Design

Hook-ups
of Fluid
Systems
 Published by

$19.95 per copy

First Printing January, 1968

Second Edition – First Printing October, 1968
Third Edition – First Printing May, 1970
Fourth Edition – First Printing September, 1974
Fifth Edition – First Printing August, 1975
Sixth Edition – First Printing May, 1978
Seventh Edition – First Printing September, 1981
Eighth Edition – First Printing January, 1987
Ninth Edition – First Printing April, 1990
Tenth Edition – First Printing January, 1991
Eleventh Edition – First Printing April, 1997
Twelfth Edition – First Printing June, 2000
Second Printing June, 2001

Copyright © 2012
by Spirax Sarco, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Spirax Sarco, Inc.

1150 Northpoint Blvd. Blythewood, SC 29016
Phone: (803) 714-2000
Fax: (803) 714-2222
www.spiraxsarco.com/us

2
 Spirax Sarco

Spirax Sarco is the recognized industry standard for

knowledge and products and for over 85 years has
been committed to servicing the steam users world-
wide. The existing and potential applications for steam,
water and air are virtually unlimited. Beginning with
steam generation, through distribution and utilization
and ultimately returning condensate to the boiler,
Spirax Sarco has the solutions to optimize steam sys-
tem performance and increase productivity to save
valuable time and money.
In today’s economy, corporations are looking for reli-
able products and services to expedite processes and
alleviate workers of problems which may arise with
their steam systems. As support to industries around
the globe, Spirax Sarco offers decades of experience,
knowledge, and expert advice to steam users world-
wide on the proper control and conditioning of steam
systems.
Spirax Sarco draws upon its worldwide resources of
over 3500 people to bring complete and thorough
service to steam users. This service is built into our
products as a performance guarantee. From initial
consultation to effective solutions, our goal is to manu-
facture safe, reliable products that improve productivity.
With a quick, responsive team of sales engineers and
a dedicated network of local authorized distributors
Spirax Sarco provides quality service and support with
fast, efficient delivery.
Reliable steam system components are at the heart of
Spirax Sarco’s commitment. Controls and regulators
for ideal temperature, pressure and flow control; steam
traps for efficient drainage of condensate for maximum
heat transfer; flowmeters for precise measurement of
liquids; liquid drain traps for automatic and continuous
drain trap operation to boost system efficiency; rotary
filters for increased productivity through proper filter-
ing of fluids; condensate recovery pumps for effective
condensate management to save water and sewage
costs; stainless steel specialty products for maintaining
quality and purity of steam; and a full range of pipeline
auxiliaries, all work together to produce a productive
steam system. Spirax Sarco’s new line of engineered
equipment reduces installation costs with prefabricated
assemblies and fabricated modules for system integrity
and turnkey advantages.
From large oil refineries and chemical plants to local
laundries, from horticulture to shipping, for hospitals,
universities, offices and hotels, in business and gov-
ernment, wherever steam, hot water and compressed
air is generated and handled effectively and efficiently,
Spirax Sarco is there with knowledge and experience.
For assistance with the installation or operation of any
Spirax Sarco product or application, call toll free:
1-800-883-4411

3
 How to Use This Book

Selection of the most appropriate type and size of The Hook Up Book is divided into three sections:
control valves, steam traps and other fluid control
valves, steam traps and other fluid control equip- Section I is a compilation of engineering data and
ment, and installation in a hook up enabling these information to assist in estimating loads and flow
components of a system to operate in an optimal rates, the basic parameters which enable the best
manner, all bear directly on the efficiency and econ- choice when selecting sizes.
omy obtainable in any plant or system. Section II illustrates how the services and control
To help make the best choice, we have assembled equipment can be assembled into hook ups to
into this book the accumulation of over 85 years of best meet the particular needs of each application.
experience with energy services in industrial and Section III is a summary of the range of Spirax
commercial use. The hook ups illustrated have all Sarco equipment utilized in the hook ups. Although
been proven in practice, and the reference informa- it is not a complete catalog of the entire range, it
tion included is that which we use ourselves when does describe generically the capabilities and limi-
assisting customers choose and use our products. tations which must be remembered when making
The Case in Action stories dispersed throughout this proper product choices.
book are actual applications put to the test by steam Most application problems will be approached in the
users throughout the country. Their stories are tes- same order. Section I will enable the load informa-
timonials to the products and services Spirax Sarco tion to be collected and the calculations made so
offers and the benefits they have received from utiliz- that sizing can be carried out; Section II will make
ing our knowledge and services. sure that the essentials of the hook up, or combina-
tion of hook ups, are not overlooked; and Section
III will serve as a guide to the complete equipment
catalog so that the most suitable equipment can
readily be selected.
The Hook Up Book is intended to serve as a ref-
erence for those actively engaged in the design,
operation and maintenance of steam, air and liquid
systems. It is also intended as a learning tool to
teach engineers how to design productive steam
systems, efficiently and cost effectively.
We gratefully acknowledge the valuable contribu-
tions made by our field engineers, representatives,
application engineers, and customers to the body
of accumulated experience contained in this text.

4
 Table of Contents

Section 1: System Design Information..........................................................1

The Working Pressure in the Boiler and the Mains............................................................ 2
Sizing Steam Lines on Velocity........................................................................................... 3
Steam Pipe Sizing for Pressure Drop................................................................................. 5
Sizing Superheated Mains.................................................................................................. 6
Properties of Saturated Steam............................................................................................ 7
Draining Steam Mains......................................................................................................... 8
Steam Tracing................................................................................................................... 12
Pressure Reducing Stations.............................................................................................. 19
Parallel and Series Operation of Reducing Valves........................................................... 21
How to Size Temperature and Pressure Control Valves.................................................. 23
Temperature Control Valves for Steam Service............................................................... 26
Temperature Control Valves for Liquid Service................................................................ 28
Makeup Air Heating Coils................................................................................................. 31
Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment........................................................ 33
Multi-Coil Heaters.............................................................................................................. 36
Steam Trap Selection........................................................................................................ 38
Flash Steam...................................................................................................................... 41
Condensate Recovery Systems........................................................................................ 45
Condensate Pumping........................................................................................................ 48
Clean Steam..................................................................................................................... 50
Testing Steam Traps......................................................................................................... 55
Spira-tec Trap Leak Detector Systems for Checking Steam Traps.................................. 58
Steam Meters.................................................................................................................... 59
Compressed Air Systems.................................................................................................. 62
Reference Charts and Tables........................................................................................... 66

Section 2: Hook-up Application Diagrams................................................83

For Diagram Content, please refer to Subject Index on page 149.

Section 3: Product Information.....................................................................143

An overview of the Spirax Sarco Product Line

Subject Index...................................................................................149

5
6
 SYSTEM

Section 1
DESIGN
INFORMATION
 The Working Pressure in the Boiler and the Mains

Steam should be generated at a the bubbles is greater. It follows that the size of the distribution
pressure as close as possible to that as this volume increases, the mains is reduced. The smaller
that at which the boiler is designed apparent water level is raised. mains have smaller heat losses,
SYSTEM DESIGN

to run, even if this is higher than The volume of the steam space and better quality steam at the
is needed in the plant. The rea- above the water level is thereby steam users is likely to result.
soning behind this is clear when reduced. There is increased tur- Pressure reduction to the val-
consideration is given to what bulence as the greater volume ues needed by the steam using
happens in the water and steam of bubbles break the surface, equipment can then take place
space within the boiler. Energy and less room for separation of through pressure reducing sta-
flows into the boiler water through water droplets above the sur- tions close to the steam users
the outer surface of the tubes, face. Further, the steam moving themselves. The individual reduc-
and if the water is already at towards the crown or steam take- ing valves will be smaller in size,
saturation temperature, bubbles off valve must move at greater will tend to give tighter control
of steam are produced. These velocity with a higher volume of reduced pressures, and emit
bubbles then rise to the surface moving across a smaller space. less noise. Problems of having
and break, to release steam into All these factors tend to encour- a whole plant dependent on a
the steam space. age carryover of water droplets single reducing station are avoid-
The volume of a given weight with the steam. ed, and the effects on the steam
of steam contained in the bubbles There is much to be said in users of pressure drops through
depends directly on the pressure favor of carrying the steam close the pipework, which change with
at which the boiler is operating. to the points of use at a high pres- varying loads, disappear.
If this pressure is lower than the sure, near to that of the boiler.
design pressure, the volume in The use of such pressure means

Table 1: Steam Pipe Sizing for Steam Velocity

Capacity of Sch. 80 Pipe in lb/hr steam
Pressure Velocity
psi ft/sec 1
/2” 3
/4” 1” 11/4” 11/2” 2” 21/2” 3” 4” 5” 6” 8” 10” 12”
50 12 26 45 70 100 190 280 410 760 1250 1770 3100 5000 7100
5 80 19 45 75 115 170 300 490 710 1250 1800 2700 5200 7600 11000
120 29 60 110 175 245 460 700 1000 1800 2900 4000 7500 12000 16500
50 15 35 55 88 130 240 365 550 950 1500 2200 3770 6160 8500
10 80 24 52 95 150 210 380 600 900 1500 2400 3300 5900 9700 13000
120 35 72 135 210 330 590 850 1250 2200 3400 4800 9000 14400 20500
50 21 47 82 123 185 320 520 740 1340 1980 2900 5300 8000 11500
20 80 32 70 120 190 260 520 810 1100 1900 3100 4500 8400 13200 18300
120 50 105 190 300 440 840 1250 1720 3100 4850 6750 13000 19800 28000
50 26 56 100 160 230 420 650 950 1650 2600 3650 6500 10500 14500
30 80 42 94 155 250 360 655 950 1460 2700 3900 5600 10700 16500 23500
120 62 130 240 370 570 990 1550 2100 3950 6100 8700 16000 25000 35000
50 32 75 120 190 260 505 790 1100 1900 3100 4200 8200 12800 18000
40 80 51 110 195 300 445 840 1250 1800 3120 4900 6800 13400 20300 28300
120 75 160 290 460 660 1100 1900 2700 4700 7500 11000 19400 30500 42500
50 43 95 160 250 360 650 1000 1470 2700 3900 5700 10700 16500 24000
60 80 65 140 250 400 600 1000 1650 2400 4400 6500 9400 17500 27200 38500
120 102 240 410 610 950 1660 2600 3800 6500 10300 14700 26400 41000 58000
50 53 120 215 315 460 870 1300 1900 3200 5200 7000 13700 21200 29500
80 80 85 190 320 500 730 1300 2100 3000 5000 8400 12200 21000 33800 47500
120 130 290 500 750 1100 1900 3000 4200 7800 12000 17500 30600 51600 71700
50 63 130 240 360 570 980 1550 2100 4000 6100 8800 16300 26500 35500
100 80 102 240 400 610 950 1660 2550 3700 6400 10200 14600 26000 41000 57300
120 150 350 600 900 1370 2400 3700 5000 9100 15000 21600 38000 61500 86300
50 74 160 290 440 660 1100 1850 2600 4600 7000 10500 18600 29200 41000
120 80 120 270 450 710 1030 1800 2800 4150 7200 11600 16500 29200 48000 73800
120 175 400 680 1060 1520 2850 4300 6500 10700 17500 26000 44300 70200 97700
50 90 208 340 550 820 1380 2230 3220 5500 8800 12900 22000 35600 50000
150 80 145 320 570 900 1250 2200 3400 4900 8500 14000 20000 35500 57500 79800
120 215 450 850 1280 1890 3400 5300 7500 13400 20600 30000 55500 85500 120000
50 110 265 450 680 1020 1780 2800 4120 7100 11500 16300 28500 45300 64000
200 80 180 410 700 1100 1560 2910 4400 6600 11000 18000 26600 46000 72300 100000
120 250 600 1100 1630 2400 4350 6800 9400 16900 25900 37000 70600 109000 152000

2
 Sizing Steam Lines On Velocity

The appropriate size of pipe to Formula For Velocity Of Steam in discharge piping from steam
carry the required amount of In Pipes traps where two-phase steam/
steam at the local pressure must condensate mixtures must be

SYSTEM DESIGN
be chosen, since an undersized slowed to allow some gravity
pipe means high pressure drops V = 2.4Q Vs separation and reduce carryover
and velocities, noise and erosion, A of condensate from flash vent
while a generously sized pipe is Where: lines. Here line velocities of the
unnecessarily expensive to install flash steam should not exceed
V - Velocity in feet per minute
and heat losses from it will also 50/66 ft. per second. A much
be greater than they need be. Q - Flow lbs./hr. steam lower velocity must be provided
Steam pipes may be sized Vs - Sp. Vol. in cu. ft./lb. at the for separation inside the flash
either so that the pressure drop flowing pressure vessel by expanding its size. The
along them is below an accept- A - Internal area of the pipe— flash load is the total released
able limit, or so that velocities sq. in. by hot condensate from all traps
along them are not too high. It draining into the receiver. For
is convenient and quick to size Steam Piping For PRV’s and condensate line sizing example,
short mains and branches on Flash Vents see page 46 and see page 43 for
velocity, but longer runs of pipe Velocity in piping other than vent line sizing example.
should also be checked to see steam distribution lines must be
that pressure drops are not too correctly chosen, including pres-
high. sure reducing valve and flash
steam vent applications.
Steam Line Velocities
A look at Steam Properties
In saturated steam lines, rea-
(Table 3) illustrates how the spe-
sonable maximum for velocities
cific volume of steam increases
are often taken at 80/120 ft. per
as pressure is reduced. To keep
second or 4800/7200 fpm. In the
reducing valve high and low pres-
past, many process plants have
sure pipe velocity constant, the
used higher velocities up to 200
downstream piping cross-sec-
ft. per second or 12,000 fpm, on
tional area must be larger by
the basis that the increased pipe
the same ratio as the change in
noise is not a problem within a
volume. When downstream pipe
process plant. This ignores the
size is not increased, low pres-
other problems which accompany
sure steam velocity increases
high velocities, and especially the
proportionally. For best PRV oper-
erosion of the pipework and fit-
ation, without excessive noise,
tings by water droplets moving at
long straight pipe runs must be
high speed. Only where appre-
provided on both sides, with pip-
ciable superheat is present, with
ing reduced to the valve then
the pipes carrying only a dry gas,
expanded downstream gradually
should the velocities mentioned
to limit approach and exit steam
be exceeded. Velocity of satu-
velocities to 4000/ 6000 fpm. A
rated steam in any pipe may be
sizing example is given in Fig. 1.
obtained from either Table 1, Fig.
1 or calculated in ft. per minute Line velocity is also important
using the formula:

3
 Sizing Steam Lines On Velocity

Fig. 1 lists steam capacities of

pipes under various pressure and
Figure 1: Steam Velocity Chart
velocity conditions.
SYSTEM DESIGN

EXAMPLE: Given a steam heat-

ing system with a 100 psig inlet
pressure ahead of the pressure
reducing valve and a capacity of
1,000 pounds of steam per hour
at 25 psig, find the smallest sizes
of upstream and downstream pip-
ing for reasonable quiet steam
velocities.

Upstream Piping Sizing

Enter the velocity chart at A for
1,000 pounds per hour. Go over
to point B where the 100 psig
diagonal line intersects. Follow up
vertically to C where an inter-
section with a diagonal line falls
inside the 4,000-6,000 foot-
per-minute velocity band. Actual
velocity at D is about 4,800
feet per minute for 1-1/2 inch
upstream piping.

Downstream Piping Sizing

Enter the velocity chart at A for
1,000 pounds per hour. Go over
to point E where the 25 psig
diagonal line intersects. Follow
up vertically to F where an inter-
section with a diagonal line falls
inside the 4,000-6,000 foot-per-
minute velocity band. Actual
velocity at G is 5,500 feet per
minute for 2-1/2 inch downstream
piping.

Pressure Drop in Steam Lines

Always check that pressure drop
is within allowable limits before
selecting pipe size in long steam
mains and whenever it is critical.
Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 provide drops in
Sch. 40 and Sch. 80 pipe. Use of 2. Divide allowable pressure Solution:
the charts is illustrated in the two drop by factor 3 –.. 1.5 = 2 psi. Enter schedule 40 chart at 20,000
examples. 3. Enter pressure drop chart at pounds per hour, proceed verti-
EXAMPLE 1 2 psi and proceed horizon- cally upward to 8” pipe curve,
tally to flow rate of 10,000 then horizontally to pressure drop
What will be the smallest sched-
pounds per hour. Select pipe scale, read 0.23 psi per 100 feet.
ule 40 pipe that can be used
size on or to the right of this This would be the drop if the
if drop per 100 feet shall not
point. In this case a 4” main. steam pressure were 100 psig.
exceed 3 psi when flow rate is
Since pressure is 15 psig, a cor-
10,000 pounds per hour, and EXAMPLE 2 rection factor must be used.
steam pressure is 60 psig? What will be the pressure drop Correction factor for 15 psig = 3.6
Solution: per 100 feet in an 8” schedule 40 0.23 x 3.6 = 0.828 psi drop per
1. Find factor for steam pres- steam main when flow is 20,000 100 feet for 15 psig
sure in main, in this case 60 pounds per hour, and steam
psig. Factor from chart = 1.5. pressure is 15 psig?

4
 Steam Pipe Sizing For Pressure Drop

Figure 2: Pressure Drop in Schedule 40 Pipe

100 psig Saturated Steam

SYSTEM DESIGN
For other pressures use correction factors
psi 0 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 75 90 100 110 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 500 600
factor 6.9 6.0 5.2 4.3 3.6 3.1 2.4 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.92 0.83 0.70 0.62 0.55 0.49 0.45 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.23 0.19

3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 2" 2-1/2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 8" 10" 12" 14" 16" 18" 20"
15.0

10.0 24"
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
Pressure Drop psi/100 ft

2.0

1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3

.2

.1
100 200 300 400 500 1,000 2 3 4 5 10,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 100,000 2 3 4 5 1,000,000 2
Steam Flow lbs/hr

Figure 3: Pressure Drop in Schedule 80 Pipe

100 psig Saturated Steam
For other pressures use correction factors
psi 0 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 75 90 100 110 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 500 600
factor 6.9 6.0 5.2 4.3 3.6 3.1 2.4 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.92 0.83 0.70 0.62 0.55 0.49 0.45 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.23 0.19

3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 2" 2-1/2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 8" 10" 12" 14" 16" 18" 20" 24"
15.0

10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
Pressure Drop psi/100 ft

2.0

1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4

.3

.2

.1
100 200 300 400 500 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 10,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 100,000 2 3 4 5 1,000,000 2
Steam Flow lbs/hr

5
 Sizing Superheated Mains

Sizing Superheated Mains Example:

When sizing steam mains for Size a steam main to carry 34,000 Select a velocity of 10,000 ft/
superheated service, the follow- lb/h of 300 psig steam at a tem- min. (which is within the process
SYSTEM DESIGN

ing procedure should be used. perature of 500° F. velocity range of 8,000 - 12,000
Divide the required flow rate by From Table 2 the correction fac- ft/min.) and determine Vs (spe-
the factor in Table 2. This will give tor is .96. The equivalent capacity cific volume) of 1.47 ft3/lb (from
an equivalent saturated steam is the Steam Table on page 7). The
flow. Enter Fig. 1, Steam Velocity formula is now:
34,000
Chart on page 4 to select appro- = 35,417 lb/h. 2.4 x 35,417 x 1.47
priate pipe size. If unable, then .96 A= = 12.5 in2
10,000
use the formula on page 3 to cal- Since 300 psig is not found on
culate cross sectional area of the Fig. 1, the pipe size will have to From Tables 38 and 39 (page 81)
pipe and then Tables 38 and 39, be calculated. From the formula the pipe closest to this area is 4”
page 81, to select the pipe size on page 3: schedule 40 or 5” schedule 80.
which closely matches calculated 2.4 x Q x Vs
internal transverse area. V=
A
Solving for area the formula
becomes:
2.4 x Q x Vs
A=
V

Table 2: Superheated Steam Correction Factor

Gauge Saturated
Pressure Temp. TOTAL STEAM TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES FARENHEIT
PSI ˚F 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760
15 250 .99 .99 .98 .98 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .86 .85 .84 .83 .83 .82
20 259 .99 .99 .98 .98 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .86 .85 .84 .83 .83 .82
40 287 1.00 .99 .99 .98 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .86 .85 .84 .84 .83 .82
60 308 1.00 .99 .99 .98 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .86 .85 .84 .84 .83 .82
80 324 1.00 1.00 .99 .99 .98 .97 .96 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .86 .85 .84 .84 .83 .82
100 338 – 1.00 1.00 .99 .98 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .85 .84 .83 .82
120 350 – 1.00 1.00 .99 .98 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .85 .84 .83 .82
140 361 ­– – 1.00 1.00 .99 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .85 .84 .83 .82
160 371 – – – 1.00 .99 .98 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84 .83 .82
180 380 – – – 1.00 .99 .98 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84 .83 .83
200 388 – – – 1.00 .99 .99 .97 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84 .83 .83
220 395 – – – 1.00
1.00 .99 .98 .96 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84 .84 .83
240 403 – – – – 1.00 .99 .98 .97 .95 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84 .84 .83
260 409 – – – – 1.00 .99 .98 .97 .96 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .85 .84 .83
280 416 – – – – 1.00 1.00 .99 .97 .96 .95 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .85 .84 .83
300 422 – – – – – 1.00 .99 .98 .96 .95 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .86 .85 .84 .83
350 436 – – – – – 1.00
1.00 .99 .97 .96 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84 .83
400 448 – – – – – – 1.00 .99 .98 .96 .95 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84 .84
450 460 – – – – – – – 1.00 .99 .97 .96 .94 .93 .92 .91 .89 .88 .87 .86 .86 .84 .84
500 470 – – – – – – – 1.00 .99 .98 .96 .94 .93 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84
550 480 – – – – – – – – 1.00 .99 .97 .95 .94 .92 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84
600 489 – – – – – – – – 1.00 .99 .98 .96 .94 .93 .92 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85 .84
650 497 – – – – – – – – – 1.00 .99 .97 .95 .94 .92 .91 .90 .89 .87 .86 .86 .85
700 506 – – – – – – – – – 1.00 .99 .97 .96 .94 .93 .91 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85
750 513 – – – – – – – – – 1.00 1.00 .98 .96 .95 .93 .92 .90 .89 .88 .87 .86 .85
800 520 – – – – – – – – – –
1.00 .99
.97
.95
.94
.92
.91
.90 .88 .87 .86 .85
850 527 – – – – – – – – – –
1.00 .99
.98
.96
.94
.93
.92
.90 .89 .88 .87 .86
900 533 – – – – – – – – – –
1.00
1.00
.99
.97
.95
.93
.92
.90 .89 .88 .87 .86
950 540 – – – – – – – – – – – 1.00
.99
.97
.95
.94
.92
.91 .89 .88 .87 .86

1000 546 – – – – – – – – – – – 1.00
.99
.98
.96
.94
.93
.91 .90 .89 .87 .86

6
 Properties Of Saturated Steam

Table 3: Properties of Saturated Steam

Specific Specific

SYSTEM DESIGN
Gauge Temper- Heat in Btu/lb. Volume Gauge Temper- Heat in Btu/lb. Volume
Pressure ature Cu. ft. Pressure ature Cu. ft.
PSIG °F Sensible Latent Total per lb. PSIG °F Sensible Latent Total per lb.
25 134 102 1017 1119 142.0 185 382 355 843 1198 2.29
IN VAC.

20 162 129 1001 1130 73.9 190 384 358 841 1199 2.24
15 179 147 990 1137 51.3 195 386 360 839 1199 2.19
10 192 160 982 1142 39.4 200 388 362 837 1199 2.14
5 203 171 976 1147 31.8 205 390 364 836 1200 2.09
0 212 180 970 1150 26.8 210 392 366 834 1200 2.05
1 215 183 968 1151 25.2 215 394 368 832 1200 2.00
2 219 187 966 1153 23.5 220 396 370 830 1200 1.96
3 222 190 964 1154 22.3 225 397 372 828 1200 1.92
4 224 192 962 1154 21.4 230 399 374 827 1201 1.89
5 227 195 960 1155 20.1 235 401 376 825 1201 1.85
6 230 198 959 1157 19.4 240 403 378 823 1201 1.81
7 232 200 957 1157 18.7 245 404 380 822 1202 1.78
8 233 201 956 1157 18.4 250 406 382 820 1202 1.75
9 237 205 954 1159 17.1 255 408 383 819 1202 1.72
10 239 207 953 1160 16.5 260 409 385 817 1202 1.69
12 244 212 949 1161 15.3 265 411 387 815 1202 1.66
14 248 216 947 1163 14.3 270 413 389 814 1203 1.63
16 252 220 944 1164 13.4 275 414 391 812 1203 1.60
18 256 224 941 1165 12.6 280 416 392 811 1203 1.57
20 259 227 939 1166 11.9 285 417 394 809 1203 1.55
22 262 230 937 1167 11.3 290 418 395 808 1203 1.53
24 265 233 934 1167 10.8 295 420 397 806 1203 1.49
26 268 236 933 1169 10.3 300 421 398 805 1203 1.47
28 271 239 930 1169 9.85 305 423 400 803 1203 1.45
30 274 243 929 1172 9.46 310 425 402 802 1204 1.43
32 277 246 927 1173 9.10 315 426 404 800 1204 1.41
34 279 248 925 1173 8.75 320 427 405 799 1204 1.38
36 282 251 923 1174 8.42 325 429 407 797 1204 1.36
38 284 253 922 1175 8.08 330 430 408 796 1204 1.34
40 286 256 920 1176 7.82 335 432 410 794 1204 1.33
42 289 258 918 1176 7.57 340 433 411 793 1204 1.31
44 291 260 917 1177 7.31 345 434 413 791 1204 1.29
46 293 262 915 1177 7.14 350 435 414 790 1204 1.28
48 295 264 914 1178 6.94 355 437 416 789 1205 1.26
50 298 267 912 1179 6.68 360 438 417 788 1205 1.24
55 300 271 909 1180 6.27 365 440 419 786 1205 1.22
60 307 277 906 1183 5.84 370 441 420 785 1205 1.20
65 312 282 901 1183 5.49 375 442 421 784 1205 1.19
70 316 286 898 1184 5.18 380 443 422 783 1205 1.18
75 320 290 895 1185 4.91 385 445 424 781 1205 1.16
80 324 294 891 1185 4.67 390 446 425 780 1205 1.14
85 328 298 889 1187 4.44 395 447 427 778 1205 1.13
90 331 302 886 1188 4.24 400 448 428 777 1205 1.12
95 335 305 883 1188 4.05 450 460 439 766 1205 1.00
100 338 309 880 1189 3.89 500 470 453 751 1204 .89
105 341 312 878 1190 3.74 550 479 464 740 1204 .82
110 344 316 875 1191 3.59 600 489 473 730 1203 .75
115 347 319 873 1192 3.46 650 497 483 719 1202 .69
120 350 322 871 1193 3.34 700 505 491 710 1201 .64
125 353 325 868 1193 3.23 750 513 504 696 1200 .60
130 356 328 866 1194 3.12 800 520 512 686 1198 .56
135 358 330 864 1194 3.02 900 534 529 666 1195 .49
140 361 333 861 1194 2.92 1000 546 544 647 1191 .44
145 363 336 859 1195 2.84 1250 574 580 600 1180 .34
150 366 339 857 1196 2.74 1500 597 610 557 1167 .23
155 368 341 855 1196 2.68 1750 618 642 509 1151 .22
160 371 344 853 1197 2.60 2000 636 672 462 1134 .19
165 373 346 851 1197 2.54 2250 654 701 413 1114 .16
170 375 348 849 1197 2.47 2500 669 733 358 1091 .13
175 377 351 847 1198 2.41 2750 683 764 295 1059 .11
180 380 353 845 1198 2.34 3000 696 804 213 1017 .08

7
 Draining Steam Mains

Steam main drainage is one of rating of equipment. two most usual methods are:
the most common applications (a) supervised start up and
for steam traps. It is important Efficient Steam Main
SYSTEM DESIGN

(b) automatic start up.

that water is removed from steam Drainage
mains as quickly as possible, for Proper drainage of lines, and
reasons of safety and to permit some care in start up methods, A) Supervised Start Up
greater plant efficiency. A build-up not only prevent damage by In this case, at each drain point
of water can lead to waterham- waterhammer, but help improve in the steam system, a manual
mer, capable of fracturing pipes steam quality, so that equipment drain valve is fitted, bypassing
and fittings. When carried into the output can be maximized and the steam trap and discharging to
steam spaces of heat exchangers, maintenance of control valves atmosphere.
it simply adds to the thickness of reduced.
the condensate film and reduces These drain valves are
The use of oversized steam opened fully before any steam
heat transfer. Inadequate drain- traps giving very generous “safe-
age leads to leaking joints, and is is admitted to the system. When
ty factors” does not necessarily the “heat up” condensate has
a potential cause of wiredrawing ensure safe and effective steam
of control valve seats. been discharged and as the pres-
main drainage. A number of sure in the main begins to rise,
Waterhammer points must be kept in mind, for a the valves are closed. The con-
satisfactory installation. densate formed under operating
Waterhammer occurs when
a slug of water, pushed by steam 1) The heat up method conditions is then discharged
pressure along a pipe instead of employed. through the traps. Clearly, the
draining away at the low points, 2) Provision of suitable collect- traps need only be sized to
is suddenly stopped by impact on ing legs or reservoirs for the handle the losses from the lines
a valve or fitting such as a pipe condensate. under operating conditions, given
bend or tee. The velocities which in Table 5 (page 10).
3) Provision of a minimum pres-
such slugs of water can achieve sure differential across the This heat up procedure is
are not often appreciated. They steam trap. most often used in large installa-
can be much higher than the tions where start up of the system
4) Choice of steam trap type is an infrequent, perhaps even
normal steam velocity in the pipe,
and size. an annual, occurrence. Large
especially when the waterham-
mer is occurring at startup. 5) Proper trap installation. heating systems and chemical
When these velocities are processing plants are typical
Heat Up Method examples.
destroyed, the kinetic energy in
The choice of steam trap depends
the water is converted into pres-
on the heat up method adopted
sure energy and a pressure shock
to bring the steam main up to full
is applied to the obstruction. In
pressure and temperature. The
mild cases, there is noise and
perhaps movement of the pipe. Separator
More severe cases lead to fracture Steam
Supply
of the pipe or fittings with almost
explosive effect, and consequent
escape of live steam at the frac-
ture.
Trap Set
Waterhammer is avoided com-
pletely if steps are taken to ensure
that water is drained away before
it accumulates in sufficient quantity
to be picked up by the steam.
Careful consideration of
steam main drainage can avoid
damage to the steam main and
possible injury or even loss of life.
It offers a better alternative than Figure 4
an acceptance of waterhammer Trap Boiler header or takeoff separator
and an attempt to contain it by and size for maximum carryover. On heavy
choice of materials, or pressure demand this could be 10% of generating capacity

8
 Draining Steam Mains

B) Automatic Start Up for a short time and then shut off hour start up. If the start up time
One traditional method of achiev- while temperatures equalize. The is different, the new load can be
ing automatic start up is simply to boilers are protected from undue calculated as follows:

SYSTEM DESIGN
allow the steam boiler to be fired stress by these short bursts of
firing, which extend the warmup lbs. of Condensate (Table 4) x 60
and brought up to pressure with Warm up time in minutes
the steam take off valve (crown time and reduce the rate at which
valve) wide open. Thus the steam condensation in the mains is to = Actual warm-up load.
main and branch lines come up to be discharged at the traps.
pressure and temperature with- Apply a safety factor of 2:1
out supervision, and the steam Determining Condensate Loads and size the trap at a differential
traps are relied on to automati- As previously discussed there are pressure of working steam pres-
cally discharge the condensate two methods for bringing a steam sure minus condensate return
as it is formed. main “on line”. The supervised line presure. Since most drip
start up bypasses the traps thus traps see running loads much
This method is generally con- avoiding the large warm up loads. more often than start up loads,
fined to small installations that The traps are then sized based care must be taken when sizing
are regularly and frequently shut on the running conditions found them for start up conditions. If the
down and started up again. For in Table 5 (page 10). A safety start up load forces the selection
example, the boilers in many factor of 2:1 and a differential of a trap exceeding the capability
laundry and drycleaning plants pressure of inlet minus conden- of the “running load trap,” then
are often shut down at night and sate return pressure. the warm up time needs to be
restarted the next morning.
Systems employing automat- increased and/or the length of
In anything but the smallest ic start up procedures requires pipe decreased.
plants, the flow of steam from estimation of the amount of con-
the boiler into the cold pipes at densate produced in bringing up
start up, while the boiler pressure the main to working tempera-
is still only a few psi, will lead ture and pressure within the time
to excessive carryover of boiler available. The amount of con-
water with the steam. Such car- densate being formed and the
ryover can be enough to overload pressure available to discharge it
separators in the steam take- are both varying continually and
off, where these are fitted. Great at any given moment are inde-
care, and even good fortune, are terminate due to many unknown
needed if waterhammer is to be variables. Table 4 (page 10) indi-
avoided. cates the warm up loads per 100
For these reasons, modern feet of steam main during a one
practice calls for an automatic
valve to be fitted in the steam
supply line, arranged so that the
valve stays closed until a reason-
Warm Up Load Example
able pressure is attained in the Consider a length of 8” main which is to carry steam at 125 psig. Drip
boiler. The valve can then be points are to be 150 ft. apart and outside ambient conditions can be as
made to open over a timed period low as 0°F. Warm-up time is to be 30 minutes.
so that steam is admitted only
slowly into the distribution pipe- From Table 4, Warm Up Load is 107 lb./100 ft.
work. The pressure with the boiler For a 150 ft run, load is 107 x 1.5 = 160.5 lb/150 ft.
may be climbing at a fast rate,
of course, but the slow opening Correction Factor for 0°F (see Table 4) 1.25 x 160.5 = 200.6 lb/150 ft.
valve protects the pipework. A 30 minute warm up time increases the load by
Where these valves are 200.6 x 60 = 401 lb/h
used, the time available to warm 30 total load
up the pipework will be known,
as it is set on the valve control. Applying a safety factor of 2:1, the trap sizing load is 802 lb/h. If the back
In other cases it is necessary pressure in the condensate return is 0 psig, the trap would be sized for
to know the details of the boiler a 125 psi differential pressure. This would result in an oversized trap
start up procedure so that the during running conditions, calculated at 94 lb/h using Tabe 5 (page 10).
time can be estimated. Boilers Either increase the warm up time to one hour or decrease the distance
started from cold are often fired between drip traps.

9
 Draining Steam Mains

Table 4: Warm-Up Load in Pounds of Steam per 100 Ft of Steam Main

Ambient Temperature 70°F. Based on Sch. 40 pipe to 250 psi, Sch. 80 above 250 except Sch. 120 5” and larger above 800 psi
SYSTEM DESIGN

Steam O°F
Pressure Main Size Correction
psi 2” 21/2” 3” 4” 5” 6” 8” 10” 12” 14” 16” 18” 20” 24” Factor†
0 6•2 9•7 12•8 18•2 24•6 31•9 48 68 90 107 140 176 207 308 1•50
5 6•9 11•0 14•4 20•4 27•7 35•9 48 77 101 120 157 198 233 324 1•44
10 7•5 11•8 15•5 22•0 29•9 38•8 58 83 109 130 169 213 251 350 1•41
20 8•4 13•4 17•5 24•9 33•8 44 66 93 124 146 191 241 284 396 1•37
40 9•9 15•8 20•6 29•2 39•7 52 78 110 145 172 225 284 334 465 1•32
60 11•0 17•5 22•9 32•6 44 57 86 122 162 192 250 316 372 518 1•29
80 12•0 19•0 24•9 35•3 48 62 93 132 175 208 271 342 403 561 1•27
100 12•8 20•3 26•6 37•8 51 67 100 142 188 222 290 366 431 600 1•26
125 13•7 21•7 28•4 40 55 71 107 152 200 238 310 391 461 642 1•25
150 14•5 23•0 30•0 43 58 75 113 160 212 251 328 414 487 679 1•24
175 15•3 24•2 31•7 45 61 79 119 169 224 265 347 437 514 716 1•23
200 16•0 25•3 33•1 47 64 83 125 177 234 277 362 456 537 748 1•22
250 17•2 27•3 35•8 51 69 89 134 191 252 299 390 492 579 807 1•21
300 25•0 38•3 51 75 104 143 217 322 443 531 682 854 1045 1182 1•20
400 27•8 43 57 83 116 159 241 358 493 590 759 971 1163 1650 1•18
500 30•2 46 62 91 126 173 262 389 535 642 825 1033 1263 1793 1•17
600 32•7 50 67 98 136 187 284 421 579 694 893 1118 1367 1939 1•16
800 38 58 77 113 203 274 455 670 943 1132 1445 1835 2227 3227 1•156
1000 45 64 86 126 227 305 508 748 1052 1263 1612 2047 2485 3601 1•147
1200 52 72 96 140 253 340 566 833 1172 1407 1796 2280 2767 4010 1•140
1400 62 79 106 155 280 376 626 922 1297 1558 1988 2524 3064 4440 1•135
1600 71 87 117 171 309 415 692 1018 1432 1720 2194 2786 3382 4901 1•130
1750 78 94 126 184 333 448 746 1098 1544 1855 2367 3006 3648 5285 1•128
1800 80 97 129 189 341 459 764 1125 1584 1902 2427 3082 3741 5420 1•127
†For outdoor temperature of 0°F, multiply load value in table for each main size by correction factor shown.

Table 5: Running Load in Pounds per Hour per 100 Ft of Insulated Steam Main
Ambient Temperature 70°F. Insulation 80% efficient. Load due to radiation and convection for saturated steam.
Steam 0°F
Pressure Main Size Correction
psi 2” 21/2” 3” 4” 5” 6” 8” 10” 12” 14” 16” 18” 20” 24” Factor†
10 6 7 9 11 13 16 20 24 29 32 36 39 44 53 1•58
30 8 9 11 14 17 20 26 32 38 42 48 51 57 68 1•50
60 10 12 14 18 24 27 33 41 49 54 62 67 74 89 1•45
100 12 15 18 22 28 33 41 51 61 67 77 83 93 111 1•41
125 13 16 20 24 30 36 45 56 66 73 84 90 101 121 1•39
175 16 19 23 26 33 38 53 66 78 86 98 107 119 142 1•38
250 18 22 27 34 42 50 62 77 92 101 116 126 140 168 1•36
300 20 25 30 37 46 54 68 85 101 111 126 138 154 184 1•35
400 23 28 34 43 53 63 80 99 118 130 148 162 180 216 1•33
500 27 33 39 49 61 73 91 114 135 148 170 185 206 246 1•32
600 30 37 44 55 68 82 103 128 152 167 191 208 232 277 1•31
800 36 44 53 69 85 101 131 164 194 214 244 274 305 365 1•30
1000 43 52 63 82 101 120 156 195 231 254 290 326 363 435 1•27
1200 51 62 75 97 119 142 185 230 274 301 343 386 430 515 1•26
1400 60 73 89 114 141 168 219 273 324 356 407 457 509 610 1•25
1600 69 85 103 132 163 195 253 315 375 412 470 528 588 704 1•22
1750 76 93 113 145 179 213 278 346 411 452 516 580 645 773 1•22
1800 79 96 117 150 185 221 288 358 425 467 534 600 667 800 1•21
†For outdoor temperature of 0°F, multiply load value in table for each main size by correction factor shown.

