Structural

Strength and
Stability
KEY QUESTION: What
factors make structures
strong and stable?

VOCABULARY
stability cantilever
centre of gravity truss
beam arch
I-beam dome
corrugation structural failure
Reading Science and Technology

The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer

In 1922, Canadian Herbert Haultain created a ceremony for new engineers.
New engineers are asked to recite an Obligation to their profession. They
also are given an iron ring to wear on their little finger. The ring is a symbol
to new engineers. It reminds engineers of their pride in their profession and
their responsibility to safety.
The idea that engineers needed to be more responsible may have come
from the Quebec Bridge disaster. The Quebec Bridge collapsed in 1907,
killing 75 workers. The cause was an engineering error. In 1917, the
rebuilt bridge collapsed. This time, 11 people were killed.
Haultain wrote to author and poet Rudyard Kipling for help with
creating the ceremony. Kipling responded with The Ritual of the Calling
of the Engineer. The first ceremony was held in 1925. The yearly ceremony
continues to this day.
The words of the Obligation of The Ritual of the Calling of the Engineer
are secret. However, Kipling is well known for his poetry on engineering
and building subjects. This example was written in 1911:

Modern Machinery
We were taken from the ore-bed and the mine,
'vVe were melted in the furnace and the pit-
We were cast and wrought and hammered to design,
We were cut and filed and tooled and gauged to fit.
Some water, coal, and oil is all we ask,
And a thousandth of an inch to give us play:
And now, if you will set us to our task,
We will serve you four and twenty hours a day!
("The Secret of the Machines," verse 1)

LINKING TO LITERACY
Making Inferences a In 1922, Herbert Haultain created a ceremony
Texts can have "literal" meanings or "inferred" for new engineers. What inference does this text
meanings. "Literal" means that the text means suggest for why he created this ceremony?
exactly what it says. "Inferred" means that a text says
something, but really means something more.
EI The words of the Obligation are secret. Kipling
wrote this example of a poem about something
Readers make inferences by thinking about what
that engineers would build. What can you infer
they have read in a text. Then, they make a connection
about the words in the real Obligation?
to what they already know to make an informed guess
about what a text really means. See if you can infer II The poem that is included in this text is from
the meaning of the text for each situation. The Secret of the Machines. This is verse 1.
What can you infer about the actual length of
this poem?

289
 Stabil-ty of Structures
Imagine you are standing on a public bus (Figure 1). The bus is
speeding up and slowing down. You probably would feel more stable
with your feet flat on the floor and spread apart. Why is this so?

LINKING TO . ,

Reading for Meaning

When reading science
texts, look for explanations
or definitions of difficult or
scientific words as you read.
Sometimes, explanations are in
the main text; sometimes they
will be given in a sidebar or
caption under a picture.
Locate two definitions that
are given on this page . How
do these help you to better
understand your reading?

Figure 1 How do you keep from falling when you are standing on a moving bus?

Your body is a structure that is able to maintain its position when

stability: the ability of a structure external forces try to push or pull it out of balance. Stability is the
to remain in or return to a stable, ability of a structure to maintain, or regain, a stable (balanced)
balanced position when forces act
position when external forces act on it. When engineers design
on it
structures, they must make sure that the structures are stable. Stable
structures are safer because they do not easily topple over or fall
down. Almost all structures, from small toys to huge buildings, are
designed to be stable. Some toys and rides at amusement parks are
designed to appear to be unstable to make them seem exciting and
unpredictable.
An important characteristic of any structure is its centre of gravity.
Finding a structure's centre of gravity helps designers determine its
centre of gravity: the point around stability. Centre of gravity is the point around which a structure's
which an object's mass is equally mass is equally balanced in all directions. The centre of gravity is
balanced in all directions; the
also the point at which the entire mass of an object seems to be
point where the mass seems to be
concentrated concentrated.

290 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

 TRY THIS: Finding the Centre of Gravity
SKILLS MENU: predicting, analyzing, evaluating, communicating

Locating the centre of gravity in an object is complicated.

However, it is possible to find the horizontal balance point of
long, thin objects. The horizontal balance point is very close to an
object's centre of gravity. In this activity, you will predict, locate,
and test the horizontal balance point of various objects.
Equipment and Materials: metre stick; tape; large rubber
stopper; various long, thin, rigid objects; scissors; cardboard;
pencil; 216 x 279 mm (8% x 11 in.) piece of scrap paper; tape; Figure 3 Step 4
pin; metal washer; string
5. With a pin, make a hole near the edge of the shape. Make
Part A the hole slightly larger than the pin so that when the object
1. Hold a metre stick by placing your index fingers near the is held up by the pin, the shape can rotate.
two ends of the stick (Figure 2) . Slowly slide your fingers 6. Make a plumb line by tying a washer to the end of a piece
toward each other until they meet. The location where they of string. Hold the shape by the pin, and hang the plumb
meet is the horizontal balance point of the metre stick. line from the pin (Figure 4). Using a pencil, trace the line
Record your observations. made by the hanging plumb line on the shape. Label this
line AB.

Figure 4 Step 6
7. Make a second hole in the shape . Repeat step 6, but this
time, label the new plumb line CD (Figure 5).
Figure 2 Step 1

2. Tape a large rubber stopper at one end of a metre stick.

With one hand, hold the metre stick with the rubber stopper
to get a sense of how the metre stick's mass is distributed.
Predict the location of the horizontal balance pOint of
the metre stick with the stopper attached. Record your
prediction. Test your prediction: repeat step 1 with the metre
stick-stopper combination. Record your observations.
3. Predict and then find the horizontal balance point of other
Figure 5 Step 7
long, thin, rigid objects. Record your observations. 8. Identify the point where line CD crosses line AB. Label this
point X. Point X is very close to the shape's centre of gravity.
Part B Try to balance the shape horizontally by placing the blunt
4. Work with a partner for Part B. Carefully cut a piece of end of a pencil on point X. Will the shape balance on
cardboard into an L-shape. Tape a piece of scrap paper point X? Record your observations.
onto the shape so that the paper covers the shape, and also 9. Repeat steps 4 to 8 with other unusual shapes cut out of
covers the space where the cardboard was cut out cardboard. Record your observations.
(Figure 3). Predict the location of the horizontal balance
A. Evaluate each of the predictions you made in the activity.

e
point of the shape, and mark it with a pencil.
B. Write your own definition for "horizontal balance point."
Be very careful when using sharp objects. C. Can the horizontal balance point of an object be outside
the object itself? How do you know?

