxic-anoxic basinal sediments with low
sediment accumulation rates (e.g. condensed sections), and cold high latitude or glacially-influenced
waters (Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Significant percentages of acritarchs in Mesozoic sediments generally characterize shallow,
marginal marine where dinocyst production suppressed by brackish conditions. They are therefore the
most tolerant (euryhaline) of the marine plankton groups and have been used to recognize saline
influences in generally non-marine settings. They can occur in marginal, brackish, or hypersaline
depositional environments. The dominance of acritarchs long to short-spined (acanthomorph
acritarchs) of organic-walled microplankton can be interpreted as being from a relatively offshore,
lower energy, marine environments (Wall, 1965; Hancock and Fisher, 1981; Tyson, 1993, 1995).
In most marine situations dinocysts are the predominant form of fossilizing phytoplankton,
and they normally form a very high percentage of the total organic-walled microplankton assemblage.
This is particularly the case of areas of high primary productivity. The dinocysts dominant percentage
of organic-walled microplankton can be interpreted as deposition beneath, or redeposition from,

unstable, seasonal, shelf watermasses (especially of temperate or subtropical climates), normal marine
salinities, or areas of high dinocyst productivity (e.g. hydrographic estuarine or shelf fronts or coastal
upwelling areas), or redeposition from same (Tyson, 1993, 1995). Dinoflagellate diversity generally
increases offshore, but onshore assemblages (e.g. estuarine facies) show the most variability in
diversity and are frequentely characterized by high dominance. Low diversity high dominance
assemblages are generally typical of stressful environments which can only be tolerated or exploited
by specialized forms (Wall et al., 1977).
The Peridinioid: Gonyaulacoid dinocysts ratio > 1 can be interpreted as nearshore, lagoonal,
estuarine or prodelta environments with low salinity influence (especially in mid-Cretaceous to Early
Tertiary sediments) and low diversity assemblages typical, areas of upwelling (also low diversity
assemblages typical), good preservational conditions (peridinioid cysts more fragile), and a possible
guide to palaeosalinity variations and proximity to shoreline (Harland, 1973; Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Dinocyst diversity generally increases offshore, but onshore assemblages (particularly those in
estuarine facies) show the most variability in diversity and are frequently characterized by high
dominance (Wall et al., 1977). Low diversity high dominance assemblages are generally typical of
stressful environments which can only be tolerated or exploited by specialized forms. If conditions are
eutrophic, high productivity can give to high dinocyst density and high dominance in such facies (Davey
and Rogers, 1975; Wall et al., 1977; Tyson, 1993, 1995). Tyson (1993, 1995) presented a summary of
main characteristics of the marine OWM (Table 10) and some differences between proximal (deltaic)
and distal (shelf/basin) environments based on the marine OWM percentage assemblage (Table 11).
Table 10: a summary of main characteristics of the marine OWM assemblage (Tyson, 1993, 1995).
Environmental factor:
Parameters: Proximal → Distal Increasing % Distal Anoxic
Redeposition Upwelling*
trend Sand Facies
% Plankton/
Palynomorphs
% acritarchs/ Marine
high→low may increase usually low may increase decreases
plankton
% Dinocysts/ Marine
low→high→low may decrease decreases may increase increases
plankton
% Prasinophytes/
low→high no data increases decreases decreases
Marine plankton
Long:Short-spined
low→high decreases may increase decreases no data
Acritarchs
% Chorates/ Dinocysts low→high decreases increases may decrease decreases?
Peridinoid:
high→low may increase may decrease may decrease increases
Gonyaulacoid dinocysts
Dinocyst species diversity low→high→low decreases decreases may increase decreases
Dinocyst species
high→low may increase increases may decrease increases
dominance
Absolute dinocyst
abundance
% Reworked
high→low may Increase decreases increases decreases
Palynomorphs
* with sand arid hinterland

Table 11: some differences between proximal (deltaic) and distal (shelf/basin) environments based on
the OWM percentage assemblage (Tyson, 1993, 1995).