10
 Draining Steam Mains

Draining Steam Mains 2. The length of the drip pocket Sometimes the ground con-
Note from the example that in shall be 1-1/2 times the diam- tours are such that the steam
most cases, other than large eter of the distribution line but main can only be run uphill. This

SYSTEM DESIGN
distribution mains, 1/2” Thermo- not less than 18 inches. will mean the drain points should
Dynamic® traps have ample be at closer intervals, say 50
capacity. For shorter lengths Drip Leg Spacing ft. apart, and the size of the
between drip points, and for The spacing between the drain- main increased. The lower steam
small diameter pipes, the 1/2” low age points is often greater than velocity then allows the con-
capacity TD trap more than meets is desirable. On a long horizontal densate to drain in the opposite
even start up loads, but on larger run (or rather one with a fall in the direction to the steam flow.
mains it may be worth fitting par- direction of the flow of about 1/2” Air venting of steam mains is
allel 1/2” traps as in Fig. II-6 (page in 10 feet or 1/250) drain points of paramount importance and is
86). Low pressure mains are best should be provided at intervals of far too often overlooked. Steam
drained using float and thermo- 100 to 200 feet. Longer lengths entering the pipes tends to push
static traps, and these traps can should be split up by additional the air already there in front of it
also be used at higher pressures. drain points. Any natural collect- as would a piston. Automatic air
ing points in the systems, such vents, fitted on top of tees at the
The design of drip stations
as at the foot of any riser, should terminal points of the main and
are fairly simple. The most com-
also be drained. the larger branches, will allow dis-
mon rules to follow for sizing the
drip pockets are: A very long run laid with a fall charge of this air. Absence of air
in this way may become so low vents means that the air will pass
1. The diameter of the drip pock- through the steam traps (where
that at intervals it must be elevat-
ets shall be the same size it may well slow down the dis-
ed with a riser. The foot of each of
as the distribution line up to charge of condensate) or through
these “relay points” also requires a
6 inches in diameter. The the steam using equipment itself.
collecting pocket and steam trap.
diameter shall be half the size
of the distribution line over 6
inches but never less than 6 Figure 5
inches. Draining and Relaying Steam Main
Fall 1/2” in
10 Ft
Steam
Steam Trap
Steam Trap
Steam Trap
Steam Trap Steam Trap

Condensate

Case in Action: Steam Main and Steam Tracing System Drainage

The majority of steam traps in refineries are installed on steam that operators are not allowed to remove traps for repair when
main and steam tracing systems. Thorough drainage of steam threading from the line is required. Maintenance personnel
mains/branch lines is essential for effective heat transfer must be involved.
around the refinery and for waterhammer prevention. This
holds true for condensate drainage from steam tracing lines/ Solution
jackets, though some degree of back-up (or sub-cooling) is Universal connector steam traps were installed for trial in one
permissible in some applications. of the dirtiest drip stations at the refinery. The traps held up
The predominant steam trap installed is a non-repair- under adverse operating conditions requiring only periodic
able type that incorporates a permanent pipeline connector. cleaning. Since the time of installation, all failed inverted buck-
Scattered throughout the system are a number of iron and et traps in this service were replaced with universal connector
steel body repairable types. traps. Strainers were installed upstream of each.
Most notable failure of steam traps are precipitate for- Benefits
mation on bucket weep-holes and discharge orifices that • The addition of Thermo-Dynamic® traps allowed for easier
eventually plugs the trap shut. A common culprit is valve field trap testing.
sealing compound injected into leaking valves which forms
• The addition of universal connectors significantly reduced
small pellets that settle in low points, such as drip legs/steam
steam trap installation and repair time.
traps and on strainer screens making blow down difficult. This
problem also occurs during occasional “system upset” when • 33% reduction in steam trap inventory due to standard trap
hydrocarbon contaminants are mistakenly introduced to the for all sizes.
steam system. • Reduced energy loss is significantly reduced using Thermo-
A noise detector and/or a temperature-indicating device Dynamic® steam traps versus original inverted bucket traps.
is required to detect trap failure. Especially costly is the fact

11
 Steam Tracing

The temperature of process liquids than Fig. 9b, and the use of wrap
being transferred through pipe- around tracers should be avoided
lines often must be maintained on long horizontal lines.
SYSTEM DESIGN

to meet the requirements of a A run of even 100 ft. of 6 Lagging

process, to prevent thickening and inch product line will have a total Product
solidification, or simply to protect of about 500 to 600 ft. of wrap
against freezeup. This is achieved around tracer. The pressure drop
by the use of jacketed pipes, or by along the tracer would be very
attaching to the product line one or high and the temperature at the
more separate tracer lines carrying Aluminum
end remote from the supply would Foil
a heating medium such as steam be very low. Indeed, this end of
or hot water. the tracer would probably contain
The steam usage may be only condensate and the tem- Air Space
relatively small but the tracing perature of this water would fall Tracer
system is often a major part of the as it gives up heat. Where steam
steam installation, and the source is present in the tracer, lifting the Figure 6
of many problems. condensate from the multiplicity of Tracer Attached To Product Line
Many large users and plant low points increases the problems
contractors have their own associated with this arrangement.
inhouse rules for tracer lines, but
the following guidelines may be
useful in other cases. We have Figure 9 Continuous Fall On Wrap Around Tracer
dealt only with external tracing,
this being the area likely to cause 9a 9b
difficulties where no existing
experience is available. External
tracing is simple and therefore
cheap to install, and fulfills the
needs of most processes.

External Tracer Lines

One or more heat carrying lines, Figure 10 Attaching Tracer To Line
of sizes usually from 3/8” up to
1” nominal bore are attached to
the main product pipe as in Fig.
6. Transfer of heat to the prod-
uct line may be three ways—by
conduction through direct contact,
Figure 10a Short Run Welds
by convection currents in the air Figure 7
pocket formed inside the insulat-
Small Bore Tracing
ing jacket, and by radiation. The
Wraped Around
tracer lines may be of carbon steel
Vertical Product Line
or copper, or sometimes stainless
steel.
Where the product line is of Figure 10b Continuous Weld
a particular material to suit the
fluid it is carrying, the material for Lagging
the tracer line must be chosen to Product
avoid electrolytic corrosion at any
contact points.
For short runs of tracer, such
as around short vertical pipes, or
valves and fittings, small bore cop-
per pipes, perhaps 1/4” bore may Heat
be wound around the product lines Conducting
as at Fig. 7. The layout should be Figure 8 Paste Tracer
arranged to give a continuous fall Clipping Tracer Around Bends Figure 10c Heat Conducting Paste
along the tracers as Fig. 9a rather
12
 Steam Tracing

Clip On Tracers In these cases the tracer is Insulation

The simplest form of tracer is one sometimes laid along the top of The insulation must cover both
that is clipped or wired on to the the pipe rather than at the bot- the product line and the tracer

SYSTEM DESIGN
main product line. Maximum heat tom, which greatly simplifies the but it is important that the air
flow is achieved when the tracer welding procedure. Advocates of space remains clear. This can be
is in tight contact with the product this method claim that this loca- achieved in more than one way.
line. The securing clips should be tion does not adversely affect the
heat transfer rates. 1. The product line and tracer
no further apart than 12” to 18” on can first be wrapped with alu-
3/8” tracers, 18” to 24 on 1/2”, and minum foil, or by galvanized
24” to 36” on 3/4” and larger. Heat Conducting Paste
For maximum heat transfer, it can steel sheet, held on by wir-
The tracer pipes can be lit- be an advantage to use a heat ing and the insulation is then
erally wired on, but to maintain conducting paste to fill the normal applied outside this sheet.
close contact it is better to use hot air gap as in Fig. 10c. The Alternatively, small mesh gal-
either galvanized or stainless paste can be used to improve vanized wire netting can be
steel bands, about 1/2” wide and heat transfer with any of the clip- used in the same way as
18 to 20 gauge thickness. One ping methods described, but it is metal sheet Fig. 11a.
very practical method is to use a essential that the surfaces are 2. Sectional insulation, pre-
packing case banding machine. wirebrushed clean before apply- formed to one or two sizes
Where tracers are carried around ing the paste. larger than the product main,
bends particular care should be can be used. This has the
taken to ensure that good contact Spacer Tracing disadvantage that it can eas-
is maintained by using three or The product being carried in the ily be crushed Fig. 11b.
more bands as in Fig. 8. line can be sensitive to tempera- 3. Preformed sectional insula-
Where it is not possible to ture in some cases and it is then tion designed to cover both
use bands as at valve bodies, soft important to avoid any local hot product line and tracer can
annealed stainless steel wire 18 spots on the pipe such as could be used, as Fig. 11c.
gauge thick is a useful alternative. occur with direct contact between Preformed sectional insula-
Once again, any special needs to the tracer and the line. tion is usually preferred to plastic
avoid external corrosion or elec- This is done by introducing a material, because being rigid it
trolytic action may lead to these strip of insulating material between retains better thickness and effi-
suggestions being varied. the tracer and the product pipe ciency. In all cases, the insulation
such as fiberglass, mineral wool, should be properly finished with
Welded Tracers or packing blocks of an inert waterproof covering. Most insu-
Where the temperature differ- material. lation is porous and becomes
ence between the tracer and the useless as heat conserving mate-
product is low, the tracer may rial if it is allowed to absorb water.
be welded to the product line. Adequate steps may also be
This can be done either by short needed to protect the insulation
run welds as Fig. 10a or by a from mechanical damage.
continuous weld as Fig. 10b for
maximum heat transfer.

Lagging
Lagging Lagging
Product
Product
Product

Aluminum
Foil Tracer Tracer Tracer
Wire Netting
11a 11b 11c
Figure 11
Insulating Tracer and Product Lines

13
 Steam Tracing

Sizing of External Tracers say, with equal conviction, that it is Jacketed Lines
The tracing or jacketing of any perfectly satisfactory to space the Ideally jacketed lines should be
line normally aims at maintain- tracers equally around the line. constructed in no more than 20
SYSTEM DESIGN

ing the contents of the line at a Then there are those who ft. lengths and the condensate
satisfactory working temperature will endeavor to size their tracers removed from each section.
under all conditions of low ambi- from 3/8”, 1/2”, 3/4” or 1” and even Steam should enter at the highest
ent temperature with adequate larger pipe: while another school end so that there is a natural fall
reserve to meet extreme condi- of thought says that as tracers to the condensate outlet as Fig.
tions. have only minute contact with the 12a.
Remember that on some product line it will give much more When it is considered
exposed sites, with an ambient even distribution of heat if all trac- impractical to trap each length,
still air temperature of say 0°F, ers are from 1/2” pipe in multiples a number of lengths up a total of
the effect of a 15 mph wind will to meet the requirements. This 80-100 ft. approx. may be joined
be to lower the temperature to an does have the added advantage together in moderate climates,
equivalent of -36°F. of needing to hold a stock of only but in extremely cold parts of the
one size of pipe and fittings rather world 40 ft. should be the maxi-
Even 32°F in still air can be than a variety of sizes. mum. See Fig. 12b.
lowered to an effective 4°F with
a 20 mph wind—circumstances For those who like to follow Always avoid connecting
which must be taken into full this idea, Table 6 will be useful for solely through the bottom loop.
consideration when studying the most average requirements. This can only handle the conden-
tracer line requirements. Type A would suffice for most sate and impedes the free flow of
fuel oil requirements and would steam as Fig. 12c. As a general
Details of prevailing condi- guide, see Table 7.
tions can usually be obtained also meet the requirement of
from the local meteorological those lines carrying acid, phenol, Although in most cases 1/2”
office or civil air authority. water and some other chemi- condensate outlet will be ade-
cals, but in some cases spacers quate, it is usual to make this the
Most of the sizing of external between the product line and same size as the steam connec-
tracers is done by rule of thumb, steam line would be employed. tion as it simplifies installation.
but the problem which arises here
is what rule and whose thumb? The steam pressure is External Tracers
important and must be chosen
Rules of thumb are gener- In horizontal runs, the steam will
according to the product tem-
ally based on the experiences of generally flow parallel to the prod-
perature required.
a certain company on a particular uct line, but as far as possible,
process and do not necessarily For noncritical tracing Types steam should enter from the high
apply elsewhere. There are also A & B (Table 6) a steam pres- end to allow free flow of the
widely differing opinions on the sure of 50 psi would generally condensate to the low end, i.e.
layout: some say that multiple trac- be suitable. For Type C, a higher it should always be self-draining.
ers should all be below the center pressure and a trap with a hot It is generally considered
line of the product line while others discharge may be required. preferable to fit one tracer on the
bottom of the line as Fig. 13a, two
Table 6: Number of 1/2” (15mm) Tracers Used tracers at 30° as Fig. 13b, three
with Different Sizes of Product Lines tracers at 45° as Fig. 13c.
Type A Type B Type C Where multiple 1/2” tracers are
Noncritical Noncritical Critical used, they should be arranged in
General frost protection or Where solidification may When solidification may loop fashion on either side of the
where solidification may occur at temps between occur at temps between product line, as Fig. 14. In vertical
occur at temps below 75°F 75-150°F 150-300°F
lines, the tracers would be spaced
Product Number of 1/2” Number of 1/2” Number of 1/2” uniformly, as Fig. 15a & b.
Line Size Tracers Tracers Tracers
1” 1 1 1 The maximum permissible
11/2” 1 1 2 length of tracer will depend to some
2” 1 1 2 extent on the size and initial steam
3” 1 1 3
pressure, but as a general guide
4” 1 2 3
3/8” tracers should not exceed 60
ft. in length and the limit for all other
6” 2 2 3
sizes should be about 150 ft.
8” 2 2 3
10”-12” 2 3 6 Bends and low points in the
14”-16” 2 3 8
tracer, as Fig. 16a should always
18”-20” 2 3 10
be avoided. For example, if it is
necessary to carry a tracer line

14
 Steam Tracing

round a pipe support or flange, Table 7: Steam Connection Size for Jacketed Lines
this should be done in the hori-
zontal plane, Fig. 16b. Product Jacket Steam

SYSTEM DESIGN
Line Diameter Connection
Where it is essential to 2-1/2” 65mm 4” 100mm 1/2” 15mm
maintain the flow of heat to the 3” 80mm 6” 150mm 3/4” 20mm
product, the tracer should be
4” 100mm 6” 150mm 3/4” 20mm
taken up to the back of the flange
6” 150mm 8” 200mm 3/4” 20mm
Fig. 17, and the coupling should
8” 200mm 10” 250mm 1” 25mm
always be on the center line of
the flanged joint. 10” 250mm 12” 300mm 1” 25mm

The same applies to an in- General Installation

line run where the tracer has to
Fall
be jointed. This can be done in Steam
two ways, Fig. 18 or Fig. 19.
Each of these is preferable Figure 13
to Fig. 20 which could produce a Single and Multiple Tracing
cold spot. Where two tracers are Steam Trap Steam Trap
used it can be better to double Figure 12a
back at a union or flange as Fig. Jacketed Lines, Drained Separately
21, rather than jump over it.
Steam
Expansion Fall
13a 13b 13c
Expansion in tracer lines is
often overlooked. Naturally the
steam heated tracer will tend to
expand more than the product Steam
Steam
line. Where the tracer has to pass Trap
around flanges, the bends are Figure 12b
Jacketed Lines, Connected
quite adequate to take care of the
expansion, Fig. 22.
But where this does not occur
and there is a long run of uninter- Steam Trap
rupted tracer, it is essential to
provide for expansion which can
be done by forming a complete Figure 12c Figure 14
loop, Fig. 23. Incorrect Arrangement of Jacketed Lines Multiple Tracing

Figure 15 Vertical Tracing

Figure 17
Figure 21
15a 15b Dual Tracer Double Back

Figure 18

Figure 22
Figure 16a Incorrect Arrangement Correct Arrangement
Figure 19 for Tracer-line Joints

Figure 23
Expansion Arrangements
Figure 16b Correct Arrangement Figure 20 Incorrect Arrangement on Long Tracers

15
 Steam Tracing

Tracer Steam Distribution local to the header, otherwise high should be separately trapped—
It is important that the steam sup- pressure drop may result. Fig. 28.
ply should always be taken from The size of the header will, of When branched tracers are
SYSTEM DESIGN

a source which is continuously course, depend upon the steam taken to serve valves, then each
available, even during a normal pressure and the total load on the should be separately trapped,
shut down period. tracers but as a general guide, Figs. 29, 30, 31 and 32.
Tracer lines and jacketed pipe see Table 8:
may have to work at any steam Figure 24
pressure (usually in the range Tracer Trap Sizing
Subcooled discharge traps are Spirax Sarco
between 10 and 250 psi, but Reducing
always choose the lowest pres- usually a good choice for trac-
er service. Tracing loads are Valve
sure to give the required product
temperature. Excessively high approximately 10 to 50 lb./hr., and
pressures cause much waste and each tracer requires its own low
should only be used where a high capacity trap.
product temperature is essential). No two tracers can have
To suit product temperature exactly the same duty, so group
requirements, it may be necessary trapping two or more tracers to
to use steam at different pres- one trap can considerably impair
sures. It should be distributed at the efficiency of heat transfer, see
the highest pressure and reduced Fig. 26 and Fig. 27.
down to meet the lower pressure Even with multiple tracers on
requirements. A Reducing Valve a single product line, each tracer
can be used for this purpose, Fig.
24. Note: it may be necessary to Tracers
steam trace the valve body to pre-
vent damage due to freezing..
A number of tracers can be
supplied from one local distribu-
tion header. This header should
Header Steam Trap
be adequately sized to meet the
maximum load and drained at its Figure 25
low point by a steam trap as Fig.
25. All branches should be taken Steam
Steam Steam Trap
off the top of this header, one Steam
Figure 29 Trap
branch to each tracer line. These
branches should be fitted with
isolating valves.
Don’t undersize these branch 3/8” (10mm) OD, 1/4” (6mm) Bore
connections (1/2” supply to even a
3/8” tracer will avoid undue pres-
sure drop) and serve only tracers Figure 26 Steam Trap
Incorrect Arrangement
Steam
Table 8 Steam
Recommended header size Figure 30 Steam Trap
for supplying steam tracer lines
eader Size Number of 1/2” Tracers
H Steam Trap
3/4” 2 3/8” (10mm) OD
1” 3-5 1/4” (6mm) Bore
11/2” 6-15
2” 16-30
Figure 27 Steam Trap
Correct Arrangement
Recommended header size Steam
for condensate lines Steam
eader Size Number of 1/2” Tracers
H
1” Up to 5 Steam Trap
11/2” 6-10
2” 11-25 Figure 31
Figure 28 Steam Trap Tracer Lines Around Pump Casing

16
 Steam Tracing

Steam Steam Traps For Tracer Lines avoided. Thus, the use of swept
1/2” (15mm) OD Almost any type of steam trap back or “y” connections from trap
could be used to drain tracer discharges into common headers

SYSTEM DESIGN
lines, but some lend themselves of generous size will help avoid
to this application better than problems.
others. The traps should be phys- Where the traps are exposed
ically small and light in weight, to wind, rain or snow, or low
and as they are often fitted in ambient temperatures, the steam
3/8” (10mm) OD exposed positions, they should bubbles in the top cap of the trap
1/4” (6mm) Bore be resistant to frost. The temper- can condense more quickly, lead-
ature at which the condensate is ing to more rapid wear. Special
Steam Trap discharged by the trap is perhaps insulating caps are available for
the most important consideration fitting to the top caps to avoid
Figure 32 when selecting the type of trap. this, Fig. 33.
Typical Instrument Tracing Thermo-Dynamic® traps are In other non-critical applica-
the simplest and most robust of tions, it can be convenient and
Important— all traps, they meet all of the energy efficient to allow the con-
Getting Rid of the Muck above criteria and they discharge densate to sub-cool within the
condensate at a temperature tracer before being discharged.
Pipes delivered to the site may
close to that of steam. Thus they This enables use to be made
contain mill scale, paint, preserv-
are especially suitable on those of some of the sensible heat in
ing oils, etc. and during storage
tracing applications where the the condensate, and reduces or
and erection will collect dirt, sand,
holding back of condensate in even eliminates the release of
weld splatter and other debris, so
the tracer line until it has sub- flash steam. Temperature sensi-
that on completion, the average
cooled would be unacceptable. tive traps are then selected, using
tracer line contains a consider-
Tracers or jackets on lines car- either balanced pressure or bime-
able amount of “muck.”
rying sulphur or asphalt typify tallic elements.
Hydraulic testing will convert these applications where the trac- The bimetallic traps usually
this “muck” into a mobile sludge er must be at steam temperature discharge condensate at some
which is not adequately washed along its whole length. fairly constant differential such
out by simply draining down after
It must be remembered that as 50°F below condensing tem-
testing.
every time a Thermo-Dynamic® peratures, and tend to give a
It is most important that the trap opens, it discharges con- continuous dribble of condensate
lines are properly cleaned by densate at the maximum rate when handling tracer loads, helping
blowing through with steam to an corresponding to the differential minimize the size of condensate
open end before diverting to the pressure applied. The instanta- line needed. They are available
steam traps. neous release rates of the steam either in maintainable versions, with
Unless this is done, the traps flashing off the condensate can a replaceable element set which
will almost certainly fail to operate be appreciable, and care is need- includes the valve and seat as well
correctly and more time will be ed to ensure that condensate as the bimetallic stack, or as sealed
spent cleaning them out when the return lines are adequately sized non-maintainable units as required.
plant is commissioned. if high back pressures are to be Balanced pressure traps nor-
mally operate just below steam
temperature, for critical tracing
Figure 33 applications, see Fig. 34.
Insulating Cap for
Thermo-Dynamic® The trap is especially suit-
Trap able where small quantities of
condensate are produced, on
applications where sub-cooling is
desirable, and where the conden-
sate is not to be returned to the
recovery system.

Figure 34
Balanced Pressure Tracer Trap

17
 Steam Tracing

A similar but maintainable type These may be increased the simple direct acting tempera-
intended for use on instrument where high pressures and traps ture control often provides an
tracer lines, where the physical discharging condensate at near economic solution. This will give
SYSTEM DESIGN

size of the trap is important as well steam temperature are used, or close control and since it is not
as its operating characteristics is decreased with low pressures necessary to provide either elec-
shown in Fig. 35. and traps discharging cooler con- tric power or compressed air, the
Just as the distribution of densate. first cost and indeed the running
steam is from a common header, costs are low.
it often is convenient to connect
Temperature Control
a number of traps to a common of Tracer
condensate header and this sim- Where it is essential to pre-
plifies maintenance. As noted, vent overheating of the product,
the discharge should preferably or where constant viscosity is
enter the header through swept required for instrumentation,
connections and the headers be automatic temperature control is
adequately sized as suggested in frequently used.
Table 8 (page 16). On many systems, the sim-
plest way to achieve control is
to use a reducing valve on the
steam supply to the tracer lines
or jacket. This can be adjusted
in the light of experience to give
the correct steam pressure to
produce the required product
temperature.
Clearly this is an approximate
way to control product tempera-
ture and can only be used where
the product flow is fairly constant.
Where closer control is required,
Figure 35
Maintainable Balanced Pressure
Tracer Trap.

Case in Action: Product Steam Tracing with Temperature Control and Overheat Protection
During steam tracing project design, it was found that five
Benefits
thousand feet of 2” product piping was to be traced with 150 • The chance of product damage from overheating is
psig steam. Product temperature was to be maintained at minimized and steam consumption is reduced through
100°F, with maximum allowable temperature of 150°F and steam pressure reduction (150 psig to 50 psig) with the
a minimum allowable temperature of 50°F. pressure regulator.
Of particular concern was the fact that the pipeline • The product temperature is maintained at a consistent
would always be full of the product, but flow would be inter- set temperature, maximizing process control under all
mittent. Overheating could be a real problem. In addition, flow conditions with the temperature regulator.
the tracing system had to be protected from freezing.
• Product damage from overheating is prevented through
Solution use of the high limit safety cutout. The system will shut
The 5,000 feet of product piping was divided into 30 separate down completely, should the temperature regulator
traced sections including: a cast steel temperature regulator, overshoot its set point.
a bronze temperature control valve used as a high limit safety • The tracing system is protected from freezing with the
cutout, a sealed balanced pressure thermostatic steam trap, sealed balanced pressure thermostatic steam trap dis-
a vacuum breaker, and pressure regulators supplying steam charging to drain. Thorough drainage is also facilitated
to all 30 tracing sections. Each section operates effectively at by the vacuum breaker.
the desired temperature, regardless of flow rate or ambient
temperature.

18
 Pressure Reducing Stations

Pressure Reducing Stations and fully open the main valve. 3. Change piping gradually
It is a mistake to install even the Thus, only very small changes in before and after the valve with
best of pressure reducing valves downstream pressure are neces- tapered expanders, or change

SYSTEM DESIGN
in a pipeline without giving some sary to produce large changes in pipe only 1 or 2 sizes at a time.
thought to how best it can be flow. The “droop” of pilot operated 4. Provide long, straight, full-size
helped to give optimal perfor- valves is therefore small. Although runs of heavy wall pipe on
mance. any rise in upstream pressure will both sides of the valve, and
apply an increased closing force between two-stage reductions
The valve selected should be on the main valve, this is offset by
of such a size that it can handle to stabilize the flow.
the force of the upstream pressure
the necessary load, but over- 5. Use low pressure turndown
acting on the main diaphragm. The
sizing should be avoided. The ratios (non-critical.)
result is a valve which gives close
weight of steam to be handled in control of downstream pressure 6. Install vibration absorbing
a given time must be calculated regardless of variations on the pipe hangers and acoustical
or estimated, and a valve capable upstream side. insulation.
of passing this weight from the
Most noise is generated by
given upstream pressure to the Pneumatically Operated a reducing valve that operates
required downstream pressure is Valves at critical pressure drop, espe-
chosen. The valve size is usu- Pneumatically operated control cially with high flow requirements.
ally smaller than the steam pipes valves, Fig. II-20 (page 93), with Fitting a noise diffuser directly to
either upstream or downstream, actuators and positioners being the valve outlet will reduce the
because of the high velocities piloted by controllers, will pro- noise level by approx. 15 dBA.
which accompany the pressure vide pressure reduction with even
drop within the valve. It must also be remembered
more accurate control.
that a valve designed to operate on
Types of Pressure Reducing Controllers sense down- steam should not be expected to
Valves are also important and stream pressure fluctuations, work at its best when supplied with
can be divided into three groups interpolate the signals and regu- a mixture of steam, water and dirt.
of operation as follows: late an air supply signal to a
A separator, drained with a
Direct Operated Valves pneumatic positioner which in turn
steam trap, will remove almost all
supplies air to a disphragm open-
The direct acting valve shown in the water from the steam entering
ing a valve. Springs are utilized
Fig. II-17 (page 91) is the sim- the pressure reducing set. The
as an opposing force causing the
plest design of reducing valve. baffle type separator illustrated
valves to close upon a loss or
This type of valve has two in Fig. 36 has been found to be
reduction of air pressure applied
drawbacks in that it allows great- very effective over a broad range
on the diaphragm. Industry
er fluctuation of the downstream of flows.
sophistication and control needs
pressure under unstable load are demanding closer and more
demands, and these valves have accurate control of steam pres-
relatively low capacity for their sures, making pneumatic control
size. It is nevertheless perfectly valves much more popular today.
adequate for a whole range of
simple applications where accu- Piping And Noise
rate control is not essential and Consideration
where the steam flow is fairly The piping around a steam pres-
small and constant. sure reducing valve must be
properly sized and fitted for best
Pilot Operated Valves operation. Noise level of a reduc-
Where accurate control of pres- ing station is lowest when the
sure or large capacity is required, valve is installed as follows:
a pilot operated reducing valve 1. Avoid abrupt changes in
should be used. Such a valve is direction of flow. Use long
shown in Fig. II-12 (page 89). radius bends and “Y” piping
The pilot operated design instead of “T” connections.
offers a number of advantages over 2. Limit approach and exit
the direct acting valve. Only a very steam velocity to 4000 to
small amount of steam has to flow 6000 FPM.
through the pilot valve to pressur- Figure 36
ize the main diaphragm chamber Moisture Separator for Steam or Air

19
 Pressure Reducing Stations

PRV Station Components open pressure. Safety valves for the capacity of the pressure
A stop valve is usually needed use on boilers carry a “V” stamp reducing valve, if it should fail
so that the steam supply can be and achieve rated capacity at only open when discharging steam
SYSTEM DESIGN

shut off when necessary, and this 3% overpressure as required by from the upstream pressure to the
should be followed by a line size Section I of the Code. accumulated pressure at the safe-
strainer. A fine mesh stainless The capacity of the safety ty valve. Any bypass line leakage
steel screen in the strainer will valve must then equal or exceed must also be accounted for.
catch the finer particles of dirt
which pass freely through stan-
dard strainers. The strainer should Figure 37
be installed in the pipe on its Typical Installation of Single Reducing Valve with Noise Diffuser
side, rather than in the conven-
Bypasses may be prohibited
tional way with the screen hanging by local regulation or by Safety Valve
below the pipe. This is to avoid the insurance requirements
screen space acting as a collect- Pressure
ing pocket for condensate, since Sensing Line
when installed horizontally the
strainer can be self-draining
Remember that water which Separator Diffuser
collects in the conventionally piped
strainer at times when the reducing Downstream Isolating Valve is
valve has closed, will be carried Reducing needed only with an alternative
steam supply into the L.P. System
into the valve when it begins to Valve
open. This water, when forced Trap Set
between the valve disc and seat
of the just-opening valve, can lead
rapidly to wire-drawing, and the
need for expensive replacements. Figure 38
Pressure gauges at each side Typical Installation
of the reducing valve allow its of Two Reducing
performance to be monitored. At Valves in Parallel
the reduced pressure side of the
valve, a relief or safety valve may
be required. If all the equipment
connected on the low pressure
side is capable of safely withstand-
ing the upstream pressure in the
event of reducing valve failure, the
relief valve may not be needed. It
may be called for if it is sought to
protect material in process from
overly high temperatures, and it is
essential if any downstream equip-
ment is designed for a pressure
lower than the supply pressure.
Steam Safety Valve Sizing
When selecting a safety valve,
the pressure at which it is to open
must be decided. Opening pres-
sure must be below the limitations
of the downstream equipment
yet far enough above the normal
reduced pressure that minor fluc-
tuations do not cause opening or
dribbling. Type “UV” Safety Valves
for unfired pressure vessels are
tested to ASME Pressure Vessel Figure 39
Code, Section VIII and achieve Two-Stage Pressure Reducing Valve Station
rated capacity at an accumulated with Bypass Arrangement to Operate Either
pressure 10% above the set-to- Valve Independently on Emergency Basis

20
 Parallel and Series Operation of Reducing Valves

Case in Action: Elimination of Steam Energy Waste

As part of a broad scope strategy to reduce operating contained cast steel pressure regulators and bronze

SYSTEM DESIGN
costs throughout the refinery, a plan was established to reducing valves were chosen for the job. In 1-1/2 years,
eliminate all possible steam waste. The focus of the plan approximately 40 pressure regulators and hundreds of
was piping leaks, steam trap failures and steam pressure bronze reducing valves have been installed at a cost of
optimization. $250K. Annualized steam energy savings are $1.2M/year.
Programs having been previously established to More specifically, in the Blending and Shipping Division,
detect/repair steam trap failures and fix piping leaks, $62,640 was saved during the winter of 1995, compared
particular emphasis was placed on steam pressure opti- to the same period in 1994.
mization. Results from a system audit showed that a
considerable amount of non-critical, low temperature Benefits
tracing was being done with 190 psi (medium pressure) • Low installed cost. The Spirax Sarco regulators and
steam, an expensive overkill. It appeared that the medium bronze reducing valves are completely self-contained,
pressure header had been tapped for numerous small requiring no auxiliary controllers, positioners, convert-
tracing projects over the years. ers, etc.
• Energy savings worth an estimated $1.2M/year.
Solution • The utilities supervisor who worked closely with Spirax
Refinery engineers looked for ways to reduce pres- Sarco and drove the project through to successful
sure to the tracer lines. Being part of a cost-cutting completion received company wide recognition and a
exercise, it had to be done without spending large sums promotion in grade.
of capital money on expensive control valves. The self-

Parallel Operation approximately 100 pph, or 10%. to result in changes in flow rate
In steam systems where load The same valve might later which are grossly in excess of the
demands fluctuate through a wide be on a light load of 100 pph total load changes which initiate them.
range, multiple pressure control when it will be only 0.01 inches Load turndown ratios with pis-
valves with combined capacities away from the seat. A similar ton-operated valves are almost
meeting the maximum load per- rise in the downstream pressure inevitably smaller than where
form better than a single, large of 0.1 psi would then close the diaphragm-operated valves are
valve. Maintenance needs, down- valve completely and the change chosen.
time and overall lifetime cost can in flow through the valve which
all be minimized with this arrange- was 10% at the high load, is now Pressure Settings
ment, Fig. 38 (page 20). 100% at low load. The figures for Parallel Valves
Any reducing valve must be chosen are arbitrary, but the prin- Automatic selection of the valve or
capable of both meeting its maxi- ciple remains true that instability valves needed to meet given load
mum load and also modulating or “hunting” is much more likely conditions is readily achieved by
down towards zero loads when on a valve asked to cope with a setting the valves to control at
required. The amount of load high turndown in load. pressures separated by one or
turndown which a given valve can A single valve, when used in two psi. At full load, or loads not
satisfactorily cover is limited, and this way, tends to open and close, too much below full load, both
while there are no rules which or at least move further open and valves are in use. As the load is
apply without exception, if the low further closed, on light loads. This reduced, the controlled pressure
load condition represents 10% or action leads to wear on both begins to increase and the valve
less of the maximum load, two the seating and guiding surfaces set at the lower pressure modu-
valves should always be pre- and reduces the life of the dia- lates toward the closed position.
ferred. Consider a valve which phragms which operate the valve. When the load can be supplied
moves away from the seat by The situation is worsened with completely by the valve set at the
0.1 inches when a downstream those valves which use pistons higher pressure, the other valve
pressure 1 psi below the set pres- sliding within cylinders to posi- closes and with any further load
sure is detected, and which then tion the valve head. Friction and reduction, the valve still in use
passes 1,000 pounds per hour sticking between the sliding sur- modulates through its own pro-
of steam. A rise of 0.1 psi in the faces mean that the valve head portional band.
detected pressure then moves can only be moved in a series of This can be clarified by an
the valve 0.01 inches toward the discreet steps. Especially at light example. Suppose that a maxi-
seat and reduces the flow by loads, such movements are likely mum load of 5,000 lb/h at 30

21
 Parallel and Series Operation of Reducing Valves

psi can be supplied through one There is no hard and fast Bypasses
valve capable of passing 4,000 rule, but two valves in series The use of bypass lines and
lb/h and a parallel valve capable will usually provide more accu- valves should usually be avoided.
SYSTEM DESIGN

of 1,300 lb/h. One valve is set at rate control. The second, or Low Where they are fitted, the capac-
29 psi and the other at 31 psi. If Pressure valve, should give the ity through the bypass should be
the smaller valve is the one set “fine control” with a modest turn- added to that through the wide
at 31 psi, this valve is used to down, with due consideration open reducing valve when sizing
meet loads from zero up to 1,300 being given to valve sizes and relief valves. Bypass valves are
lb/h with a controlled pressure at capacities. A practical approach often found to be leaking steam
approximately 31 psi. At greater when selecting the turndown of because of wiredrawing of the
loads, the controlled pressure each valve, that results in small- seating faces when valves have
drops to 29 psi and the larger est most economical valves, is to not been closed tightly.
valve opens, until eventually it is avoid having a non-critical drop If a genuine need exists for
passing 3,700 lb/h to add to the in the final valve, and stay close a bypass because it is essen-
1,300 lb/h coming through the to the recommended 10 to 1 turn- tial to maintain the supply of
smaller valve for a total of 5,000 down. steam, even when a reducing
lb/h. valve has developed some fault
Series Installations or is undergoing maintenance,
There may be applications
For correct operation of the considera- tion should be given
where the load does not normally to fitting a reducing valve in the
fall below the minimum capacity valves, some volume between
them is needed if stability is to bypass line. Sometimes the use
of the larger valve. It would then of a parallel reducing station of
be achieved. A length of 50 pipe
be quite normal to set the 4,000 itself avoids the need for bypass-
diameters of the appropriately
lb/h valve at 31 psi and to supple- sized pipe for the intermediate es.
ment the flow through the 1,300 pressure, or the equivalent vol-
lb/h valve at 29 psi in those few ume of larger diameter pipe is
Back Pressure Controls
occasions when the extra capac- often recommended. A Back Pressure regulator or sur-
ity was required. plussing valve is a derivative of
It is important that the down- a pressure reducing valve, incor-
Sometimes the split between stream pressure sensing pipes porating a reverse acting pilot
the loads is effectively unknown. are connected to a straight section valve. The pressure sensing pipe
It is usual then to simply select of pipe 10 diameters downstream is connected to the inlet piping so
valves with capacities of 1/3 and from the nearest elbow, tee, valve that the pilot valve responds to
2/3 of the maximum with the or other obstruction. This sensing upstream pressure. Any increase
smaller valve at the slightly higher line should be pitched to drain in upstream pressure then opens
pressure and the larger one at away from the pressure pilot. If it the reverse acting pilot valve, caus-
the slightly lower pressure. is not possible to arrange for this ing the main valve to open, while a
and to still connect into the top of fall below the set pressure causes
Two-Stage the downstream pipe, the sensing the main valve to close down, Fig.
or Series Operation line can often be connected to the II-18 (page 92).
side of the pipe instead.
Where the total reduction in pres- These controls are useful
sure is through a ratio of more Equally, the pipe between in flash steam recovery applica-
than 10 to 1, consideration should the two reducing valves should tions when the supply of flash
be given to using two valves in always be drained through a steam may at times exceed the
stream trap, just as any riser demand for it. The BP control
series, Fig. 39 (page 20). Much
downstream of the pressure can then surplus to atmosphere
will depend on the valves being reducing station should be
used, on the total pressure reduc- any excess steam tending to
drained. The same applies where increase the pressure within the
tion needed and the variations in a pressure reducing valve sup-
the load. Pilot Operated controls flash steam recovery system, and
plies a control valve, and it is maintains the recovery pressure
have been used successfully with essential that the connecting pipe
a pressure turndown ratio as great at the required level.
is drained upstream of the control
as 20 to 1, and could perhaps be valve. The control is also useful in
used on a fairly steady load from eliminating non-essential loads
100 psig to 5 psi. The same valve in any system that suffers under-
would probably be unstable on a capacity at peak load times,
variable load, reducing from 40 to leaving essential loads on line.
2 psi. Back Pressure Controls are
not Safety Valves and must never
be used to replace them.