NEL 11.1 Stability of Structures 291

 The Centre of Gravity of Common Structures
All structures have a centre of gravity. In the previous Try This
activity, you used several different methods for locating an object's
horizontal balance point. (Remember, the horizontal balance point is
close to the centre of gravity.) An object's centre of gravity is usually
located deep inside the object, not on its surface. For example, when
you are standing upright, your centre of gravity is located deep inside
your body, just below your belly button (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Centre of gravity of the human body when standing

However, your body's centre of gravity changes every time you

move or bend your body into different shapes. The centre of gravity
of an object depends on the shape of the object and how its mass is
distributed. In some cases, the centre of gravity is outside the object
itself (Figure 7).

x
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7 The centre of gravity of various objects

(a) middle of a solid ball
(b) middle of a hollow ball
(c) outside of a boomerang

292 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

 TRY THIS: Centre of Gravity and Stability
SKILLS MENU: predicting, analyzing, evaluating, communicating

If you bend forward and let your arms hang in front of you , you F
left foot right fo ot
may feel as though you are going to fall forward. Your body feels
less stable in this position because its centre of gravity has
moved in front of the centre of its base (your feet). In this activity,
you will learn how a structure's (your body 's) stability relates to A c E
its centre of gravity and its support base.
Equipment and Materials: object that can be lifted with one
hand (for example , a dumbbell or textbook)
G
If you have any problems in lifting objects or bending
over, be careful in deciding which steps to follow. These Figure 8
activities should be performed with a partner, with one
partner acting as a spotter. Work on a gym mat. 2. (a) Stand sideways against a wall with the side of one foot
pressed against the wall. Slowly raise the other foot off
1. Refer to Figure 8. The region enclosed by the footprints the floor. Describe what happens. Where is your body's
is shaded and represents the su pport base of a person centre of gravity relative to your support base?
standing upright. (b) Stand with your back to the wall and your heels
(a) Stand upright with your arms at your sides and your pressed against the wall. Slowly bend over to try to
feet about 50 cm apart. Have your partner look at you touch your toes. Describe what happens. Where is your
from a place in front of position F. Above which point, body's centre of gravity relative to your support base?
A to G, does your body's centre of gravity feel like it is A. Which provides greater stability, a high centre of gravity
positioned? or a low one? Support your answer with an example.
(b) Slowly raise your right foot off the floor. Above which B. Which provides greater stability, a small support base or
point, A to G, does your body 's centre of gravity feel a large one? What evidence supports your answer?
like it is positioned now?
C. Explain the observations you made in step 2. (Hint: Think
(c) Stand erect with your feet together. Hold a heavy (but of how your centre of gravity moved with each position
not too heavy) object in one hand near your stomach. that you attempted.)
With your partner still in front of position F, determine
what happens to your body, especially to your hips, as
you move the object out to one side (toward either A or
E). Where does your centre of gravity appear to lie now?

Conditions for Greatest Stability

Consider the sports car and the truck in Figure 9. The truck is more
likely to tip over. The car has greater stability because of two features:
it has a low centre of gravity, and it has a wide support base (when
compared to its height) . Objects with a low centre of gravity and a
wide support base tend to be stable.

Figure 9 Which vehicle is more

stable?

NEL 11.1 Stability of Structures 293

 To maintain stability, the centre of gravity must lie directly over the
support base. Stability decreases as the centre of gravity rises. If the
centre of gravity rises higher and is no longer above the support base,
the object will fall over. This is shown in Figure 10 for a truck going
LIN KIN G ___--,
around a banked curve with different-sized loads. The truck on the far
right will tip because its centre of gravity (the red X) lies outside of the
Compare and Contrast
Good readers gain meaning
two wheels.
from texts by analyzing the
information they read. One way
to analyze is to look for ways
that information is the same
or different. On this page, the
author gives four examples of
how stability works: trucks,
boats, a bird , and an acrobat.
After you read this page,
take a moment to reflect and
analyze what you have read.
How are these examples the Figure 10 The truck is unstable when its centre of gravity does not lie above its
same? How are they different? support base .

Stability is also important for ships, boats, and canoes. Canoeists

know how important it is to maintain a low centre of gravity. Standing
in a canoe is dangerous. It raises the centre of gravity, and the canoe
could easily tip over.
Examples of stability are also found in nature. The loon is a bird
that is well adapted to water. The loon's feet help it to dive and swim
quickly. However, on land, the loon is very awkward. Its centre of
gravity lies ahead of its feet. The loon has to lean backward as it walks
forward.
Thinking about how your own body reacts to external forces helps
you to understand other structures. When you carry a backpack on
your back, hold a suitcase by your side, or stand on your toes, your
body has to adjust to help you keep stable. An acrobat walking on a
tightrope applies a similar principle. The acrobat carries a downward
Figure 11 The long pole helps lower curving pole that is heavy at both ends (Figure 11). The pole helps to
the acrobat's centre of gravity. lower the centre of gravity, and that means greater stability.

Unit Task How will you use what you learned about centre of gravity and
stability when designing your playground equipment?