Organic-walled microplankton
More freshwater algae Less freshwater algae
Mero > Holoplankton Holo > or = Meroplankton
Dinocysts > Prasinophytes Dinocysts > or = Prasinophytes
Proximate > Chorate dinos Chorate > Proximate dinos
Lower diversity Higher diversity
5.4.3. Amorphous Group

High percentages of fluorescent amorphous organic matter (AOM) reflect enhanced
preservation under reducing conditions, and to a lesser extent, sedimentation removed from active
sources of terrestrial organic matter (Tyson, 1993). Most of the marine organic matter in sediments is
represented by AOM, but it is easily degraded when exposed to aerobic conditions. However, due to
the large reservoir of marine organic aggregates available, when conditions are sufficiently reducing it
often swamps other kerogen components. AOM consists of easily degraded material that survives only
where the duration and extent of aerobic degradation is limited (Tyson, 1987, 1989, 1993). The
fluorescent intensity of the AOM is controlled by the redox conditions under which it was deposited;
dysoxic-anoxic conditions preserve the labile hydrogen-rich components of the AOM. As the
fluorescence as a whole is partly controlled by the planktonic source and inclusions within the particles,
it is the fluorescence of the easily degraded matrix of heterogeneous amorphous particles that is the
most sensitive indicator of redox conditions. The AOM dominant percentage of total kerogen can be
interpreted as reducing (i.e. at least temporarily dysoxic to anoxic environments with high preservation
of autochthonous planktonic organic matter or benthic microbial mat material) or distal depositional
environments removed from active sources of diluents terrestrial organic matter; especially during
high sea levels. In low energy proximal delta top facies it may be possible that some of the amorphous
material present is the product of higher plant degradation (Tyson, 1989; 1993, 1995; Piper, 1995;
Mendonça Filho et al., 2010a, 2012).
The relative and absolute abundance of AOM is strongly correlated with areas of low (dysoxic)
bottom water oxygen values, especially (but not necessarily) those underlying areas of high primary
productivity (Davey and Rogers, 1975; Tissot and Pelet, 1981; Summerhayes, 1983; Tyson, 1993). It
frequently dominates the kerogen assemblages in which it is found. This is because of the large
reservoir of organic aggregate material that is present in aquatic environments, which if preserved
under sufficiently reducing conditions, usually swamps all other components. In oxygen deficient
basins with high AOM preservation, allochthonous terrestrial material is only dominant in the
immediate vicinity of fluvio-deltaic sources, or within turbidites. In carbonate facies it may be the only
organic matter available for preservation (Tyson, 1984, 1987, 1993).
Table 12 shows the relationship between the proximal-distal concept and the parameters
calculated for the groups and subgroups of the organic matter components and general trends
proximal-distal, based on Tyson (1993, 1995), Vincent (1995) and Mendonça Filho (1999).

Table12: The Proximal-Distal Concept and the parameters calculated for the groups and subgroups of
the organic matter components and general trends proximal-distal, based in Tyson (1993, 1995),
Vincent (1995) and Mendonça Filho (1999).
TREND
PARAMETERS
PROXIMAL DISTAL
% of phytoclasts of the total organic matter High Low
% of palynomorphs of the total organic matter Low High
% of amorphous organic matter of the total organic matter Low High
Total % of non-biostructured, non-opaque phytoclasts of the total non-opaque phytoclasts High Low
Total % of biostructured, non-opaque phytoclasts of the total non-opaque phytoclasts Low High
Total % of opaque phytoclasts of total phytoclasts Low High
% of cuticles of total phytoclasts High Low
% of membranes of total phytoclasts High Low
% of non-opaque, non-biostructured, undegraded phytoclasts of the total non-opaque, non-

High Low
biostructured phytoclasts
% of non-opaque, non-biostructured, degraded phytoclasts of the total non-opaque, non-

Low High
biostructured phytoclasts
Total % of banded non-opaque, phytoclasts of the total non-opaque biostructured

High Low
phytoclasts
Total % of non-opaque tracheid tissues of the total non-opaque biostructured phytoclasts Low High
% of banded, non-opaque, undegraded phytoclasts of the total banded non-opaque

High Low
phytoclasts
% of banded, non-opaque, degraded phytoclasts of the total banded non-opaque

Low High
phytoclasts
% of non-opaque undegraded tracheid tissues of the total non-opaque tracheid tissues High Low
% of opaque undegraded tracheid tissues of the total non-opaque tracheid tissues Low High
% of opaque equidimensional phytoclasts of the total opaque phytoclasts High Low
% of elongated opaque phytoclasts of the total opaque phytoclasts Low High
Total ratio of non-opaque phytoclasts versus opaque phytoclasts High Low
Ratio of equidimensional opaque phytoclasts versus elongated High Low
Ratio of phytoclasts versus palinomorphs High Low
Ratio of non-opaque, non-opaque, non-biostructured phytoclasts versus degraded High Low
Ratio of non-opaque, biostructured, undegraded phytoclasts versus degraded High Low