22
 How to Size Temperature and Pressure Control Valves

Having determined the heat- fully open. For three-port valves, a load condition. (Example: If the
ing or cooling load required by it is the difference in pressure set point is 70°F and measured
the equipment, a valve must be between the two open ports. room temperature is 68°F over a

SYSTEM DESIGN
selected to handle it. As the valve Working Pressure. The pressure period, the offset is 2°F and indi-
itself is only part of the complete exerted on the interior of a valve cates the action of a proportional
control, we must be acquainted under normal working conditions. control correcting for an increase
with certain terminology used in In water systems, it is the algebra- in heat loss.)
the controls field: ic sum of the static pressure and Proportional Band or Throttling
Flow Coefficient. The means the pressure created by pumps. Band. Range of values which
of comparing the flow capacities Set Point. Pressure or tempera- cause a proportional temperature
of control valves by reference to ture at which controller is set. control to move its valve from fully
a “coefficient of capacity.” The open to fully closed or to throttle
term Cv is used to express this Accuracy of Regulation or the valve at some reduced motion
relationship between pressure “Droop”. Pressure reducing to fully closed.
drop and flow rate. Cv is the rate valve drop in set point pressure
necessary to obtain the published Time Constant. Time required
of flow of water in GPM at 60°F, for a thermal system actua-
at a pressure drop of 1 psi across capacity. Usually stated for pilot-
operated PRV’s in psi, and as a tor to travel 63.2% of the total
the fully open valve. movement resulting from any
% of set pressure for direct-acting
Differential Pressure. The differ- types. temperature change at the sen-
ence in pressure between the inlet sor. Time increase when using
and outlet ports when the valve is Hunting or Cycling. Persistent separable well must be included.
closed. For three-port valves, it is periodic change in the controlled
pressure or temperature. Dead Zone. The range of values
the difference between the open of the controlled variable over
and closed ports. Control Point. Actual value of which a control will take up no
Maximum Differential Pressure. the controlled variable (e.g. air corrective action.
The pressure difference between temperature) which the sensor is
trying to maintain. Rangeability. The ratio between
inlet and outlet ports of a valve, the maximum and minimum con-
above which the actuator will not Deviation. The difference trollable flow between which the
be able to close the valve fully, between the set point and the characteristics of the valve will be
or above which damage may be measured value of the controlled maintained.
caused to the valve, whichever is variable. (Example: When set
the smaller. point is 70°F and air temperature Turn-Down Ratio. The ratio
is 68°F, the deviation is 2°F.) between the maximum normal flow
Pressure Drop. The difference and minimum controllable flow.
between the inlet and outlet pres- Offset. Sustained deviation
sures when the valve is passing caused by a proportional control Valve Authority. Ratio of a fully
the stated quantity. A self-act- taking corrective action to satisfy open control valve pressure drop
ing control may or may not be to system total pressure drop.

Case in Action: Log Bath-Furniture Manufacturing

At a furniture manufacturing facility, the water used for Solution
bathing logs to prepare them for production was “rolling” in Two temperature control valves to be open during start-
the front of its containment tanks. The production manager up with one closing as it approaches the desired cooking
had thought that the temperature had to be at least 212 temperature. The second smaller valve continues to pro-
°F. Further examination showed the water’s temperature vide steam to the system until the set-point is reached. As
to be 180°F. The water was “rolling” because the steam, additional steam is required, the smaller valve supplies it.
entering the side of the tank, could not be absorbed by the A sparge pipe was also sized and installed.
water before it rose to the surface in the front of the tank.
Cedar logs are cooked for 48 hours, in open top tanks Benefits:
before going through a veneer machine. The logs absorb • Payback of this system was less than 2 weeks on
the hot water, making it easier to slice the wood into materials and labor.
strips. The six log baths did not have any temperature con-
• Substantial cost savings due to improved energy use.
trols. Twenty-five psig steam flowed through a 2” coupling
into the side of the tank to heat the water. With the tank • Increased profitability by increasing productivity in the
size being 12’ x 12’ x 6’, the 105 cedar logs approximately steam system.
10’ long occupy most of the space in the tank. River water
or “condenser water” off of the turbine at 90°F is fed into
the tank.

23
 How to Size Temperature and Pressure Control Valves

Calculating Condensate Loads Valve Sizing For Steam

When the normal condensate load is not known, the load can be Satisfactory control of steam flow to
approximately determined by calculations using the following formula. give required pressures in steam lines
SYSTEM DESIGN

or steam spaces, or required tempera-

General Usage Formulae tures in heated fluids, depends greatly
Heating water with steam (Exchangers)* on selecting the most appropriate size
of valve for the application.
GPM x (1.1) x Temperature Rise °F
lb/h Condensate = An oversized valve tends to hunt, with
2
the controlled value (pressure or tem-
Heating fuel oil with steam perature), oscillating on either side of the
GPM x (1.1) x Temperature Rise °F desired control point. It will always seek to
lb/h Condensate = operate with the valve disc nearer to the
4
seat than a smaller valve which has to
Heating air with steam coils be further open to pass the required flow.
CFM x Temperature Rise °F Operation with the disc near to the seat
lb/h Condensate =
800 increases the likelihood that any droplets
of water in the steam supply will give rise
Steam Radiation to wiredrawing. An undersized valve will
Sq. Ft. EDR simply unable to meet peak load require-
lb/h Condensate =
4 ments, startup times will be extended and
*Delete the (1.1) factor when steam is injected directly into water the steam-using equipment will be unable
to provide the required output.
Specialized Applications A valve size should not be deter-
mined by the size of the piping into
Sterilizers, Autoclaves, which it is to be fitted. A pressure drop
Retorts Heating Solid Material through a steam valve seat of even a
W x Cp x ∆T few psi means that the steam moves
lb/h Condensate = through the seat at high velocity. Valve
Lxt discs and seats are usually hardened
W = Weight of material—lbs. materials to withstand such conditions.
Cp = Specific heat of the material The velocities acceptable in the piping
(∆)T = Temperature rise of the material °F are much lower if erosion of the pipes
L = Latent heat of steam Btu/lb themselves is to be avoided. Equally,
t = Time in hours the pressure drop of a few psi through
the valve would imply a much greater
pressure drop along a length of pipe if
Heating Liquids in Steam Jacketed
the same velocity were maintained, and
Kettles and Steam Heated Tanks usually insufficient pressure would be
G x s.g. x Cp x (∆)T x 8.3 left for the steam-using equipment to be
lb/h Condensate = able to meet the load.
Lxt
Steam valves should be selected
G = Gallons of liquid to be heated on the basis of the required steam flow
s.g. = Specific gravity of the liquid capacity (lb/h) needed to pass, the inlet
Cp = Specific heat of the liquid pressure of the steam supply at the
(∆)T = Temperature rise of the liquid °F valve, and the pressure drop which can
L = Latent heat of the steam Btu/lb be allowed across the valve. In most
t = Time in hours cases, proper sizing will lead to the use
of valves which are smaller than the
Heating Air with Steam; pipework on either side.
Pipe Coils and Radiation
A x U x (∆)T Steam Jacketed Dryers
lb/h Condensate =
L 1000 (Wi - Wf) + (Wi x ∆T)
lb/h Condensate =
A = Area of the heating surface in square feet L
U = Heat transfer coefficient (2 for free convection) Wi = Initial weight of the material—lb/h
(∆)T = Steam temperature minus the air temperature °F Wf = Final weight of the material—lb/h
L = Latent heat of the steam Btu/lb (∆)T = Temperature rise of the material °F
L = Latent heat of steam Btu/lb
Note: The condensate load to heat the equipment must be added
to the condensate load for heating the material. Use same formula.

24
 How to Size Temperature and Pressure Control Valves

Temperature Control Valve Sizing sure. This pressure drop of 42% of the absolute
After estimating the amount of steam flow capacity pressure is called Critical Pressure Drop. The steam
(lbs/hr) which the valve must pass, decide on the then reaches Critical or Sonic velocity. Increasing

SYSTEM DESIGN
pressure drop which can be allowed. Where the the pressure drop to give a final pressure below the
minimum pressure in a heater, which enables it to Critical Pressure gives no further increase in flow.
meet the load, is known, this value then becomes the
downstream pressure for the control valve. Where it Pressure Reducing Valve Sizing
is not known, it is reasonable to take a pressure drop Pressure reducing valves are selected in the same
across the valve of some 25% of the absolute inlet way, but here the reduced or downstream pressure
pressure. Lower pressure drops down to 10% can will be specified. Capacity tables will list the Steam
give acceptable results where thermo-hydraulic con- Flow Capacity (lb/h) through the valves with given
trol systems are used. Greater pressure drops can upstream pressures, and varying downstream pres-
be used when it is known that the resulting down- sures. Again, the maximum steam flow is reached at
stream pressure is still sufficiently high. However, the Critical Pressure Drop and this value cannot be
steam control valves cannot be selected with output exceeded.
pressures less than 58% of the absolute inlet pres- It must be noted here that for self-acting regula-
tors, the published steam capacity is always given
1. For Liquids for a stated “Accuracy of Regulation” that differs
among manufacturers and is not always the maxi-
Cv = GPM Sp. Gr. mum the PRV will pass. Thus when sizing a safety
√Pressure Drop, psi valve, the Cv must be used.
Where Sp. Gr. Water = 1
GPM = Gallons per minute
Cv Values
These provide a means of comparing the flow
2. For Steam (Saturated) capacities of valves of different sizes, type or manu-
facturer. The Cv factor is determined experimentally
a. Critical Flow and gives the GPM of water that a valve will pass
When ∆P is greater than with a pressure drop of 1 psi. The Cv required for a
FL2 (P1/2) given application is estimated from the formulae, and
C = W a valve is selected from the manufacturers catalog to

v
1.83 FLP1 have an equal or greater Cv factor.

b. Noncritical Flow
When ∆P is less than 4. Correction for Superheated Steam
FL2 (P1/2) The required Valve Cv is the Cv from the
C = W formula multiplied by the correction factor.
v
2.1√∆P (P1 + P2) Correction Factor = 1 + (.00065 x
Where: P1 = Inlet Pressure psia degrees F. superheat above saturation)
P2 = Outlet Pressure psia Example: With 25°F of Superheat,
W = Capacity lb/hr Correction Factor
FL = Pressure Recovery Factor = 1 + (.00065 x 25)
(.9 on globe pattern valves for flow to open) = 1.01625
(.85 on globe pattern valves for flow to close)
5. Correction for Moisture Content
3. For Air and Other Gases Correction Factor = √Dryness Fraction
a. When P2 is 0.53 P1 or less, Example: With 4% moisture,
C = SCFH √Sp. Gr. Correction Factor = √1 - 0.04
30.5 P1 = 0.98
v

Where Sp. Gr. of air is 1.

SCFH is Cu. ft. Free Air per 6. Gas—Correction for Temperature
Hour at 14.7 psia, and 60°F. Correction Factor = 460 + °F
√ 520
b. When P2 is greater than 0.53 P1, Example: If gas temperature is 150°F,
C = SCFH √Sp. Gr. Correction Factor = 460 + 150
v
61 √(P1 - P2) P2 √ 520
Where Sp. Gr. of air is 1. = 1.083
SCFH is Cu. Ft. Free Air per
Hour at 14.7 psia, and 60°F.
25
 Temperature Control Valves for Steam Service

Temperature Control Valves stem movement enables sensor tional band. Only a small amount
For Steam Service and valve combinations to give of steam has to flow through the
predictable valve capacities for pilot to actuate the main diaphragm
SYSTEM DESIGN

As with pressure reducing valves,

a range of temperature changes. and fully open the valve. Only
temperature control valves can
This allows a valve to be selected very small changes of movement
be divided into three groups.
to operate with a throttling band within the sensor are necessary
Installation of these valves are
within the maximum load pro- to produce large changes in flow.
the same as pressure reducing
portional band. See appropriate This results in accurate control
styles in that adequate protection
technical sheets for specific valve even if the upstream steam pres-
from dirt and condensate must
proportional bands. sure fluctuates.
be used as well as stop valves
for shutdown during maintenance Choice of Proportional Band Both direct and pilot operat-
procedures. A noise diffuser and/ is a combination of accuracy and ed valve types are self-contained
or a safety valve would normally stability related to each appli- and do not require an external
not be used unless a combination cation. However, as control power source to operate.
pressure reducing and tempera- accuracy is of primary impor-
ture control, is installed. See PRV tance, and as direct operated
station components on page 20 controls give constant feedback
for more information. plus minute movement, we can
concentrate on accuracy, leav-
Direct Operated Valves ing the controller to look after Table 9
The direct operated type as stability. Generally, to give light Acceptable Proportional Bands
shown in Fig. 40 are simple in load stability, we would not select for Some Common Applications
design and operation. In these a Proportional Band below 2°F. Proportional
controls, the thrust pin movement Table 9 gives the span of accept- Application Band °F
is the direct result of a change in able Proportional Bands for some Domestic Hot Water 7-14
temperature at the sensor. This common heat exchanger applica- Heat Exchanger
movement is transferred through tions. Central Hot Water 4-7
the capillary system to the valve, Space Heating 2-5
thereby modulating the steam Pilot Operated Valves (Coils, Convectors,
flow. These valves may also Greater steam capacities are Radiators, etc.)
be used with hot water. Such obtained using pilot oper- Bulk Storage 4-18
a simple relationship between ated valves, along with greater
Plating Tanks 4-11
temperature changes and valve accuracy due to their 6°F propor-

Case in Action: Dry Coating Process

An office paper product manufacturer uses steam in its ply reduction to the pumps. Float & thermostatic traps with
process for a dry coating applied to the paper. Using a leak detection devices were also installed for efficiency.
pocket ventilation system, air is blown across the paper as Closed doors were then put on the coil boxes.
it moves through the dryer cans. The back pressure on the return system dropped to an
The original design included inverted bucket type acceptable and reasonable pressure and the steam con-
traps on the outlet of the steam coils, but the coils are in sumption also dropped. Temperature control was achieved
overload boxes where outdoor and indoor air mix. The and maintained and production increased from 1,000 feet
steam supply is on a modulating control with maximum per minute on some products to 1,600 feet per minute.
pressure of 150 psi. The steam traps discharge into a com- They switched all five sections of the paper coater to 1”
mon header that feeds to a liquid mover pump. The pump low profile Pressure Powered Pump with cast iron float &
had a safety relief valve on its non-vented receiver. thermostatic steam traps. This manufacturer also switched
Problems observed included the inability to maintain from inverted buckets on heating units to float and thermo-
desired air temperatures across the machines, high back static steam traps with leak detection devices and replaced
pressure on the condensate return system, the doors several electric pumps and the liquid mover with Pressure
on the coil boxes had to be opened to increase air flows Powered Pumps. Replaced all 16 inverted bucket traps on
across the coils, paper machine had to be be slowed down paper coater with float and thermostatic steam traps with
to improve dryness, steam consumption was way up, leak detection devices.
water make-up was up and vent lines were blowing live
steam to the atmosphere. Benefits:
• Production Increased
Solution: • Trap failure went from 40% to 14%.
A pump trap combination was installed on five of the nine • Over a half-million dollars in steam saved during first
sections using a pressure regulator for motive steam sup- year of operation

26
 Temperature Control Valves for Steam Service

Pneumatically Operated Installation of Heating Liquids By Direct

Valves. Temperature Control Valves Steam Injection

SYSTEM DESIGN
Pneumatically operated temper- The operation and longevity of Where noise and dilution of the
ature control valves as shown these valves depends greatly on product are not problems then
in Fig. II-21 (page 93), provide the quality of the steam which is direct steam injection can be
accurate control with the ability fed to them. The components of used for heating. Steam injection
to change the setpoint remotely. a temperature control valve sta- utilizes all of the latent heat of the
A controller, through a sensor, tion are same as for a pressure steam as well as a large portion
adjusts the air signal to the valve reducing valve, see page 19. In of the sensible heat. Two meth-
actuator or positioner which, in addition, attention must be paid ods, sparge pipes and steam
turn, opens or closes the valve to the location of the temperature injectors, are used to direct and
as needed. Industry demands for sensing bulb. It should be com- mix the steam with the product.
more accurate control of temper- pletely immersed in the fluid being
ature and computer interfacing is sensed, with good flow around the Sparge Pipe Sizing
making the pneumatically oper- bulb, and, if used with a well, some A sparge pipe is simply a per-
ated valves grow within the heatsink material in the well to dis- forated pipe used to mix steam
marketplace. place the air which prevents heat with a fluid for heating. Sizing of
transfer. The capillary tubing should this pipe is based on determining
not be in close proximity to high or the required steam flow, select-
Figure 40 low temperatures and should not be ing a steam pressure within the
Operating Principle of crimped in any fashion. pipe (normally less than 20 psig
Direct Operated Valves for non-pressurized vessels), and
calculating the number of holes by
dividing the required steam flow
by the quantity of steam that will
Valve flow through each sparge hole of
Movement a specific diameter as determined
from Fig. 42. Holes larger than 1/8”
Valve Housing diameter are used only on relatively
deep tanks where the larger steam
bubbles emitted will have time to
Thrust Pin Movement condense before breaking the liq-
Thrust Pin (Movement caused by
adding temp to sensor) uid surface, or where the required
number of 1/8” dia. holes becomes
unreasonably great. The sparge
Sensor Bulb
Add 1°F to Sensor holes should be drilled 30° below
the horizontal spaced approxi-
mately 6” apart and one hole at
the bottom to permit drainage of
liquid within the pipe, see Fig. 41.
The sparge pipe should extend
Capillary completely across the vessel for
complete and even heating.

50
Steam Flow - lbs. per hr.

40
Dia.
30 1 6”
3/ ia.
30° ”D
20 1/8 Dia.
3/32”
10

6”
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 41 Sparge Pipe Pressure psig
The sparge pipe diameter can be determined using Fig. 1 (page 4),
limiting the maximum velocity to 6000 ft/min. A typical installation is Figure 42
shown on Fig II-42 (page 105). Steam Flow through Sparge Holes

27
 Temperature Control Valves for Steam Service

Steam Injector
Unlike a sparge pipe, a steam circulation induced by the injector over a sparge pipe is reduced
injector is a manufactured device will help ensure thorough mixing noise levels and the ability to use
SYSTEM DESIGN

that draws in the cold liquid, mixes and avoid temperature stratifica- high pressure steam up to 200
it with steam within the injector tion. See Fig. II-43 (page 105) psig. Refer to applicable technical
nozzle and distributes the hot for a typical injector installation. information sheets for sizing and
liquid throughout the tank. The Other advantages of the injector selection information.
Case in Action: Cheese Production
Fine steam filtration in the preparation of cheese production is removing finer particles smaller than 5 microns in size.
important to the quality of the final product. Because the pro- • A vacuum breaker was added to the system in order to
ducer of cheese products was heating cheese vat washdown prevent any of the heated water being drawn back up into
water by direct steam injection, a filtration device was added to the filter during certain periods of operation.
enhance product quality by filtering out the particulates. • A stainless steel injector system was installed which is
While pleased with this simple method of heating, there capable of efficiently mixing large volumes of high
was some concern that any particulates entering the wash- pressure steam with the tank contents with little noise or
down water during steam injection may ultimately contaminate tank vibration. (The customer stipulated the reduction of
the vats being cleaned, affecting the cheese production. noise levels in the production facility.)
Solution Benefits:
Direct steam injection was the best solution for the cheese • Guaranteed steam purity and assured compliance with the
producer, but the concern about the contamination was very 3-A Industry Standard
important. • Inexpensive installation compared with alternative heat
• A separator was installed in the incoming steam supply line, exchanger packages available
which removes a high percentage of the entrained mois- • Cleanable filter element for reduced operating costs
ture. A fine mesh screen strainer was installed to remove (replacement element and labor costs).
solid particulate matter. • Accurate temperature control using components of the
• A pneumatically actuated two port valve was installed to existing system
control tank temperature. The unit throttles the flow of • Quiet and efficient mixing of the steam and the tank con-
steam to the tank based on the signal being transmitted by tents
the temperature controller. • Product contamination is minimized, the cost of which could
• Having removed the entrained moisture and majority of par- be many thousands of dollars, loss of production or even
ticulate matter from the steam supply, a cleanable CSF16 consumer dissatisfaction.
stainless steel steam filter was installed which is capable of

Temperature Control Valves for Liquid Service

Temperature control valves for 3-Port Piston-Balanced. b. Heating oil with water
liquid service can be divided into This valve is piped either for hot/ Heating water GPM required
two groups. Normally associated cold mixing or for diverting flow = GPM (Load) x TR
with cooling, these valves can between two branch lines. 2 X ∆T1
also be used on hot water.
Pneumatically Operated c. Heating air with water
Direct Operated Valves Valves Heating water GPM required
Three types are available for liq- As with direct operated valves, = CFM x TR
uid service and a selection would the pneumatically operated types 400 x ∆T1
be made from one of the follow- have the same three groups. The Cooling Applications:
ing styles. major difference is they require d. Cooling air compressor
2-Port Direct-Acting. an external pneumatic or electric jacket with water
Normally open valve that the ther- (through a positioner or convert- Cooling Water GPM required
mal system will close on rising er) signal from a controller. = 42.5 x HP per Cylinder
temperature and used primarily 8.3 x ∆T2
for heating applications. Heating And Cooling Loads
Formulas for calculating the heat- Where:
2-Port Reverse-Acting.
Normally closed valve which is ing or cooling load in gallons per GPM = Gallons per minute water
opened on rising temperature. minute of water are: TR = Temperature rise of
For use as a cooling control, Heating Applications: heated fluid, °F
valve should contain a contin- a. Heating water with water CFM = Cubic feet per minute Air
uous bypass bleed to prevent Heating water GPM required ∆T1 = Temperature drop of
stagnate flow at sensor. = GPM (Load) x TR heating water, °F
∆T1 ∆T2 = Temperature rise of
cooling water, °F
28
 Temperature Control Valves for Liquid Service

Water Valve Sizing If the allowable differential pres- • Water for process systems—
Water valve capacity is directly sure is unknown, the following Size valve for pressure drop
related to the square root of the pressure drops may be applied: of 10% up to 20% of the sys-

SYSTEM DESIGN
pressure drop across it, not the • Heating and Cooling systems tem pressure.
static system pressure. Knowing using low temperature hot • Cooling Valves—
the load in GPM water or any water (below 212°F)— Size for allowable differential
other liquid, the minimum valve Size valve at 1 psi to 2-1/2 psi up to full system pressure
Cv required is calculated from the differential. drop when discharging to
allowable pressure drop (∆P): • Heating Systems using water atmosphere. Be sure to check
Cv = GPM S.G. above 212°F— maximum allowable pressure
Size valve on a 2-1/2 to 5 psi drop of the valve selected. A
√ ∆P derived from... bellows-balanced type may
differential.
GPM(Water) = Cv √ ∆P be required.
(Other SG Liquids)
GPM = Cv ∆P
√ S.G.
Using Two-Port and
Three-Port Valves
Only two-port valves are used on
Pump
steam systems. However, when
dealing with controls for water
we can select either two-port or
Constantly three-port valves. But we must
Open Port O consider the effects of both types
C on the overall system dynamics.
X Z
Three-Port Valve Heating A three-port valve, whether
System mixing or diverting, is fairly close
Balance
A Valve to being a constant volume valve
and tends to maintain constant
Boiler pressure distribution in the sys-
tem, irrespective of the position of
B the valve.
If a two-port valve were used,
Figure 43 the flow decreases, the valve
Three-Port Mixing Valve in a Closed Circuit closes and the pressure or head
(Constant Volume, Variable Temperature) across it would increase. This
effect is inherent in the use of
two-port valves and can affect the
operation of other subcircuits.
Pump Furthermore, the water stand-
ing in the mains will often cool off
while the valve is closed. When
Constantly
the valve reopens, the water
Open Port O entering the heat exchanger or
load is cooler than expected, and
Z X it is some time before normal
C
Three-Port Valve heating can commence. To avoid
Balance Heating this, a small bypass line should
Valve Plant or
A Process be installed across the supply
Equipment and return mains. The bypass
Boiler line should be sized to handle
flow rate due to mains losses but
B in the absence of information, the
bypass should be sized for 10%
of the design flow rate.
Figure 43A
Three-Port Diverting Valve in a Closed Circuit
(Constant Temperature, Variable Volume)

29
 Temperature Control Valves for Liquid Service

Mixing And Diverting another source, for use in show- In Fig. 43, the balance valve
Three-Port Valves ers or similar open circuits where must be set so that the resistance
all the water does not recirculate, to flow in line B-Z is equal to the
A three-port temperature control
SYSTEM DESIGN

it is essential that the pressure of resistance to flow in line B-A-X.

has one port that is constantly the supplies be equal. For these In Fig. 43A, resistance B-Z must
open and it is important that the applications, it is recommended equal resistance X-C-B.
circulating pump is always posi- that both the X and Z ports be fit-
tioned on this side of the system. ted with check valves to prevent Makeup Air Heating Coils
This will prevent the risk of pump- any scalding or other harmful Air heating coils in vented
ing against dead end conditions back-flow condition. condensate return systems, espe-
and allow correct circulation to
With the valve connected as cially preheat coils supplied with
do its job.
shown in Fig. 43A, we now have low pressure steam modulated by
The valve can be used either a diverting arrangement. The a control valve, can present dif-
to mix or divert depending upon valve has one inlet and two out- ficulties in achieving satisfactory
how it is piped into the system. A lets. Hot water enters Port O and drainage of condensate. There is
mixing valve has two inlets and is either allowed through Port X no problem at full load with prop-
one outlet, a diverting valve has to the equipment or through Port erly designed equipment, but part
one inlet and two outlets. Z to return to the boiler. load conditions often lead to flood-
Fig. 43 illustrates the three- ing of the coils with condensate,
port valve used as a mixing valve The Need for Balancing followed by waterhammer, corro-
in a closed circuit. It has two inlets The action of a three-port valve sion and sometimes by freeze-up
(X and Z) and one outlet (O) which in a closed circuit system, wheth- damage. These problems are so
is the permanently open port. Port er mixing or diverting, tends to widespread that it is worth exam-
X is the port open on startup from change the pressure conditions ining their causes and remedies in
cold, while Port Z will normally be around the system much less than some detail.
closed on startup from cold. The does a two-port valve. This sta-
amounts of opening in Ports X bility is increased greatly when Coil Configurations
and Z will be varied to maintain a a balancing valve is fitted in the The coils themselves are usually
constant outlet temperature from bypass (or mixing connection) built with a steam header and
Port O. Thus a certain percentage line. Not fitting a flow balancing a condensate header joined by
of hot boiler flow water will enter valve may result in short circuiting finned tubes. The headers may be
through Port X to mix with a cor- and starvation of other subcircuits. both at one side of the unit, with
responding percentage of cooler hairpin or U tubes between them,
The balancing valve is set so
return water via Port Z. or sometimes an internal steam
that the resistance to flow in the
When the three-port valve is tube is used to carry the steam to
bypass line equals or exceeds that
used to blend cold supply water the remote end of an outer finned
in the load part of the subcircuit.
with hot water which may be from tube. Vertical headers may be
used with horizontal finned tubes,
Case in Action: Hydrogen Compressor Cooling Jacket Temperature Control
Hydrogen gas is an important ingredient to many oil Solution
refining processes. Large multi-stage compressors are A 2” temperature control with adjustable bleed and a
located in operating sections throughout the refinery. sensing system was installed on the cooling water/Glycol
Considerable attention is paid to maintaining gas quality, outlet piping from three stages for each of two compres-
and keeping liquid from accumulating in the system. sors. They were set to maintain a discharge temperature
The telltale signs of entrained liquid became evident of 140°F. This had the effect of holding back Glycol in the
as a high-pitched whistling noise was heard coming from jacket sufficiently to prevent excess hydrogen condensing
the compressor sections. It was determined to be the while, at the same time, maintaining necessary cooling.
result of poor cooling water temperature control. The
cooling water/Glycol mixture leaving the heat exchanger Benefits
at 95°F, circulating through the compressor jacket was • Reduced energy consumption as hydrogen condensing
causing excess hydrogen condensing on the cold surfaces is reduced.
of jacket walls. It’s important to maintain the 95°F heat
exchanger outlet temperature to assure that sufficiently- • Installation of a self-contained control was far less
cool water/Glycol is supplied to the compressor sections expensive than a more sophisticated pneumatic type
necessary for proper heat transfer. that was also under consideration.
• System start-up was fast because of the easily-adjust-
ed, pre-calibrated sensing system.
• Accurate process temperature control of each jacket
resulted from having separate controls on each.

30
 Makeup Air Heating Coils

or sometimes horizontal headers Figure 44

at the bottom of the unit supply Air Heater Coils
vertical finned tubes. The alterna-

SYSTEM DESIGN
Inlets
tive arrangement has the headers
at opposite sides of the unit, either
horizontally at top and bottom or
vertically at each side.
While each different arrange-
ment has its own proponents,
some general statements can be
made, including the fact that even
so-called “freeze-proof” coils can Finned
freeze if not properly drained of Tubes Alternative Steam Inlet and
Condensate Outlet Connecitons
condensate. In “horizontal” coils, On Coils with Vertical
the tubes should not be horizontal or Horizontal Headers
but should have a slight fall from Outlets
Air Vent Inlet
inlet to outlet so that conden- Location Inlet
sate does not collect in pools but
drains naturally. Steam inlets to
“horizontal” headers may be at
one end or at mid length, but with
vertical headers the steam inlet is
preferably near the top.
Outlet
Venting Air From Coils Outlet
As steam enters a coil it drives Inlet
Outlets
air ahead of it to the drain point,
or to a remote area furthest from
the inlet. Coil size and shape may Waterlogged Coils tions and the solution for draining
prevent a good deal of air from The most common cause of prob- coils to a pressurized return is
reaching the trap and as steam lems, however, is lack of pressure covered later in this manual.
condenses, a film of air remains within the steam space under part
reducing heat transfer. Coils with load conditions to push conden- Vacuum Breaker
a center inlet connection make sate through the traps, especially And Trap Location
it more difficult to ensure that air if it is then to be lifted to a return A vacuum breaker ensures that
is pushed from the top tubes, the line at high level or against a back some differential pressure can
steam tending to short circuit past pressure. System steam pressure always exist across a trap that
these tubes to the condensate lifts condensate, not the trap, and drains by gravity but any eleva-
header. Automatic air venting of is generally not appreciated how tion of condensate after the trap
the top condensate header of quickly the pressure within the reduces the hydraulic head avail-
these coils is essential. With other steam space can be reduced by able. Heating is done using an
layouts, an assessment must be the action of the control valve. atmospheric air/steam mixture so
made of the most likely part of the When pressure used to push con- coil air venting is most impor-
unit in which air and noncondens- densate through the traps is lost, tant. A vacuum breaker should
able gases will collect. If this is the system “stalls” and as con- be fitted to the steam supply pipe,
at the natural condensate drain densate backs up into the coil, between the temperature control
point, then the trap must have waterlogging problems of ham- valve and the coil inlet. It is not
superior air venting capability and mering, temperature stratification, recommended to fit a vacuum
a Float-Thermostatic type is the corrosion and freeze-up begin. breaker on the steam trap where
first choice. When an inverted The coil must be fitted with a vac- the hydraulic head of water used
bucket or other type with limited uum breaker so that condensate to push condensate through
air capacity is used, an auxiliary is able to drain freely to the trap the trap would hold the vacuum
air vent should be piped in parallel as shown in Fig. II-27 (page 97) breaker closed.
above the trap. As a general rule, and from the trap by gravity to a In systems where the return
a thermostatic vent and vacuum vented receiver and return pump. piping is kept under vacuum,
breaker are desirable on most This is especially important when a reversed swing check valve
coils to prevent problems. incoming air temperature can fall should be used and piped to
below freezing. With low coils, equalize any coil vacuum not to
this may require the pump to be atmosphere, but to the discharge
placed in a pit or lower floor. How side of the trap.
to determine “system stall” condi-

31
 Makeup Air Heating Coils

The steam trap must handle to the intermediate temperature but isfactory, coil corrosion problems
lots of air and drain condensate as outside temperature increases, are usually due to condensate reg-
at saturated steam temperature the temperature control lowers the ularly backing up or lying stagnant
SYSTEM DESIGN

continuously while the load and steam pressure in the preheat coil on the bottom of the tubes during
pressure are changing and thus a and condensate drainage tends shutdown. If the coil is trapped
Float-Thermostatic type is recom- to slow down. If the coil is being correctly, the most likely cause is
mended for all air heating coils. used where design loads occur at an overhead return which prevents
The trap is mounted below the sub-zero temperatures, there can the coil from draining. One remedy
condensate outlet from the coil sometimes be only atmospheric for this is to fit a liquid expansion
with a vertical drop giving enough pressure in the coil, although the air steam trap at the lowest piping
hydraulic head to enable a suit- passing over it is still cold enough level, as shown in Fig. II-26 (page
able size to be selected. A 14” to lead to freeze-up problems. 96), set to open when the temper-
head should be the minimum and This difficulty is greatly ature drops below 90°F. The coil
represents about 1/2 psi, a 28” reduced if the temperature sensor then drains only cold condensate
head about 1 psi, and to reduce controlling the steam supply to the to a sewer.
possibility of freeze-up, a drop of preheat coil is set to the needed In high pressure systems
3 ft. to the trap is recommended. distribution temperature. Part load where waterhammer on startup
conditions would then lead firstly to remains troublesome, a “safety
Preheat/Reheat Coils drain” trap is sometimes used. This
lowering the steam pressure in the
The preheat/reheat coil hookup reheat coil, where freezing will not consists of a stock 15 psi rated
shown in Fig. II-26 (page 96) may occur, but pressure is maintained inverted bucket trap fitted above
employ a direct-acting tempera- in the preheat coil until outside air the main trap which discharges
ture control or with larger coils, a temperatures are above the dan- to drain whenever coil pressure
quicker responding pilot-operated ger point. Such an arrangement is low, but due to its design locks
type with a closer control band reduces freeze-up problems in shut at higher pressure. While this
is recommended. This arrange- many instances on existing instal- is useful on pressurized mains,
ment allows filtration and perhaps lations, at minimal cost. the safety trap may require a pres-
humidification of the air to be car- sure considerably higher than its
ried out at the controlled preheat Corrosion And nominal rating to lock shut and on
temperature, and the reheat coil modulating service a considerable
brings the dry bulb temperature of Waterhammer Problems amount of condensate may be
the conditioned air to the required Condensate mixed with air wasted. This makes the combi-
value for distribution. The preheat becomes corrosive and assuming nation pump/trap a more viable
coil is used to heat outside air up the boiler water treatment is sat- solution to this problem.