1. Describe how you would find the approximate centre of 3. What two features of an object provide good stability?
gravity of 4. State the conditions needed for stability.
(a) a golf club (c) a coat hanger
(b) a framed painting (d) a tennis racquet
5. Which is more stable? Explain why in each case.
(a) a turtle or a giraffe
2. State the location of the centre of gravity of (b) the eN Tower or your school building
(a) a golf ball (b) a bagel

294 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

Making Structures Strong:
The Beam
Many structures have similar features. You may have seen many
bridges that look similar. You may also have seen many buildings
being constructed that use similar features-most house frames look
very similar, even if the finished house looks very different. One of the
features common to many structures is the beam.
A beam is any reasonably level structure that is designed to support beam: a horizontal structure designed
a load. The frame of a typical doorway consists of a horizontal upper to support a load
beam and two vertical supports (Figure 1). One of the oldest beam
structures was probably a log lying across the banks of a river-a log
LINKING TO
bridge. In this case, the log is a beam that is supported by the banks
of the river. Making Predictions
Prepare for reading by making a
prediction about the information
upper beam that will be explained or
described on this page. Start by
scanning the page for the most
visible information: the title,
subtitles, pictures, and margin
information. Then, skim the first
sentence of the first one or two
paragraphs of the text.
vertical
What do these tell you
supports
about this text? What kind of
information will be described or
explained on this page?
Make a prediction about the
text. As you read, confirm or
change your prediction. Make
new predictions about what will
come next.
Making predictions will help
to make reading informational
text easier.
Figure 1 A typical doorframe is a beam structure.

Strengthening the Beam

On its own, a beam may not be able to support a large load. Some
beams can bend or break if the load on them is too great. Beams can
be strengthened in several ways. One way is to change the material that
a beam is made of. A beam made of balsa wood is not as strong as one
made of steel. Beams can be made out of many different materials, such
as wood, stone, concrete, or steel, depending on the load requirements
of the structure. Choosing the right material is an important factor in
building a strong and stable structure. Steel is stronger than wood, but
steel is also heavier. An engineer needs to consider both strength and
mass when selecting the material for any structure.

NEL 11 .2 Making Structures Strong: The Beam 295

 I-Beams
Another way to strengthen a beam is to change its form. A stronger
I-beam: a beam that is in the shape beam shape is the I-beam. When you look at the end of an I-beam,
of the letter "I " when seen from it looks like the letter ''1.'' I-beams are commonly used in the
the end
construction of buildings, including houses (Figure 2). Wooden
I-beams, sometimes called I-joists, are now being used as the structural
support for ceilings and floors in homes. These beams are much lighter
than steel beams, but they can still support very heavy loads. They also
make use of wood chips, rather than solid wood. This means that they
could reduce the amount of trees needed in construction.
Corrugation
Folding the beam also adds strength. Placing triangular ridges,
corrugation: multiple folds in a grooves, or folds in a structure is called corrugation (Figure 3).
material that provide additional Corrugation is common in cardboard boxes. Corrugation is applied
strength
to plastic and metal, particularly for roofing, to provide additional
strength.

Figure 2 A steel I-beam is used to provide structural strength. Figure 3 The corrugation in a steel roof provides added strength.

Reba
LINKING TO
Concrete beams are often strengthened with steel reinforcing rods.
Reading for Meaning A beam experiences compression on top and tension on the bottom.
Scientific words are defined or
Concrete can withstand a great deal of compression, but it is very
explained on this page: I-beam,
corrugation , and rebar. What weak when it experiences tension. Steel reinforcing bars called rebar
do these mean? How do these are placed in the concrete to help it resist the forces of tension.
explanations help you to better Concrete that contains rebar is known as "reinforced concrete" and
understand your reading?
is able to resist both compression and tension (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Steel reinforcing

bars (rebar) serve to
strengthen concrete by
allowing it to resist both
tension and compression.
296 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL
The Cantileve
Beams are not always supported at both ends.
A cantilever is a beam that is supported, or
fixed, at only one end (Figure 5) . A branch
on a tree and a diving board are examples
of simple cantilevers. Cantilevers are very
common. Canopies over entrances to buildings
and apartment balconies are also examples of
cantilevers.
Cantilevers are useful in spanning great
distances without the use of a central support.
Cantilevers are used in areas where a central
supporting structure would be unrealistic, Figure 5 A cantilever is a beam that
is supported at only one end.
such as over a deep gorge. Look at Figure 5. This cantilever is on the
Observation Tower over the American Falls at Niagara Falls. Can you
cantilever: a beam supported at only
imagine trying to build a supporting structure at both ends of the one end
cantilever at this location?

Supporting the eam

Adding structural support also strengthens a beam (Figure 6).
A tie is a structural support that is part of a framework and is
designed to resist tension forces. A tie is usually set at an angle
between a beam and its support base (the wall in this example).
A strut is similar to a tie, but it is placed below a beam where it
provides resistance to the forces of compression. A gusset is a flat,
plate-like device, often triangular, that supports a beam by reinforcing
the connection between the beam and its support base.

tie strut gusset

Figure 6 The tie, strut, and gusset add support to the beam.

Unit Task How will you use what you learned about the beam in the design of
the playground equipment for the Unit Task?

1. Briefly describe four ways that a beam can be strengthened. 3. Provide two examples of cantilevers that you have seen in
2. How is a cantilever different from a fully supported beam? your neighbourhood.
1

NEL 11.2 Making Structures Strong : The Beam 297

 CONDUCT AN INVESTIGATION

Factors Affecting a o Questioning o Performing

o Hypothesizing o Observing
Structure's Ability to o Predicting
o Planning
o Analyzing
DEvaluati ng
Support a Load o Controlling
Variables
o Communicating
Imagine that yo u have to design a bridge to span a stream . vVhat
design provides enough strength but the least mass of materials? How
can you perform a fair test to discover how factors affect the strength
of a beam? In this investigation, you will develop answers to these and
other questions.