Tyson (1995) summarized the palynofacies kerogen parameters used for palaeoenvironmental
interpretation of sediments shown follow:
Parameter: % Phytoclasts (of total kerogen)
Interpretation of high (relative) values
 Large magnitude of, close proximity to, or redeposition from, fluvio-deltaic source(s) of
terrestrial organic matter, resulting in dilution of other components. TOC values moderate to
high, phytoclast composition mixed; particles poorly sorted;
 Oxidising environments in which other components have been selectively destroyed. TOC
usually low, with high percentages of small opaque or semi-opaque and brown biostructured
and phytoclasts. Well sorted. Especially characteristic during high sea levels;
 Sandy or silty sediments (due to hydrodynamic equivalence).
Parameter: % Amorphous (AOM) (of total kerogen)

 Reducing (i.e. at least temporarily dysoxic to anoxic environments with high preservation of
autochthonous planktonic organic matter or benthic microbial mat material);
 Distal depositional environments removed from active sources of diluents terrestrial organic
matter (especially during high sea levels).
Parameter: % Palynomorphs (of total kerogen, sporomorphs dominant)

 Oxidizing environments with relatively low “AOM” preservation;
 Moderate proximity to fluvio-deltaic source(s), but without dilution by phytoclasts;
 Hypersaline environments with low production of fossilizing organic walled microplankton and
plant debris; wind-blown pollen dominant;
 If mainly bisaccates or small simple pollen, distal stabily stratified depositional environments
(with low dinocyst production), where these sporomorphs have been concentrated because
of their hydrodynamic equivalence;
 Upper parts of turbiditic muds derived from fluvio-deltaic source areas.
Parameter: % Palynomorphs (of total kerogen, organic-walled microplankton dominant)

 Oxidizing environments with low “AOM” preservation but high productivity;
 Distal shelf areas removed from river inputs, with adjacent land areas poorly vegetated (e.g.
arid).
Parameter: Opaque:non-opaque (translucent) (non-cuticle phytoclasts)

 Long distance or duration of transport of phytoclasts, i.e. distal oxic or anoxic depositional
environments removed from sources of fresh phytoclasts. Particles small and more lath-
shaped. Especially characteristic of basinal and distal Shelf sediments deposited during high
sea levels. Low TOC values typical in oxidizing environments;
 Post-depositional oxidation within sandy subaerially exposed sediments, and/or soils
(especially under seasonal or tidally fluctuating water table conditions). Particles more equant;

 Local reworking from sediments of higher maturation level;
 Localized high flux of charcoal following wildfires and subsequently increased runoff.
Parameter: Equant:lath opaque phytoclast ratio

 Close proximity to fluvio-deltaic source area, low transport distance (especially applies where
equant = largest particles; if this is not true Interpretation may be opposite).
Parameter: Undegraded:degraded phytoclast ratio

 Moderately proximal oxic environments removed from areas of active redeposition; other
constituents eliminated but more resistant material selectively preserved or concentrated by
hydrodynamic equivalence;
 Distal settings in which “euhedral” and/or biostructured refractory opaque phytoclasts have
become selectively concentrated.
Parameter: % Cuticle (of phytoclasts)

Most typical of:
 Proximal, i.e. fluvio-deltaic, prodelta, or estuarine-mangrove facies, especially those rich in
macroscopic plant fragments;
 Proximal siliciclastic submarine fan facies (including sandy upper to mid-fan channel or
overbank facies).
Parameter: Phytoclast particle size

Large mean particle sizes (or large coarse fractions) indicate:
 Proximity to fluvio-deltaic source(s) of terrestrial organic matter;
 Active redeposition from a fluvio-deltaic source area, as in turbidites (especially basal Bouma
subdivisions);
 Sandy or silty sediments (due to hydrodynamic equivalence).
Parameter: “AOM” fluorescence

 Relatively high fluorescent intensity of “AOM” matrix indicates strongly reducing
environments with good preservation of lipoid-rich materials. Pyrite inclusions are often
relatively abundant within the (marine) “AOM”.
Parameter: % Sporomorphs (of total palynomorphs)

 Large magnitude of, close proximity to, or redeposition from active fluvio-deltaic source(s).
Lowered salinities may suppress in situ production of fossilizing organic-walled plankton.
Sporomorphs dilute any plankton present. High absolute abundances;