Case in Action: Air Handling System Steam Coil Drainage

Typical storage buildings are extremely large and difficult by either open or closed loop PPP systems. Four days
to heat. This example in specific has three floors with into the test and the unit without a PPP drainage system
approximately 486,000 ft2 of floor space and heated with had three frozen coils. It was found that as outside supply
150 air handling units. These units are comprised of bay air temperature dropped below 36˚F, it was necessary to
heaters, overhead door heaters and administrative office close outside dampers and use 100% recirculated air, or
area heaters. The minimum steam supply pressure to all of the coils would freeze. The three units drained by PPP
them is 20 psig and are pneumatically controlled. systems continued operating trouble-free.
In the preceding 12 month period, $201,000 was Benefits
spent on labor and materials to repair damaged coils. The
common problem was condensate standing in the coils, Employee Safety
unable to drain, causing erosion due to presence of car- • Improved indoor air quality through the use of a higher
bonic acid and bulging/splitting as a result of freezing. percentage of outside air supply.
• Reduced chance of injury by eliminating water leakage on
Solution the floor from broken coils and subsequent slippage.
Starting with a training session at the facility that addressed
this problem and typical solutions, Spirax Sarco’s local • Fewer burns because there are fewer steam leaks.
sales office implemented a “Cooperative Research and • Greater employee awareness of hazards because of
Development Agreement” (CRDA). The purpose of the training.
agreement was to test a proposed solution including Cost Savings
Pressure Powered Pumps™ and Pump/Trap combina-
• Reduced steam and condensate losses resulting in
tions to eliminate system stall, thereby assuring thorough
energy savings.
condensate drainage, regardless of supply air temperature,
control valve turn-down or over-sized heaters. • Reduced cost for management support (paper-work).
A test was conducted on four air handling units. One • Cost savings of up to 30% above the initial installation
unit was hooked up as usual, without Pressure Powered cost in a 12 month period.
Pump™ drainage systems. The other three were drained

32
 Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment

Makeup air heating coils and the control valve output is deter- Table 10:
other heat exchange equipment mined by the basic heat transfer
where the steam supply pressure equation, Q = UA x ∆T. With Percentage Fouling Allowance

SYSTEM DESIGN
is modulated to hold a desired “UA” for a steam-filled coil a Velocity Fouling Factor
outflow temperature must always constant, the amount of heat sup- in Ft./Sec. .0005 .001
be kept drained of condensate. plied, “Q”, is regulated by the 1 1.14 (14%) 1.27 (27%)
Fitting a vacuum breaker and “∆T,” the log mean temperature 2 1.19 (19%) 1.38 (38%)
steam trap, no matter what the difference (LMTD) between the
3 1.24 (24%) 1.45 (45%)
size, does not always result in heated air or liquid and saturated
trouble-free operation and prob- steam temperature at the pres- 4 1.27 (27%) 1.51 (51%)
lems with noisy, hammering, sure delivered by the valve. Thus, 5 1.29 (29%) 1.55 (55%)
corroded and especially frozen the steam pressure available to 6 1.30 (30%) 1.60 (60%)
coils are well documented. These operate the trap is not constant
problems are the result of coil but varies with the demand for 7 1.31 (31%) 1.63 (63%)
flooding at some point when heat from almost line pressure
either: down through sub-atmospheric, them at the design stage is to use
to complete shutdown when no the “stall chart” shown in Fig. 45.
a. Incoming makeup air increas-
es above minimum design heat is required. Actual differential The steam supply pressure
temperature, or across the trap is further reduced is shown on the vertical axis, with
when the heating surface is over- corresponding temperatures on
b. Flow rate through an exchang- sized or the trap must discharge the opposite side, and the plot will
er decreases below the against a back pressure. Knowing indicate graphically what will occur
maximum equipment output. these conditions, the system must for any percentage of the design
In a steam system, tempera- be designed accordingly. load. This method provides a fairly
ture regulation actually means accurate prediction of stall condi-
controlling the pressure. Under Plotting A “Stall Chart” tions even though the chart uses
partial load conditions, the steam An easy way to determine the “arithmetic” rather than “log mean”
controller, whether self-acting, conditions at which drainage temperature difference.
pneumatic or any other type, reduc- problems will occur, and prevent
es the pressure until the necessary
trap differential is eliminated, the Figure 45: Stall Chart
system “stalls,” and steam coils 235
400
become waterfilled coils.
380 180
Conditions Creating 360 140
“System Stall”

Pressure psig
340 105
With the steam equipment and
320 75
the operating pressure selected,
the load at which any system 300 55
stalls is a function of how close 280 34
the equipment is sized to the
260 20
actual load and any condensate
elevation or other back pressure
Temperature °F

240 10
the trap is subject to. 220 3
Other less obvious things 0
Inches Vacuum

200 5”
can also seriously contribute 10”
to “system stall”; for instance, 180 15”
overly generous fouling factors 160 20”
and equipment oversizing. As an 140
example, a fouling factor of “only” 25”
.001 can result in a coil surface 120
area increase of 50% (See Table 100
10). Equipment oversizing causes 80
the system to stall faster. This is
particularly the case when the 60
heating equipment is expected to 40
run considerably below “design
20
load.”
0
Saturated steam temperature 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
is directly related to its pressure Percentage Load
and for any load requirement,

33
 Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment

An example plot is shown conditions, a vacuum breaker and example represented a heat
on Fig. 46 for a coil where air is hydraulic pressure due to conden- exchanger where the liquid was to
heated to 80°F and the trap must sate will prevent stall and allow be heated through a constant tem-
SYSTEM DESIGN

discharge against back pressure. the trap to drain the coil. perature rise from 0 to 80°F, but at
Step 1. The system is designed for Step 4. In many systems, the a flow rate that varies, stall would
100% load when air enters at 0°F trap does not discharge freely to still occur below 93% load. In this
(T1) and there is 0% load when air atmosphere and in our example, instance, if 100% load represents
enters at 80°F (T2). Draw line (T1/ total back pressure on the trap is a 50 GPM exchanger, the system
T2) connecting these points. 15 psig, drawn as horizontal dot- would stall when the demand was
ted line (P2). Coil pressure equals 46.5 GPM (50 x .93) or less.
Step 2. At maximum load, the
arithmetic mean air temperature back pressure at the intersection
of (P2) with (P1/MT1) which when Draining Equipment Under
(MT) is 40°F. Locate (MT) on line
(T1/T2), extend horizontally to 0% dropped vertically downward to “Stall” Conditions
load, and identify as (MT1). (R1) occurs at 93% load. At less “System stall” is lack of posi-
than this load, the required trap tive differential across the steam
Step 3. Allowing for pressure trap and temperature controlled
differential is eliminated, the sys-
drop, the control valve has been equipment will always be subject
tem “stalls,” and the coil begins
sized to supply 25 psig steam to this problem when the trap
to waterlog. In our air heating coil
to the coil at 100% load. This must operate against back pres-
the air flows at a constant rate
pressure is (P1) and has a steam sure. Under these conditions,
and extending the air tempera-
temperature of 267°F. Mark (P1) a vacuum breaker is ineffective
ture intersection horizontally to
and draw line (P1/MT1). because “stall” always occurs
(R2), stall occurs when the incom-
Line (P1/MT1) approximates the ing air is 6°F or more. above atmospheric pressure.
steam supply at any load condi- Even when steam is supplied at
The same procedure applies
tion and the coil pressure is below a constant pressure or flow to
to a heat exchanger although
atmospheric when it drops below “batch” type equipment, stall can
the example temperature is not
the heavy line at 212°F. In a grav- occur for some period of time on
a common one. If the stall chart
ity system with sub-atmospheric startup when the steam condens-
es quickly and the pressure drops
Figure 46: Air Make-up Coil Stall Chart below the required differential.
400 235 What happens when the sys-
380 180 tem stalls is that the effective coil
360 140
area (“UA” in the formula) drops
as the steam chamber floods and
340 105
Pressure psig

heat transfer is reduced until the

320 75 control valve responds to deliver
300 55 an excessive supply of steam to
280 P1 34 the coil. This results in a “hunting
260 20 system” with fluctuating temper-
Temperature °F

240 10
atures and hammering coils as
P2
the relatively cooler condensate
220 3
0 alternately backs up, then at least
Inches Vacuum

200 5”
10” some portion is forced through the
Design MTD

180 trap.
15”
160 20” The solution to all system
140 stall problems is to make conden-
Stall MTD

25”
120 sate drain by gravity. Atmospheric
100 systems tend to operate more
80 T2 predictably and are generally eas-
60 ier to control but major heating
equipment is usually not drained
40 MT1
MT into an atmospheric return
20 because of the large amount of
R2
0 energy that is lost from the vent.
T1 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
In many process plants, venting
Percentage Load
vapors of any type is discouraged
R1
and a “closed loop” system is not
only required but is less subject to
oxygen corrosion problems.
34
 Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment

Closed Loop Drainage With pressurized returns and Float and Thermostatic type sized
Systems larger coils, it is often economical not for the equipment load, but to
to fit a combination pump/trap to handle the high flow rate during

SYSTEM DESIGN
To make equipment drain by
each coil in a closed loop sys- the brief pump discharge period.
gravity against back pressure,
tem rather than the conventional The trap must be capable of
the steam trap must be replaced
gravity drain line accepting con- handling the full system operating
by a Pressure Powered Pump™ or
densate from several traps and pressure with a capacity of stall
pump/trap combination installed
delivering it to a common pump. load at 1/4 psig. This size trap will
in a closed loop system. In this
The pump/trap system is illustrat- allow the pump to operate at its
arrangement, the equipment
ed in Fig. II-35 (page 101) with the maximum capacity.
does not have a vacuum break-
check valve fitted after the trap.
er but is pressure equalized to
This hookup assures maximum Multiple Parallel Coils With A
drain by gravity, then isolated
heat from the equipment and Common Control Valve
while condensate is pumped from
provides the additional advan- While group trapping should
the system. The basic hookup
tages of no atmospheric venting, generally be avoided, a system
is shown in Fig. II-32 (page 99)
no vacuum breakers, therefore with a single control valve sup-
where the equipment is con-
less oxygen contamination and plying steam to identical parallel
stantly stalled and back pressure
no electric pump seals to leak. coils within the same air stream
always exceeds the control valve
Integral to the design of this sys- can be drained to a single pump/
supply pressure.
tem is the air vent for startup, the trap combination closed loop sys-
In many closed loop appli- liquid reservoir for accumulation
cations, the pump alone is not tem. (See Fig. 47.) This hookup
during discharge, and consider- requires that the pressure must be
suitable because the steam sup- ation should also be given to
ply pressure can at times exceed free to equalize into each coil. No
shutdown draining with a liquid reduced coil connections can be
the back pressure (P1 is high- expansion steam trap.
er on the “Stall Chart” than P2.) permitted and the common con-
These applications require the Sizing A Combination Pump/ densate manifold must not only
Pressure Powered Pump™ to be pitch to the pump but be large
Trap enough to allow opposing flow of
fitted in series with a Float and The Pressure-Powered Pump™
Thermostatic trap (combination steam to each coil while conden-
selected must have capacity to sate drains to the pump/trap. The
pump-trap) to prevent steam handle the condensate load from
blowthrough at loads above the basic premise still applies, that
the equipment at the % stall con- coils which are fully air vented and
stall point. dition. Trap sizing is more critical free to drain by gravity give maxi-
and should be a high capacity mum heat output.

Before After
Steam Control Inlet
Steam Control Inlet Steam Control
Steam Control Inlet Inlet
Air Air
Vent Vent

Steam Steam
Coils Coils
Steam Steam To
Coils Coils Condensate
Air Air Return
Vent Vent
Air Air
Vent Vent
High Pressure Reservoir
Drip Traps To Motive Motive
Steam Steam
Level-Control Condensate
Drain Tank Return

To Drain
Pressure Powered Pump/Trap
Figure 47
Combination Pressure-Powered Pump/Traps in a Closed Loop Eliminate Waterlogging in Parallel Steam Coils
Previously Trapped to a “Stalled” Level Control System

35
 Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment

Case in Action: Absorption Chiller, Condensate Drainage

Absorption chillers are important sources of cooling nec- Solution
SYSTEM DESIGN

essary for many refinery processes. A typical example Two Pressure Powered Pumps™ were installed in par-
is the need to cool products (using large heat exchang- allel, along with necessary steam traps, air vents and
ers) after the stripping process in an “alky” unit. Products strainers . The Refinery supplied the reservoir and inter-
going to storage are generally maintained below 100°F. connecting piping.
Steam is used to drive the absorption process at low
pressure, typically below 15 psig. Condensate drainage Benefits
becomes a very real concern. • Regardless of varying steam supply pressure, consid-
In this case, steam is supplied at 12 psig to the chiller ering the throttling that naturally occurs through the
through an automatic control valve. Condensate system automatic control valve, thorough condensate drainage
backpressure is a constant 6-7 psig, considering the 30 is assured and cooling efficiency is maintained.
ft. uphill pipe-run to the vented condensate receiver. • Installation cost was much lower with the Pressure
The Refinery Contact Engineer recognized the potential Powered Pumps™ over electric pumps that were also
for system stall (having previously used the Pressure being considered. Costly water and explosion proof
Powered Pump™ to overcome other similar problems). control panels were not required.
• Pump maintenance cost is also much lower through
elimination of the need for mechanical seals and pump
motors.

Multi-Coil Heaters
In many cases, a fluid is heated point given the proportion of the section, estimate the tempera-
by passing it through a series total heater load which is carried ture at the outlet from the first
of heat exchangers which are by the first section. section, and regard this as the
all provided with steam through Multiplying this proportion by inlet temperature for an assembly
a common control valve (Fig. the total load given the conden- with one less section than before.
48). Multiple section air heater sate rate in this section, and Recalculate the ratio ts - to/ts - ti2,
coils or “batteries” typify such enables a trap with sufficient and re-enter the chart at this
applications, as also the multi-roll capacity to be selected. value to find the proportion of the
dryers used in laundries. While remaining load taken by the “first”
If it is required to accurately
the load on the first heater is usu- of the remaining sections.
determine the load in the second
ally appreciably greater than the
load on later heater sections, the
proportion of the total load which
each section takes is often a
matter of “rule of thumb” or even
conjecture. Steam Temp. ts
The temperature difference
between the steam and the enter-
ing cold fluid can be designated
∆t1. Similarly, the temperature dif-
ference between the steam and
the outlet heated fluid can be ∆t0.
The ratio between ∆t1 and ∆t0 can Air Inlet Air Outlet
Temp. ti Temp. to
be calculated, and will always be
less than one, see Fig. 49 (page
37)
If the chart at Figure 50 is
entered on the horizontal axis
at this ratio, a vertical can be
taken upwards until the curve
corresponding with the number
of heaters or coils in use is inter- Figure 48
sected. A horizontal from this Multiple Coil Air Heater

36
 Multi-Coil Heaters

Single Section
1.0

SYSTEM DESIGN
0.9

Proportion of Load on First Section

0.8

0.7
Single Section ts
Two
∆to 0.6 Sec
tion
Temp. Outlet Temp.
to 0.5
∆ti Thr
ee S
ecti
0.4 on
ti2 Fou
r Se
ctio
0.3 Five n
Sec
tion
Inlet Temp.
ti 0.2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Ratio ∆to/∆t
i

Figure 49 Figure 50
Temperature Distribution in Multi-Coil Heater Load on First Section of Multi-Coil Heater

Case in Action: Air Make-Up Coil Drainage

Paper Mills require a huge volume of air exchange. This Solution
means that a great deal of air heating is necessary, par- Mill Engineers, working with the local Spirax Sarco
ticularly during winter months. Air Make-Up systems are Representative, developed a long-range plan to redesign
split between two general applications: and retrofit the entire Air Make-Up System. Over the last
a. Machine or Process Air Make-Up is supplied to t h e two years, approximately 20 Pressure Powered Pump™/
immediate area around the machine and, more spe- float & thermostatic trap closed-loop packages have been
cifically, to certain areas within the machine for higher installed. The project will continue until the entire system is
temperature heating (i.e. Pocket Ventilation or PV retrofitted. They have similarly retrofitted several shell and
coils). tube heat exchangers, improving water heating efficiency.
b. Mill Air Make-Up, which is distributed across the mill for
HVAC comfort. Benefits
Either application may be accomplished with single • Energy savings are achieved through installation of
banks of coils or double-preheat/reheat coils, depending pressurized closed-loop packages. There is no loss to
on heating requirements. flash.
The mill experienced a chronic problem of frozen • Chemical savings are achieved because of the pressur-
Air Make-Up coils, typically associated with condensate ized packages. Chemicals are not lost out the vent.
flooding and waterhammer. The 50/150 psig steam coils • Desired air heating efficiency has been achieved. All
ballooned and ruptured routinely, creating costly mainte- retrofitted coils have operated properly and continuously
nance headaches and safety hazards. Several coils were since installation. Flooding has been eliminated.
removed from service, requiring extensive repair. • Maintenance costs dropped dramatically with elimina-
tion of condensate flooding, water-hammer and freezing.
• Personnel safety has improved as steam/condensate
leaks have been reduced.

37
 Steam Trap Selection

A full discussion of steam trap Steam Trap Sizing pressure have traps selected
functions are found in the com- Steam main drip traps shall be for full-load at 1/2 psi pres-
panion Fluid System Design sized with a 2 times safety fac- sure differential, provide 18
SYSTEM DESIGN

volume, “STEAM UTILIZATION.” tor at full differential pressure. to 24” drip leg for condensate
The material covers operation In most cases, they will be 3/4” to drain freely to 0 psi gravity
of all types of traps, along with size with low capacity orifice or return. (With drip legs less
the need for proper air vent- smaller unless otherwise shown than 18”, consult a Spirax
ing and trap selection. Traps on the drawings and they shall Sarco representative.)
are best selected not just on be located every 200 feet or less. • Modulating control systems
supply pressure and load require- Traps for steam tracing shall be with greater than 30 psig inlet
ments, but after reviewing the 1/4” to 1/2” size. They shall be pressure have traps selected
requirements of the application located every 100 feet or less. with a 3 times factor at full
compared to trap characteristics Radiator traps shall be pipe size. pressure differential for all
including discharge temperature, Freeze protection traps shall be preheat coils, and a 2 times
air venting capability, response 1/2” to 3/4” size unless otherwise factor for others.
to pressure and load change, noted. Process Industry
and resistance to dirt, corrosion, Traps for equipment drainage • Non-modulating control sys-
waterhammer and freezing condi- are sized with safety factors that tems have traps selected with
tions. Answering these questions reflect the differences of the HVAC a 2 times factor at full pres-
leads to the selection of the most and Process industries, such sure differential.
appropriate generic type of trap as variations in actual hydraulic
head and material construction • Modulating controls systems
and the general recommenda- with less than 30 psig inlet
tions found in Table 11 reflect of tube bundles. A summary of
these typical recommendations pressure have traps selected
this. This Selection Guide covers for full load at 1/2 psi pres-
are as follows:
most trap uses and the recom- sure differential, provide 18 to
mended type can be expected to HVAC Industry 24” drip leg for condensate to
give satisfactory performance. • Non-modulating control sys- drain freely to gravity return
tems have traps selected with at 0 psi. (With drip legs less
a 2 times factor at full pres- than 18”, consult a Spirax
sure differential. Sarco representative.)
• Modulating control systems • Modulating control systems
with less than 30 psig inlet have traps selected with a 3
times factor at full pressure
differential.

Case in Action: Polyvinyl Butyral Extruders

Condensate removal was needed from 3 polyvinyl butyral Solution
extruders at a pressure of 240 psi. Application required Float & Thermostatic steam traps were recommend-
that a consistent temperature be maintained the length of ed for draining the extruders. This would give them
the extruder to provide product quality in the melt. There immediate condensate removal; therefore maintaining
were nine sections per extruder. a consistant temperature throughout the length of the
The customer had used various brands of traps and extruder, providing better control over product melt. Also,
trap styles to drain the extruders. Most recently they used upon recommendation, strainers were installed before the
a competitors bimetallic trap. They were experiencing traps to help keep dirt out, and cut down on maintenance
inconsistent temperatures throughout the length of the cost.
extruder because the bimetallic traps subcooled the con-
densate, which then backed up into the heat transfer area. Benefits
They were also experiencing high maintenance costs in • Maintained consistent temperatures with existing equip-
relation to these traps. ment because there is no condensate in the heat
transfer area.
• There is less maintenance cost due to the strainers
installed before the traps.

38
 Steam Trap Selection

Steam Trap A QUICK GUIDE TO THE SIZING OF STEAM TRAPS

Selection Software Need To Know:

SYSTEM DESIGN
Selecting the best type and size 1. The steam pressure at the trap—after any pressure drop through
steam trap is easier today for control valves or equipment.
system designers who use com- 2. THE LIFT, if any, after the trap.
puter software programs. The Rule of thumb: 2 ft. = 1 psi back pressure, approximately.
Spirax Sarco “STEAM NEEDS
ANALYSIS PROGRAM” is avail- 3. Any other possible sources of BACK PRESSURE in the
able at www.snapfour.com and condensate return system.
goes a step further. SNAP not e.g. A) Condensate taken to a pressurized DA. tank.
only recommends and sizes the B) Local back pressure due to discharges of numerous traps
trap from input conditions, but close together into small sized return.
also specifies condensate return 4. QUANTITY of condensate to be handled. Obtained from
pumps, other necessary auxil- A) Measurement, B) Calculation of heat load (see page 24), and
iary equipment, and warns of C) Manufacturer’s Data
system problems that may be
5. SAFETY FACTOR—These factors depend upon particular
encountered. The SNAP program
applications, typical examples being as follows:
is user-friendly, menu-driven soft-
ware that accurately calculates General With Temp. Control
the condensate load for a wide Mains Drainage x2 —
range of drip, tracing and pro- Storage Heaters x2 —
cess applications (described both Space Unit Heaters x2 x3
by common name and generic Air Heating Coils x2 x3
description.) Significant is the fact Submerged Coils (low level drain) x2 —
that a SNAP user has the choice Submerged Coils (siphon drain) x3 —
of selecting either a recommend-
Rotating Cylinders x3 —
ed type of trap or a different type
that may be preferred for any Tracing Lines x2 —
reason. For all selections, a for- Platen Presses x2 —
mal specification sheet may be Rule of thumb: Use factor of 2 on everything except Temperature
printed which contains additional Controlled Air Heater Coils and Converters, and
information. Siphon applications.

How To Use
The difference between the steam pressure at the trap, and the total
back pressure, including that due to any lift after the trap, is the
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE. The quantity of condensate should be
multiplied by the appropriate factor, to produce SIZING LOAD. The
trap may now be selected using the DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE and
the SIZING LOAD.

Example
A trap is required to drain 22 lb/h of condensate from a 4” insulated
steam main, which is supplying steam at 100 PSIG. There will be a lift
after the trap of 20 ft.
Supply Pressure = 100 psig
Lift = 20 ft = 10 psi approx.
Therefore
Differential Pressure = 100 – 10 = 90 psi
Quantity = 22 lb/hr
Mains Drainage Factor = 2
Therefore Sizing Load = 44 lb/hr

A small reduced capacity Thermo-Dynamic® steam trap will easily

handle the 44 lb/h sizing load at a differential pressure of 90 psi.

39
 Steam Trap Selection Guide

Table 11: Steam Trap Selection Guide

As the USA’s leading provider of steam system solutions, Spirax Sarco recognizes that no two steam trapping
SYSTEM DESIGN

systems are identical. Because of the wide array of steam trap applications with inherently different characteristics,
choosing the correct steam trap for optimum performance is difficult. Waterhammer, superheat, corrosive conden-
sate, or other damaging operating characteristics dramatically affect performance of a steam trap. With over 80
years of experience in steam technology, Spirax Sarco is committed to helping it’s customers design, operate and
maintain an efficient steam system. You have our word on it!

1st Choice 2nd Choice

Float & Thermo- Balanced Liquid Inverted Float & Thermo- Balanced Liquid Inverted
Application
Thermostatic Dynamic Pressure Bimetallic Expansion Bucket Thermostatic Dynamic Pressure Bimetallic Expansion Bucket
® ®

Steam Mains to 30 psig

3 3
30-400 psig
3 3
to 600 psig 3 3
to 900 psig 3 3
to 2000 psig 3 3
with Superheat 3 3
Separators 3 3
Steam Tracers Critical 3 3
Non-Critical 3 3
Heating Equipment
Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers
3 3
Heating Coils 3 3
Unit Heaters 3 3
Plate & Frame Heat Exchangers 3 3
Radiators 3
General Process Equipment
to 30 psig 3 3
to 200 psig 3 3
to 465 psig 3 3
to 600 psig 3
to 900 psig 3
to 2000 psig 3
Hospital Equipment
Autoclaves
3 3
Sterilizers
3 3
Fuel Oil Heating
Bulk Storage Tanks 3 3
Line Heaters 3
Tanks & Vats
Bulk Storage Tanks
3 3
Process Vats
3 3
Vulcanizers 3 3
Evaporators 3 3
Reboilers 3 3
Rotating Cylinders 3
Freeze Protection 3

40
 Flash Steam

The Formation of Flash Steam Table 12: Percent Flash

When hot condensate under Steam
pressure is released to a lower

SYSTEM DESIGN
Pressure Atmosphere Flash Tank Pressure
pressure, its temperature must psig 0 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 80 100
very quickly drop to the boiling 5 1.7 1.0 0
point for the lower pressure as 10 2.9 2.2 1.4 0
shown in the steam tables. The 15 4.0 3.2 2.4 1.1 0
surplus heat is utilized by the 20 4.9 4.2 3.4 2.1 1.1 0
condensate as latent heat caus- 30 6.5 5.8 5.0 3.8 2.6 1.7 0
ing some of it to re-evaporate into 40 7.8 7.1 6.4 5.1 4.0 3.1 1.3 0
steam. Commonly referred to as 60 10.0 9.3 8.6 7.3 6.3 5.4 3.6 2.2 0
“flash steam”, it is in fact perfectly 80 11.7 11.1 10.3 9.0 8.1 7.1 5.5 4.0 1.9 0
good useable steam even at low 100 13.3 12.6 11.8 10.6 9.7 8.8 7.0 5.7 3.5 1.7 0
pressure. 125 14.8 14.2 13.4 12.2 11.3 10.3 8.6 7.4 5.2 3.4 1.8
160 16.8 16.2 15.4 14.1 13.2 12.4 10.6 9.5 7.4 5.6 4.0
200 18.6 18.0 17.3 16.1 15.2 14.3 12.8 11.5 9.3 7.5 5.9
250 20.6 20.0 19.3 18.1 17.2 16.3 14.7 13.6 11.2 9.8 8.2
300 22.7 21.8 21.1 19.9 19.0 18.2 16.7 15.4 13.4 11.8 10.1
350 24.0 23.3 22.6 21.6 20.5 19.8 18.3 17.2 15.1 13.5 11.9
400 25.3 24.7 24.0 22.9 22.0 21.1 19.7 18.5 16.5 15.0 13.4
Percent flash for various initial steam pressures and flash tank pressures.

Proportion Of Flash Steam

Released
The amount of flash steam which To simplify this procedure we between the pressures upstream
each pound of condensate will can use Table 12 to read off and downstream of the trap and
release may be calculated read- the percentage of flash steam the corresponding temperatures
ily. Subtracting the sensible heat produced by this pressure drop. of those pressures in saturat-
of the condensate at the lower An example would be if we had ed steam. The higher the initial
pressure from that of the con- 100 PSIG saturated steam/con- pressure and the lower the flash
densate passing through the densate being discharged from recovery pressure, the greater
traps will give the amount of heat a steam trap to an atmospheric, the quantity of flash steam pro-
available from each pound to pro- gravity flow condensate return duced.
vide Latent Heat of Vaporization. system (0 psig), the flash percent- It must be noted here that
Dividing this amount by the actual age of the condensate would be the chart is based upon saturat-
Latent Heat per pound at the 13.3% of the volume discharged. ed steam pressure/temperature
Lower Pressure will give the pro- Conversely, if we had 15 psig conditions at the trap inlet, and
portion of the condensate which saturated steam discharging to that the condensate is discharged
will flash off. Multiplying by the the same (0 psig) atmospher- as rapidly as it appears at the
total quantity of condensate being ic gravity flow return system, trap. Steam traps that subcool
considered gives the weight of the percentage of flash steam the condensate, such as bal-
Low Pressure Steam available. would be only 4% by volume. anced pressure thermostatic and
Thus, if for example, 2000 These examples clearly show bimetallic traps, hold condensate
lb/h of condensate from a source that the amount of flash released back in the system allowing it to
at 100 psi is flashed to 10 psi, we depends upon the difference give up sensible heat energy and
can say: causing it to cool below the satu-
Sensible Heat at 100 psi = 309 Btu/lb rated steam temperature for that
Sensible Heat at 10 psi = 208 Btu/lb pressure. Under those circum-
Heat Available for Flashing = 101 Btu/lb stances, we must calculate from
the formula above the percentage
Latent Heat at 10 psi = 952 Btu/lb
of flash steam produced, but the
Proportion Evaporated = 101 –.. 952 = 0.106 or 10.6% amount of subcooling (the con-
Flash Steam Available = 0.106 x 2000 lb/h densate temperature) must be
= 212 lb/h known before calculating.

41
 Flash Steam

Flash Steam Utilization The steam traps, and the heating condensate to supply
In an efficient and economical equipment from which they heating loads. Supply and
steam system, this so called are draining condensate, demand are then more likely
SYSTEM DESIGN

Flash Steam will be utilized, on must be able to function sat- to remain “in step”. When all
any load which will make use of isfactorily while accepting the else fails, in many facilities
low pressure steam. Sometimes new back pressure applied there is always a need for hot
it can be simply piped into a to them by the flash recov- water, especially in the boiler
low pressure distribution main ery system. Particular care house. This can be supplied
for general use. The ideal is to is needed when attempting via a heat exchanger and the
have a greater demand for Low to recover flash steam from use of flash steam.
Pressure steam, at all times, than condensate which is leav- 3. It is also preferable to select
available supply of flash steam. ing equipment controlled by an application for the flash
Only as a last resort should flash a modulating temperature steam which is reasonably
steam be vented to atmosphere control valve. At less than close in proximity to the high
and lost. full loads, the steam space pressure condensate source.
pressure will be lowered by Piping for low pressure steam
If the flash steam is to be the action of the temperature
recovered and utilized, it has to is inevitably of larg-
control valve. If the steam er diameter. This makes it
be separated from the conden- space pressure approach-
sate. This is best achieved by somewhat costly to install.
es or even falls below the Furthermore, the heat loss
passing the mixture of flash steam flash steam vessel pressure,
and condensate through what is from large diameter pipes
condensate drainage from reduces the benefits obtained
know as a “flash tank” or “flash the steam space becomes
vessel”. A typical arrangement is from flash steam recovery
impractical by a steam trap and in the worst cases could
shown in Fig. II-76 (page 120). alone, and the equipment
The size of the vessel has to be outweigh them.
becomes “stalled” and water
designed to allow for a reduced Flash steam recovery is sim-
logging will most definitely
velocity so that the separation of plest when being recovered from
occur.
the flash steam and condensate a single piece of equipment that
can be accomplished adequate- 2. The second requirement is condenses a large amount of
ly, so as not to have carryover a suitable use for low pres- steam, such as a large steam
of condensate out into the flash sure flash steam. Ideally, low to water converter of a large air
steam recovery system. This tar- pressure load(s) requires at handling coil bank, but we cannot
get velocity is ten feet per second all times a supply of steam forget that flash steam recovery
per ASHRAE standards to ensure which either equals or systems by design will apply a
proper separation. The conden- exceeds the available flash backpressure to the equipment
sate drops to the bottom of the steam supply. The deficit can being utilized as the flash steam
flash tank where it is removed by then be made up through a source.
a float and thermostatic steam pressure reducing valve set.
trap. The flash steam outlet con- If the supply of flash steam How To Size Flash Tanks
nection is sized so that the flash exceeds the demand for it, And Vent Lines
steam velocity through the outlet the surplus may have to be Whether a flash tank is atmo-
is approximately 50 ft./sec. The vented to waste through a spheric or pressurized for flash
condensate inlet is also sized for backpressure control valve recovery, the procedure for deter-
50 ft./sec. flash velocity. (see Fig. II-77, page 120). mining its size is the same. The
A number of basic require- Thus, it is possible to utilize most important dimension is the
ments and considerations have to the flash steam from pro- diameter. It must be large enough
be met before flash steam recov- cess condensate on a space to provide adequate separation
ery is a viable and economical heating installation - but the of the flash and condensate to
proposition: savings will only be achieved minimize condensate carryover.
during the heating season.
1. It is first essential to have a When heating is not required,
sufficient supply of conden- the recovery system becomes
sate, from loads at sufficiently ineffective. Whenever possi-
higher pressures, to ensure ble, the better arrangement is
that enough flash steam will to use flash steam from pro-
be released to make recov- cess condensate to supply
ery economically effective. process loads, and that from

42
 Flash Steam

Example the flowrate, of flash steam chart can be used to deter-

Size a 20 psig flash recovery ves- produced. 3,000 lb/h x .124 mine whether the velocity will
sel utilizing condensate from a = 372 lb/h. exceed the recommended

SYSTEM DESIGN
160 psig steam trap discharging 3. Using the calculated flash limit of 600 ft/min.
3000 lb/h. steam quantity of 372 lb/h 4. From point “D” continue to
1. Determine percent flash enter Fig. 51 at “A” and move rise vertically to “E” to deter-
steam produced using Table horizontally to the right to mine the size of vent pipe
12. With a steam pressure the flash tank pressure of to give a velocity between
of 160 psig and a flash tank 20 psig “B”. Rise vertically to 3000 and 4000 ft/min. In this
pressure of 20 psig, read a the flash tank diameter line case 2” schedule 40 pipe. As
value of 12.4%. (600 ft/min) at “D”. Read tank before, use the table within
diameter of 5”. If schedule the body of chart for schedule
2. Next, multiply the conden-
80 pipe is to be installed, the 80 pipe.
sate load by the percent flash
table within the body of the
from Step #1 to determine

Figure 51: Condensate Line, Flash Tank, and Vent Line Sizing
Velocity Velocity
(ft/sec) Pipe Size (schedule 40) (ft/min) Recommended
Service
100 6000
C Condensate Return
Line Sizing
66 4000

50
E 3000
Vent Pipe Sizing

33 2000
30 28" 26 24 20 18 16 14 12 10 8" 6" 5" 4" 3" 2-1
/2" 2" 1-1 1-1
/2" /4" 1" 3/4 1/2
" " " " " " " " " " "

17 1000

10 D 600 Flash Tank

Diameter Sizing

50,000
Multiply chart velocity
by factor below
10 0

30,000 to get velocity

0
8

in schedule 80 pipe
60 0
4 0

Pipe Size
3 0

20,000 Factor
2

1/2" 1.30
10

3/4" & 1" 1.23

5

1-1/4" & 1-1/2" 1.15

0

10,000 2" & 3" 1.12

4" to 24" 1.1
8000 26" to 30" 1.0
Flash Steam Flowrate (lb/h)

5000
10 0

3000
0
8
60 0
4 0
3 0

2000
2
10
5
0

1000
800

500

A B
300

200
10 0
0
8

100
60 0
4 0
3 0

80
2

60
10
5

50
0

40
30

P
c re
20

fla ond ssu

sh en re
ta sa in
10

nk te
(p lin
si e
g) or

43
 Condensate
inlet

Flash Steam Length

Length = 2 x diameter or
Diameter

24" minimum

Flash Vessel Configurations

Flash vessels can be either horizontal or vertical. For flash steam recovery (pressurized receiver) the vertical
SYSTEM DESIGN

style is preferred because of its ability to provide better separation of steam and water.
Condensate
outlet

Figure 52: Flash Vessel Configurations

Horizontal Flash steam outlet Vertical Flash

Flash Vessel Flash Steam or vent pipe Vessel
outlet or vent pipe

Condensate
inlet

Diameter Diameter
Length
Length = 2 x diameter or
24" minimum Condensate Height = 3 x Diameter or
inlet 36" minimum

35% of
height
Condensate
outlet

For proper installation of flash vessels, controls and traps refer to Condensate
Figures II-76, 77, 78, 79, steam
Flash 80, 81,outlet
82, 83 (starting on page 120) outlet
or vent pipe

Diameter

Condensate Height = 3 x Diameter or

inlet 36" minimum

35% of Case in Action: Sour Water Condenser-Reboiler Temperature Control

height
The sour water condenser-reboiler is an important element Solution
in a refinery sulfur unit. Though the configuration/design A 3” x 2” PPF with 2-1/2” FTB 125 pump/trap combination
will vary with the specific process used, the purpose and was designed into the new project as was a VS 204 air
priority remain the same. Process water contaminated vent. The installation was immediately successful.
with ammonia and hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) is stripped
Condensate
of those compounds foroutlet reuse. The remaining stream Benefits
of contaminants goes to waste treatment. The process
• With faster start-up, it came up to temperature faster
depends on accurate temperature control of the steam
than any other comparable unit, to date, at the refinery.
heated condenser-reboiler.
This improves productivity.
40 psig steam is supplied through a modulating con-
• The feed rate is higher than designed because the unit
trol valve. Condensate is lifted 15 feet from the outlet at
is able to operate efficiently at any degree of turndown.
the bottom of the vertical condenser-reboiler to the over-
head condensate receiver tank, which is maintained at 20 • Installation cost is several times less costly for the
psig. Process load fluctuations and resultant turndown on pump/trap combo than traditional level control system
the modulating steam control valve would have created a that would otherwise have been used.
STALL situation, unacceptable process temperature con- • Maintenance cost is lower, through elimination of elec-
trol and reduced throughput. tric/pneumatic controls and electric pumps used in a
traditional level control system.

44
 Condensate Recovery Systems

The importance of effective con- Condensate Line Sizing Table 13: Condensate, lb/h
densate removal from steam Condensate recovery systems Steel Approximate Frictional Resistance
spaces has been stressed divide naturally into three sec-

SYSTEM DESIGN
Pipe in inches Wg per 100 ft of Travel
throughout this course. If maxi- tions, each section requiring Size 1 5 7 10
mum steam system efficiency is different design considerations. 1/2” 100 240 290 350
to be achieved, the best type 3/4” 230 560 680 820
a. Drain Lines to the traps carry
of steam trap must be fitted in 1” 440 1070 1200 1550
pressurized high temperature
the most suitable position for the 11/4” 950 2300 2700 3300
hot water that moves by grav-
application in question, the flash 11/2” 1400 3500 4200 5000
ity.
steam should be utilized, and the 2” 2800 6800 8100 9900
maximum amount of condensate b. Trap discharge lines that 21/2” 5700 13800 16500 20000
should be recovered. carry a two-phase mixture of 3” 9000 21500 25800 31000
flash steam and condensate. 4” 18600 44000 52000 63400
There are a number of rea-
sons why condensate should not c. Pumped return systems uti-
lizing electric or non-electric a specific volume of 26.8 cubic
be allowed to discharge to drain. feet at atmospheric pressure. It
The most important consideration pumps.
also contains 970 BTU’s of latent
is the valuable heat which it con- heat energy. This means that if
tains even after flash steam has
Drain Lines To Traps
In the first section, the condensate a trap discharges 100 pounds
been recovered. It is possible to per hour of condensate from 100
use condensate as hot process has to flow from the condensing
surface to the steam trap. In most psig to atmosphere, the weight of
water but the best arrangement flash steam released will be 13.3
is to return it to the boiler house, cases this means that gravity is
relied on to induce flow, since pounds per hour, having a total
where it can be re-used as boiler volume of 356.4 cubic feet. It will
feed water without further treat- the heat exchanger steam space
and the traps are at the same also have 12,901 BTU’s of latent
ment, saving preheating fuel, raw heat energy. This will appear to
water and the chemicals needed pressure. The lines between the
drainage points and the traps can be a very large quantity of steam
for boiler feed treatment. These and may well lead to the errone-
savings will be even greater in be laid with a slight fall, say 1” in
10 feet, and Table 13 shows the ous conclusion that the trap is
cases where effluent charges passing live steam (failed open).
water carrying capacities of the
have to be paid for the discharge Another factor to be consid-
pipes with such a gradient. It is
of valuable hot condensate down ered is that we have just released
important to allow for the passage
the drain. 13.3 pounds of water to the atmo-
of incondensibles to the trap, and
Condensate recovery sav- for the extra water to be carried sphere that should have gone
ings can add up to 20 to 25% at cold starts. In most cases, it is back to the boiler house for recy-
of the plant’s steam generating sufficient to size these pipes on cling as boiler feed water. Since
costs. One justifiable reason for twice the full running load. we just wasted it, we now have to
not returning condensate is the supply 13.3 pounds of fresh city
risk of contamination. Perforated Trap Discharge Lines water that has been softened,
coils in process vessels and heat At the outlet of steam traps, the chemically treated and preheated
exchangers do exist and the cross condensate return lines must to the feedwater system’s tem-
contamination of condensate and carry condensate, non-conden- perature before putting this new
process fluids is always a danger. sible gases and flash steam water back into the boiler.
If there is any possibility that the released from the condensate. Secondly, the actual forma-
condensate is contaminated, it Where possible, these lines tion of flash steam takes place
must not be returned to the boil- should drain by gravity to the con- within and downstream of the
er. These problems have been densate receiver, whether this steam trap orifice where pres-
lessened by the application of be a flash recovery vessel or the sure drop occurs. From this point
sensing systems monitoring the vented receiver of a pump. When onward, the condensate return
quality of condensate in different sizing return lines, two important system must be capable of car-
holding areas of a plant to deter- practical points must be consid- rying this flash steam, as well
mine condensate quality and ered. as condensate. Unfortunately, in
providing a means to re-route the First, one pound of steam has the past, condensate return lines
condensate if contaminated. have been sized using water vol-
ume only and did not include the
flash steam volume that is pres-

45
 Condensate Recovery Systems

ent. many find difficult. It is often condensate.