Testable Question .-
How do the mass, shape, and form of a beam .. -.---
affect the beam's ability to support a load? . --. --
ruler or metre stick scissors spring scale
Hypothesis/Prediction
Read the Experimental Design and Procedure,
and examine the figures to see the different beam
designs you will be testing. Make and record
a hypothesis about which design will be the stools or movable pieces of file-folder masking tape
desks cardboard
strongest and which will be the weakest. Your
hypothesis should include a prediction
and reasons for your prediction.

Experimenta Design string

Your group will build six different beam
"bridges." Four have the same mass, while the Be very careful when using sharp objects.
remaining two have twice as much mass. You
will test each beam's strength by pulling down
on its centre with a spring scale. Use as little Procedure
masking tape as possible, and recycle the 1. Mark and cut out eight pieces of cardboard,
cardboard after completing the investigation. 24 cm long X 12 cm wide. Draw lines on
three pieces of the cardboard, and fold the
Equipment and Materials cardboard as shown in Figure l(a) on the
• ruler or metre stick next page. Tape the edges together to make
• scissors three flat beams. Using Figures l(b) to (d)
• spring scale draw lines on the cardboard, and fold the
• 2 stools or movable desks cardboard as shown. Then tape the edges
• 8 pieces of file-folder cardboard together to make one triangular beam, one
• masking tape cylindrical beam, and one rectangular beam.
• string

298 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

 6. Mark and cut a piece of cardboard into four
equal strips 24 cm long x 3 cm wide. Fold
these strips width-wise. Tape them together to
(a) (b) form a corrugated row about 24 cm long. Use
the last piece of cardboard to mark and fold a
rectangular beam, then place the corrugated
row into the rectangular beam (Figure 3). Tape
the row to the ends of the beam. Close the
(c) (d)
sides of the beam, and tape the edges together.
Figure 1 Four beam designs: (a) a flat beam , (b) a triangular Test this beam as you did in step 3.
beam, (c) a cylindrical beam, (d) a rectangular beam.

2. Design a table to record the measurements

taken during the tests you will be performing.
3. Set up a single flat beam as a bridge
supported at the ends by two stools or desks
separated by 18 cm. The overlap at the ends
of the beam should be equal. Tie a loose loop
of string around the middle of the beam.
Suspend the spring scale from it. As you read Figure 3 Reinforcing a rectangular beam
the force on the scale, very gently pull straight
down until the beam fails (Figure 2). Record Analyze and Evaluate
the force that caused the failure. (a) Rank the beams in order of weakest to
strongest.
(b) Describe three independent variables you
tested in this investigation. State how each
variable affected the beam's ability to support
a load.
(c) Answer the Testable Question.
(d) About how many flat (or solid) beams would
be needed to provide the same strength as
a single reinforced rectangular beam? How
would the masses compare?
Figure 2 Setup for testing the strength of a beam bridge
Apply and Extend
4. Tape two flat beams together to double the
(e) If you were allowed four 24 cm x 12 cm
mass. Repeat the test in step 3.
pieces of cardboard, what design would you
5. Repeat step 3 for the triangular beam, the use to maximize a beam's strength? Draw a
cylindrical beam, and a rectangular beam. sketch of your design.
(f) Metal support beams are made in the shape
of a capital L or a capital I. Describe the
advantages of this design.

11 .3 Conduct an Investigation 299

 Making Structures Strong:
The russ, Arch, and Dome
Designers sometimes want to use shapes other than beams to make
structures stronger and more interesting looking. They can do this by
adding triangles (trusses) or curves (arches and domes).

The Truss
truss: a network of beams arranged A truss is a network of beams that form triangles. A truss can be
in triangles used as a bridge or a cantilever, and for many other applications.
In the following Try This activity, you will learn how trusses can be
strengthened and how their mass can be reduced.

SKILLS MENU: performing, observing, analyzing, communicating

In this activity, you will learn how to build trusses and reduce 4. Reduce the mass of your truss bridge by replacing beams
their mass while maintaining their strength. You will test for with pieces of string (Figure 2). Start by replacing one beam,
strength, not for failure, by gently pushing on your structures. and then two beams, and so on. Draw a diagram of your
In each step, record your observations. final design. Gently test its strength .
Equipment and Materials: 11-15 equal-sized strips of stiff
cardboard or large craft sticks with a small hole drilled near
each end ; paper fasteners (brads); string
1. Construct a four-piece structure using cardboard and
fasteners (Figure 1(a)). With the structure resting upright, Figure 2 Reduce the mass of a suspended truss
determine how sturdy it is.
2. Add a fifth component to create a bridge truss made of two 5. Turn over the truss you made in step 4. Describe what
triangles (Figure 1(b)) . Place the truss to span a small space happens to its sturdiness.
between two textbooks. Gently test how sturdy this truss is, 6. Put the long truss back together and support it at one end
but do not break it. only (as a cantilever). Discover how to reduce the mass of
3. Make a larger truss using the triangular design (Figure 1(c)). the cantilever by rep lacing at least one beam with string
(Figure 3) . Draw a diagram of the cantilever truss with the
(a) Test the sturdiness of the truss as a bridge spanning
least mass .
a space.
A. What basic form provides a truss with strength?
(b) Test the sturdiness of the truss when used as a
cantilever (over the edge of a book). B. How can a spanning truss be reduced in mass while
maintaining strength?

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1 Structures used in steps 1 to 3

Figure 3 Reduce the mass of the cantilever

300 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

 Most people are familiar with the trusses used in the roofs of
home construction (Figure 4). You can see examples of trusses in
many places. Construction cranes, communication and hydro towers,
bridges, and the International Space Station all contain trusses.
Trusses can be bent or curved and still retain their strength
(Figure 5) . Trusses take advantage of the strength of triangles to make
structures strong. In a truss, forces are distributed between the points
of the triangles that make up the truss. The triangles help the structure
support more weight. Notice the complex truss structure that makes
up the circle of the Ferris wheel. A beam used in this application could
be too heavy. Remember that the structure needs to support its own
weight as well as the weight of the passengers. Using trusses allows for
different structural designs. Trusses can be used for applications that
other types of supports, such as beams, cannot be used for.