 Stabily stratified water masses with low in situ production of fossilizing organic-walled
plankton. Low absolute abundances: sporomorphs dominated by buoyant morphotypes, e.g.
bisaccates all, simple, sphaeromorph pollen. Usually distal depositional settings;
 Hypersaline environments with low in situ production of fossilizing organic-walled plankton.
Wind-blown pollen (e.g. bisaccates) dominant. Low absolute abundances;
 Sandy or silty sediments where sorting has preferentially concentrated large and/or dense
sporomorphs.
Parameter: % Organic-walled plankton (of total palynomorphs)

 Shelf areas removed from active sporomorph input, i.e. from active fluvio-deltaic source(s);
 Arid areas with poor vegetation and low runoff, i.e. low sporomorph production and supply;
 Areas of high shelf productivity, e.g. coastal upwelling regimes. High absolute abundances;
 Active redeposition from one of the above.
Parameter: % Total (micro)spores (of miospore sporomorphs)

 Close proximity to, or redeposition from, active fluvio-deltaic source areas;
 Humid climates and conditions that support significant Pteridophyte growth;
 Short duration of transport, with little selection for more buoyant pollen.
Parameter: % Ornamented/thick-walled microspores (of microspores)

 Humid climates and conditions that support significant Pteridophyte growth;
 Short duration of transport, with little selection for buoyant morphotypes;
 Sandy or silty sediments with selective deposition of larger or low buoyancy morphotypes.
Parameter: % Bisaccate pollen grain (of miospores sporomorphs)

 Deposition adjacent to land areas with coniferous vegetation;
 Distal deposition, removed from fluvio-deltaic source(s); significant distance or duration of
transport, with selection of buoyant morphotypes. Low absolute abundances;
 Depositional sites where sporomorph delivery is primarily by aeolian transport (in absence of
river inputs). Low absolute abundances.
Parameter: % Small/simple/thin pollen grain (of miospores sporomorphs)

 Distal deposition, removed from active fluvio-deltaic source(s); significant distance or duration
of transport, with selection of buoyant morphotypes. Low absolute abundances.

Parameter: Frequency of megaspores
 Short duration of transport, with little selection for buoyant or smaller morphotypes;
 Sandy or silty sediments with selective deposition of larger and low buoyancy palynomorph
morphotypes;
Parameter: Absolute sporomorph abundance

 Close proximity to, or redeposition from, active fluvio-deltaic source areas, e.g. prodeltaic or
submarine fan facies;
 Humid climates supporting vegetated hinterland;
 Areas of low (but not pelagic) sedimentation under moderately reducing or oxidizing
conditions.
Parameter: Frequency of tetrads or spore/pollen grain masses

 Close proximity to active fluvio-deltaic (e.g. prodeltaic facies). Short duration of transport;
 Rapid sedimentation, low reworking;
 Low energy depositional settings;
 Deposition from low energy transport mechanisms (not turbidity or traction currents).
Parameter: Frequency of fungal spores

 Close proximity to, or redeposition from, active fluvio-deltaic source areas (especially deltaic,
estuarine, or lagoonal oxic facies);
 Upwelling areas (associated with high numbers of dinocysts and foraminiferal linings);
algicolous taxa.
Parameter: % Chlorococcales (of organic-walled plankton)

 Close proximity to, or redeposition from, areas of freshwater input.
Parameter: Botryococcus:Pediastrum
 Inland water bodies with salinities ≥3.5% (≤35%);
 Arid climatic regimes (high evaporarion:precipitation balance, low lake levels);
 Oligotrophic (nitrate-poor) waters;
 Low Ca or low pH waters.

Parameter: % Acritarchs (of organic-walled plankton)
 Marginal, brackish, or hypersaline depositional environments (inhibitory to most fossilising
cyst-forming dinoflagellates?). Post-Jurassic only.
Parameter: % Dinocysts (of organic-walled plankton)

 Deposition beneath or redeposition from, unstable, seasonal, shelf watermasses (especially of
temperate or subtropical climates). Normal marine salinities;
 Areas of high dinocyst productivity (e.g. hydrographic estuarine or shelf fronts or coastal
upwelling areas), or redeposition from same.
Parameter: % Prasinophytes (of organic-walled plankton)

 Stabily stratified water masses with low in situ production of cyst-forming dinoflagellates, and
low redeposition of dinocysts from adjacent shelf areas;
 Dysoxic-anoxic basinal sediments with low sediment accumulation rates (e.g. condensed
sections);
 Cold high latitude or glacially-influenced waters.
Parameter: Frequency of Gloeocapsomorpha