The specific volume of water assumed that the HP “high pres- While the percentage, by
at 0 psig is .017 cubic feet per sure” condensate will prevent the weight, of flash steam may be
SYSTEM DESIGN

pound, compared to 26.8 cubic “low pressure” condensate from rather low, its overall volume in
feet per pound for flash steam passing through the LP traps and comparison to the liquid is very
at the same pressure. Sizing give rise to waterlogging of the large. By determining the quan-
of condensate return lines from LP system. tity of flash steam and sizing the
trap discharges based totally on However, the terms HP and return line for velocities between
water is a gross error and causes LP can only apply to the condi- 4,000 and 6,000 ft/min, the two-
lines to be drastically undersized tions on the upstream side of phase flow within the pipe can be
for the flash steam. This causes the seats in the traps. At the accommodated. The information
condensate lines to become pres- downstream or outlet side of the required for sizing is the conden-
surized, not atmospheric, which traps, the pressure must be the sate load in lb/h, inlet pressure to
in turn causes a backpressure to common pressure in the return steam trap(s) in psig and return
be applied to the trap’s discharge line. This return line pressure will line system pressure.
which can cause equipment fail- be the sum of at least three com- Example:
ure and flooding. ponents:
Size a condensate return line
This undersizing explains 1. The pressure at the end of from a 160 psig steam trap dis-
why the majority of 0 psi atmo- the return line, either atmo- charging to 20 psig. flash tank.
spheric condensate return spheric or of the vessel into Load is 3,000 lb/h.
systems in the United States do which the line discharges.
1. Determine percent flash
not operate at 0 psig. To take this 2. The hydrostatic head needed steam produced using Table
thought one step further for those to lift the condensate up any 12 (page 41). With a steam
people who perform temperature risers in the line. pressure of 160 psig and a
tests on steam traps to determine
3. The pressure drop needed flash tank pressure of 20 psig
if the trap has failed, the instant
to carry the condensate and read a value of 12.4%.
we cause a positive pressure to
any flash steam along the 2. Next, multiply the conden-
develop in the condensate return
line. sate load by the percent flash
system by flash steam, the con-
densate return line now must Item 3 is the only one likely to from step #1 to determine
follow the pressure/temperature give rise to any problems if con- the flowrate, of flash steam
relationship of saturated steam. densate from sources at different produced.
So, trap testing by temperature pressures enters a common line. 3,000 lb/h x .124 = 372 lb/h.
identifies only that we have a The return should be sufficiently
3. Enter Fig. 51 (page 43) at
return system at a certain temper- large to carry all the liquid con-
the flash steam flowrate of
ature above 212°F (0 psig) and densate and the varying amounts
372 lb/h at “A” and move
we can then determine by that of flash steam associated with it,
horizontally to the right to the
temperature the system pressure without requiring excessive line
flash tank pressure of 20 psig
at which it is operating. Elevated velocity and excessive pressure
“B”. Rise vertically to choose
condensate return temperatures drop. If this is accepted, the total
a condensate return line size
do not necessarily mean a trap return line cross sectional area
which will give a velocity
has failed. will be the same, whether a single
between 4,000 and 6,000 ft/
line is used, or if two or more lines
When sizing condensate min, “C”. In this example, an
are fitted, with each taking the
return lines, the volume of the 1-1/2” schedule 40 pipe with
condensate from a single pres-
flash steam must be given due a velocity of approximately
sure source.
consideration. The chart at Fig. 5,000 ft/min. If schedule 80
51 (page 43) allows the lines to be The return could become pipe is to be used, refer to
sized as flash steam lines—since undersized, requiring a high table within body of chart.
the volume of the condensate pressure at the trap discharges Multiply the velocity by the
is so much less than that of the and restricting or preventing dis- factor to determine whether
steam released. charge from the LP traps, if it the velocity is within accept-
is forgotten that the pipe has to able limits.
Draining condensate from
carry flash steam as well as water
traps serving loads at differing
and that flash steam is released
pressures to a common conden-
in appreciable quantity from HP
sate return line is a concept which

46
 Condensate Recovery Systems

Pumped Return Lines of the riser is often an extra help. line which carries the condensate
Finally, the condensate is often However, it may be necessary to to the receiver of the pump. If
pumped from the receiver to the provide means of venting from this is impossible, a second best

SYSTEM DESIGN
boiler plant. These pumped con- the pipe at appropriate points, the alternative may be to pipe the
densate lines carry only water, air which enters through the vac- trap discharge through a sparge
and rather higher water veloci- uum breaker. See Figures II-71 or diffuser inside the pumped
ties can often be used so as to and II-72 (page 118). return line.
minimize pipe sizes. The extra The practice of connecting The trap most suitable for this
friction losses entailed must not additional trap discharge lines application would be the Float
increase back pressures to the into the pumped main is to be and Thermostatic type due to
point where the pump capacity is avoided whenever possible. The its continuous discharge. This is
affected. Table 35 (page 77) can flash steam which is released very much a compromise and will
be used to help estimate the fric- from this extra condensate not always avoid the noise (see
tional resistance presented by the leads to thermal shock creating Fig. 53 and 53A) although it will
pipes. Commonly, velocities in a banging noise within the pip- reduce the severity.
pumped returns should be limited ing commonly associated with
to 6-8 ft./sec. waterhammer. The traps should
Electric pumps are commonly discharge into a separate gravity
installed with pumping capabil-
ity of 2-1/2 or 3 times the rate at
which condensate reaches the Discharge
receiver. This increased instan- from Trap
taneous flow rate must be kept
in mind when sizing the delivery
lines. Similar considerations apply
when steam powered pumps are
used, or appropriate steps taken
to help attain constant flow along
as much as possible of the sys-
Condensate
tem. Return
Where long delivery lines are Figure 53
used, the water flowing along Discharge of Steam Trap into Pumped (flooded) Return Line using
the pipe as the pump discharges Sparge Pipe.
attains a considerable momen-
tum. At the end of the discharge
cycle when the pump stops, the
water tends to keep moving along
Thermo-
the pipe and may pull air or steam Dynamic
into the delivery pipe through the Steam Trap
pump outlet check valve. When with Integral
Strainer
this bubble of steam reaches
a cooler zone and condenses,
the water in the pipe is pulled Trap Diffuser
back towards the pump. As the Spira-tec
Loss Detector
reversed flow reaches and closes
the check valve, waterhammer
often results. This problem is
greatly reduced by adding a sec-
ond check valve in the delivery
line some 15 or 20 ft. from the
pump. If the line lifts to a high Figure 53A
level as soon as it leaves the Discharge of Steam Trap into Pumped (flooded) Return Line
pump, then adding a generously using a Trap Diffuser.
sized vacuum breaker at the top

47
 Condensate Pumping

In nearly all steam-using plants, The PUMP NPSH in any given application can readily be estimated
condensate must be pumped from:
from the location where it is NPSH = hsv = 144 (Pa - Pvp) + hs - hf
SYSTEM DESIGN

formed back to the boilerhouse, W

or in those cases where grav-
Where:
ity drainage to the boilerhouse is
practical, the condensate must Pa = Absolute pressure in hs = Total suction head in feet.
be lifted into a boiler feed tank or receiver supplying pump, (Positive for a head above
deaerator. Even where deaera- in psi (that is at atmo- the pump or negative for a
tors are at low level, they usually spheric pressure in the lift to the pump)
operate at a pressure a few psi case of a vented receiver). hf = Friction loss in suction piping.
above atmospheric and again, a Pvp = Absolute pressure of W = Density of water in pounds
pump is needed to lift conden- condensate at the liquid per cubic foot at the
sate from atmospheric pressure temperature, in psi. appropriate temperature.
to deaerator tank pressure.

Electric Condensate The absolute pressure at fixed by the pump manufacturer,

the inlet to the pump is usu- it is only necessary to ensure
Return Pumps ally the atmospheric pressure that the pump set has sufficient
When using electric pumps to in the receiver, plus the static capacity at the water tempera-
lift the condensate, packaged head from the water surface to ture expected at the pump. Pump
units comprising a receiver tank the pump inlet, minus the friction manufacturers usually have a set
(usually vented to atmosphere) loss through pipes, valves and of capacity curves for the pump
and one or more motorized fittings between the receiver and when handling water at different
pumps are commonly used. It the pump. If this absolute pres- temperatures and these should
is important with these units to sure exceeds the vapor pressure be consulted.
make sure that the maximum of water at the temperature at
condensate temperature speci- Where steam systems oper-
which it enters the pump, then a ate at higher pressures than
fied by the manufacturer is not Net Positive Suction Head exists.
exceeded, and the pump has those used in LP space heating
Providing this NPSH is above systems, as in process work, con-
sufficient capacity to handle the the value specified by the pump
load. Condensate temperature densate temperatures are often
manufacturer, the water does not 212°F, or more where positive
usually presents no problem with begin to boil as it enters the
returns from low pressure heating pressures exist in return lines.
pump suction, and cavitation is Electric pumps are then used
systems. There, the condensate avoided. If the water entering the
is often below 212°F as it passes only if their capacity is downrated
pump is at high temperature, its by partial closure of a valve at the
through the traps, and a little vapor pressure is increased and
further subcooling in the grav- outlet; by using a receiver mount-
a greater hydrostatic head over ed well above the pump to ensure
ity return lines and in the pump the pump suction is needed to
receiver itself means that there sufficient NPSH; or by subcooling
ensure that the necessary NPSH the condensate through a heat
is little difficulty in meeting the is obtained.
maximum temperature limitation. exchanger of some type.
See Fig. II-74 (page 119). If the water does begin to boil
in the pump suction, the bubbles Pressure Powered
On high pressure systems, of steam are carried with the Condensate Pump
the gravity return lines often con- water to a high pressure zone All these difficulties are avoided
tain condensate at just above in the pump. The bubbles then by the use of non-electric conden-
212°F, together with some flash implode with hammer-like blows, sate pumps, such as the Pressure
steam. The cooling effect of the eroding the pump and eventually Powered Pump™. The Pressure
piping is limited to condensing a destroying it. The phenomenon Powered Pump™ is essentially
little of the flash steam, with the is called cavitation and is readily an alternating receiver which can
remainder passing through the recognized by its typical rattle-like be pressurized, using steam, air
vent at the pump receiver. The noise, which usually diminishes or other gas. The gas pressure
water must remain in the receiver as a valve at the pump outlet is displaces the condensate (which
for an appreciable time if it is to closed down. can be at any temperature up
cool sufficiently, or the pump dis-
However, since in most cases to and including boiling point)
charge may have to be throttled
pumps are supplied coupled to through a check valve at the out-
down to reduce the pump’s capac-
receivers and the static head let of the pump body. At the end
ity if cavitation is to be avoided.
See Fig. II-75 (page 119). above the pump inlet is already

48
 Condensate Pumping

of the discharge stroke, an inter- requires only a liquid reservoir. In should be sized to reduce flow
nal mechanism changes over, open systems, the vented receiv- velocity to about 10 FPS.
closing the pressurizing inlet er serves this purpose as it is

SYSTEM DESIGN
valve and opening an exhaust always larger in order to also sep- Closed Loop Systems
valve. The pressurizing gas is arate the flash steam released. It is often advisable where larg-
then vented to atmosphere, or er condensate loads are being
to the space from which the con- Vented Systems handled to dedicate a Pressure
densate is being drained. When Condensate from low pressure Powered Pump™ to drain a single
the pressures are equalized, con- heating systems may be piped piece of equipment. The pump
densate can flow by gravity into directly to a small size Pressure exhaust line can then be directly
the pump body to refill it and Powered Pump™ only when 50 connected to the steam space of
complete the cycle. lb/h or less of flash steam must a heat exchanger or, preferably
As the pump fills by gravity vent through the pump body. This with air heating coils, to the res-
only, there can be no cavitation does not eliminate the require- ervoir. This allows condensate to
and this pump readily handles ment that there must be enough drain freely to the pump inlet and
boiling water or other liquids piping to store condensate dur- through a steam trap at the pump
compatible with its materials of ing the brief discharge cycle. In outlet. Only liquid is contained in
construction. many low pressure systems, the the reservoir of a closed loop sys-
reservoir may be a section of tem. Fig.II-32 (page 99) illustrates
The capacity of the pump larger horizontal pipe which is how the Pressure-Powered pump
depends on the filling head avail- vented to eliminate flash steam. functions as a pumping trap, and
able, the size of the condensate In higher pressure, high load use Fig. II-35 (page 101) when
connections, the pressure of the systems, the larger quantity of the steam supply may sometimes
operating steam or gas, and the flash released requires a vented be greater than the return pres-
total head through which the con- receiver with piping adequate to sure and a combination pump/
densate is lifted. This will include permit complete separation. To trap is required.
the net difference in elevation prevent carryover of condensate
between the pump and the final from the vent line, the receiver
discharge point; any pressure
difference between the pump
receiver and final receiver; fric-
tion in the connecting pipework,
Vent
and the force necessary to accel- Condensate
erate the condensate from rest in Return
the pump body up to velocity in
the discharge pipe. Tables listing
capacities under varying condi-
tions are provided in the catalog
bulletins.
Steam
Vented Receiver Supply
Piping Requirements
Depending upon the application,
the Pressure Powered Pump™
body is piped so that it is vented
to atmosphere or, in a closed
system, is pressure equalized
back to the space that it drains. Pressure
This allows condensate to enter Powered
the pump but during the short Pump
discharge stroke, the inlet check
valve is closed and condensate
accumulates in the inlet pip-
ing. To eliminate the possibility
of condensate backing up into
the steam space, reservoir pip-
ing must be provided above the
pump with volume as specified Figure 54
in the catalog. A closed system Venting of Pump Exhaust and Inlet Receiver Pipe in a
Low Pressure System

49
 Clean Steam

Case in Action: Printing Mill Dryer Roll Drainage

Printing mills frequently mix tolulene and isopropyl acetate Solution
SYSTEM DESIGN

with dyes to produce “quick drying” inks. This flammable Four non-electric Pressure Powered Pumps™ were select-
mixture requires special care to avoid explosions and fire. ed as alternatives to costlier electric pump sets. These
Larger printing mills typically use steam-heated rolls to dry were in addition to the 16 float and thermostatic steam
the printed material. The electric motor-driven condensate traps installed on each dryer roll.
pumps that are commonly used, require explosion-proof
controls/enclosures to accommodate the flammable atmo- Benefits
sphere.
• Installation cost was lower for the Pressure Powered
During a new project design, the consulting Engineer Pumps™—no electrical wiring/controls required.
and Client decided to find a better way to deal with
the hazardous environment and costly explosion-proof • Pressure Powered Pumps™ purchase price was sub-
condensate pumps. The cost was of particular concern stantially lower.
considering that the project included 16 dryer rolls on 2 • Pressure Powered Pumps™ operation is safer than with
printing machines, requiring 4 condensate pumps. electric pump/controls.
• Without mechanical seals, the Pressure Powered
Pumps™ will operate with lower maintenance cost.

Clean Steam the removal of all particles water, and is normally defined
The term “Clean Steam” can greater than 2.8 microns, as “uncondensed water for
cover a wide range of steam including solids and liquid injection (WFI)”.
qualities, depending on the pro- droplets (Fig. 55). Often, the generic term “clean
duction method used and the b) Clean steam is raised in a steam” is used to describe any of
quality of the raw water. steam generator or taken the three different types outlined
The term “Clean Steam” is from an outlet on a multi- above. It is therefore very impor-
something of a misnomer and effect still, and is often tant to know which is being used
is commonly used as a blanket produced from deionized or for any application, as the charac-
description to cover the three distilled water. A simpliffied teristics and system requirements
basic types - filtered steam, clean generator and distribution for each can differ greatly. Note
steam and pure steam. system is shown in Fig. 56. that in the following text, the
c) Pure steam is very similar to expression “clean” steam will be
a) Filtered steam is produced by used to denote any or all of the
filtering plant steam using a clean steam, but is always
produced from distilled, three basic types, where no dif-
high efficiency filter. A typical ferentiation is required.
specification would call for deionized or pyrogen-free

Pressure Filter
Reducing
Separator Valve

Filtered
Steam

Sample
Cooler
Figure 55
Filtered Steam: A filtered steam station produces steam to be used
for direct injection into food products, culinary steam, or for use in
sterilizers and autoclaves.

50
 Clean Steam

Steam Quality Table 14: Differences in Steam Characteristics

vs. Steam Purity Quality Purity
It is important to define the differ-

SYSTEM DESIGN
Particles Boiler Additives
ence between steam quality and
Filtered High Typically 2.8 microns Normally present
purity.
Clean Varies on System Design Varies Limited to process
Steam Quality— “The ratio of
Pure Varies on System Design Varies None
the weight of dry steam to the
weight of dry saturated steam
and entrained water. For exam- Thus, the three different 2. Boiler additives may well
ple, if the quality of the steam has types of “clean” steam (filtered, be present in filtered steam
been determined to be 95%, the clean and pure) can, and will, and also possibly in clean
wet-steam mixture delivered from have different characteristics, steam, but often this will be
the boiler is composed of 5 parts summarized in Table 14. limited by process require-
by weight of water, usually in the Note in particular that: ments. For example, the FDA
form of a fine mist, and 95 parts restricts the use of certain
1. The quality of filtered steam additives, including amines,
by weight of dry saturated steam. will normally be high because
Likewise, if the quality of the in any steam which comes
water droplets larger than the into direct contact with foods
steam has been determined to filter element rating will be
be 100%, there is no wet steam or dairy products.
removed. Clean and pure
delivered from the boiler, 100% steam systems will have a 3. Assuming the generating
of the steam delivered from the quality related to the design and distribution system have
boiler is dry saturated steam.” and operating characteristics been designed and installed
Steam Purity— “A quantitative of the generator, length and correctly, the particles pres-
measure of contamination of installation details of distri- ent in a pure steam system
steam caused by dissolved solids, bution system, insulation of will be water only. Dependent
volatiles, or particles in vapour or system, number and effec- on feed water type, the same
by tiny droplets that may remain tiveness of mains, drainage may also apply to clean
in the steam following primary points, etc. steam systems.
separation in the boiler”.

Regulators
Clean Steam for accurate
Distribution Main pressure control

Separators and
filters for efficient
conditioning of
steam.

Process
Main drip Vessel
Pure/ traps for
Clean distribution
Plant Steam system
condensate Hygienic ball valves
Steam Generator for isolation on
removal
distribution systems.
Condensate

Diaphragm
Condensate Process steam traps for Valves
effective contaminated
Condensate condensate drainage.
Pure Water
Condensate

Figure 56
Clean/Pure Steam Generator and Distribution System

51
 Clean Steam

Overall Requirements of a as traps, must be constructed rode and fail prematurely, they
“Clean” Steam System from corrosion resistant materials. will also lead to contamination of
Typically, a “clean” steam system the system as a whole. Note that
The overall requirements of a
SYSTEM DESIGN

of this type will have resistivity val- although filtered plant steam will
“clean” steam system, irrespec- ues of the condensate in the 2-15 not necessarily be so aggressive
tive of the means of generation megohm/cm range, resulting in by nature, the exclusion of many
of production used, can be very very rapid attack of inferior quality of the corrosion inhibiting feed
simply stated: components. chemicals for end product purity
It is essential that the steam Even in some filtered plant reasons will still demand the use
delivered to the point of use is steam applications, such as in the of austenitic stainless steel, never
of the correct quality and purity food, dairy and pharmaceuticals of lower grade than 304/304L, but
for the process. industries, certain corrosion inhib- preferable 316/316L.
In order to achieve this end iting chemicals may be prohibited
goal, there are three key areas of from the boiler and steam generat- Clean Steam and Condensate
design which must be considered ing system. Again, condensate is System Design
once the requirement for clean then likely to be very aggressive The proper and effective drainage
steam has been identified. and so careful consideration must of condensate from any steam sys-
• Point of Use be given to material selection. tem is good engineering practice,
• Distribution A common problem encoun- as it reduces corrosion, erosion,
• Production tered on clean and pure steam and waterhammer, and increases
systems in the pharmaceuti- heat transfer. This becomes even
Design and operation of more important in “clean” steam
equipment, piping, components, cal industry is that of “rouging”,
which is a fine rusting of pipes system, where poor condensate
etc. in all these three areas will drainage in the distribution sys-
influence the quality of the final and system components. This
is encountered most frequently tem or at the user equipment can
process or products. It is essen- result in rapid corrosion and also,
tial for the needs of the user when low grade stainless steels
are used, and further corrosion under certain conditions, the risk
process to be the first concern. of biological contamination. The
Must the steam be pyrogen free? due to galvanic effects can take
place where dissimilar alloys following points should be care-
Are any boiler additives allowed? fully considered:
Are products of corrosion going are present in the same system.
to harm the process or product? Unless care is taken with material • Pipework should have a fall in
Must the risk of biological con- selection throughout the sys- the direction of flow of at least
tamination be totally prevented? tem, corrosion can become a 1.0 inch in 10 ft., and should be
It is by answering these ques- major problem in terms of: properly supported to prevent
tions, and perhaps others, which a) Contaminating the system sagging.
will indicate the required type of with products of corrosion, • Adequate mains and service
production, design of the distribu- which are undesirable or pipe steam trapping should be
tion system, and the operation even potentially dangerous provided, for example at all ver-
modes of the user equipment, to the process or product. tical risers, upstream of control
including aspects such as steam b) Severely reduce life of sys- valves, and at convenient points
trapping. tem components, increasing along any extended pipe length.
maintenance time, material Trapped drain points should be
Specific Requirements of replacement costs, and sys- provided at intervals of at least
“Clean” Steam Systems tem downtime. every 100 ft.
Clean or pure steam produced In order to prevent these • Undrained collecting points
from water of very high purity is problems, austenitic stainless should not be used, as dirt
highly corrosive or “ion hungry”. steel should be used through- should not be present and they
The corrosive nature becomes out, never of lower grade than provide an ideal location for bac-
more pronounced as the concen- AISI 304. For severe duties, the terial growth where systems are
tration of dissolved ions decreases recommended material is AISI shut down.
with the resistivity approaching 316 or 3161L (alternatively 316Ti) • Condensate should be allowed
the theoretical maximum of 18.25 or better, passivated to further to discharge freely from steam
megohm/cm at 25°C. In order enhance corrosion resistance. traps using gravity and an air
to recover a more natural ionic In summary, 316 or 316L break. This air break should be
balance, it will attack many of stainless steel is essential in provided at the manifold outlet
the materials commonly used pure steam systems from its or the closest convenient loca-
in pipework systems. To com- production at the generator right tion (Fig. 57). Where the air
bat this, pipework, fittings, valves through to the steam traps. Not break would otherwise be in
and associated equipment such only will inferior materials cor- a clean room, the potentially

52
 Clean Steam

harmful effects of flash steam the system. Typical Application

can be prevented by using an • The presence of crevices on Sterile barriers, or block and bleed
expansion pot at the end of the pipe and component walls systems are used extensively in

SYSTEM DESIGN
manifold and venting through a can provide an ideal location the biotechnology, pharmaceu-
filtered vent outside the clean for microbial growth. Pipeline tical, food, dairy and beverage
room. The vent filter could alter- components which are likely to industries to prevent contaminat-
natively be located at a kill tank, become fouled, such as steam ing organisms from entering the
if used (Fig. 58). traps installed on process sys- process. A simple example also
• To prevent the risk of contami- tems, should be installed so illustrating steam in place, con-
nation, the direct connection of they can be easily taken out of densate drainage from a process
“clean” steam and condensate service for thorough cleaning. vessel, is shown in Fig. 59.
services should be prevented • A “clean” steam service should In this application, the steam
wherever possible. Under no not be interconnected to any trap is directly coupled to the pro-
circumstances should the con- other service which is not of cess pipework, which is normally
densate line or manifold lift sanitary design. of sanitary design. It is quite pos-
above the level of the traps. sible that contamination at the
• Condensate from clean or pure
• Where the risk of biological con- steam systems should not be trap, caused by either biological
tamination must be minimized, reused as make up for the clean/ or chemical (corrosion) means,
then care should be taken to pure steam generation plant. could find its way into the process
select pipeline products which system, thus resulting in failure
are self draining. This becomes • Dead legs of piping which are
of a product batch. Steam traps
most important in applications not open to steam under normal
with corrosion resistant materials
where the steam supply is fre- operating conditions should be
of construction and self draining
quently turned off, and where avoided by proper initial system
features will reduce this risk, tak-
steam pipeline products are design and the careful place-
ing sanitary standards one step
close coupled to sanitary ment of isolation valves. Any
further from the process.
process lines. Under these con- dead leg open to steam must
be properly trapped to prevent Due to piping arrangements,
ditions, microbial growth will process fluids will often be flushed
become possible in any pocket condensate build up.
through the trap. This can often
of condensate or process fluid • The use of OD tubing is becom-
result in plugging if standard
retained in the system. However, ing increasingly common for
industrial designs of trap are used.
where the steam supply is guar- the distribution of clean steam.
anteed, then this requirement Table 15 gives capacities in Specialty steam traps are
does not become so stringent. lb/h for dry-saturated steam at called for which have the features
various pressures. In order to outlined above plus the ability for
• Never “group trap” i.e. always rapid removal from the pipeline
use a single trap for draining reduce erosion and noise, it
is recommended that designs and quick disassembly for clean-
each process line, vessel, etc. ing.
Failure to do this will invariably should be based on flow veloci-
cause back-up of condensate in ties of 100 ft/sec. or less.

Vent Filter
Condensate Condensate (alternatively
User Equipment
at kill tank)
Clean
Steam
Traps
Clean
Steam
Trap Clean
Steam
Manifold Traps
Air Break Air Break

To Process Drain To Process Drain

Clean Area
Single Trap Manifold
Arrangement
Killer Tank/
Sewer
Figure 57 Figure 58
Steam Trap Discharge Details Steam Trap Discharge—Clean Room

53
 Clean Steam

Figure 59 Table 15: Saturated Steam Capacities — OD Tube Capacities in lb/h

Effective Condensate Drainage Tube Size (O.D. x 0.065 inch wall)
SYSTEM DESIGN

Pressure Velocity
psi ft/sec 1
/4” 3
/8” 1
/2” 3
/4” 1 11/2” 2” 21/2” 3”
50 — — 5 20 35 90 170 270 395
5 80 — 5 10 30 60 145 270 430 635
120 — 5 15 45 85 215 405 650 950
50 — 5 10 25 45 110 210 335 490
10 80 — 5 15 35 70 180 330 535 785
120 — 10 20 55 110 270 500 800 1175
50 — 5 10 30 60 155 285 460 675
20 80 — 10 20 50 100 245 460 735 1080
120 5 10 25 75 150 370 685 1105 1620
50 — 5 15 40 80 195 365 585 855
Steam 30 80 5 10 30 65 125 310 580 935 1370
Inlet 120 5 15 35 95 190 465 870 1400 2050
Process/ 50 — 10 15 50 95 235 440 705 1035
Medium 40 80 5 10 25 75 150 375 700 1125 1655
Drip 120 5 20 40 115 230 556 1050 1690 2480
Trap 50 — 10 20 55 110 275 515 825 1210
Process 50 80 5 15 30 90 180 440 820 1320 1935
Trap 120 5 20 50 135 265 660 1235 1980 2905
50 — 10 25 65 125 315 590 945 1385
60 80 5 15 35 105 205 505 940 1510 2215
120 5 25 55 155 305 755 1411 2265 3325
50 5 15 30 80 160 395 735 1180 1730
80 80 5 20 45 130 255 630 1175 1890 2770
120 5 30 70 195 380 950 1764 2835 4155
50 5 15 35 95 190 470 880 1415 2075
100 80 5 25 55 155 305 755 1410 2265 3320
120 10 35 85 230 455 1135 2115 3395 4975
50 5 20 40 115 220 550 1030 1650 2420
120 80 5 30 65 180 355 885 1645 2640 3875
120 10 40 95 270 535 1325 2465 3965 5810

Case in Action: Hospital Sterilizer

A hospital was experiencing continuing problems with a The steam filter specified was a Spirax Sarco CSF16
number of its sterilizers which were having an adverse fitted with a 1 micron absolute filter element. The cleanable
effect on both the sterilization process itself and the CSF16 filter element ensured that 99% of all particles larg-
amount of maintenance required to keep the units in ser- er than 0.1 microns were removed, while the thermostatic
vice. These problems included: steam trap drained any condensate that formed in the filter
• Ineffective sterilization body during operation and periods when the steam supply
• Prolonged sterilization cycles to the sterilizer was isolated. These installations resulted in
• Wet and discolored packs steam supplies free of both moisture and solid particles.
• Instrument stains, spotting and rusting Benefits
• High maintenance of drain traps and controls • Effective sterilization every time
• Dirty sterilizer chambers requiring frequent cleaning • Reduced sterilization cycles and improved productivity
Solution • High quality of packs and instruments without spots,
stains or corrosion
In discussion with the hospital maintenance engineer, the
Spirax Sarco Sales Representative offered the opinion • Minimal re-work of sterilizer loads
that these problems were a result of a wet and contaminat- • Reduced cleaning and maintenance of sterilizer, drain
ed steam supply. In a number of cases the steam supply traps and controls
to the sterilizers was unconditioned, allowing moisture and Cost Savings
solid particles, such as pipe scale and rust, to enter both With the help of the hospital maintenance engineer, a
the sterilizer jacket and chamber, resulting in the problems steam filter station payback analysis sheet was completed.
identified by the user. The estimated cost of maintenance, the cost associated
The solution was to install Spirax Sarco steam filter with re-working wet or spotted packs, and the cost due
stations. Each steam filter station is comprised of: to loss of performance were included in the payback
• An isolation valve to aid in maintenance. calculation. In total, annual costs were over $25,000 for
• A separator complete with strainer and drain trap to each sterilizer. Using this figure a payback period of less
remove residual condensate and any entrained moisture than two months was established for suitably sized Spirax
being carried in suspension within the steam. Sarco steam filter stations.
• A main line strainer to remove larger solid particles.
• A steam filter and drain trap combination.

54
 Testing Steam Traps

Increasing attention is being paid stant value. of condensate from a pressure of

in modern plants to means of Measuring temperatures on 125 psi. The steam tables show
assessing steam trap perfor- the downstream side of a trap, that each pound of water carries

SYSTEM DESIGN
mance. While it is important to by whatever method, is even less 324.7 BTU which is a144.5 BTU
know if a trap is working nor- likely to be useful. Let’s look first more than it can carry as liquid
mally or is leaking steam into at a trap discharging through an at atmospheric pressure. As the
the condensate return system, open-ended pipe to atmosphere. latent heat at 0 psig is 970.6 BTU/
most of the available methods of The pressure at the trap outlet hr., then 144.5/970.6 lbs. of flash
assessing trap operation are of must be only just above atmo- steam are released per pound of
much more restricted usefulness spheric, and the temperature just condensate, or 14.29%, which is
than is appreciated. To explain above 212°F. some 74.45 pounds per hour. The
this, it is necessary to consider volume of steam at 0 psig is 26.8
With any condensate present
the mode of operation of each cu. ft. per pound, so some 1,995
with the steam at temperatures
type of trap when operating and cu. ft. per hour of flash steam is
above 212°F on the inlet side, the
when failed, and then to see if released. The remaining water,
condensate, after passing through
the proposed test method can 500 - 74.45 = 425.55 lbs. has a
the trap will flash down to 212°F
distinguish between the two con- volume of about 7.11 cu. ft. per
and this temperature is the one
ditions. hour. Thus, the discharge from the
that will be found. Any leaking
trap becomes 1995/1995 + 7.11 =
Temperature Test Methods steam will help evaporate a little
99.65% steam and 0.35% water,
One well established “method” more of the condensate with-
by volume.
of checking traps is to measure out increasing the temperature.
Again, the only exception which It is sometimes claimed
temperature, either upstream or that an observer can distinguish
downstream. People use pyrom- may be encountered is the low
pressure steam heating system between this “flash” steam and
eters, remote scanners and leakage steam by the color of
temperature sensitive crayons or where thermostatic traps nor-
mally discharge at temperatures the steam at the discharge point.
tapes, while generations of main- While this may be possible when
tenance men have thought they below 212°F into atmospheric
return. A temperature of 212°F a trap is leaking steam but has no
could assess trap performance by condensate load at all, so that only
spitting onto the trap and watching here may indicate a leaking trap.
steam is seen at the discharge, it
how the spittle reacted! Certainly, Discharge of condensate into
is obvious that the presence of
if a trap has failed closed, the a common return line is more
any condensate will make such
temperature at the trap will be usual than discharge to an open
differentiation virtually impossible.
lower than normal, but equally the end, of course. The tempera-
It would be like trying to distin-
equipment being drained will also ture in the return line should be
guish between 99.65% steam with
cool down. The trap is not leaking the saturation temperature corre-
0.35% water, and perhaps 99.8%
steam since it is closed, and this sponding to the return pressure.
steam with 0.20% water!
failure is only a cause of problems Any increase in this tempera-
in applications like steam main ture which may be detected will Trap Discharge Sounds
drips where the condensate not show that the return line pressure In a closed piping system, trap
discharged at the faulty trap is has increased. However, if trap discharge sounds may be a good
carried along the steam line. More “A” discharging into a line blows indicator of its operation. A simple
usually, the temperature on the steam and the pressure in the stethoscope will be of little value,
inlet side of the trap will be at or line increases, then the pressure but the sound produced at ultra-
close to the saturation temperature and temperature at traps “B” and high frequencies measured by an
of steam at whatever pressure is “C” and all others on the line will ultrasonic instrument eliminates
reaching the trap. Even if the trap also increase. Location of the background noise interference.
were blowing steam, the tempera- faulty trap is still not achieved. Live steam flow produces a great-
ture remains much the same. er and steady level of ultrasound,
Visual Determinations
The one exception is in the while flashing condensate tends
The release of flashing steam from
case of a temperature sensitive to have a crackling sound and
condensate nullifies the effective-
trap, especially one of the bimetal the level changes with the trap
ness of test cocks, or three-way
pattern. If this fails open, then the load. The problem is that the
valves diverting a trap discharge
temperature at the inlet side will instrument requires the operator
to an open end for test purposes. It
rise from the normal subcooled to make a judgement as to trap
also restricts the information which
level to saturation values, and condition which will only be as
can be gained from sight glasses.
this rise may be detectable if the reliable as his training and experi-
Consider a trap discharging to an
steam pressure is a known, con- ence provide for.
open end some 500 lbs. per hour

55
 Testing Steam Traps

Table 16: Steam Trap Discharge Modes

Mode of Operation
SYSTEM DESIGN

Full or Usual
Trap Type No Load Light Load Normal Load Overload Failure Mode
Float & Usually continuous but may Closed,
Thermosatic No Action cycle at high pressure Continuous A.V. Open
Inverted Bucket Small Dribble Intermittent Intermittent Continuous Open
Balanced Pressure
Thermostatic No Action May Dribble Intermittent Continuous Variable
Bimetallic Usually Dribble May blast at
Thermostatic No Action Action high pressures Continuous Open
Usually continuous
Impulse Small Dribble with blast at high loads Continuous Open
Disc
Thermo-Dynamic No Action Intermittent Intermittent Continuous Open

What must be done, using line on the inlet side of the trap. If Using suitable wiring, the
all audible and visual clues, is there is, at this point, a normal flow test point can be located remote
to detect normal or abnormal of condensate towards the trap, from the sensor chamber or it
cycling of the discharge. Even together with a small amount of can have a multi switch to allow
this method is very fallible, since air and the steam needed to make up to twelve (12) chambers to
the mode of operation of different up heat loss from the body of the be checked from a single test
trap types if not nearly so well steam trap, then all is normal. On location. When appropriate, an
defined as is sometimes thought. the other hand, an increased flow electronic continuous 16-way
Table 16 lists some of the possi- of gas along the pipe indicates checking instrument can monitor
bilities and allows the problem to that the trap is leaking. the chambers and this is readily
be seen more clearly. The chamber contains an connected into a central Energy
It is seen that the “signal” to inverted weir. Condensate flows Management System.
be obtained from the trap, whether under this weir and a small hole The object of detecting
visual, audio or temperature, is at the top equalizes the pressure leaking steam traps is to cor-
usually going to be so ambiguous on each side when the steam trap rect the problem. This can mean
as to rely largely on optimism for is working normally. An electrode replacement of the whole trap,
interpretation. The one trap which on the upstream side of the baffle or perhaps of the faulty part of
is fairly positive in its action is the detects the presence of conden- the internal mechanism. It is very
disc thermodynamic type—if this sate by its conductivity which is useful indeed to be able to check
is heard or seen to cycle up to ten much higher than that of steam. a repaired trap in the workshop
times per minute, it is operating By plugging in the portable indi- before it is installed in the line,
normally. The cycling rate increas- cator, it is possible to check if the and many repair shops now use
es when the trap becomes worn electrical circuit is complete when a Spira-tec chamber as part of
and the characteristic “machine a visual signal indicates that the a bench test rig. The diagram
gun” sound clearly indicates the trap is working. shows a simple hookup which
need for remedial action. If the trap begins to leak allows suspect or repaired traps
steam, then the pressure on the to be positively checked. (Fig. 60)
Spira-tec Leak downstream side of the weir
Detector System begins to fall. The higher pres- Cost Of Steam Leaks
Logic says that if it is not possible sure on the upstream side drops The installation and use of the
to have a universally applicable the condensate level below Spira-tec units does involve some
method of checking steam traps the electrode and exposes it to cost, and it is necessary to com-
by examining the traps them- steam. The “conductivity” circuit pare this with the cost of steam
selves, then we must see if it can is broken and the indicator light leakages to see if the expendi-
be done by checking elsewhere. gives a “fail” signal. ture is economically justifiable.
This is what Spirax Sarco has Since all equipment must wear
The advantage of the system and eventually fail, we need first
done with the Spira-tec system. lies in the very positive signal
See Fig. 61 (page 58). an estimate of the average life of
which does not require expe- a steam trap. Let us assume that
The Spira-tec detector cham- rience of personal judgement
ber is fitted into the condensate in a particular installation, this is,
before it can be interpreted.

56
 Testing Steam Traps

say seven (7) years. This means Table 17: Steam Flow through Orifices Discharging to Atmosphere
that after the first seven years of
the life of the plant, in any year Steam flow, lb/h, when steam gauge pressure is

SYSTEM DESIGN
an average of almost 15% of Diameter 2 5 10 15 25 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
(inches) psi psi psi psi psi psi psi psi psi psi psi psi psi
the traps will fail. With an annual
1/32 .31 .47 .58 .70 .94 1.53 2.12 2.7 3.3 3.9 5.1 6.3 7.4
maintenance campaign, some of
1/16 1.25 1.86 2.3 2.8 3.8 6.1 8.5 10.8 13.2 15.6 20.3 25.1 29.8
the traps will fail just after being
3/32 2.81 4.20 5.3 6.3 8.45 13.8 19.1 24.4 29.7 35.1 45.7 56.4 67.0
checked and some just before
1/8 4.5 7.5 9.4 11.2 15.0 24.5 34.0 43.4 52.9 62.4 81.3 100 119
the next check. On average, the
5/32 7.8 11.7 14.6 17.6 23.5 38.3 53.1 67.9 82.7 97.4 127 156 186
15% can be said to have failed for
3/16 11.2 16.7 21.0 25.3 33.8 55.1 76.4 97.7 119 140 183 226 268
half the year, or 7-1/2% of traps
7/32 15.3 22.9 28.7 34.4 46.0 75.0 104 133 162 191 249 307 365
failed for the whole year.
1/4 20.0 29.8 37.4 45.0 60.1 98.0 136 173 212 250 325 401 477
Now, most of the traps in any 9/32 25.2 37.8 47.4 56.9 76.1 124 172 220 268 316 412 507 603
installation, on the mains drip and 5/16 31.2 46.6 58.5 70.3 94.0 153 212 272 331 390 508 627 745
tracer installations are probably 11/32 37.7 56.4 70.7 85.1 114 185 257 329 400 472 615 758 901
1/2” or 3/4” size and most of them 3/8 44.9 67.1 84.2 101 135 221 306 391 476 561 732 902 1073
are oversized, perhaps by a fac- 13/32 52.7 78.8 98.8 119 159 259 359 459 559 659 859 1059 1259
tor of up to 10 or more. Let us 7/16 61.1 91.4 115 138 184 300 416 532 648 764 996 1228 1460
assume that the condenste load 15/32 70.2 105 131 158 211 344 478 611 744 877 1144 1410 1676
is as high as 25% of the capacity 1/2 79.8 119 150 180 241 392 544 695 847 998 1301 1604 1907
of the trap. If the trap were to fail
wide open, then some 75% of the
valve orifice would be available for
Figure 60
steam flow. The steam loss then Steam Trap Test Rig
averages 75% of 7-1/2% of the Pressure
steam flow capacity of the whole Reducing Valve
Inexpensive test stand may be
trap population, or about 5.62%. D used to test steam trap operation.
The steam flow through a Strainer Valves A, B, C, and D are closed
and the trap is attached. Valve C
wide open seat clearly depends is cracked and valve D is slowly
on both pressure differentials and Steam Supply
opened. The pressure-reducing valve
orifice sizes, and orifice sizes is adjusted to the rated pressure
in a given size of trap such as of the trap being tested, valve C is
Pressure closed, and valve A is opened slowly,
1/2” usually are reduced as Gauge allowing condensate flow to the trap
the designed working pressure Spira-tec Test until it is discharged. Valve B is then
increases. A Loss Trap partially opened to allow the conden-
Detector sate to drain out, unloading the trap.
Estimating Trap Steam Loss Under this final condition, the trap
must close with a tight shutoff. With
Steam loss through a failed open some trap configurations, a small
trap blowing to atmosphere can C B amount of condensate may remain
be determined from a variant of downstream of the trap orifice. Slow
the Napier formula as follows: evaporation of this condensate will
Drain Drain cause small amounts of flash steam
Steam Flow in lbs/hr = To to flow from the discharge of the trap
24.24 X Pa X D2 Atmosphere even though shutoff is absolute.
Where:
Pa = Pressure in psi absolute of trap against another because the leakage area exceeds that
D = Diameter of trap orifice of differences in failure modes. needed by the condensate load.
in inches In those that fail open only the The cost then begins and reach-
inverted bucket trap orifice blows es the maximum calculated only
By multiplying the steam loss full open. Thermostatic types usu- when the trap fails completely.
by hours of operation, steam ally fail with their orifice at least The object is, of course to prevent
cost (typically $6.00 per 1,000 partially obstructed by the valve, it from reaching that stage. The
pounds), and by the number of and flow through thermodynamic steam system always functions
failed traps, total cost of steam types is a function of many pas- best when traps are selected that
system loss may be estimated. sageways and must be related to are best for the application and
The formula above should an equivalent pass area. In every checked on a regular basis to
not be used to directly compare case, no trap begins losing steam control losses.
potential steam loss of one type through wear or malfunction until

57
 Spira-tec Trap Leak Detector System for Checking Steam Traps

Purpose Figure 61
The Spira-tec Trap Leak Detector System is designed to indicate if a
steam trap is leaking steam. It can be used to check any known type or
SYSTEM DESIGN

make of trap while it is working. Sensor

Equipment Chamber
1. Sensor chamber fitted immediately upstream of the trap (close
coupled), the same size as the trap.
2. Indicator with cable.
3. Where the sensor chamber is not readily accessible, a Remote
Test Point may be fitted at a convenient position, wired back Plug Wiring
through a junction to the sensor chamber. Remote Test Points for Tail Junction by Installer
either one chamber or up to 12 chambers, are available.
4. An Automatic Remote Test Point, capable of interfacing with most
Building Management Systems, is also available allowing up to 16
steam traps to be continuously scanned for steam wastage. Indicator Remote
Test Point

Sensor
Chamber

Single inaccessible steam trap checking system—

Spira-tec sensor chamber, plug tail, wiring (by installer),
remote test point, indicator and indicator cable.