Figure 4 Trusses are used in the construction of many structures. Figure 5 Trusses provide strength to this Ferris wheel.

The Arch
An arch is a curved structure often used to support loads. Arches are arch: a curved structure used to span
used in spaces where supporting beams are not practical. Such spaces a space while supporting a load

include doorways or windows, bridges, or places of worship. An arch's

curved design transfers compression force downward (Figure 6). Like load
the beam and the truss, the arch is one of the basic components of
structures.
Many early civilizations, such as the Romans, used the arch when
bUilding structures. Some of the arches that the Romans built over
2000 years ago are still standing. Today, arches are still used to span
compression
long distances (Figure 7) . force

Figure 6 The arch transfers

compression force downward from
each stone to the next.

Figure 7 Arches can be used to

make bridges stronger.

NEL 11.4 Making Structures Strong: The Truss, Arch, and Dome 301
 The Dome
dome: a shell structure that looks like A dome is a structure that looks like the top half of a sphere or an
the top half of a sphere egg. Like an arch, a dome directs compression force downward. In an
arch, the compression force occurs in only one plane of application
(Figure 8). However, in a dome, the compression force is directed
downward in many planes at once (Figure 9). You could consider a
dome to be a series of arches that have been connected at a centre point.

Figure 9 The compression force on this dome is directed downward in many planes at once.

Domes are popular structures because they are strong and can still
enclose a large volume of space. Planetariums, churches, mosques, and
Figure 8 The compression force on many stadiums use domes in their design (Figure 10).
this arch is directed downward in a
single plane.

Figure 10 The Pantheon in Rome, Italy, is an example of a dome.

Unit Task Will you be able to use trusses, arches, or domes in your playground
design for the Unit Task?

1. What are some advantages of using trusses? 3. Describe the similarities and differences between arches and
2. List four examples of structures that use trusses. domes.
4. Explain how compression forces are different in arches and
domes .

302 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes are made of a single layer of carbon
atoms. The atoms are arranged in a hexagonal (six-sided)
shape (Figure 1). They are 10 000 times thinner than human
hair but stronger than steel! Their light weight and extreme
strength make them ideal for structures that will face
extreme conditions.

Figure 2 Actual carbon nanotubes that have been magnified

40 000 times in an electron microscope
Fibres made of carbon nanotubes may be the first
commercial application of nanotube technology. These
Figure 1 This diagram of a carbon nanotube shows its hexagonal super-strong fibres could be used in vehicle armour for
structure. Formula 1 racecars and bodysuits for racecar drivers.
Nanotubes could be used in other woven fabrics and
Carbon nanotubes (Figure 2) have great potential in textiles that would face extreme conditions, such as
many areas, from designing sports gear to fighting infection protective equipment for sports.
in medicine. Carbon nanotubes can be used to build better
To learn more about carbon
and smaller electrical circuits. These circuits operate on

•
nanotubes,
the level of the individual particles of matter. Nanotube Go to Nelson Science
technology has even been developed to make solar power
more efficient. Microscopic solar cells can be applied to LINK IN G TO LITERACY
flexible plastic sheets and stuck on windows, skylights, and
car windshields. Someday, even house paint may contain Synthesize
energy-collecting nanotubes! Readers synthesize information by summarizing what
they have read and making connections, or thinking
creatively to draw a conclusion, come up with a new
idea, or think about information in a new way.
Summarize your reading about carbon nanotubes.
Make a connection to a similar science text you have
read. What conclusions can you draw? How else might
nanotubes be used? How might nanotubes be similar to
or different from other technology?

NEL
 SOLVE A TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEM

Design a Scaffold o Identify a o Designing

In this activity, you will consider as many of the ideas you have Problem/Need o Testing
o Planning o Modifying
learned as possible as you design, build, and test a structure that is o Selecting o Communicating
efficient and useful at supporting a load. To be efficient, a structure Materials and
Equipment
must be low in mass but high in strength. To be useful, a structure
must be both stable and safe.

Scenario You will try to apply as many of the ideas as

At summer camp, your group has been assigned possible from earlier in Chapters 10 and 11 to
the task of painting the outside of your cabin. To design a scaffold with a low mass. Then, you
make the painting easier and safer, you decide will test the steps at the end of the scaffold, one
to design a scaffold. The scaffold must be strong at a time, to see if each one can hold a 500 g
and stable, yet light enough to move from one mass without breaking or becoming unstable.
location to another (Figure 1). It should also have You will also test the scaffold to see if it can
steps at one end to allow you to safely climb up safely hold a 4 kg mass in the middle without
to the main platform. Your group will design, breaking or falling over. You will then determine
build, and test a scale model of a scaffold that is the effiCiency of the model by dividing the live
3 m long X l.5 m high x 0.75 m wide. load mass (4000 g) by the dead load mass. (As an
example, a 100 g scaffold that supports a
4000 g load before breaking is quite efficient, but
a 500 g scaffold that supports the same load is
inefficient. )

Equipment and Materials

• eye protection
• apron
• scissors
• hand drill
• screwdriver
Figure 1 How will the features of your scaffold compare to the
features of the scaffold shown here? • 4 kg mass
• 500 g mass
Desi n Brief • spring scale
In this activity, you will work in a small group • ruler
to build a scale model of the scaffold described • construction materials
in the Scenario. The model will be free-standing • fastening materials
and will have a set of steps at one end. Using a
scale of 1 em to 10 em, your model will be
30 em long x 15 em high x 7.5 em wide. As a
class, you will decide on the types of materials
allowed.

304 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

 Plan and Construct
1. In your group, choose the model that you will
use from your brainstorming sessions. Make
eye protection apron scissors a working drawing of your best choice.
2. Create a step-by-step plan for building your
scaffold. Include a list of materials you will
use and equipment you will need.
hand drill screwdriver 4 kg mass 3. Finalize your plan and have your teacher
check it.
4. Construct your model.
5. Determine the model's mass in grams by
500 g mass spring scale ruler hanging it from a spring scale.