 Ordovician low palaeolatitude sediments;
 Intra-carbonate platform facies (shales, marls, or limestones, but no(evaporites);
 Shallow water (euphotic) oxic or anoxic regimes with low tidal circulation and high
evaporation:precipitation balance (salinities 50%-70%?),or redeposition from same;
 Sediments subjected to strong carbonate dissolution (e.g. styliolitic laminae, 'karstified' hard
grounds).
Parameter: % Long to short-spined acamthomorph acritarchs

 Relatively offshore, lower energy, marine environments.
Parameter: % Chorate dinocysts (of dinocysts)

 Relatively offshore, lower energy marine environments (post-Bathonian).
Parameter: Peridinioid: Gonyaulacoid Dinocysts

 Nearshore, lagoonal, estuarine or prodelta environments with low salinity influence (especially
in mid-Cretaceous to Early Tertiary sediments). Low diversity assemblages typical;
 Areas of upwelling (also low diversity assemblages typical);
 Good preservational conditions (peridinioid cysts more fragile?).

Parameter: Dinocyst diversity
 Offshore, hydrographically unstable, seasonal, normal marine shelf environments (low
dominance. low to moderate abundances);
 Transgressive periods with high sea levels and wider shelf areas;
 Temperate to subtropical latitudes;
 Areas without persistent coastal upwelling.
Parameter: Absolute dinocyst Abundance

 Unstable, seasonal, normal marine shelf environments (especially outer shelf or upper slope
environments: moderate to high diversity);
 Clay- or silt- rich sediments (e.g. “seed beds”);
 Areas of high productivity (e.g. of seasonal coastal upwelling). Low diversity assemblages
typical.
Parameter: Frequency of foraminiferal Linings

 Marine shelf or slope sediments with normal marine salinities (oxic to suboxic facies);
 Areas of high productivity (e.g. of coastal upwelling), with high benthic foraminiferal biomass;
 Basinal facies with marked input of redeposited shallow water carbanate debris (e.g.
carbonate turbidites and debris flows);
 Sediments with selective concentration of benthic foraminifera by bottom currents.
Parameter: % Reworked palynomorphs (of palynomorphs)

 Areas with low in situ production of palynomorphs (e.g. arid or glacial areas), but with active
erosion;
 Deposition adjacent to, or redeposition from, areas of active erosion (especially under glacial
or humid climates);
 Proximity to fluvio-deltaic sources of siliciclastic sediment;
 Regressive facies deposited during low sea level;
 Selective concentration in silty or sandy sediments due to hydrodynamic properties.

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Organic composition (palynofacies analysis)

Article · January 2011

João Graciano Mendonça Filho Taíssa Rêgo Menezes

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Chapter 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis)

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 1

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 2

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Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 5

Opaque Phytoclasts (black wood): (Table 2)

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 6

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 7

Non-opaque Phytoclasts (translucent or brown woods): (Table 2)

Fungal Hyphae: (Plate 2, Figure 1)

Non-biostructured Phytoclasts: (Plate 2, Figure 2)

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 8

Membranes: (Plate 2, Figures 5 and 6)

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 9

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 10

 Structured Phytoclast: Cross-Hatch structure (Plate 5, Figures 1 and 2)

 Pseudoamorphous and “Amorphous” and “in decomposition”:

 In decomposition/Gelified (highly preserved): They exhibit irregular outline in

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 11

Amorphous Organic Matter (AOM): (Plate 6)

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Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 13

5.1.3. Palynomorph Group (Table 4)

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 14

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 15

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 16

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 17

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 18

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 19

Figure 1: The dinocysts morphologies: proximate; proximochorate; chorate (Lingulodinium

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 20

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 21

Zoomorph subgroup is composed by animal-derived palynomorphs (discrete unitary animal-

Foraminiferal Test Linings: (Plate 8, Figures 1 and 2)

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 22

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 23

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 24

5.3. Data Representation

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 25

Figure 3: Ternary diagram representation.

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 26

Figure 4: Ternary AOM-Phytoclast-Palynomorph kerogen plot based on relative numeric frequency

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 27

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 28

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 29

Figure 7: Dinocysts-Sporomorphs-Acritarchs plot (Burger, 1980; Tyson, 1993, 1995).

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 30

Figure 8: Prasinophytes-Acritarchs-Dinocysts plot (Tyson, 1993).

Figure 9: Dinocysts+Prasinophytes-Chlorococcales Algae-Acritarchs plot (Tyson, 1993).

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 31

Figure 10: Gonyalacoid (chorates)-Peridinioid (cavates)-Others Gonyalacoids plot (Tyson, 1993).

Chaper 5: Organic Composition (Palynofacies Analysis) / 32