Indicator Indicator
Cable
Basic steam trap checking system—
Spira-tec sensor chamber, indicator and indicator cable.

Automatic
Remote
Test Point

Indicator
Multiple
Remote
Test Point

Continuous scanning system—Spira-tec Automatic

Remote test point, sensor chambers, plug tails.

Multiple inaccessible steam trap checking system—

Spira-tec sensor chambers, plug tails, wiring (by installer),
remote multiple test point, indicator and indicator cable.

58
 Steam Meters

The steam meter is the basic Selecting a Steam Meter Repeatability

tool that provides an operator Before selecting a steam meter it This describes the ability of a
or manager, information vital in is important to understand how a meter to indicate the same value

SYSTEM DESIGN
monitoring and maintaining high meter’s performance is described. for an identical flowrate over
efficiency levels within a plant or The overall performance of and over again. It should not be
building. This information can be a meter is a combination of confused with accuracy i.e. the
split into four categories: Accuracy, Repeatability and meter’s repeatability may be excel-
Turndown. lent in that it shows the same value
Plant Efficiency for an identical flowrate on several
• Is idle machinery switched off? Accuracy occasions, but the reading may be
• Is the plant loaded to capacity? This is the measurement consistently wrong (or inaccurate).
(expressed as a percentage) of Repeatability is expressed as a
• Is plant efficiency deteriorating
how close the meter’s indication percentage of either actual read-
over time indicating the need
of flow is to the actual flow through ing or FSD. Good repeatability is
for cleaning, maintenance and
the meter. There are two methods important for observing trends or
replacement of worn parts? for control e.g. batching.
used to express accuracy (or per-
• When do demand levels peak
centage of uncertainty) and they
and who are the major users? Turndown
have very different meanings.
This information may lead to a Sometimes called Turndown
change in production methods a. Measured Value or Actual Ratio, Effective Range or even
to even out steam usage and Reading Rangeability. In simple terms, it is
ease the peak load problems Example: Meter is ranged the range of flow rate over which
on boiler plant. 0-1000 lb/h and has a speci- the meter will work within the
fied accuracy of ± 3% of Actual accuracy and repeatability toler-
Energy Efficiency Reading ances given. If a meter works
• Is an energy saving scheme At an indicated flow rate of within a certain specified accu-
proving effective? 1,000 lb/h, the true flow rate lies racy at a maximum flow of 1,000
• How does the usage and effi- between 1,030 and 970 lb/h. lb/h and a minimum flow of 100
ciency of one piece of plant lb/h, then dividing the maximum
At an indicated flow rate of by the minimum gives a turndown
compare with another? 100 lb/h, the true flow rate lies of 10:1. A wide turndown is par-
between 103 and 97 lb/h. ticularly important when the flow
Process Control
• Is the optimum amount of b. F.S.D. or Full Scale Deflection being measured is over a wide
steam being supplied to a cer- Example: Meter is ranged range. This could be due to a
tain process? 0-1000 lb/h and has a specified variation in process e.g. a laundry
accuracy of ± 3% FSD could be operating 1 machine
• Is that steam at the correct or 20 machines (20:1 turndown),
pressure and temperature? At an indicated flow rate of or due to seasonal variations in
1,000 lb/h, the true flow rate lies ambient temperature if the steam
Costing and Custody Transfer between 1,030 and 970 lb/h. is being used for space heating -
• How much steam is being sup- At an indicated flow rate of the difference in demand between
plied to each customer? 100 lb/h, the true flow rate lies mid winter and mid summer can
• How much steam is each between 130 and 70 lb/h (i.e. ± be considerable. Generally the
department or building within 30% of Reading !). bigger the turndown the better.
an organization using? The Spirax Sarco family of meters
covers a wide range of sizes,
turndown, accuracy, and repeat-
ability as detailed in Table 18.

Table 18: Specification of the Spirax Sarco Meter Range

Meter Type Sizes Accuracy Turndown Repeatability
Orifice Plate 1” -24” ± 3% of Reading 4:1 ± 0.3% of Reading
Gilflo (Made to Order) 2” - 16” ±1% FSD (± 1% of Reading with flow computer) 100:1 ± 0.25% of Reading
Gilflo (S.R.G.) 2” - 8” ± 2% FSD (± 1% of Reading with flow computer) 100:1 ± 0.25% of Reading
Gilflo (I.L.V.A.) 2” - 8” ± 2% FSD (± 1% of Reading with flow computer) 100:1 ± 0.25% of Reading
Spiraflo 1-1/2” - 4” ± 2% of Reading (50% - 100% of meter range) 25-40:1 ± 0.5% of Reading
± 1% FSD (1% - 50% of meter range)

59
 Steam Meters

Density Compensation Installation steam engineering and adequate

For accurate metering of com- Ninety percent of all metering trapping to reduce the annular film
pressible fluids such as gases and failures or problems are instal- of water that clings to the pipe wall,
SYSTEM DESIGN

vapors, the actual flowing density lation related. Care should be and effective separation ahead of
must be taken into account. This taken to ensure that not only the meter to remove much of
is especially true in the case is the meter selected suitable the entrained droplets of water.
of steam. If the actual flowing for the application, but that the It is therefore recommended that
density of the steam is different steam is correctly conditioned a steam conditioning station (as
to the specified density for which both to improve meter perfor- shown in Fig. 62) is positioned
the meter was originally set up or mance and provide a degree of upstream of any type of meter
calibrated, then errors will occur. on saturated steam applications.
protection, and that the manu-
These errors can be considerable This will enhance accuracy and
facturer’s recommendations
and depend on both the magni- protect the meter from the effects
regarding installation are care-
tude of difference between the of water droplets impacting at high
specified density and the actual fully followed.
velocity. Good steam engineer-
flowing density, and the type of Steam Conditioning ing such as the use of eccentric
meter being used. reducers, effective insulation and
For accurate metering of satu-
Example: rated steam, irrespective of the adequate trapping will also pre-
The steam meter is set up and meter type or manufacturer, it is vent the dangerous effects of high
calibrated for 100 psig (specific important to condition the steam velocity slugs of water known as
volume = 3.89 ft3/lb) so that it is in the form of, or as waterhammer which can not only
The steam is actually running at close as possible to, a dry gas. destroy meters but will also dam-
a pressure of 85 psig (specific This can be achieved by correct age any valves or fittings in it’s
volume = 4.44 ft3/lb).
a. Differential Pressure Device
(e.g. Orifice Plate or Gilflo Meter)

[
Error = s.v. actual
[-1 x 100
√ s.v. specified

Error = [ 4.44 -1 x 100

[
√ 3.89
Thermostatic
Error = 6.8 Therefore the meter Air Vent
will over read by 6.8%

b. Velocity Device
(e.g. Vortex Meter)

[
Error = s.v. actual
[
-1 x 100 Isolating
s.v. specified Steam Valve

Error = [ 4.44 -1 x 100

[ Separator
3.89 Steam to
Meter
Error = 14 Therefore the meter
will over read by 14%
In the case of saturated steam,
pressure and temperature are
related and therefore to establish
the flowing density of saturated Check
steam, either pressure or temper- Strainer Valve
ature should be measured. In the
case of superheated steam, pres-
sure and temperature can vary Float &
independently from one another Thermostatic
Steam Trap
and therefore to compensate
for changes in density of super-
heated steam, both pressure and Figure 62
temperature must be measured. Steam Conditioning Station

60
 Steam Meters

path.
an important consideration when
Meter Location selecting a meter.

SYSTEM DESIGN
Meters need to be installed in
defined lengths of straight pipe to Table 19 shows the minimum pip-
ensure accurate and repeatable ing requirements for Orifice Plates
performance. These pipe lengths as laid down in the US standard
are usually described in terms ASME MFC-3M together with the
of the number of pipe diameters manufacturers recommendations
upstream and downstream of the for vortex and spring loaded vari-
meter. For example, an Orifice able area meters. See Figures
Plate with a Beta ratio of 0.7 II-93, 94, 95, 96 (pages 131 and
installed after a 90° bend requires 132).
a minimum of 28 pipe diameters
of straight pipe upstream and 7
downstream. If the pipe diameter
is 6”, this is equivalent to 14 feet
upstream and 3-1/2 feet down-
stream.
If the meter is located down-
stream of two 90º bends in
different planes, then the mini-
mum straight length required
upstream of the meter is 62 pipe
diameters or thirty one feet. This
can be difficult to achieve, partic-
ularly in fairly complex pipework
systems, and there may not in
fact be a location that allows
these criteria to be met. This is

Table 19: Recommended Minimum Straight Lengths (D) for Various Meter Types
On Upstream (inlet) side of the primary device Downstream
Meter Type ß Single Two 90° Bends Two or more 90° Bends Reducer Expander Globe Valve Gate Valve All Fittings
Ratio (3) 90° Bend Same Plane Different Planes 2D to D 0.5D to D Fully Open Fully Open in this table
Orifice Plate 0.30 10 16 34 5 16 18 12 5
Orifice Plate 0.35 12 16 36 5 16 18 12 5
Orifice Plate 0.40 14 18 36 5 16 20 12 6
Orifice Plate 0.45 14 18 38 5 17 20 12 6
Orifice Plate 0.50 14 20 40 6 18 22 12 6
Orifice Plate 0.55 16 22 44 8 20 24 14 6
Orifice Plate 0.60 18 26 48 9 22 26 14 7
Orifice Plate 0.65 22 32 54 11 25 28 16 7
Orifice Plate 0.70 (4) 28 36 62 14 30 32 20 7
Orifice Plate 0.75 36 42 70 22 38 36 24 8
Orifice Plate 0.80 46 50 80 30 54 44 30 8
Vortex (1) N/A 20 - 40 20 - 40 40 10 - 20 10 - 35 50 20 - 40 5 - 10
Spiraflo (2) N/A 6 6 12 6 12 6 6 3 - 6
Gilflo (2) N/A 6 6 12 6 12 6 6 3 - 6
Gilflo SRG (2) N/A 6 6 12 6 12 6 6 3 - 6
Gilflo ILVA (2) N/A 6 6 12 6 12 6 6 3 - 6
Notes:
1.
The table shows the range of straight lengths recommended by various Vortex meter manufacturers.
2.
Downstream requirements are 3D and 6D when upstream are 6D and 12D respectively.
3.
ß ratio = Orifice diameter (d) divided by Pipe diameter (D)
4.
Most Orifice Plates are supplied with a ß ratio of around 0.7 which gives the best pressure recovery without compromising signal strength.

61
 Compressed Air Systems

Air Compressors Sizing Compressed Air Traps

Heat is released when air or any The amount of water which is to be discharged is determined from steam
gas is compressed. The com- table saturated vapor density or estimated with the help of a graph, Fig.
SYSTEM DESIGN

pressor must be cooled to avoid 63 and compression ratio table. An example shows how this is used.
overheating, usually by circuating Example:
water through the jackets. Cooling
How much water will precipitate from 150 cfm of free air at 70°F and 90%
is an important function which
relative humidity when compressed to 100 psig and cooled to 80°F?
must be controlled to ensure
maximum efficiency. Overcooling Air flow = 150 cfm X 60 = 9000 cu. ft/hour.
wastes water and leads to con- From Fig. 63, at 70°F water in air drawn in will be
densation within the cylinders, 1.15 X 9000 X 90% = 9.32 lb/h
with deterioration of the lubricat- 1000
ing oils. Undercooling reduces Determine excess moisture due to compression by dividing hourly air
compressor capacity and can flow by factor from Compession Ratio Table 20B (page 64), and convert
result in serious damage to the for (absolute) temperature.
compressor. Automatic tempera- Compression ratio at 100 psig = 7.8
ture control of cooling water flow
ensures maximum efficiency. Air volume after compression = 9000 X (460 + 80) = 1175 cu. ft./h
7.8 (460 + 70)
The atmosphere is a mix-
ture of air and water vapor. Free From Fig. 63, 1000 cu. ft. at 80°F can carry 1.6 lb. of water.
air has a greater volume, and 1175 cu. ft. will carry 1175 X 1.6 = 1.88 lb/h
moisture holding capacity, than 1000
compressed air at the same tem- So, (9.32 lb. – 1.88 lb.) = 7.44 lb/h of water will separate out.
perature. As the compressed
air is cooled after leaving the
compressor, or between stages, Figure 63: Moisture Holding Capacity of Air at Varying Temperatures
some of the water is precipitated.
This water must be drained from
the system to avoid damage to 3.0
pneumatic valves and tools.
2.8
Choice Of Drainer Trap
2.6
The quantities of water which
Pounds Water Vapor per 1,000 cubic ft. at Saturation

must be drained from the air are 2.4

relatively small, even on quite
large installations, providing they 2.2
are dealt with continuously. It is
unusual to need air traps in sizes 2.0
larger than 1/2”. Except where
1.8
a worn compressor is allowing
lubricating oils to be discharged 1.6
with the compressed air, float
operated drainers are the best 1.4
choice.
1.2
Where the presence in the
system of water/oil emulsions 1.0
interferes with the operation of
float drainers, the thermodynamic .8
TD trap is used. As the TD trap
needs an operating pressure of .6
at least 50 psi when used as an
.4
air drainer, care must be taken
when it is used on small systems. .2
Preferably, the TD’s should be
valved off at startup until the sys- 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
tem pressure is up to 50 psi or
Air Temp °F
more.

62
 Compressed Air Systems

Drainer Installation Distribution Lines

Automatic drainers are needed These form the all important link 1. Enter the chart at the top at
at any absorption or refrigerant between the compressor and the point representing 100

SYSTEM DESIGN
dryer, and any separator which the points of usage. If they are psig pressure.
is instaled in the air line from the undersized, the desired air flow 2. Proceed vertically downward
aftercooler, or at the entry to a will be accompanied by a high to the intersection with hori-
building. They are also needed at pressure drop. This necessitates zontal line representing 1,000
the low points in the distribution extra power input at the compres- CFM.
lines. (Fig. 64) sor. For example, a pressure at
3. Next proceed parallel to the
Unless fitted close to the the compressor of 120 psi where
diagonal guide lines to the
points being drained, and on a pressure of 100 psi would have
right (or left) to the intersec-
light loads, drainers often need sufficed without a high pressure
tion with the horizontal line
a balance line to allow air to be drop in the lines, needs an addi-
representing a 4” line.
displaced from the piping or the tional power input of 10%.
4. Proceed vertically downward
drainer body as water runs in. The correct size of com-
to the pressure loss scale at
The balance line is connected pressed air lines can be selected
the bottom of the chart. You
above the drain point, and should by using Fig. 66 on page 66.
will note that the pressure
not be upstream of it. See Fig. Example: 1,000 cu. ft. of free air loss would be 0.225 psi per
II-115 (page 140). per minute is to be transmitted at 100 ft. of pipe.
100 PSIG pressure through a 4”
It is usual to size compressed
line standard weight pipe. What
air lines on velocity, while keeping
will be the pressure drop due to
a watchful eye on pressure drop.
friction?

Figure 64
Compressed Air System

Spray
Air Gun
Instrumentation Operated
Compressor and Control Hoist
Cooling System
Water Control Drain
Trap
Pneumatic
Tool Breathing
Line Separator Mask

Water Cooled Drain Trap Machine Tool

Aftercooler Drain Air Bearing
Trap Air
Receiver Gauging
Drain
Trap Drain
Trap
Liquid
Drain
Trap Pressure Drain Traps
Gauge

Safety
Valve

Strainer Separator

63
 Compressed Air Systems

Table 20A: Pumped Circulation Water Storage Tanks

Compressor Capacity, cfm free air 25 50 100 150 200 300 450 600 800
SYSTEM DESIGN

Tank Capacity, gallons 50 100 180 270 440 550 850 1000 1200

Table 20B: Ratio of Compression

Gauge Pressure psi 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Ratio of Compression 1•68 2•36 3•04 3•72 4•40 5•08 5•76 6•44

Gauge Pressure psi 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 200

Ratio of Compression 7•12 7•8 8•48 9•16 9•84 10•52 11•2 14•6

Table 21: Cooling Water Flow Rates

Water Flow per
Compressor operating at 100 psi 100 cfm free air
Single Stage 1.2 gpm
Single Stage with Aftercooler 4.8 gpm
Two Stage 2.4 gpm
Two Stage with Aftercooler 6 gpm
Single Pass Cooling
The hook-up shown in Fig.
An air velocity of 20 to 30 ft/sec- II-103 (page 135) is used where
Compressor Cooling water from the local supply is
ond or 1200 to 1800 ft/minute, is Air cooled compressors, formerly
sufficiently low to avoid exces- passed directly through the
available only in the smaller sizes, compressor to be cooled. With
sive pressure loss and to prevent are now found with capacities up
re-entrainment of precipitated increasing demands on limited
to 750 cfm, and rated for pres- water resources, many water
moisture. In short branches to the sures up to 200 psi. The cylinders
air-using equipment, volocities up supply authorities do not permit
are finned and extra cooling is use of water in this way, espe-
to 60-80 ft/second or 3600-4800 provided by arranging the flywheel
ft/minute are often acceptable. cially where the warmed water is
or a fan to direct a stream of air discharged to waste, and require
on to the cylinder. Such compres- the use of recirculation systems.
Checking Leakage Losses sors should not be located in a
Air line leaks both waste valuable confined space where ambient air When single pass cooling
air and also contribute to pressure temperatures may rise and pre- is used, temperature controls
loss in mains by adding useless vent adequate cooling. will help ensure consumption is
load to compressors and mains. minimized. To avoid the sensor
Hand operated drain valves are Water cooled compressors control being in a dead pocket
a common source of leakage that have water jackets around the if the control valve ever closes,
can be stopped by using reliable cylinders, and cooling water is a small bleed valve is arranged
automatic drain traps. Here is a circulated through the jackets. to bypass the control valve. This
simple way of making a rough Overcooling is wasteful and cost- ensures a small flow past the
check of leakage loss. First, esti- ly, and can lead to corrosion sensor at all times.
mate the total volume of system and wear within the compressor.
Temperature control of the cool- Many compressor manufactur-
from the receiver stop valve to ers suggest that the temperature
the tools, including all branches, ing water is important.
of the water leaving the cylinder
separators, etc. Then with no Pumped Circulation jackets should be in the range
equipment in use, close the stop of 95-120°F. Typical water flow
valve and with a stop watch note Larger single-staged compres-
sors may require a pump to rates needed for compressors
the time taken for the pressure in are shown in Table 21, but again,
the system to drop by 15 psi. The increase the water velocity when
thermo-siphon circulation is too these should be checked with the
leakage loss per minute is: manufacturer where possible.
slow. The size of the water tank
Cu. ft. of Free Air should be discussed with the The supply of cooling water can
Loss per Minute compressor manufacturer, but in sometimes be taken from the soft-
= the absence of information, Table ened boiler feed water storage
Volume of System Cu. Ft. 20A can be used as a guide for tank. The warmed outlet water then
Time in Minutes to Drop compressors operating at up to becomes a source of pre-heated
Pressure 15 psi 100 psi. makeup water for the boiler.

64
 Compressed Air Systems

Closed Circuit Cooling Lubricant Coolers Compressor Equipment Guide

Especially with large compres- On large reciprocating compres- Approx. CFM Air =
sors, economies are obtained sors, and especially on rotary

SYSTEM DESIGN
Compressor HP X 5
when the cooling water is recy- vane compressors, the lubricating
GPM Cooling Water =
cled in a closed circuit. This also oil is usually cooled by passing it
minimizes any scaling in the jack- through a heat exchanger. Here 42.5 X HP/Cylinder
ets and coolers. The heat may be it gives up heat to cooling water 8.33 X Temp. Rise
dissipated at a cooling tower or a and again the coolant flow should of Cooling Water
mechanical cooler, or sometimes be temperature controlled. See
used for space heating in adja- Fig. 65.
cent areas.
Usually with closed circuit cooling,
it is preferable to use three-way
temperature controls.
Where cooling towers are used, Bypass if Sensor
Strainer
necessary
freeze protection of the tower
sump may be needed in winter
conditions. Often a steam heating
coil is installed in the sump with a
temperature control set to open
when the water temperature falls
to say 35°F. A three-way temper- Reverse Acting
ature control diverts water direct Temperature
to the sump instead of to the top Control
of the tower in low temperature
conditions. Heat loss from the Figure 65
sump itself then provides suffi- Temperature Control of Water to Oil Cooler
cient cooling.

Case in Action: Air System Moisture Separation/Drainage

Air is a vital utility for all process plants, primarily to power Solution
control valves, measurement devices and to drive tools, Over 30 separators with drain traps were installed in prob-
pumps, machinery, etc. Outdoor facilities (i.e. refineries lem areas providing proper drainage of equipment.
and chemical plants) are faced with continual problems
related to water accumulation in the air system. Benefits
Free and compressed air carries varying volumes of • Continuous operation of desiccant dryers, assuring
water at different pressures and temperatures. This affects uninterrupted air supply.
the amount of entrained water that must be drained in dif-
ferent parts of the system for effective operation. • Working with dry air, instrument accuracy is more con-
sistent.
Desiccant dryers critical for removing water from
compressed air distributed to instruments and controls • Damage to gauges and other instruments, caused by
become water-logged due to excess moisture entrained entrained water, is prevented, reducing maintenance
in the free-air supplied. When this occurs, the dryers shut cost.
down, curtailing air for distribution. • Air hose stations deliver dry air immediately eliminating
The heat transfer across the wall of distribution piping delay/inconvenience of having to manually drain water
creates additional condensing. Moisture, entrained in the air from the hoses before use.
flow, exceeds the capacity of the coalescent filters installed
at the point of use. The air-using equipment is then flooded
with water, affecting proper operation. This can ruin gauges
and instruments and affect control accuracy.

65
 Compressed Air Line Pressure Drop

Figure 66: Compressed Air Line Pressure Drop

Gauge Pressure – lb. per sq. inch Abs. Pres. – P.S.I.A.
SYSTEM DESIGN

400 300 200 100 1412 10 8 7 6 5

20 10 5 0

12
10000
10

8 6000
4000
3000
6
2000
5
Nominal Pipe Sizes – Std. weight pipe

1000
4

Cubic Feet – Free Air per Minute

600
31/2
3 400
300
21/2 200
2
100
1 /2
1
60
11/4 40
30
1 20
3
/4
10
1
/2

.03 .04 .06 .08 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .8 1.0 1.5 2

Pressure Drop lbs per sq. inch per 100 feet

Pipe Expansion Figure 67: Expansion Chart for Mild Steam Pipe
Temperature difference (°F)
100 200 300 400 500 600
700
600 700
500 800
400 900

300
Table 22: Calculation of Pipe Expansion
Expansion (∆) = L0 x ∆t x a (inches) 200
Length of pipe (feet)

L0 = Length of pipe between anchors (ft)

150
∆t = Temperature difference (°F) 125
a = Expansion coefficient 100
12 16 20 26 32 40
For Temp. Range 30 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 75 Temperature of
(°F) to to to to to to to to Saturated Steam
32 212 400 600 750 900 1100 1300 psi gauge Temp (°F)
50 5 228
Mild Steel 10 240
0.1-0.2% C 7•1 7•8 8•3 8•7 9•0 9•5 9•7 — 25 267
50 298
Alloy Steel 75 320
1% Cr. 1/2% Mo 7•7 8•0 8•4 8•8 9•2 9•6 9•8 — 25 100 338
125 353
Stainless Steel 150 366
18% Cr. 8% Ni 10•8 11•1 11•5 11•8 12•1 12•4 12•6 12•8 200 388
16 250 406
1/2 3/4 1 11/2 2 3 4 6 8
Expansion Coefficient a x 10 (inches) -5 300 421
Expansion of pipe (inches) 400 448
Example 7•1 x 10-5 = 0.000071 500 470

66
 Heat Transfer

Table 23: Heat Transfer Table 25: Heat Loss from Open Tanks
Average Heat Loss from Oil in Storage Tanks and Pipe Lines iquid Heat Loss From Liquid Suface Heat Loss Through Tank Walls
L

SYSTEM DESIGN
Temp. BTU/ft2 h BTU/ft2 h
Position Oil Temperature Unlagged* Lagged* °F Evap. Rad. Total Bare Insulation
Loss Loss Steel 1” 2” 3”
Tank Sheltered Up to 50°F 1.2 .3
Up to 80°F 1.3 .325 90 80 50 130 50 12 6 4
Up to 100°F 1.4 .35
100 160 70 230 70 15 8 6
Tank Exposed Up to 50°F 1.4 .35
110 240 90 330 90 19 10 7
Up to 80°F 1.5 .375
120 360 110 470 110 23 12 9
Up to 100°F 1.6 .4
130 480 135 615 135 27 14 10

140 660 160 820 160 31 16 12
Tank In Pit All Temperatures 1.2 —

150 860 180 1040 180 34 18 13
Pipe Sheltered Up to 80°F 1.5 .375
160 1100 210 1310 210 38 21 15
Line 80 to 260°F 2.3 .575

170 1380 235 1615 235 42 23 16
Pipe Exposed Up to 80°F 1.8 .45
180 1740 260 2000 260 46 25 17
Line 80 to 260°F 2.75 .7
190 2160 290 2450 290 50 27 19
*Heat Transfer Rate in BTU/h ft2 °F temperature difference
200 2680 320 3000 320 53 29 20
between oil and surrounding air
210 3240 360 3590 360 57 31 22
For rough calculations, it may be taken that 1 ton of fuel oil
occupies 36.4 ft3. The specific heat capacity of heavy fuel is
0.45 to 0.48 Btu/lb °F.
Heat Transfer from Steam Coils
Table 26: Heat Emission Rates from Pipes
Approximately 20 Btu/h ft2 of heating surface per °F difference Submerged in Water
between oil and steam temperature.
Published Overall Heat Transfer Rates Btu/ft2 h °F
Heat Transfer from Hot Water Coils
Tank Coils, Steam/Water
Approximately 10 Btu/h ft2 of heating surface per °F difference
(Temperature difference 50°F) 100 to 225
between oil and water temperature.
Tank Coils, Steam/Water
(Temperature difference 100°F) 175 to 300
Tank Coils, Steam/Water
(Temperature difference 200°F) 225 to 475
Reasonable Practical Heat Transfer Rates
Tank Coils, low pressure with natural circulation 100
Table 24: Heat Transmission Coefficients
Tank Coils, high pressure with natural circulation 200
In Btu per sq. ft. per hr. per °F.
Tank Coils, low pressure with assisted circulation 200
Water Cast Iron Air or Gas 1.4
Tank Coils, high pressure with assisted circulation 300
Water Mild Steel Air or Gas 2.0
Water Copper Air or Gas 2.25
Water Cast Iron Water 40 to 50
Water Mild Steel Water 60 to 70 Table 27: Heat Emission Coefficients from
Water Copper Water 62 to 80 Pipes Submerged in Miscellaneous Fluids
Air Cast Iron Air 1.0 The viscosity of fluids has a considerable bearing on heat trans-
Air Mild Steel Air 1.4 fer characteristics and this varies in any case with temperature.
Steam Cast Iron Air 2.0 The following figures will therefore serve only as a rough guide.
Steam Mild Steel Air 2.5 Immersed steam coil, medium pressure, natural convection.
Steam Copper Air 3.0 Btu/ft2 h °F difference
Steam Cast Iron Water 160 Light Oils 30
Steam Mild Steel Water 185 Heavy Oils 15 to 20
Fats* 5 to 10
Steam Copper Water 205
Immersed steam coil, medium pressure, forced convection.
Steam Stainless Steel Water 120
Btu/ft2 h °F difference
The above values are average coefficients for practically still fluids.
Light Oils (220 SSU at 100°F) 100
The coefficients are dependent on velocities of heating and Medium Oils (1100 SSU at 100°F) 60
heated media on type of heating surface, temperature difference Heavy Oils (3833 SSU at 100°F) 30
and other circumstances. For special cases, see literature, * Certain materials such as tallow and margarine are solid at normal
and manufacturer’s data. temperatures but have quite low viscosities in the molten state.

67
 Typical Steam Consumption Rates

Table 28: Typical Steam Consumption Rates

Operating Lbs per hr
SYSTEM DESIGN

pressure
PSIG In use Maximum
BAKERIES
Dough room trough, 8 ft long 10 4
Proof boxes, 500 cu ft capacity 7
Ovens: Peel Or Dutch Type 10
White bread, 120 sq ft surface 29
Rye bread, 10 sq ft surface 58
Master Baker Ovens 29
Century Reel, w/pb per 100 lb bread 29
Rotary ovens, per deck 29
Bennett 400, single deck 44
Hubbard (any size) 58
Middleby-Marshall, w/pb 58
Baker-Perkins travel ovens, long tray (per 100 lbs) 13
Baker-Perkins travel ovens, short tray (per 100 lbs) 29
General Electric 20
Fish Duothermic Rotary, per deck 58
Revolving ovens: 8-10 bun pan 29
12-18 bun pan 58
18-28 bun pan 87
BOTTLE WASHING 5
Soft drinks, beer, etc: per 100 bottles/min 310
Mill quarts, per 100 cases per hr 58
CANDY and CHOCOLATE 70
Candy cooking, 30-gal cooker, 1 hour 46
Chocolate melting, jacketed, 24” dia 29
Chocolate dip kettles, per 10 sq ft tank surface 29
Chocolate tempering, top mixing each 20 sq ft active surface 29
Candy kettle per sq ft of jacket 30 60
Candy kettle per sq ft of jacket 75 100
CREAMERIES and DAIRIES 15-75
Creamery cans 3 per min 310
Pasteurizer, per 100 gal heated 20 min 232
DISHWASHERS 10-30
2-Compartment tub type 58
Large conveyor or roller type 58
Autosan, colt, depending on size 29 117
Champion, depending on size 58 310
Hobart Crescent, depending on size 29 186
Fan Spray, depending on size 58 248
Crescent manual steam control 30
Hobart Model AM-5 10
Dishwashing machine 15-20 60-70
HOSPITAL EQUIPMENT 40-50
Stills, per 100 gal distilled water 102
Sterilizers, bed pan 3
Sterilizers, dressing, per 10” length, approx. 7
Sterilizers, instrument, per 100 cu in approx. 3
Sterilizers, water, per 10 gal, approx. 6
Disinfecting Ovens, Double Door: 40-50
Up to 50 cu ft, per 10 cu ft approx. 29
50 to 100 cu ft, per 10 cu ft approx. 21
100 and up, per 10 cu ft, approx. 16
Sterilizers, Non-Pressure Type
For bottles or pasteurization 40
Start with water at 70°F, maintained for 20 minutes at boiling at a depth of 3” 51 69
Instruments and Utensils:
Start with water at 70°F, boil vigorously for 20 min: 40
Depth 3-1/2”: Size 8 X 9 X 18” 27 27
Depth 3-1/2”: Size 9 X 20 X 10” 30 30
Depth 4”: Size 10 X 12 X 22” 39 39
Depth 4”: Size 12 X 16 X 24” 60 60
Depth 4”: Size 10 X 12 X 36” 66 66
Depth 10”: Size 16 X 15 X 20” 92 92
Depth 10”: Size 20 X 20 X 24” 144 144
LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT 100
Vacuum stills, per 10 gal 16
Spotting board, trouser stretcher 29
Dress finisher, overcoat shaper, each 58
Jacket finisher, Susie Q, each 44

68
 Typical Steam Consumption Rates

Table 28: Typical Steam Consumption Rates

Operating Lbs per hr

SYSTEM DESIGN
pressure
PSIG In use Maximum
Air vacuum finishing board, 18” Mushroom Topper, ea. 20
Steam irons, each 4
Flat Iron Workers: 100
48” X 120”, 1 cylinder 248
48” X 120”, 2 cylinder 310
4-Roll, 100 to 120” 217
6-Roll, 100 to 120” 341
8-Roll, 100 to 120” 465
Shirt Equipment 100
Single cuff, neckband, yoke No. 3, each 7
Double sleeve 13
Body 29
Bosom 44
Dry Rooms 100
Blanket 20
Conveyor, per loop, approx. 7
Truck, per door, approx. 58
Curtain, 50 X 114 29
Curtain, 64 X 130 58
Starch cooker, per 10 gal cap 7
Starcher, per 10-in. length approx. 5
Laundry presses per 10-in. length approx. 7
Handy irons, per 10-in. length, approx. 5
Collar equipment: Collar and Cuff Ironer 21
Deodorizer 87
Wind Whip, single 58
Wind Whip, double 87
Tumblers, General Usage Other Source 100
36”, per 10” length, approx. 29
40”, per 10” length, approx. 38
42”, per 10” length, approx. 52
Vorcone, 46” X 120” 310
Presses, central vacuum, 42” 20
Presses, steam, 42” 29
PLASTIC MOLDING
Each 12 to 15 sq ft platen surface 125 29
PAPER MANUFACTURE
Corrugators per 1,000 sq ft 175 29
Wood pulp paper, per 100 lb paper 50 372
RESTAURANT EQUIPMENT 5-20
Standard steam tables, per ft length 36
Standard steam tables, per 20 sq ft tank 29
Bain Marie, per ft length, 30” wide 13
Bain Marie, per 10 sq ft tank 29
Coffee urns, per 10 gal, cold make-up 13
3-compartment egg boiler 13
Oyster steamers 13
Clam or lobster steamer 29
Steam Jacketed Kettles 5-20
10 gal capacity 13 106
25 gal stock kettle 29 124
40 gal stock kettle 44 140
60 gal stock kettle 58 152
Plate And Dish Warmers 5-20
Per 100 sq ft shelf 58
Per 20 cu ft shelf 29
Warming ovens, per 20 cu ft 29
Direct vegetable steamer, per compartment 29 80
Potato steamer 29 80
Morandi Proctor, 30 comp., no return 87
Pot sink, steam jets, average use 29
Silver burnishers, Tahara 58
SILVER MIRRORING
Average steam tables 5 102
TIRE SHOPS 100
Truck molds, large 87
Truck molds, medium 58
Passenger molds 29
Section, per section 7
Puff Irons, each 7

69
 Specific Heats and Weights

Table 29: Specific Heats and Weights: Various Solids

Specific Heat, Specific Heat,
SYSTEM DESIGN

Specific B.t.u. per Lb. Specific B.t.u. per Lb.