Test and Modify

Test your scaffold to see if each step can hold a
500 g mass without breaking and without causing
construction fastening materials
materials the scaffold to tip. Then, test the main part of the
scaffold to see if it can hold the 4 kg mass in the
Research and Consider middle without breaking. If necessary, modify
Review what you have learned in this unit. the design, and find its new mass. Perform the
• What type of structure (solid, frame, shell, or same tests for strength and stability. Keep a
combination) would be best for an efficient written record of the modifications you make and
scaffold made of simple materials? the results of these modifications .
• How can a span (the top of a scaffold) be
reinforced without adding too much extra Evaluate
mass? Compare the performance of your scaffold with
• What design will ensure that the scaffold the criteria in the Design Brief. Answer the
remains stable even if a person walks up the following questions:
steps at one end of the scaffold? 1. How strong and stable was your scaffold
Use these notes, research, and brainstorm with when you first tested it?
others to generate ideas. You may wish to use 2. What modifications did you make or would
the Internet to see designs of different scaffolds. you make next time to create a stronger and
Make sketches of different designs that you more stable structure?
might use.
3. How did the efficiency of your scaffold
Go to Nelson Science
• compare to the efficiencies of the other
scaffolds in class?

Communicate
Prepare a report to describe the final design of
your scaffold. Include a detailed diagram and any
calculations you made.

NEl 11 .5 Solve a Technological Problem 305

 Structural Failure
An umbrella bends out of shape in a wind gust (Figure 1). A suitcase
handle breaks. A bridge collapses. A drinking glass cracks (Figure 2).
structural failure: the failure of a These are examples of structures that have failed. Structural failure
structure as a result of the structure, occurs when a structure, or part of a structure, loses the ability to
or part of the structure, losing the
support a load. Once the structure loses its load-carrying ability, it
ability to support a load
cracks, deforms, or even collapses completely. There are many reasons
why a structure can fail.

Figure 1 Structural failure of an umbrella from a gust of wind Figure 2 Structural failure of a drinking glass

Bad Design
Approximately 40 % to 60 % of all structural failures are due to bad
design. Bad designs can be caused by design errors such as failure to
account for load, specifying incorrect materials, or not conSidering
important factors and stresses.
On January 28, 1986, just 73 s after takeoff, the space shuttle
Challenger exploded (Figure 3) . All seven crew members were killed.
The explosion was caused by a gas leak when an O-ring failed. An
O-ring is a circular piece of plastic or rubber that stops water or gases
from escaping. An O-ring is usually in a connection between two
pipes (Figure 4). In the case of the Challenger, the weather in Florida
To learn about Challenger
was unusually cold. The cold O-ring failed and caused the gas leak

•
Learning Centers,
Go to Nelson Science that led to the explosion.

Figure 3 The explosion of the Challenger as a result of the failure Figure 4 Inside the end of a garden hose is a round washer.
of an O-ring This flexible washer works in a similar way to an O-ring.

306 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

 SKILLS MENU: observing, communicating, analyzing

Different materials change at different temperatures. Materials

can become more brittle at some temperatures and more flexible
at other temperatures. In this activity, you Will observe the effect
of temperature on elastic bands.
Equipment and Materials: 2 bulldog paper clips; 2 identical
elastic bands; 2 small bowls or glasses; 250 mL warm water;
250 mL ice water
1. Fold each elastic band in half and clamp it with a bulldog
clip.
2. Place one elastic band and clip in the cup of ice water.
Place the other elastic band and clip in the cup of warm Figure 5
water (Figure 5).
A. What did you observe about the elastic bands? Write a brief
3. After 5 min, remove the elastic bands and bulldog clips from
report of your observations.
the water.
B. In small groups, discuss how the results of this activity may
4. Remove the clips from the elastic bands. Examine the elastic
relate to the O-ring failure in the space shuttle Challenger
bands. Using a graphic organizer of your choice, compare
disaster.
the size, shape, and texture of the two elastic bands.

Faulty Construction
Faulty construction is the second most common cause of structural
failure. Construction errors can result from the use of poor quality
materials, poor installation from either sloppiness or lack of expertise,
or a combination of these. For example, homeowners are aware of
how easily shingles are blown off a roof in windy conditions. This is
a bigger problem if the shingles were poorly installed by not securing
them correctly with the right type of nail (Figures 6 and 7). Using the
wrong nail for the job can mean the difference between a roof that
lasts for 20 years and one that fails on the first windy day.

Figure 6 A roofing nail is rustproof and has a large head and a Figure 7 A finishing nail has a smooth shank and smaller head
notched shank to hold down the shingles in windy conditions. that is less visible on wood trim around doorways or cabinets.
What would happen if a worker used finishing nails for roof
shingles?

NEL 11.6 Structural Failure 307

 Faulty construction can have tragic consequences. The Sampoong
Department Store (Figure 8) in Seoul, South Korea, collapsed on
June 29, 1995. The collapse killed 501 people. An investigation of the
disaster showed that the construction materials were inadequate, and
that the installation and building methods were poor. The government
allowed the structure to pass inspections that it should have failed.
To learn more about the The chairman of the building was charged with negligence for his
Sampoong Department Store
disregard for public safety. Several government officials were also

•
collapse,
Go to Nelson Science charged with accepting bribes to conceal the building's flaws.

Figure 8 The remains of the

Sampoong Department Store after its
collapse

Extraordinary Loads
Extreme conditions can also result in structural failure. Often these
failures are not the result of poor design, but the result of unexpected
events that create extraordinary loads on structures.
In January 1998, North America experienced a massive ice storm.
For days, parts of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New York, and
Maine were drenched with freezing rain. The rain coated everything
with a 120 mm-thick layer of ice. About 130 transmission towers were
crushed under the weight of the ice (Figure 9). More than 4 million
people in Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick had no electricity.
To learn more about the
Some people had no electricity for more than a month. At least

•
1998 ice storm ,
Go to Nelson Science 25 people died, many of them from the cold.

Figure 9 Transmission towers

toppled from the weight of the ice.
Previously, the worst ice storm on
record was in 1961 . In that case, only
60 mm of ice accumulated and lasted
only a day or two.

308 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

Foundation Failure
Failure of a structure's base, or foundation, is less common than bad
design and faulty construction. However, it can also lead to significant
structural problems. Foundation failure can be caused by poor soil
conditions, poor installation, a foundation that is not large enough for
the load of the structure, or earthquakes.
A well-known example of foundation failure is the Leaning Tower
of Pisa in Italy (Figure 10). The tower was built in 1178 on sandy,
unstable soil with an inadequate foundation. The soil shifted and the
tower began to lean almost right after construction began. Over the
centuries, the tower leaned more and more. Modern construction
To learn more about the
methods have finally slowed down the movement of the tower and

•
Leaning Tower of Pisa,
returned it to the angle at which it was leaning in 1870. Go to Nelson Science

Figure 10 The Leaning Tower of Pisa

Foundation failure is more common in smaller buildings. Cracks

in the walls of a house or misaligned doors are often the result of a
house's foundation shifting due to poor soil conditions. However, any
structure can shift as a result of a poor foundation.

Unit Task How can you use what you have learned about structural failure in
your Unit Task?

1. (a) List four possible causes of structural failure. 2. A 12-year-old student sits on a child's tricycle and one of the
(b) Identify a structural failure that occurred on account of rear wheels breaks off.
each of the four causes. (a) What was the most likely cause of the structural failure?
(e) Suggest one way in which each of the structural failures (b) How could this failure have been prevented?
in (b) could have been prevented.

NEL 11.6 Structural Failure 309

 SOLVE A TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEM

Preventing Structura o Identify a o Designing

o Testing
Failure Problem/Need
o Planning
o Selecting
o Modifying
o Communicating
Structures are designed to certain specifications to fulfill their Materials and
purpose. Safety is an important component in the design and use of Equipment

structures. Engineers use several methods to ensure structural safety

so that the design serves its purpose.

Scenario Equipment and Materials

You are the chief designer for Design • electric fan
Construction Ltd. The company relies on you to • calculator
make sure that the structures they build meet • scissors
their design requirements and are also safe. Your • 3 sheets of newspaper
firm has entered a design competition for a new • masking tape
building. Your team will build and test a model • party streamers
of a structure that incorporates features that help
prevent structural failure.

Design Brief
In this activity, you will work with a partner to electric fan calculator scissors
build the tallest, most stable structure possible.
Use only three sheets of newspaper and 75 cm of
masking tape to build a model. You must anchor
the structure to the ground. Your structure must party streamers
3 sheets of masking tape
be able to withstand the force of the wind from newspaper
a fan on high power that is placed 1 m from
the tower without falling over or irreversibly Be very careful when using sharp objects.
buckling. If the structure topples over then it
has failed the test. Your structure may buckle a Research and Consider
little bit, but if it buckles so much that the form Use the Internet and other resources to
of the structure changes permanently, then your investigate how
structure has failed. • wind tunnel testing is used to check a
Use several techniques to ensure the safety structure's integrity (The fan at 1 m will be
of your design. Create a sensor using a party acting as your wind tunnel.)
streamer to determine where your structure • structures are over-engineered with a factor of
might fail. safety so that they can withstand greater forces
than anticipated
• sensors can be used to detect early warnings of
failure

310 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability

Go to Nelson Science '
• NEL
Plan and Construct G Evaluate
1. Using what you have learned in this unit 1. If your first structure failed the wind tunnel
and from your research, design a few test, explain what design flaw may have led to
different structures. Remember the design that failure.
requirements in the Design Brief. 2. What design modifications did you make as a
2. Choose the sketch that you think will be the result of your tests?
most stable. 3. Why were you asked to use sensors in your
3. Write a step-by-step plan for creating your tests? How did you incorporate the sensors to
design. Be sure to include a scale drawing create a good indicator of early failure?
of your structure. 4. Your tower has a design requirement to
4. Use party streamers to act as sensors be stable in a wind at a distance of 1 m .
(Figure 1). Cut the streamer with a narrow Determine how much over-engineering was
centre so that it will fail with very little force. built into your tower by calculating the factor
of safety for your final tower:
Factor of safety = 1 m -:-- (distance in
centimetres between fan and tower at failure)
Hint: Convert 1 m to 100 cm before
calculating the factor of safety.
5. Do you think your factor of safety was large
Figure 1 Use party streamers with narrow centres in your design. enough for a safe design? Explain.
5. Finalize your plan and have your teacher 6. Would a tower with a factor of safety less
check it. than 1 be considered a safe structure? Explain.
6. Construct your design. 7. Compare the factors of safety for all the
towers in the class. Did the tower with the
Test and Modify highest factor of safety also have the greatest
Test your structure to see if it is successful.
height? Why or why not?
Make any necessary modifications, and then
8. Can you think of other materials or deSigns
retest your structure. Continue to improve your
that you could use to make your sensor more
design. Now, test how well your design exceeds
effective?
its engineering requirements by measuring the
exact point of failure of the structure. Slowly Communicate
slide the fan from its 1 m test position toward Prepare a one-page report that describes the final
your structure until your structure fails. Measure version of your model, and how successfully it
this distance in centimetres. You may want to meets the design requirements. Include your
modify your structure again to improve the factor of safety calculation, how you used the
over-engineering in its design. sensors to detect early failure, the height of
your tower, and an accurate diagram of the final
version of the model that you used.