Material Gravity per °F Material Gravity per °F
Aluminum.................................... 2.55-2.8 .22 Ice, 32F....................................... .49
Andalusite.................................... .17 Iridium.......................................... 21.78-22.42 .03
Antimony..................................... .05 Iron, cast...................................... 7.03-7.13 .12
Aatite........................................... .20 Iron, wrought............................... 7.6-7.9 .12
Asbestos...................................... 2.1-2.8 .20 Labradorite.................................. .19
Augite.......................................... .19 Lava............................................. .20
Bakelite, wood filler..................... .33 Lead............................................ 11.34 .03
Bakelite, asbestos filler............... .38 Limestone.................................... 2.1-2.86 .22
Barite........................................... 4.5 .11 Magnetite..................................... 3.2 .16
Barium......................................... 3.5 .07 Magnesium.................................. 1.74 .25
Basalt rock................................... 2.7-3.2 .20 Malachite..................................... .18
Beryl............................................ .20 Manganese.................................. 7.42 .11
Bismuth....................................... 9.8 .03 Marble......................................... 2.6-2.86 .21
Borax........................................... 1.7-1.8 .24 Mercury........................................ 13.6 .03
Boron........................................... 2.32 .31 Mica............................................. .21
Cadmium..................................... 8.65 .06 Molybdenum................................ 10.2 .06
Calcite, 32-100F.......................... .19 Nickel........................................... 8.9 .11
Calcite, 32-212F.......................... .20 Oligloclose................................... .21
Calcium....................................... 4.58 .15 Orthoclose................................... .19
Carbon......................................... 1.8-2.1 .17 Plaster of Paris............................ 1.14
Carborundum.............................. .16 Platinum...................................... 21.45 .03
Cassiterite................................... .09 Porcelain..................................... .26
Cement, dry................................. .37 Potassium.................................... 0.86 .13
Cement, powder.......................... .2 Pyrexglass................................... .20
Charcoal...................................... .24 Pyrolusite..................................... .16
Chalcopyrite................................ .13 Pyroxylin plastics......................... .34-.38
Chromium.................................... 7.1 .12 Quartz, 55-212F.......................... 2.5-2.8 .19
Clay............................................. 1.8-2.6 .22 Quartz, 32F................................. .17
Coal............................................ . 64-.93 .26-.37 Rock salt...................................... .22
Cobalt.......................................... 8.9 .11 Rubber......................................... .48
Concrete, stone........................... .19 Sandstone................................... 2.0-2.6 .22
Concrete, cinder.......................... .18 Serpentine................................... 2.7-2.8 .26
Copper......................................... 8.8-8.95 .09 Silk............................................... .33
Corundum.................................... .10 Silver........................................... 10.4-10.6 .06
Diamond...................................... 3.51 .15 Sodium........................................ 0.97 .30
Dolomite rock.............................. 2.9 .22 Steel............................................ 7.8 .12
Fluorite........................................ .22 Stone........................................... .20
Fluorspar..................................... .21 Stoneware................................... .19
Galena......................................... .05 Talc.............................................. 2.6-2.8 .21
Garnet......................................... .18 Tar............................................... 1.2 .35
Glass, common........................... 2.4-2.8 .20 Tallurium...................................... 6.0-6.24 .05
Glass, crystal............................... 2.9-3.0 .12 Tin............................................... 7.2-7.5 .05
Glass, plate................................. 2.45-2.72 .12 Tile, hollow.................................. .15
Glass, wool.................................. .16 Titanium....................................... 4.5 .14
Gold............................................. 19.25-19.35 .03 Topaz.......................................... .21
Granite......................................... 2.4-2.7 .19 Tungsten..................................... 19.22 .04
Hematite...................................... 5.2 .16 Vanadium.................................... 5.96 .12
Hornblende.................................. 3.0 .20 Vulcanite...................................... .33
Hypersthene................................ .19 Wood.......................................... . .35-.99 .32-.48
Ice, -112F.................................... .35 Wool............................................ 1.32 .33
Ice, -40F...................................... .43 Zinc blend.................................... 3.9-4.2 .11
Ice, -4F........................................ .47 Zinc.............................................. 6.9-7.2 .09

70
 Specific Heats and Weights

Table 30: Specific Heats and Weights: Various Liquids

Specific Heat, Specific Heat,

SYSTEM DESIGN
Specific B.t.u. per Lb. Specific B.t.u. per Lb.
Liquid Gravity per °F Liquid Gravity per °F
Acetone....................................... 0.790 .51 Fuel Oil........................................ .86 .45
Alcohol, ethyl 32°F...................... 0.789 .55 Fuel Oil........................................ .81 .50
Alcohol, ethyl, 105°F................... 0.789 .65 Gasoline...................................... .53
Alcohol, methyl, 40-50°F............. 0.796 .59 Glycerine..................................... 1.26 .58
Alcohol, methyl, 60-70°F............. 0.796 .60 Kerosene..................................... .48
Ammonia, 32°F............................ 0.62 1.10 Mercury........................................ 13.6 .033
Ammonia, 104°F.......................... 1.16 Naphthalene................................ 1.14 .41
Ammonia, 176°F.......................... 1.29 Nitrobenzole................................ .36
Ammonia, 212°F.......................... 1.48 Olive Oil...................................... . .91-.94 .47
Ammonia, 238°F.......................... 1.61 Petroleum.................................... .51
Anilin............................................ 1.02 .52 Potassium Hydrate..................... 1.24 .88
Benzol......................................... .42 Sea Water................................... 1.0235 .94
Calcium Chloride......................... 1.20 .73 Sesame Oil.................................. .39
Castor Oil.................................... .43 Sodium Chloride.......................... 1.19 .79
Citron Oil..................................... .44 Sodium Hydrate........................... 1.27 .94
Diphenylamine............................. 1.16 .46 Soybean Oil................................. .47
Ethyl Ether................................... .53 Toluol.......................................... . .866 .36
Ethylene Glycol........................... .53 Turpentine................................... .87 .41
Fuel Oil........................................ .96 .40 Water........................................... 1 1.00
Fuel Oil........................................ .91 .44 Xylene........................................ . .861-.881 .41

Table 31: Specific Heats and Weights: Gas and Vapors

Specific Heat, Specific Heat, Specific Heat, Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb. B.t.u. per Lb. B.t.u. per Lb. B.t.u. per Lb.
Gas or Vapor per °F per °F Gas or Vapor per °F per °F
at Constant at Constant at Constant at Constant
Pressure Volume Pressure Volume
Acetone....................................... .35 .315 Ether............................................ .48 .466
Air, dry, 50°F............................... .24 .172 Hydrochloric acid......................... .19 .136
Air, dry, 32-392°F........................ .24 .173 Hydrogen..................................... 3.41 2.410
Air, dry, 68-824°F........................ .25 .178 Hydrogen sulphide...................... .25 .189
Air, dry 68-1166°F....................... .25 .184 Methane...................................... .59 .446
Air, dry, 68-1472°F...................... .26 .188 Nitrogen....................................... .24 .170
Alcohol, C2H5OH.......................... .45 .398 Nitric oxide................................... .23 .166
Alcohol, CH3OH........................... .46 .366 Nitrogen tetroxide........................ 1.12 1.098
Ammonia..................................... .54 .422 Nitrous oxide............................... .21 .166
Argon........................................... .12 .072 Oxygen........................................ .22 .157
Benzene, C6H6............................. .26 .236 Steam, 1 psia
Bromine....................................... .06 .047 120-600 °F................................ .46 .349
Carbon dioxide............................ .20 .150 Steam, 14.7 psia
220-600 °F................................ .47 .359
Carbon monoxide........................ .24 .172
Steam, 150 psia
Carbon disulphide....................... .16 .132 360-600 °F................................ .54 .421
Chlorine....................................... .11 .082 Sulphur dioxide............................ .15 .119
Chloroform................................... .15 .131

71
 Specific Heats and Weights

Table 32: Specific Heats and Weights: Foodstuffs

Specific Heat, Specific Heat, Specific Heat, Specific Heat,
SYSTEM DESIGN

B.t.u. per Lb. B.t.u. per Lb. B.t.u. per Lb. B.t.u. per Lb.
Food per °F per °F Food per °F per °F
above freezing below freezing above freezing below freezing
Apples......................................... .87 .42 Eggs............................................ .76 .40
Apricots, fresh............................. .88 .43 Eggplant...................................... .94 .45
Artichokes.................................... .87 .42 Endive......................................... .95 .45
Asparagus................................... .94 .45 Figs, fresh.................................... .82 .41
Asparagus beans........................ .88 .43 Figs, dried.................................... .39 .26
Avocados..................................... .72 .37 Figs, candied............................... .37 .26
Bananas...................................... .80 .40 Flounders.................................... .86 .42
Barracuda.................................... .80 .40 Flour............................................ .38 .28
Bass............................................ .82 .41 Frogs legs.................................... .88 .44
Beef, carcass............................... .68 .48 Garlic........................................... .79 .40
Beef, flank................................... .56 .32 Gizzards...................................... .78 .39
Beef, Loin.................................... .66 .35 Goose.......................................... .61 .34
Beef, rib....................................... .67 .36 Gooseberry.................................. .86 .42
Beef, round.................................. .74 .38 Granadilla.................................... .84 .41
Beef, rump................................... .62 .34 Grapefruit.................................... .91 .44
Beef, shanks................................ .76 .39 Grapes......................................... .86 .42
Beef, corned................................ .63 .34 Grape juice.................................. .82 .41
Beets........................................... .90 .43 Guavas........................................ .86 .42
Blackberries................................. .87 .42 Guinea hen.................................. .75 .38
Blueberries.................................. .87 .42 Haddoock.................................... .85 .42
Brains.......................................... .84 .41 Halibut......................................... .80 .40
Broccoli........................................ .92 .44 Herring, smokes.......................... .71 .37
Brussels sprouts.......................... .88 .43 Horseradish, fresh....................... .79 .40
Butter........................................... .30 .24 Horseradish, prepared................. .88 .43
Butterfish..................................... .77 .39 Ice Cream.................................... .74 .40
Cabbage...................................... .94 .45 Kale............................................. .89 .43
Carp............................................. .82 .41 Kidneys........................................ .81 .40
Carrots......................................... .91 .44 Kidney beans, dried.................... .28 .23
Cauliflower................................... .93 .44 Kohlrabi....................................... .92 .44
Celery.......................................... .94 .45 Kumquats.................................... .85 .41
Chard........................................... .93 .44 Lamb, carcass............................. .73 .38
Cherries, sour.............................. .88 .43 Lamb, leg..................................... .71 .37
Cherries, sweet........................... .84 .41 Lamb, rib cut............................... .61 .34
Chicken, squab............................ .80 .40 Lamb, shoulder............................ .67 .35
Chicken, broilers.......................... .77 .39 Lard............................................. .54 .31
Chicken, fryers............................ .74 .38 Leeks........................................... .91 .44
Chicken, hens.............................. .65 .35 Lemons........................................ .91 .44
Chicken, capons.......................... .88 .44 Lemon joice................................. .92 .44
Clams, meat only........................ .84 .41 Lettuce......................................... .96 .45
Coconut, meat and milk.............. .68 .36 Lima beans.................................. .73 .38
Coconut, milk only....................... .95 .45 Limes........................................... .89 .43
Codfish........................................ .86 .42 Lime juice.................................... .93 .44
Cod Roe...................................... .76 .39 Litchi fruits, dried......................... .39 .26
Corn............................................. .84 .423 Lobsters....................................... .82 .41
Cowpeas, fresh........................... .73 .39 Loganberries............................... .86 .42
Cowpeas, dry.............................. .28 .22 Loganberry joice.......................... .91 .44
Crabs........................................... .84 .41 Milk, cow...................................... .90 .47
Crab apples................................. .85 .41 Mushrooms, fresh........................ .93 .44
Cranberries.................................. .90 .43 Mushrooms, dried........................ .30 .23
Cream.......................................... .90 .38 Muskmelons................................ .94 .45
Cucumber.................................... .98 .45 Nectarines................................... .86 .42
Currants....................................... .97 .45 Nuts............................................. .28 .24
Dandelion greens........................ .88 .43 Olives, green............................... .80 .40
Dates........................................... .20 .007 Onions......................................... .90 .43
Eels............................................. .77 .39 Onions, Welsh............................. .91 .44

72
 Specific Heat and Weights

Table 32: Specific Heats and Weights: Foodstuffs

Specific Heat, Specific Heat, Specific Heat, Specific Heat,

SYSTEM DESIGN
B.t.u. per Lb. B.t.u. per Lb. B.t.u. per Lb. B.t.u. per Lb.
Food per °F per °F Food per °F per °F
above freezing below freezing above freezing below freezing
Oranges, fresh............................. .90 .43 Rose Apple.................................. .89 .43
Orange juice................................ .89 .43 Rutabagas................................... .91 .44
Oysters........................................ .84 .41 Salmon........................................ .71 .37
Peaches, Georgia........................ .87 .42 Sand dab, California.................... .86 .42
Peaches, N. Carolina.................. .89 .43 Sapodilla...................................... .91 .44
Peaches, Maryland...................... .90 .43 Sapote......................................... .73 .37
Peaches, New Jersey................. .91 .44 Sauerkraut................................... .93 .44
Peach juice, fresh........................ .89 .43 Sausage, beef and pork.............. .56 .32
Pears, Bartlett.............................. .89 .43 Sausage, bockwurst.................... .71 .37
Pears, Beurre Bosc..................... .85 .41 Sausage, bologna....................... .71 .37
Pears, dried................................. .39 .26 Sausage, frankfurt....................... .69 .36
Peas, young................................ .85 .41 Sausage, salami.......................... .45 .28
Peas, medium............................. .81 .41 Sardines...................................... .77 .39
Peas, old..................................... .88 .43 Shad............................................ .76 .39
Peas, split.................................... .28 .23 Shrimp......................................... .83 .41
Peppers, ripe............................... .91 .44 Spanish mackerel........................ .73 .39
Perch........................................... .82 .41 Shad............................................ .76 .39
Persimmins.................................. .72 .37 Shrimp......................................... .83 .41
Pheasant..................................... .75 .36 Spanish mackerel........................ .73 .39
Pickerel........................................ .84 .41 Strawberries................................ .95 .45
Pickels, sweet.............................. .82 .41 Strawberry juice........................... .79 .39
Pickels, sour and dill................... .96 .45 String beans................................ .91 .44
Pickels, sweet mixed................... .78 .29 Sturgeon, raw.............................. .83 .41
Pickels, sour mixed..................... .95 .45 Sturgeon, smoked....................... .71 .37
Pig’s feet, pickled........................ .50 .31 Sugar apple, fresh....................... .79 .39
Pike............................................. .84 .41 Sweet potatoes............................ .75 .38
Pineapple, fresh.......................... .88 .43 Swordfish..................................... .80 .40
Pineapple, sliced or crushed....... .82 .41 Terrapin....................................... .80 .40
Pineapple joice............................ .90 .43 Tomatoes, red............................. .95 .45
Plums.......................................... .89 .43 Tomatoes, green......................... .96 .45
Pomegranate............................... .85 .41 Tomato juice................................ .95 .45
Pompano..................................... .77 .39 Tongue, beef............................... .74 .38
Porgy........................................... .81 .40 Tongue, calf................................. .79 .40
Pork, bacon................................. .36 .25 Tongue, lamb.............................. .76 .38
Pork, ham.................................... .62 .34 Tongue, pork............................... .74 .39
Pork, loin..................................... .66 .35 Tongue, sheep............................ .69 .36
Pork, shoulder............................. .59 .33 Tripe, beef................................... .83 .41
Pork, spareribs............................ .62 .34 Tripe, pickled............................... .89 .43
Pork, smoked ham...................... .65 .35 Trout............................................ .82 .41
Pork, salted................................. .31 .24 Tuna............................................ .76 .39
Potatoes...................................... .82 .41 Turkey......................................... .67 .35
Prickly pears................................ .91 .43 Turnips........................................ .93 .44
Prunes......................................... .81 .40 Turtle........................................... .84 .41
Pumpkin...................................... .92 .44 Veal, carcass............................... .74 .38
Quinces....................................... .88 .43 Veal, flank.................................... .65 .35
Rabbit.......................................... .76 .39 Veal, loin...................................... .75 .38
Radishes..................................... .95 .45 Veal, rib....................................... .73 .37
Raisins......................................... .39 .26 Veal, shank.................................. .77 .39
Raspberries, black....................... .85 .41 Veal, quarter................................ .74 .38
Raspberries, red.......................... .89 .43 Venison....................................... .78 .39
Raspberry juice, black................. .91 .44 Watercress.................................. .95 .45
Raspberry juice, red.................... .93 .44 Watermelons............................... .94 .45
Reindeer...................................... .73 .37 Whitefish...................................... .76 .39
Rhubarb....................................... .96 .45 Yams........................................... .78 .39

73
 Conversions

Table 33: Conversions

To Convert Into Multiply by To Convert Into Multiply by
SYSTEM DESIGN

A Furlongs feet 660.0

Acres sq. feet 43,560.0 G
Atmospheres cms. of mercury 76.0 Gallons cu. cms. 3,785.0
Atmospheres ft. of water (at 4°C) 33.90 Gallons cu. feet 0.1337
Atmospheres in. of mercury (at 0°C) 29.92 Gallons cu. inches 231.0
Atmospheres kgs./sq. cm. 1.0333 Gallons cu. meters 3.785 x 10-3
Atmospheres pounds/sq. in. 14.70 Gallons cu. yards 4.951 x 10-3
B Gallons liters 3.785
Barrels (U.S. liquid) gallons 31.5 Gallons (liq. Br. Imp.) gallons (U.S. liq.) 1.20095
Barrels (oil) gallons (oil) 42.0 Gallons (U.S.) gallons (Imp.) 0.83267
Btu foot-lbs 778.3 Gallons of water pounds of water 8.3453
Btu grams-calories 252.0 Gallons/min. cu. ft./sec. 2.228 x 10-3
Btu horsepower-hrs. 3.931 x 10-4 Gallons/min. liters/sec. 0.06308
Btu kilowatt-hrs 2.928 x 10-4 Gallons/min. cu. ft./hr. 8.0208
Btu/hr. horsepower 3.931 x 10-4 Grains (troy) grains (avdp.) 1.0
Btu/hr. watts 0.2931 Grains (troy) grams 0.06480
C Grains (troy) ounces (avdp.) 0.286 x 10-3
Calories, gram (mean) B.t.u. (mean) 3.9685 x 10-3 Grains (troy) pennyweight (troy) 0.04167
Centigrade Fahrenheit 9/5(C° + 40) -40 Grains/U.S. gal. parts/million 17.118
Centimeters feet 3.281 x 10-2 Grains/U.S. gal. pounds/million gal. 142.86
Centimeters inches 0.3937 Grains/lmp. gal. parts/million 14.286
Centimeters mils 393.7 Grams grains 15.43
Centimeters of mercury atmospheres 0.01316 Grams ounces (avdp.) 0.03527
Centimeters of mercury feet of water 0.4461 Grams ounces (troy) 0.03215
Centimeters of mercury pounds/sq. in. 0.1934 Grams poundals 0.07093
Circumference radians 6.283 Grams pounds 2.205 x 10-3
Cubic centimeters cu. feet 3.531 x 10-5 Grams/liter parts/million 1,000.0
Cubic centimeters cu. inches 0.06102 Gram-calories Btu 3.9683 x 10-3
Cubic centimeters gallons (U.S. liq.) 2.642 x 10-4 Gram-caloories foot-pounds 3.0880
Cubic feet cu. cms. 28,320.0 Gram-calories kilowatt-hrs. 1.1630 x 10-4
Cubic feet cu. inches 1,728.0 Gram-calories watt-hrs. 1.1630 x 10-3
Cubic feet gallons (U.S. liq.) 7.481 H
Cubic feet liters 28.32 Horsepower Btu/min. 42.40
Cubic feet quarts (U.S. liq.) 29.92 Horsepower foot-lbs./min. 33,000.
Cubic feet/min. gallons/sec. 0.1247 Horsepower foot-lbs./sec. 550.0
Cubic feet/min. pounds of water/min. 62.43 Horsepower (metric) horsepower 0.9863
Cubic inches cu. cms. 16.39 (542.5 ft. lb./sec.) (550 ft. lb./sec.)
Cubic inches gallons 4.329 x 10-3 Horsepower horsepower (metric) 1.014
Cubic inches quarts (U.S. liq.) 0.01732 (550 ft. lb./sec.) (542.5 ft. lb./sec.)
Cubic meters cu. feet 35.31 Horsepower kilowatts 0.7457
Cubic meters gallons (U.S. liq) 264.2 Horsepower watts 745.7
Cubic yards cu. feet 27.0 Horsepower (boiler) Btu/hr. 33,520.
Cubic yards cu. meters 0.7646 Horsepower (boiler) kilowatts 9.803
Cubic yards gallons (U.S. liq.) 202.0 Horsepower-hrs. Btu 2,547.
D Horsepower-hrs. foot-lbs. 1.98 x 106
Degrees (angle) radians 0.01745 Horsepower-hrs. kilowatt-hrs. 0.7457
Drams (apothecaries’ or troy) ounces (avoirdupois) 0.13714 I
Drams (apothecaries’ or troy) ounces (troy) 0.125 Inches centimeters 2.540
Drams (U.S. fluid or apothecary) cubic cm. 3.6967 Inches meters 2.540 x 10-2
Drams grams 1.772 Inches millimeters 25.40
Drams grains 27.3437 Inches yards 2.778 x 10-2
Drams ounces 0.0625 Inches of mercury atmospheres 0.03342
F Inches of mercury feet of water 1.133
Fahrenheit centigrade 5/9(F + 40) - 40 Inches of mercury kgs./sq. cm. 0.03453
Feet centimeters 30.48 Inches of mercury kgs./sq.meter 345.3
Feet kilometers 3.048 x 10-4 Inches of mercury pounds/sq. ft. 70.73
Feet meters 0.3048 Inches of mercury pounds/sq. in. 0.4912
Feet miles (naut.) 1.645 x 10-4 Inches of water (at 4°C) atmospheres 2.458 x 10-3
Feet miles (stat.) 1.894 x 10-4 Inches of water (at 4°C) inches of mercury 0.07355
Feet of water atmospheres 0.02950 Inches of water (at 4°C) kgs./sq./ cm. 2.538 x 10-3
Feet of water in. of mercury 0.8826 Inches of water (at 4°C) ounces/sq. in. 0.5781
Feet of water kgs./sq. cm. 0.03045 Inches of water (at 4°C) pounds/sq. ft. 5.204
Feet of water kgs./sq. meter 304.8 Inches of water (at 4°C) pounds/sq. in. 0.03613
Feet of water pounds/sq. ft. 62.43 J
Feet of water pounds/sq. in. 0.4335 Joules Btu 9.480 x 10-4
Foot-pounds Btu 1.286 x 10-3 K
Foot-pounds gram-calories 0.3238 Kilograms grams 1,000.0
Foot-pounds hp.-hrs. 5.050 x 10-7 Kilograms pounds 2.205
Foot-pounds kilowatt-hrs. 3.766 x 10-7 Kilograms/cu. meter pounds/cu. ft. 0.06243
Foot-pounds/min. Btu/min. 1.286 x 10-8 Kilograms/cu. meter pounds/cu. in. 3.613 x 10-5
Foot-pounds/min. horsepower 3.030 x 10-5 Kilograms/sq. cm. atmospheres 0.9678
Foot-pounds/sec. Btu/hr. 4.6263 Kilograms/sq. cm. feet of water 32.84
Furlongs miles 0.125

74
 Conversions

Table 33: Conversions

To Convert Into To Convert
Multiply by Into Multiply by

SYSTEM DESIGN
Kilograms/sq. cm. inches of mercury Pounds (troy)
28.96 ounces (avdp.) 13.1657
Kilograms/sq. cm. pounds/sq. ft. Pounds of water
2,048 cu. feet 0.01602
Kilograms/sq. cm. pounds/sq. in. Pounds of water
14.22 cu. inches 27.68
Kilograms/sq. meter atmospheres Pounds of water
9.678 x 10-5 gallons 0.1198
Kilograms/sq. meter feet of water Pounds of water/min.
3.281 x 10-3 cu. ft/sec. 2.670 x 10-4
Kilograms/sq. meter inches of mercury 2.896 x 10-3Pounds/cu. ft. grams/cu. cm. 0.01602
Kilograms/sq. meter pounds/sq. ft. Pounds/cu. ft.
0.2048 kgs./cu. meter 16.02
Kilograms/sq. meter pounds/sq. in. Pounds/cu. ft.
1.422 x 10-3 pounds/cu. in. 5.787 x 10-4
Kilograms/sq. mm. kgs./sq. meter Pounds/cu. in.
106 pounds/cu. ft. 1,728.
Kilogram-calories Btu Pounds/sq. ft.
3.968 atmospheres 4.725 x 10-4
Kilogram-calories foot-pounds Pounds/sq. ft.
3,088. feet of water 0.01602
Kilogram-calories hp-hrs. Pounds/sq. ft.
1.560 x 10-3 inches of mercury 0.01414
Kilogram-calories kilowatt-hrs. Pounds/sq. in.
1.163 x 10-3 atmospheres 0.06804
Kilogram meters Btu Pounds/sq. in.
9.294 x 10-3 feet of water 2.307
Kilometers centimeters 105 Pounds/sq. in. inches of mercury 2.036
Kilometers feet Pounds/sq. in.
3,281. kgs./sq. meter 703.1
Kilometers miles Pounds/sq. in.
0.6214 pounds/sq. ft. 144.0
Kilowatts Btu/min. 56.87 R
Kilowatts foot-lbs/min. 4.426 x 104
Radians degrees 57.30
Kilowatts foot-lbs/sec. 737.6 Revolutions/min. degrees/sec. 6.0
Kilowatts horsepower 1.341 Revolutions/min. radians/sec. 0.1047
Kilowatts watts 1,000.0 Revolutions/min. revs./sec. 0.01667
Kilowatt-hrs Btu 3,413.
Kilowatt-hrs. foot-lbs.
2.655 x 106 S
Kilowatt-hrs horsepower-hrs 1.341 Square centimeters sq. feet 1.076 x 10-3
Knots statute miles/hr. Square centimeters
1.151 sq. inches 0.1550
Square centimeters sq. meters 0.0001
L Square centimeters sq. millimeters 100.0
Liters cu. cm. 1,000.0
Square feet acres 2.296 x 10-5
Liters cu. feet 0.03531Square feet sq. cms. 929.0
Liters cu. inches 61.02
Square feet sq. inches 144.0
Liters gallons (U.S. liq.) 0.2642
Square feet sq. miles 3.587 x 10-6
M Square inches sq. cms. 6.452
Meters centimeters 100.0 Square inches sq. feet 6.944 x 10-3
Meters feet Square inches
3.281 sq. yards 7.716 x 10-4
Square meters sq. feet 10.76
Meters inches 39.37
Square meters sq. inches 1,550.
Meters millimeters 1,000.0 Square meters sq. millimeters 106
Meters yards 1.094 Square meters sq. yards 1.196
Microns inches 39.37 x 10-6
Square millimeters sq. inches 1.550 x 10-3
Microns meters 1 x 10-6
Square yards sq. feet 9.0
Miles (statute) feet 5.280.
Square yards sq. inches 1,296.
Miles (statute) kilometers 1.609
Square yards sq. meters 0.8361
Miles/hr. cms./sec. 44.70
Miles/hr. feet/min.
88. T
Mils inches 0.001 Temperature (°C) + 273 absolute temperature (°C) 1.0
Mils yards Temperature (°C) + 17.78 temperature (°F)
2.778 x 10-5 1.8
Temperature (°F) + 460 absolute temperature (°F) 1.0
N Temperature (°F) - 32 temperature (°C) 5/9
Nepers decibels 8.686 Tons (long) kilograms 1,016.
O Tons (long) pounds 2,240.
Ohms megohms 10-6 Tons (long) tons (short) 1.120
Ohms microhms 106 Tons (metric) kilograms 1,000.
Ounces (avoirdupois) drams 16.0 Tons (metric) pounds 2,205.
Ounces (avoirdupois) grains 437.5 Tons (short) kilograms 907.2
Ounces (avoirdupois grams 28.35 Tons (short) pounds 2,000.
Ounces (avoirdupois) pounds 0.0625 Tons (short) tons (long) 0.89287
Tons of water/24 hrs. pounds of water/hr. 83.333
Ounces (avoirdupois ounces (troy) 0.9115
Tons of water/24 hrs. gallons/min. 0.16643
Ounces (troy) grains 480.0 Tons of water/24 hrs. cu. ft./hr. 1.3349
Ounces (troy) grains 31.10
Ounces (troy) ounces (avdp.) 1.09714 W
Ounces (troy) pounds (troy) 0.08333 Watts Btu/hr. 3.4129
Watts Btu/min. 0.05688
P Watts horsepower 1.341 x 10-3
Parts/million grains/U.S. gal. 0.0584 Watts horsepower (metric) 1.360 x 10-3
Parts/million grains/lmp. gal 0.07016 Watts kilowatts 0.001
Parts/million pounds/million gal. 8.33 Watts (Abs.) B.t.u. (mean)/min. 0.056884
Pounds (avoirdupois) ounces (troy) 14.58 Watt-hours Btu 3.413
Pounds (avoirdupois) drams 256. Watt-hours horsepower-hrs. 1.341 x 10-3
Pounds (avoirdupois) grains 7,000.
Pounds (avoirdupois) grams 453.59 Y
Pounds (avoirdupois) kilograms 0.454 Yards centimeters 91.44
Pounds (avoirdupois) ounces 16.0 Yards kilometers 9.144 x 10-4
Pounds (avoirdupois) tons (short) 0.0005 Yards meters 0.9144

75
 Flow of Water through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Table 34: Flow of Water through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Pressure Drop per 1,000 Feet of Schedule 40 Steel Pipe, in pounds per square inch
SYSTEM DESIGN

Dschg Vel. Pres- Vel. Pres- Vel. Pres- Vel. Pres- Vel. Pres- Vel. Pres- Vel. Pres- Vel. Pres- Vel. Pres-
Gals. Ft. per sure Ft. per sure Ft. per sure Ft. per sure Ft. per sue Ft. per sure Ft. per sure Ft. per sure Ft. per sure
per Min. Sec. Drop Sec. Drop Sec. Drop Sec. Drop Sec. Drop Sec. Drop Sec. Drop Sec. Drop Sec. Drop

1”
1 .37 0.49 1-1/4”
2 .74 1.70 0.43 .045 1-1/2”
3 1.12 3.53 0.64 0.94 0.47 0.44
4 1.49 5.94 0.86 1.55 0.63 0.74 2”
5 1.86 9.02 1.07 2.36 0.79 1.12
6 2.24 12.25 1.28 3.30 0.95 1.53 .57 0.46 2-1/2”
8 2.98 21.1 1.72 5.52 1.26 2.63 .76 .075
10 3.72 30.8 2.14 8.34 1.57 3.86 .96 1.14 .67 0.48
15 5.60 64.6 3.21 17.6 2.36 8.13 1.43 2.33 1.00 0.99 3” 3-1/2”
20 7.44 110.5 4.29 29.1 3.15 13.5 1.91 3.86 1.34 1.64 .87 0.59
25 5.36 43.7 3.94 20.2 2.39 5.81 1.68 2.48 1.08 0.67 .81 0.42 4”
30 6.43 62.9 4.72 29.1 2.87 8.04 2.01 3.43 1.30 1.21 .97 0.60
35 7.51 82.5 5.51 38.2 3.35 10.95 2.35 4.49 1.52 1.58 1.14 0.79 .88 0.42
40 6.30 47.8 3.82 13.7 2.68 5.88 1.74 2.06 1.30 1.00 1.01 0.53
45 7.08 60.6 4.30 17.4 3.00 7.14 1.95 2.51 1.46 1.21 1.13 0.67
50 7.87 74.7 4.78 20.6 3.35 8.82 2.17 3.10 1.62 1.44 1.26 0.80 5”
60 5.74 29.6 4.02 12.2 2.60 4.29 1.95 2.07 1.51 1.10
70 6.69 38.6 4.69 15.3 3.04 5.84 2.27 2.71 1.76 1.50 1.12 0.48
80 6” 7.65 50.3 5.37 21.7 3.48 7.62 2.59 3.53 2.01 1.87 1.28 0.63
90 8.60 63.6 6.04 26.1 3.91 9.22 2.92 4.46 2.26 2.37 1.44 0.80
100 1.11 0.39 9.56 75.1 6.71 32.3 4.34 11.4 3.24 5.27 2.52 2.81 1.60 0.95
125 1.39 0.56 8.38 48.2 5.42 17.1 4.05 7.86 3.15 4.38 2.00 1.48
150 1.67 0.78 10.06 60.4 6.51 23.5 4.86 11.3 3.78 6.02 2.41 2.04
175 1.94 1.06 8” 11.73 90.0 7.59 32.0 5.67 14.7 4.41 8.20 2.81 2.78
200 2.22 1.32 8.68 39.7 6.48 19.2 5.04 10.2 3.21 3.46
225 2.50 1.66 1.44 0.44 9.77 50.2 7.29 23.1 5.67 12.9 3.61 4.37
250 2.78 2.05 1.60 0.55 10.85 61.9 8.10 28.5 6.30 15.9 4.01 5.14
275 3.06 2.36 1.76 0.63 11.94 75.0 8.91 34.4 6.93 18.3 4.41 6.22
300 3.33 2.80 1.92 0.75 13.02 84.7 9.72 40.9 7.56 21.8 4.81 7.41
325 3.61 3.29 2.08 0.88 10.53 45.5 8.18 25.5 5.21 8.25
350 3.89 3.62 2.24 0.97 11.35 52.7 8.82 29.7 5.61 9.57
375 4.16 4.16 2.40 1.11 12.17 60.7 9.45 32.3 6.01 11.0
400 4.44 4.72 2.56 1.27 12.97 68.9 10.08 36.7 6.41 12.5
425 4.72 5.34 2.72 1.43 10” 13.78 77.8 10.70 41.5 6.82 14.1
450 5.00 5.96 2.88 1.60 14.59 87.3 11.33 46.5 7.22 15.0
475 5.27 6.66 3.04 1.69 1.93 0.30 11.96 51.7 7.62 16.7
500 5.55 7.39 3.20 1.87 2.04 0.63 12.59 57.3 8.02 18.5
550 6.11 8.94 3.53 2.26 2.24 0.70 13.84 69.3 8.82 22.4
600 6.66 10.6 3.85 2.70 2.44 0.86 12” 15.10 82.5 9.62 26.7
650 7.21 11.8 4.17 3.16 2.65 1.01 10.42 31.3
700 7.77 13.7 4.49 3.69 2.85 1.18 2.01 0.48 11.22 36.3
750 8.32 15.7 4.81 4.21 3.05 1.35 2.15 0.55 14” 12.02 41.6
800 8.88 17.8 5.13 4.79 3.26 1.54 2.29 0.62 12.82 44.7
850 9.44 20.2 5.45 5.11 3.46 1.74 2.44 0.70 2.02 0.43 13.62 50.5
900 10.00 22.6 5.77 5.73 3.66 1.94 2.58 0.79 2.14 0.48 14.42 56.6
950 10.55 23.7 6.09 6.38 3.87 2.23 2.72 0.88 2.25 0.53 15.22 63.1
1,000 11.10 26.3 6.41 7.08 4.07 2.40 2.87 0.98 2.38 0.59 16” 16.02 70.0
1,100 12.22 31.8 7.05 8.56 4.48 2.74 3.16 1.18 2.61 0.68 17.63 84.6
1,200 13.32 37.8 7.69 10.2 4.88 3.27 3.45 1.40 2.85 0.81 2.18 0.40
1,300 14.43 44.4 8.33 11.3 5.29 3.86 3.73 1.56 3.09 0.95 2.36 0.47
1,400 15.54 51.5 8.97 13.0 5.70 4.44 4.02 1.80 3.32 1.10 2.54 0.54
1,500 16.65 55.5 9.62 15.0 6.10 5.11 4.30 2.07 3.55 1.19 2.73 0.62 18”
1,600 17.76 63.1 10.26 17.0 6.51 5.46 4.59 2.36 3.80 1.35 2.91 0.71
1,800 19.98 79.8 11.54 21.6 7.32 6.91 5.16 2.98 4.27 1.71 3.27 0.85 2.58 0.48
2,000 22.20 98.5 12.83 25.0 8.13 8.54 5.73 3.47 4.74 2.11 3.63 1.05 2.88 0.56
2,500 16.03 39.0 10.18 12.5 7.17 5.41 5.92 3.09 4.54 1.63 3.59 0.88 20”
3,000 19.24 52.4 12.21 18.0 8.60 7.31 7.12 4.45 5.45 2.21 4.31 1.27 3.45 0.73 24”
3,500 22.43 71.4 14.25 22.9 10.03 9.95 8.32 6.18 6.35 3.00 5.03 1.52 4.03 0.94
4,000 25.65 93.3 16.28 29.9 11.48 13.0 9.49 7.92 7.25 3.92 5.74 2.12 4.61 1.22 3.19 0.51
4,500 18.31 37.8 12.90 15.4 10.67 9.36 8.17 4.97 6.47 2.50 5.19 1.55 3.59 0.60
5,000 20.35 46.7 14.34 18.9 11.84 11.6 9.08 5.72 7.17 3.08 5.76 1.78 3.99 0.74
6,000 24.42 67.2 17.21 27.3 14.32 15.4 10.88 8.24 8.62 4.45 6.92 2.57 4.80 1.00
7,000 28.50 85.1 20.08 37.2 16.60 21.0 12.69 12.2 10.04 6.06 8.06 3.50 5.68 1.36
8,000 22.95 45.1 18.98 27.4 14.52 13.6 11.48 7.34 9.23 4.57 6.38 1.78
9,000 25.80 57.0 21.35 34.7 16.32 17.2 12.92 9.20 10.37 5.36 7.19 2.25
10,000 28.63 70.4 23.75 42.9 18.16 21.2 14.37 11.5 11.53 6.63 7.96 2.78
12,000 34.38 93.6 28.50 61.8 21.80 30.9 17.23 16.5 13.83 9.54 9.57 3.71
14,000 33.20 84.0 25.42 41.6 20.10 20.7 16.14 12.0 11.18 5.05
16,000 29.05 54.4 22.96 27.1 18.43 15.7 12.77 6.60

76
 Friction Loss for Water in Feet per 100 ft. Schedule 40 Steel
Pipe
Table 35: Friction Loss* for Water in Feet per 100 ft. Schedule 40 Steel Pipe
U.S. Velocity hf U.S. Velocity hf U.S. Velocity hf

SYSTEM DESIGN
Gal/Min. Ft/Sec. Friction Gal/Min. Ft/Sec. Friction Gal/Min. Ft/Sec. Friction
3/8” PIPE 1-1/4” PIPE 3” PIPE
1.4 2.35 9.03 12 2.57 2.85 50 2.17 .762
1.6 2.68 11.6 14 3.00 3.77 60 2.60 1.06
1.8 3.02 14.3 16 3.43 4.83 70 3.04 1.40
2.0 3.36 17.3 18 3.86 6.00 80 3.47 1.81
2.5 4.20 26.0 20 4.29 7.30 90 3.91 2.26
3.0 5.04 36.0 22 4.72 8.72 100 4.34 2.75
3.5 5.88 49.0 24 5.15 10.27 120 5.21 3.88
4.0 6.72 63.2 26 5.58 11.94 140 6.08 5.19
5.0 8.40 96.1 28 6.01 13.7 160 6.94 6.68
6 10.08 136 30 6.44 15.6 180 7.81 8.38
7 11.8 182 35 7.51 21.9 200 8.68 10.2
8 13.4 236 40 8.58 27.1 220 9.55 12.3
9 15.1 297 45 9.65 33.8 240 10.4 14.5
10 16.8 364 50 10.7 41.4 260 11.3 16.9
55 11.8 49.7 280 12.2 19.5
1/2” PIPE 60 12.9 58.6 300 13.0 22.1
2 2.11 5.50 65 13.9 68.6 350 15.2 30
2.5 2.64 8.24 70 15.0 79.2
3 3.17 11.5 4” PIPE
75 16.1 90.6
3.5 3.70 15.3 100 2.52 .718
4.0 4.22 19.7 1-1/2” PIPE 120 3.02 1.01
5 5.28 29.7 16 2.52 2.26 140 3.53 1.35
6 6.34 42.0 18 2.84 2.79 160 4.03 1.71
7 7.39 56.0 20 3.15 3.38 180 4.54 2.14
8 8.45 72.1 22 3.47 4.05 200 5.04 2.61
9 9.50 90.1 24 3.78 4.76 220 5.54 3.13
10 10.56 110.6 26 4.10 5.54 240 6.05 3.70
12 12.7 156 28 4.41 6.34 260 6.55 4.30
14 14.8 211 30 4.73 7.20 280 7.06 4.95
16 16.9 270 35 5.51 9.63 300 7.56 5.63
40 6.30 12.41 350 8.82 7.54
3/4” PIPE 45 7.04 15.49 400 10.10 9.75
4.0 2.41 4.85 50 7.88 18.9 450 11.4 12.3
5 3.01 7.27 55 8.67 22.7 500 12.6 14.4
6 3.61 10.2 60 9.46 26.7 550 13.9 18.1
7 4.21 13.6 65 10.24 31.2 600 15.1 21.4
8 4.81 17.3 70 11.03 36.0
9 5.42 21.6 5” PIPE
75 11.8 41.2
10 6.02 26.5 160 2.57 .557
80 12.6 46.6
12 7.22 37.5 180 2.89 .698
85 13.4 52.4
14 8.42 50.0 200 3.21 .847
90 14.2 58.7
16 9.63 64.8 220 3.53 1.01
95 15.0 65.0
18 10.8 80.9 240 3.85 1.19
100 15.8 71.6
20 12.0 99.0 260 4.17 1.38
22 13.2 120 2” PIPE 300 4.81 1.82
24 14.4 141 25 2.39 1.48 350 5.61 2.43
26 15.6 165 30 2.87 2.10 400 6.41 3.13
28 16.8 189 35 3.35 2.79 450 7.22 3.92
40 3.82 3.57 500 8.02 4.79
1” PIPE 45 4.30 4.40 600 9.62 6.77
6 2.23 3.16 50 4.78 5.37 700 11.2 9.13
8 2.97 5.20 60 5.74 7.58 800 12.8 11.8
10 3.71 7.90 70 6.69 10.2 900 14.4 14.8
12 4.45 11.1 80 7.65 13.1 1000 16.0 18.2
14 5.20 14.7 90 8.60 16.3
16 5.94 19.0 6” PIPE
100 9.56 20.0
18 6.68 23.7 220 2.44 .411
120 11.5 28.5
20 7.42 28.9 240 2.66 .482
140 13.4 38.2
22 8.17 34.8 260 2.89 .560
160 15.3 49.5
24 8.91 41.0 300 3.33 .733
26 9.65 47.8 2-1/2” PIPE 350 3.89 .980
28 10.39 55.1 35 2.35 1.15 400 4.44 1.25
30 11.1 62.9 40 2.68 1.47 450 5.00 1.56
35 13.0 84.4 45 3.02 1.84 500 5.55 1.91
40 14.8 109 50 3.35 2.23 600 6.66 2.69
45 16.7 137 60 4.02 3.13 700 7.77 3.60
50 18.6 168 70 4.69 4.18 800 8.88 4.64
80 5.36 5.36 900 9.99 5.81
* Aging Factor Included 90 6.03 6.69 1000 11.1 7.10
100 6.70 8.18 1100 12.2 8.52
120 8.04 11.5 1200 13.3 10.1
140 9.38 15.5 1300 14.4 11.7
160 10.7 20.0 1400 15.5 13.6
180 12.1 25.2
200 13.4 30.7
220 14.7 37.1
240 16.1 43.8