NEL 11 .7 Solve a Technological Problem 311

Structural Strength Looking Back
and Stability
A stable structure maintains its shape and position over an extended
period of time.
• A structure's centre of gravity affects its stability.
• Objects with a low centre of gravity and a wide support base tend
BIG Ideas to be stable.

o Structures have a
s
iii' The form of a structure
is dependent on its
function.
iii' The interaction
between structures
and forces is
predictable.

Beams, trusses, arches, and domes are used to help structures support
loads.
• The beam can be strengthened by changing its shape or
composition (for example, I-beam, corrugation, rebar) or by adding
supports (for example, tie, strut, gusset).
• The cantilever is a beam supported at only one end.
• In a truss, force is distributed through the structure at the points of
contact of the triangles.
• An arch's curved design transfers compression force downward into
the ground.
• A dome is a structural element that looks like the top part of a
sphere. Like an arch, a dome also transfers compression forces to
the ground.

312 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

The skills of scientific inquiry can be used to investigate the factors that VOCABULARY
affect the ability of a structure to support a load.
stability, p. 290
• Models can be used to determine how well structures support a centre of gravity. p. 290
load.
beam, p. 295
• The shape, mass, and form of a structure affect how much force a I-beam, p. 296
structure can support. corrugation, p. 296
The skills of technological problem solving can be used to determine the cantilever, p. 297
most efficient way for a structure to support a load. truss, p. 300
• Using structural supports and different construction materials can arch, p. 301
make a structure more efficient. dome, p. 302
• The efficiency of a structure can be calculated by dividing the live structural failure, p. 306
load mass by the dead load mass.
Structural failure occurs when all or part of a structure loses its ability
to support a load.
• Structures can fail due to factors such as bad design, faulty
construction, extraordinary loads, and foundation failure.
• Many structural failures can be linked to human error.

The skills of scientific inquiry can be used to investigate methods used

1'0 ensure that structures are safe.
• Research skills can be used to learn more about the methods that
engineers use to ensure that structures are safe.
• Technological problem -solving skills can be used to model safety
tests that engineers use when designing and building structures.

NEL Chapter 11 Summary 313

What Do You Remembe 7. A student is leaning back in a chair.
1. In your notebook, match each definition Eventually, the student falls over backward.
in the left-hand column of Table 1 with the Explain what happened using the terms
most appropriate word from the right-hand "force:' "centre of gravity:' and "stability:'
column.
Table 1 8. "\That are three factors that can affect a
Definition Term structure's ability to support a load? Provide
an example of structural success and
(a) a beam supported at only one end arch
structural failure for each of these three
(b) folding a material repeatedly to rebar factors.
provide additional strength
9. "Corrugation is just a series of connected
(c) steel rod used to reinforce concrete truss
arches:' Do you agree with this statement?
(d) looks like the top part of a sphere cantilever Explain.
(e) a curved structure used to support a dome 10. Consider the picture of the Eiffel Tower in
load, or make an opening in a bigger Figure 1. What basic form is the Eiffel Tower?
structure
- What structures can you identify in the
(n a network of beams that form triangles corrugation tower?

2. Distinguish between a simple beam and a

cantilever. Provide two examples of each.
What 0 You Un erstand?
3. (a) Why are trusses so useful in structures?
(b) List three structures that make use of
trusses.
4. (a) Use a Venn diagram to compare the arch
and the dome.
(b) Provide two examples of each from your
home, your school, or your community. figure 1

11. Research in the library or on the Internet the

5. (a) Why is regular maintenance important for
shapes of traffic and subway tunnels. What is
the safety of structures?
the most common shape of tunnels? "Vhy do
(b) Provide an example of regular you think this is so?
maintenance of a structure that helps
ensure safety.
6. "Human factors are the most common cause
of structural failure :' After reading this
Go to Nelson Science
•
12. Why is rebar so common in the construction

chapter, what do you think is meant by this of structures using concrete?

statement?

314 Chapter 11 • Structural Strength and Stability NEL

 To do a S e l f - q U i Z - '

Solve a Problem! 16. In 1999, an apartment building in Foggia,

13. Study the picture of the car in Figure 2. Italy, collapsed, killing 67 people.
(a) Identify what structural form the cabin (a) Why might this collapse have occurred?
of the car most resembles. Why did (b) Tenants had complained for years about
engineers use this form? cracks in the walls. What kind of internal
(b) Is this the best form to use for the cabin forces were probably acting on this
of a car? \!\Thy or why not? building that ultimately led to its collapse?
(c) Suggest an alternative form for the (c) Use the Internet and other sources to
cabin of a car. vVhy did you choose this find out what caused the apartment to
alternative? collapse. Could this catastrophe have
been prevented? Explain.
(d) Write your findings in a brief letter
addressed to the mayor of Foggia .

Figure 2
Go to Nelson Science

Reflect on Your Learning

•
17. (a) Which concepts in this chapter did you
14. In the library or on the Internet, research the
find easy to understand? Explain.
Quebec Bridge disaster in 1907 (Figure 3).
(b) Which concepts in this chapter did you
What was the cause of its collapse? Suggest
find difficult to understand? Explain .
design changes that could have prevented the
collapse. (c) Name two things you could do to help
you understand these concepts better.
Go to Nelson Science
• 18. The beam and the arch are two basic building
components used to construct structures.
(a) Were you surprised to learn that these
components have been used for thousands
of years? Explain.
(b) Look at the structures around you and
examine them for either the beam or the
arch. Does this knowledge change how
you view familiar structures? Explain your
thinking on this.
Figure 3
19. Think back to the Key Question on the first
Create and Evaluate! page of this chapter.
15. Most countries have building codes. These are (a) In a brief paragraph, answer the Key
laws that determine how certain structures Question. You may use diagrams.
should be built to withstand forces. Should (b) Write one or two more questions about
building codes differ from country to country the topic of this unit that you would like
or from region to region within a particular to explore.
country? Why or why not?

NEL Chapter 11 Review 315