77
 Moisture Content of Air

Figure 68: Ashrae Psychrometric Chart No. 1

SYSTEM DESIGN

78
 Friction Head Loss for Water

Table 36: Equivalent Length in Feet of New Straight Pipe for Valves and Fittings for Turbulent Flow Only
Fittings Pipe Size

SYSTEM DESIGN
1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 11/4 11/2 2 21/2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24
Steel 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11 13
Screwed C.I.
9.0 11
Regular Steel .92 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12 14 17 18 21 23 25 30
Flanged C.I.
90° ELL 3.6 4.8 7.2 9.8 12 15 17 19 22 24 28
Steel 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.6 4.0 4.6
Screwed C.I.
3.3 3.7
Long Radius Steel 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10 11 12 14
Flanged C.I.
90° ELL 2.8 3.4 4.7 5.7 6.8 7.8 8.6 9.6 11 11 13
Steel .34 .52 .71 .92 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.2 4.0 5.5
Screwed C.I.
3.3 4.5
Regular Steel .45 .59 .81 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.6 3.5 4.5 5.6 7.7 9.0 11 13 15 16 18 22
Flanged C.I.
45° ELL 2.1 2.9 4.5 6.3 8.1 9.7 12 13 15 17 20
Steel .79 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.6 5.6 7.7 9.3 12 17
Screwed C.I.
9.9 14
Tee- Line Steel .69 .82 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.7 5.2 6.0 6.4 7.2 7.6 8.2 9.6
Flow Flanged C.I.
1.9 2.2 3.1 3.9 4.6 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.2 7.7 8.8
Steel 2.4 3.5 4.2 5.3 6.6 8.7 9.9 12 13 17 21
Screwed C.I.
14 17
Tee- Branch Steel 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.5 9.4 12 15 18 24 30 34 37 43 47 52 62
Flanged C.I.
Flow 7.7 10 15 20 25 30 35 39 44 49 57
Steel 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11 13
Screwed C.I.
9.0 11
Reg. Steel .92 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12 14 17 19 21 23 25 30
180° Flanged C.I. 3.6 4.8 7.2 9.8 12 15 17 19 22 24 28
Return Long Rad Steel 1.1 1.3 1..6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10 11 12 14
Bend Flanged C.I. 2.8 3.4 4.7 5.7 6.8 7.8 8.6 9.6 11 11 13
Steel 21 22 22 24 29 37 42 54 62 79 110
Screwed C.I.
65 86
Steel 38 40 45 54 59 70 77 94 120 150 190 260 310 390
Globe Valve Flanged C.I.
77 99 150 210 270 330
Steel .32 .45 .56 .67 .84 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.5
Screwed C.I.
1.6 2.0
Steel 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
Gate Valve Flanged C.I.
2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Steel 12.8 15 15 15 17 18 18 18 18 18 18
Screwed C.I.
15 15
Steel 15 15 17 18 18 21 22 28 38 50 63 90 120 140 160 190 210 240 300
Angle Valve Flanged C.I.
23 31 52 74 98 120 150 170 200 230 280
Steel 7.2 7.3 8.0 8.8 11 13 15 19 22 27 38
Screwed C.I.
22 31
Swing Check Steel 3.8 5.3 7.2 10 12 17 21 27 38 50 63 90 120 140
Flanged C.I.
Valve 22 31 52 74 98 120
Coupling Steel .14 .18 .21 .24 .29 .36 .39 .45 .47 .53 .65
or Union Screwed C.I.
.44 .52
Bell Mouth Steel .04 .07 .10 .13 .18 .26 .31 .43 .52 .67 .95 1.3 1.6 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.7 5.3 6.1 7.6
Inlet C.I. .55 .77 1.3 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.7 7.0
Square Steel .44 .68 .96 1.3 1.8 2.6 3.1 4.3 5.2 6.7 9.5 13 16 23 29 35 40 47 53 61 76
Mouth Inlet C.I. 5.5 7.7 13 19 24 30 36 43 50 57 70
Re-entrant Steel .88 1.4 1.9 2.6 3.6 5.1 6.2 8.5 10 13 19 25 32 45 58 70 80 95 110 120 150
Pipe C.I. 11 15 26 37 49 61 73 86 100 110 140
Y- 4.6 5.0 6.6 7.7 18 20 27 29 34 42 53 61
Strainer
Sudden
2
Enlarge- h = (V1 - V2)2 FEET OF LIQUID; IF V2 = 0 h = V1 FEET OF LIQUID
ment 2g 2g

Reprinted from the STANDARDS OF THE HYDRAULIC INSTITUTE, Eleventh Edition.

Copyright 1965 by the Hydraulic Institute, 122 East 42nd Street, New York, New York 10017.

79
 ANSI Flange Standards

Table 37: ANSI Flange Standards

All Dimensions are in Inches
SYSTEM DESIGN

Pipe Size 1/2 3/4 1 11/4 11/2 2 21/2 3 31/2 4 5 6 8 10 12

125 lb CAST IRON – ANSI
Diameter of Flange – – 41/4 45/8 5 6 7 71/2 81/2 9 10 11 131/2 16 19
Thickness of Flange (min)1 – – 7/16 1
/2 9
/16 5
/8 11
/16 3/4 13
/16 15/16 15/16 1 11/8 13/16 11/4
Diameter of Bolt Circle – – 31/8 31/2 37/8 43/4 51/2 6 7 71/2 81/2 91/2 113/4 141/4 17
Number of Bolts – – 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 12 12
Diameter of Bolts – – 1
/2 1
/2 1
/2 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 7
/8 7
/8
1
125 lb flanges have plain faces.

250 lb CAST IRON – ANSI

Diameter of Flange – – 47/8 51/4 61/8 61/2 71/2 81/4 9 10 11 121/2 15 171/2 201/2
Thickness of Flange (min)2 – – 11/16 3/4 13
/16 7/8 1 11/8 13/16 11/4 13/8 17/16 15/8 17/8 2
Diameter of Raised Face – – 211/16 31/16 39/16 43/16 415/16 511/16 65/16 615/16 85/16 911/16 1115/16 141/16 167/16
Diameter of Bolt Circle – – 31/2 37/8 41/2 5 57/8 65/8 71/4 77/8 91/4 105/8 13 151/4 173/4
Number of Bolts – – 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 16 16
Diameter of Bolts – – 5
/8 5
/8 3
/4 5
/8 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 7
/8 1 11/8
2
250 lb flanges have a 1/16” raised face which is included in the flange thickness dimensions.

150 lb BRONZE – ANSI

Diameter of Flange 31/2 37/8 41/4 45/8 5 6 7 71/2 81/2 9 10 11 131/2 16 19
Thickness of Flange (min)3 5
/16 11
/32 3/8 13
/32 7/16 1
/2 9
/16 5
/8 11
/16 11/16 3/4 13
/16 15/16 1 11/16
Diameter of Bolt Circle 23/8 23/4 31/8 31/2 37/8 43/4 51/2 6 7 71/2 81/2 91/2 113/4 141/4 17
Number of Bolts 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 12 12
Diameter of Bolts 1
/2 1
/2 1
/2 1
/2 1
/2 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 7
/8 7
/8
3
150 lb bronze flanges have plain faces with two concentric gasket-retaining grooves between the port and the bolt holes.

300 lb BRONZE – ANSI

Diameter of Flange 33/4 45/8 47/8 51/4 61/8 61/2 71/2 81/4 9 10 11 121/2 15 – –
Thickness of Flange (min)4 1
/2 17
/32 19/32 5/8 11
/16 3/4 13
/16 29/32 31/32 11/16 11/8 13/16 13/8 – –
Diameter of Bolt Circle 25/8 31/4 31/2 37/8 41/2 5 57/8 65/8 71/4 77/8 91/4 105/8 13 – –
Number of Bolts 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 – –
Diameter of Bolts 1
/2 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 3
/4 5
/8 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 7
/8 – –
4
300 lb bronze flanges have plain faces with two concentric gasket-retaining grooves between the port and the bolt holes.

150 lb STEEL – ANSI

Diameter of Flange 31/2 37/8 41/4 45/8 5 6 7 71/2 81/2 9 10 11 131/2 16 19
Thickness of Flange (min)5 – – 7/16 1
/2 9
/16 5
/8 11
/16 3/4 13
/16 15/16 15/16 1 11/8 13/16 11/4
Diameter of Raised Face 13/8 111/16 2 21/2 27/8 35/8 41/8 5 51/2 63/16 75/16 81/2 105/8 123/4 15
Diameter of Bolt Circle 23/8 23/4 31/8 31/2 37/8 43/4 51/2 6 7 71/2 81/2 91/2 113/4 141/4 17
Number of Bolts 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 12 12
Diameter of Bolts 1
/2 1
/2 1
/2 1
/2 1
/2 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 7
/8 7
/8
5
150 lb steel flanges have a 1/16”raised face which is included in the flange thickness dimensions.

300 lb STEEL – ANSI

Diameter of Flange 33/4 45/8 47/8 51/4 61/8 61/2 71/2 81/4 9 10 11 121/2 15 171/2 201/2
Thickness of Flange (min)6 – – 11/16 3/4 13
/16 7/8 1 11/8 13/16 11/4 13/8 17/16 15/8 17/8 2
Diameter of Raised Face 13/8 111/16 2 21/2 2-7/8 35/8 41/8 5 51/2 63/16 75/16 81/2 105/8 123/4 15
Diameter of Bolt Circle 25/8 31/4 31/2 37/8 41/2 5 57/8 65/8 71/4 77/8 91/4 105/8 13 151/4 173/4
Number of Bolts 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 16 16
Diameter of Bolts 1
/2 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 3
/4 5
/8 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 3
/4 7
/8 1 11/8
6
300 lb steel flanges have a 1/16” raised face which is included in the flange thickness dimensions.

400 lb STEEL – ANSI

Diameter of Flange 33/4 45/8 47/8 51/4 61/8 61/2 71/2 81/4 9 10 11 121/2 15 171/2 201/2
Thickness of Flange (min)7 9
/16 5
/8 11
/16 13/16 7/8 1 11/8 11/4 13/8 13/8 11/2 15/8 17/8 21/8 21/4
Diameter of Raised Face 13/8 111/16 2 21/2 27/8 35/8 41/8 5 51/2 63/16 75/16 81/2 105/8 123/4 15
Diameter of Bolt Circle 25/8 31/4 31/2 37/8 41/2 5 57/8 65/8 71/4 77/8 91/4 105/8 13 151/4 173/4
Number of Bolts 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 16 16
Diameter of Bolts 1
/2 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 3
/4 5
/8 3
/4 3
/4 7
/8 7
/8 7
/8 7
/8 1 11/8 11/4
7
400 lb steel flanges have a 1/4” raised face which is NOT included in the flange thickness dimensions.

600 lb STEEL – ANSI

Diameter of Flange 33/4 45/8 47/8 51/4 61/8 61/2 71/2 81/4 9 103/4 13 14 161/2 20 22
Thickness of Flange (min)8 9
/16 5
/8 11
/16 13/16 7/8 1 11/8 11/4 13/8 11/2 13/4 17/8 23/16 21/2 25/8
Diameter of Raised Face 13/8 111/16 2 21/2 27/8 35/8 41/8 5 51/2 63/16 75/16 81/2 105/8 123/4 15
Diameter ofBolt Circle 25/8 31/4 31/2 37/8 41/2 5 57/8 65/8 71/4 81/2 101/2 111/2 133/4 17 191/4
Number of Bolts 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 16 20
Diameter of Bolts 1
/2 5
/8 5
/8 5
/8 3
/4 5
/8 3
/4 3
/4 7
/8 7
/8 1 1 11/8 11/4 11/4
8
600 lb steel flanges have a 1/4” raised face which is NOT included in the flange thickness dimensions.

80
 Pipe Dimensions

Table 38: Schedule 40 Pipe Dimensions

Length of Pipe

SYSTEM DESIGN
Diameters Transverse Areas per Sq. Foot of Number

Nominal External Internal Cubic Feet Weight Threads
Size External Internal Thickness External Internal Metal Surface Surface per Foot per Foot per Inch
Inches Inches Inches Inches Sq. Ins. Sq. Ins. Sq. Ins. Feet Feet of Pipe Pounds of Screw
1/8 .405 .269 .068 .129 .057 .072 9.431 14.199 .00039 .244 27
1/4 .540 .364 .088 .229 .104 .125 7.073 10.493 .00072 .424 18
3/8 .675 .493 .091 .358 .191 .167 5.658 7.747 .00133 .567 18
1/2 .840 .622 .109 .554 .304 .250 4.547 6.141 .00211 .850 14
3/4 1.050 .824 .113 .866 .533 .333 3.637 4.635 .00370 1.130 14
1 1.315 1.049 .133 1.358 .864 .494 2.904 3.641 .00600 1.678 111/2
11/4 1.660 1.380 .140 2.164 1.495 .669 2.301 2.767 .01039 2.272 111/2
1 /2 1.900 1.610 .145 2.835 2.036 .799 2.010 2.372 .01414 2.717
1
111/2
2 2.375 2.067 .154 4.430 3.355 1.075 1.608 1.847 .02330 3.652 111/2
21/2 2.875 2.469 .203 6.492 4.788 1.704 1.328 1.547 .03325 5.793 8
3 3.500 3.068 .216 9.621 7.393 2.228 1.091 1.245 .05134 7.575 8
31/2 4.000 3.548 .226 12.56 9.886 2.680 .954 1.076 .06866 9.109 8
4 4.500 4.026 .237 15.90 12.73 3.174 .848 .948 .08840 10.790 8
5 5.563 5.047 .258 24.30 20.00 4.300 .686 .756 .1389 14.61 8
6 6.625 6.065 .280 34.47 28.89 5.581 .576 .629 .2006 18.97 8
8 8.625 7.981 .322 58.42 50.02 8.399 .442 .478 .3552 28.55 8
10 10.750 10.020 .365 90.76 78.85 11.90 .355 .381 .5476 40.48 8
12 12.750 11.938 .406 127.64 111.9 15.74 .299 .318 .7763 53.6
14 14.000 13.125 .437 153.94 135.3 18.64 .272 .280 .9354 63.0
16 16.000 15.000 .500 201.05 176.7 24.35 .238 .254 1.223 78.0
18 18.000 16.874 .563 254.85 224.0 30.85 .212 .226 1.555 105.0
20 20.000 18.814 .593 314.15 278.0 36.15 .191 .203 1.926 123.0
24 24.000 22.626 .687 452.40 402.1 50.30 .159 .169 2.793 171.0

Table 39: Schedule 80 Pipe Dimensions

Length of Pipe
Diameters Transverse Areas per Sq. Foot of Number

Nominal External Internal Cubic Feet Weight Threads
Size External Internal Thickness External Internal Metal Surface Surface per Foot per Foot per Inch
Inches Inches Inches Inches Sq. Ins. Sq. Ins. Sq. Ins. Feet Feet of Pipe Pounds of Screw
1/8 .405 .215 .095 .129 .036 .093 9.431 17.750 .00025 .314 27
1/4 .540 .302 .119 .229 .072 .157 7.073 12.650 .00050 .535 18
3/8 .675 .423 .126 .358 .141 .217 5.658 9.030 .00098 .738 18
1/2 .840 .546 .147 .554 .234 .320 4.547 7.000 .00163 1.00 14
3/4 1.050 .742 1.54 .866 .433 .433 3.637 5.15 .00300 1.47 14
1 1.315 .957 .179 1.358 .719 .639 2.904 3.995 .00500 2.17 111/2
11/4 1.660 1.278 .191 2.164 1.283 .881 2.301 2.990 .00891 3.00 111/2
11/2 1.900 1.500 .200 2.835 1.767 1.068 2.010 2.542 .01227 3.65 111/2
2 2.375 1.939 .218 4.430 2.953 1.477 1.608 1.970 .02051 5.02 111/2
21/2 2.875 2.323 .276 6.492 4.238 2.254 1.328 1.645 .02943 7.66 8
3 3.500 2.900 .300 9.621 6.605 3.016 1.091 1.317 .04587 10.3 8
31/2 4.000 3.364 .318 12.56 8.888 3.678 .954 1.135 .06172 12.5 8
4 4.500 3.826 .337 15.90 11.497 4.407 .848 .995 .0798 14.9 8
5 5.563 4.813 .375 24.30 18.194 6.112 .686 .792 .1263 20.8 8
6 6.625 5.761 .432 34.47 26.067 8.300 .576 .673 .1810 28.6 8
8 8.625 7.625 .500 58.42 45.663 12.76 .442 .501 .3171 43.4 8
10 10.750 9.564 .593 90.76 71.84 18.92 .355 .400 .4989 64.4 8
12 12.750 11.376 .687 127.64 101.64 26.00 .299 .336 .7058 88.6
14 14.000 12.500 .750 153.94 122.72 31.22 .272 .306 .8522 107.0
16 16.000 14.314 .843 201.05 160.92 40.13 .238 .263 1.117 137.0
18 18.000 16.126 .937 254.85 204.24 50.61 .212 .237 1.418 171.0
20 20.000 17.938 1.031 314.15 252.72 61.43 .191 .208 1.755 209.0
24 24.000 21.564 1.218 452.40 365.22 87.18 .159 .177 2.536 297.0

81
82
 Hook-up

Section 2
Application
Diagrams
 Figure II-1
Boiler Steam Header From
Boiler

To Plant

Thermo- Thermo-
Spira-tec Dynamic Spira-tec
Loss Dynamic Loss
Steam Trap Steam Trap Supervised
Detector with Integral Detector Start-up
with Integral
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer Strainer Valve

Boiler Steam Headers provide collect- diameter as to drop the steam veloc- boiler. These two locations form the
ing vessels for the steam flowing from ity through it to a low value even with exception to the general rule that mains
one or more boilers, and distribute it maximum flow in either direction. The drip points rarely need a steam trap as
to as many mains as are needed to header can then act also as a separa- large as the 1/2” size and can usually
supply the plant. Often the flow may tor, and generously sized steam traps be fitted with 1/2” Low Capacity traps.
be in either direction along the header can be fitted at each end. Instead, traps in 3/4” and even 1”
depending on which boilers and which The boiler header and the separator, sizes are often used. The potential for
supply lines are being used. Selecting which should be fitted in the steam steam losses when these larger traps
the ideal location for the drip point is take off from modern high performance eventually become worn is increased,
thus complicated. It is recommended to packaged boilers, may sometimes and the use of Spira-tec steam trap
make the header of such an increased have to cope with carryover from the monitors is especially valid.

LP Steam Main

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap In the case of low pressure mains,
Strainer
the use of Float and Thermostatic
traps is recommended for the drip
stations. The introduction of F & T
traps with steel bodies, third gen-
Spira-tec
eration capsule type or bimetallic
Loss air vents, and operating mecha-
Detector nisms suitable for pressures up
to 465 psi, means that F & T
traps can also be used on properly
Supervised drained lines where waterhammer
Start-up
Valve does not occur, even at pres-
sures which would formerly have
excluded them. An auxiliary air
vent is recommended for the end
Condensate of all mains where the system is
Figure II-2 Return started up automatically.
Draining End of Low Pressure Steam Main

84
Figure II-3 Drip points along the run of the steam
lines, and at the bottom of any risers,
Draining and Air Venting Steam Lines
should incorporate large diameter
Balanced collecting pockets. Equal tees are
Pressure useful in sizes up through 6” and
Thermostatic
Air Vent larger size pipes can have pockets 2
or 3 sizes smaller than the main but
not less than 6”. The terminal points
of the mains should have automatic
air vents, and equal tees again pro-
vide convenient collecting pockets
for both condensate and air when
installed as shown.

Spira-tec
Loss Detector
Thermo-
Dynamic
Steam Trap
Spira-tec Inverted with Integral

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Loss Bucket Supervised Strainer
Detector Steam Trap Start-up
with Integral Valve
Strainer

Condensate Main

Figure II-4
Draining Expansion Loops

Thermo-
Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Spira-tec Spira-tec
Loss Loss
Detector Detector

Thermo- Condensate Return

Strainer Dynamic
Steam
Supervised Trap
Start-up Expansion loops are often fitted in
Valve
the vertical plane, with the loop either
below or above the line. When below
the line, condensate can collect in
the bottom of the loop. Above the
line, it will collect just in front of the
loop, at the foot of the riser. Drainage
points are necessary in each case,
as shown.

85
 Figure II-5 Both HP and LP mains often must be
drained to a condensate return line
Draining Steam Mains to Return Main at Same Level
at the same elevation as the steam
line. The best location for the traps
is then below the steam line, with a
riser after the trap to the top of the
return line.

Condensate
HP Main LP
Main Main
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap with Spira-tec
Integral Strainer Loss
Connector Detector Strainer

Check Check
Valve Valve
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector Float &
Thermostatic
Supervised Steam Trap
Start-up
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Valve

Spira-tec
Figure II-6 Loss
Detector
Trapping Hook-up for Start-up of Steam Main

For supervised startup of steam Thermo-Dynamic Steam

Trap with Integral Strainer
mains, a manual bypass is fitted so
that condensate can be drained by
gravity while the line pressure is too
low for it to be handled by the trap
Thermo-Dynamic
at an adequate rate. If a second trap Spira-tec Steam Trap
is fitted in the bypass line, a similar Supervised Loss with Integral
Start-up Detector Strainer
hookup is obtained which is suitable Valve
for automatic startup.

Condensate
Return

Figure II-7 Check

Valve
Hook-up with Condensate Return Line at High Level
Thermo-Dynamic
Spira-tec
Often the normal trap discharges to Loss
Steam Trap
with Integral
a return line at higher elevation. The Detector
Strainer
startup trap must always discharge
by gravity so here it is separated
from the “normal running” trap. A
Thermoton is used so that it will close
automatically when the condensate
temperature shows that warm up of Liquid Expansion
the main is nearing completion. Steam Trap
Drain

86
Figure II-8
Draining Steam Main where Trap
must be at Higher Level Set down
about 2”

Steam
Main Thermo-
Spira-tec Dynamic
H Loss Steam Trap
Detector with Integral
Strainer Condensate
Main

Generous Loop Seal

Collecting (where “L”
Pocket exceeds “H”) In some cases, the existence of other service or process
L lines alongside the stream main is combined with the
need to lift the condensate from the drip point to higher
level. Without the loop seal, clearance of condensate
from length L and replacement with steam means that for
appreciable times steam passes up length H and holds
the trap closed, although condensate may be collecting in
the pocket. The arrangement shown minimizes this prob-

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
lem and gives most consistent performance of the trap.

Figure II-9
Condensate Drainage to Reinforced Plastic Return Line, with Overheat Protection

T44 Temperature Control

(set to open at temperature High
On some extended sites, limit of pipe) Temperature
steam distribution is under- Drain
ground and drip points are
inside “steam pits”. Steam
main drip traps should dis-
charge into gravity return Condensate
systems, but at times it may Return Pipe
be necessary to connect them
directly to a pumped conden-
sate line. To avoid failure of
plastic or fiberglass piping
caused by high temperature Cooling
from steam leakage when Chamber
eventually the trap becomes
Steam Main
worn, a cooling chamber and
control as shown can be used.
If the temperature of the con-
densate leaving the chamber
ever reaches the safe limit, Main Drip
Steam Trap
the control valve opens. Diffuser
Condensate is discharged
above grade, where it can Check
be seen, until its temperature Valve
Spira-tec
falls again below the limiting Loss
value. Detector
Supervised
Start-up
Check Valve
Valve

87
 Figure II-10 Typical Steam Tracer Trapping Arrangements
Insulation

Product Line Product Line

Tracer Tracer
Spira-tec Spira-tec
Loss Loss
Detector Strainer Detector

A. TD traps on high temperature tracing Thermo-

application where tracer line must be A Dynamic Balanced
Steam Trap Pressure B
drained clear of condensate.
with Integral Thermostatic
B. TSS300 traps on low temperature tracing Strainer Steam Trap
where product temperature is below 150˚F
and some of sensible heat in condensate
may be utilized to improve efficiency.
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

To
Strainer Condensate
Return
Condensate
Collection
Steam Manifold
Ambient
Sensing Distribution Steam Trap Station
Steam Temperature Manifold with Test Valves
Main Control

Steam to Condensate
Tracers from Tracers

Figure II-11
Steam Tracing System with Steam Trap Station
with Test Valves
Preassembled Manifolds
Steam will automatically shut down
as ambient temperatures rise above
product solidification temperature.
Select self acting temperature control
for number of tracer lines.

To drain during supervised To Drain

startup or during shutdown

Steam is uniformly distributed to tracers by forged steel manifold with integral

piston valves. After supplying heat to tracer lines, condensate is collected in fab-
ricated manifold preassembled with steam trap stations. Three-way test valves
allow for startup purging, checking of lines for blockage, isolation of trap for main-
tenance, and visual testing of steam trap operation. Condensate manifold has an
internal siphon pipe to reduce waterhammer and provide freeze protection.

88
Figure II-12
Typical Pressure Reducing Valve Station
Safety
Valve

Moisture Drip
Steam Separator Pan
Supply Strainer Elbow

Reduced
Steam
Pilot Operated Pressure
Pressure Control Valve
Spira-tec
Loss Check
Detector Valve

Select inlet piping for reasonable

Strainer Float & velocity and expand downstream
Thermostatic
Steam Trap for equal flow rate.

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Figure II-13
Parallel Operation of Pressure Reducing Valves

Safety
Valve
Pressure
Sensing Line
Drip
Pan
Strainer Elbow

Pilot Operated
Pressure Control Valve

Pressure
Sensing Line
Moisture Reduced
Steam Steam
Supply Separator
Strainer Pressure

Pilot Operated
Pressure Control Valve
Spira-tec
Loss Check
Detector Valve

Set lead valve 2 psi above desired

Strainer Float & set pressure and set lag valve 2 psi
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
below desired set pressure.

89
 Figure II-14
Series Pressure Reducing Valve Station for High Turndown Rations

Safety
Pressure Pressure Valve
Sensing Sensing
Line Line
Drip
Moisture
Pan
Separator
Elbow

Steam Strainer Strainer Reduced

Supply Steam
Pilot Operated Pressure
Pressure Control Valve
Pilot Operated Check
Pressure Control Valve Valve
Strainer

Spira-tec Float &

Loss Check Spira-tec Thermostatic
Detector Valve Loss Steam Trap
Detector
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer Float &

Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Note: Intermediate pressure takeoff requires an additional safety valve.

Figure II-15
Hook-up for Remote Operation of 25 PRM Pressure Reducing Valve Safety
Valve
5/16” Copper
Tubing or 1/4” Pipe Drip
Pan
Moisture Elbow
Noise Diffuser
Separator (if required)

Steam Strainer Reduced

Supply Steam
Pressure
Main
Control Valve

Remote
Pressure
Pilot
1/2” Pipe

Check Check
Valve Valve
Check
Strainer Valve

Float & Float &

Thermostatic Thermostatic
Steam Trap Steam Trap
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Limit pilot to 15 ft. drop below main

valve and drain all supply tubing. If
pilot is mounted above main valve,
pilot line drip traps can be eliminated.
For longer distance an air loaded
pilot should be used.

90
Figure II-16 Safety
Installation of Pressure Reducing Valve in “Tight Spaces” Valve

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Reduced
Steam
Pressure

Pilot Operated
Pressure
Ten Pipe
Control Diameters
Valve
Moisture
Separator
Strainer

Steam Float &

Supply Noise Diffuser Thermostatic
(if required) Steam Trap

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Check
Strainer Valve Check
Strainer Valve
Check
Strainer Valve

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Figure II-17
Low Capacity Pressure Reducing Station

10 Pipe
Direct Diameters Safety
Operated Minimum Valve
Pressure
Reducing
Valve
Drip
Pressure Pan
Sensing Line Elbow
Pitch Down
Strainer

Reduced
Steam
Pressure

Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

91
 Figure II-18
25 BP Back Pressure Controls used to Restrict Supply to Low Priority Uses at Times of Overload

Pilot Operated
Pilot Operated Pressure Reducing
Back Pressure Valve and Back Pressure Safety
Valve Valve

Strainer Drip
Pan
Elbow
Steam to
Non-essential
Service
Strainer Reduced Steam
Pressure to
Non-essential Service
Steam Supply
from Boiler Steam to
Priority Use

Header
Thermo-Dynamic
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer
At times of peak draw off, boilers which have sufficient
capacity to meet average load conditions may become
overloaded. This can cause carryover and priming, or even
lockout of boilers on low water. The pressure in the steam Spira-tec
Loss
lines falls and essential services may be interrupted. The Detector
use of back pressure controls in the supplies to non-essen-
tial loads allows these to be automatically shut down, in
order of priority, at peak load times while maintaining supply
to more important loads.

Figure II-19
Reducing Steam Pressure Using 25PA Control Valve with Remote Air Valve

10 Pipe Diameters
Minimum from Safety
Valve Outlet Valve
Air Loaded
Pilot Pressure Drip
Sensing Line Pan
Pitch Down Elbow
Moisture
Steam Separator
Supply Strainer

Reduced
Steam
Pressure

Air Operated
Control Valve
Filter/Regulator

Air
Supply
Spira-tec
Loss Check
Detector Valve

Strainer Depending on pilot selected, reduced

steam pressure will be approximately 1:1,
Float & 4:1 or 6:1 times the air loading pressure
Thermostatic sent to the pilot.
Steam Trap

92
Figure II-20 Controller

Typical Pneumatic Single Stage Safety

Pressure Reducing Valve Station Valve

Control Supply Drip

Signal Air Pan
Moisture Elbow
Steam
Supply Separator
Strainer

Noise Diffuser Reduced

Pneumatic
(if required) Steam
Control
Float & Pressure
Valve
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Check
Strainer Valve

Controller Pneumatic
Control Valve
with Positioner

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Control Signal

Supply Air Supply Air

Moisture
Separator Steam
Vacuum Strainer Supply
Breaker

Float &
Sensor Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer
Heat Exchanger
Check
Float & Valve
Thermostatic Spira-tec
Steam Trap Loss
Detector

Liquid in/out Strainer

Check
Valve
Figure II-21 Spira-tec
Loss
Pneumatic Temperature Control of Heat Exchanger Detector

Figure II-22
Hook-up for 25 TRM Temperature Control Remotely Mounted (within 15 ft. of Main Valve)
5/16” Copper Tubing
or 1/4” Pipe

Steam Moisture
Separator Main
Supply Strainer Control Valve

Regulated
Steam to
Process

Remote
1/2” Pipe Temp.
Check
Pilot
Strainer Valve
Sensor

Float & Check

Thermostatic Float & Valve
Steam Trap Thermostatic
Steam Trap

93
 Figure II-23
Pressure Reducing Valve for Pressure Powered Pump Motive Steam

Steam
Supply
Safety
Valve
Direct or Pilot Operated
Pressure Reducing Valve

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Strainer

Pressure Surge Reservoir

1-1/2” or 2” diameter, 6’ long
with eccentric fittings on ends

Strainer Motive
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Steam
to Pump
Thermo-
Dynamic
Steam Trap

Figure II-24
Heat-up, Pressuring and Shutdown of Steam Mains
using On/Off Control Valves and Programmer

Automatic
Time
Switch
Steam
Supply Power

Steam to
Strainer System

Hand Valve
to adjust
Pilot Operated flow rate
On/Off Control Valve Adjustable
(for heatup only) Pressurestat
(with N.O. Switch)

Steam
Strainer Main

Pilot Operated
Spira-tec On/Off Control Valve Spira-tec
Loss (for maximum flow) Loss
Detector Detector

Thermo-Dynamic Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap Steam Trap
with Integral with Integral
Strainer Strainer

94
 Figure II-25
Complete Condensate
Steam Moisture
Separator
Drainage from Air Heater
Supply Strainer Coil under “Stall” with
Combination Pump/Trap
Steam Trap Station
in a Closed Loop System
Spira-tec
Loss Detector Direct or
Pilot Operated
Temperature
Strainer Control
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Temperature
Control
Sensor

Air Heated
Inlet Coil Air
Outlet

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
See Fig. II-25A for When the steam pressure within the
the preassembled Check coil is high enough to push conden-
Process Condensate Valve Thermostatic
Air Vent sate through the steam trap, against
Removal Module
Motive
any back pressure from a lift to higher
Drain
Steam to Safe level or into a pressurized line, the
Supply Place pump is inoperative. If the action of
Condensate
Return the temperature control lowers the
coil pressure sufficiently, the conden-
sate flow stalls. Water backing up into
Reservoir the PPP body brings it into operation
and the pump uses motive steam to
Strainer
push the condensate through the trap
Thermo- to the return line.
Dynamic
Steam Trap At the end of each discharge stroke,
the motive steam in the pump body is
exhausted through a balance line to
the top of the liquid reservoir. A ther-
Float & Pressure
Thermostatic Powered mostatic air vent on the balance line
Steam Trap Pump vents air under startup conditions,
even if the pump/trap is fully flooded
with condensate at this time.

Figure II-25A
Process Condensate Removal Module
A preassembled modular pumping system
provides a sole source solution for air
heater coil applications.
95
 Figure II-26 Steam Steam
Supply Supply
Controlling and Draining Preheat and
Reheat Coils in Vented Condensate
System with Freeze Resistant Piping
for Makeup Air
Vacuum
Breaker
Vacuum
Breaker

Pilot Operated Pilot Operated

Temperature Temperature
Control Valve Control Valve

Thermo- Drain Thermo-

Dynamic to Safe Dynamic
Thermostatic Drain Place
Air Vent Steam Trap Steam Trap
to Safe with Integral with Integral
Place Strainer Strainer
Thermostatic
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Air Vent

Temperature
Control
Sensor
Temperature
Outdoor Heated Control
Air Air Sensor

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Liquid Liquid
Expansion Expansion
Steam Trap Float & Spira-tec Steam Trap
Thermostatic Loss
Spira-tec Steam Trap Detector
Loss
Detector
Motive
Supply

Vented Receiver Condensate

Return
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Each coil must be individually drained

Pressure Strainer Float &
to provide for proper and accurate Powered Thermostatic
control. Strainers are not fitted in front Pump Steam Trap
of the traps in case they become par-
tially blocked. Freeze resistant coils
must have vacuum breaker, traps
sized for full load with 1/2 psi differ-
ential and unobstructed piping to an
atmospheric return system.

96
 Steam
Supply Vacuum Vent
Temperature Breaker
Sensor Vertical
Vacuum Air Coil Thermostatic
Breaker Air Vent
Pilot Operated
Temperature
Strainer Control Valve

*
* Condensate
Motive Return
Supply
Float &
Thermostatic
Float & Steam Trap
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Spira-tec Thermo-
Loss Dynamic
Detector Steam Trap Packaged
with Integral
Pressure
Strainer Powered Strainer
Pump Unit

Figure II-27

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Freeze Proof Piping of
Large Vertical Air Heater Coil to
Atmospheric Condensate Return System Pressure
Powered Thermo-
Pump
* To preclude accidental closing, these valves Dynamic
should be chain locked in open position, or Steam Trap
they may be omitted.

Safety
Valve Air
Vent
Pilot Operated
Pressure Drip
Control Valve Pan
Elbow
Moisture Drain
Separator to Safe
Place
Steam Air
Supply Heating
Coils

Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve
Strainer
Vent
Low Pressure Steam

Safety Float &

Valve Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Drip Float &
Pan
Elbow Strainer Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Flash
Recovery
Vessel
Condensate Return
Pitch Down
Figure II-28
Float &
High Pressure Steam Thermostatic
Coils Trapped for Strainer
Steam Trap
Flash Recovery to LP To Condensate
Steam System Return
Spira-tec Check
Loss Valve
Detector
97
 Figure II-29 Fail safe protection against excess temperatures is provided by a separate
control valve, normally latched wide open. If the 130 self-acting control system
Storage Cylinder with
detects a temperature overrun, or if the control system itself is damaged, a
High Limit Protection powerful spring is released in the HL10 unit and the high limit valve is driven
closed. A switch is available as an extra to provide electrical warning that the
device has been actuated.

Self Acting
Moisture
Separator Temperature Vacuum
Strainer Valve Control Breaker Hot Flow
Steam
Supply

HL10
Overheat High Limit
Protection 130 Sensor

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector Temperature
Control
Sensor
Strainer
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Storage
Tank Circ.
Return

Spira-tec
Check Loss
Valve Detector

Float & Strainer Cold

Thermostatic Supply
Steam Trap

Figure II-30
Condensate Drainage from Unit Heater

Steam
Supply

Note: The Liquid Expansion

Steam Trap will automati- Unit
cally drain unit heater during Heater
periods of shutdown which To
Overhead
will prevent damage due to Return
corrosion.
Spira-tec Float &
Loss Thermostatic
Detector Steam Trap
Drain condensate
by gravity where
Strainer Check possible—
Valve especially to vac.
Liquid Expansion Liquid Expansion return system
Steam Trap Steam Trap
Alternate To
Location Condensate
Return
To Drain

98
Figure II-31
Temperature Control of Warm-up and Running
Loads at Storage Tank
A control valve suitably sized to supply the start up
Running
load on a tank is often very much oversized for the Temperature
running load, and this oversizing can lead to erratic Control
control. In such cases, a large control valve may be Valve
used to meet the warm up load, arranged to close
at a temperature perhaps 2° below the final con-
trol temperature. The smaller control valve meets Run
Temperature
the running load, and the supply is supplemented Sensor
through the start up valve, only when the capacity
of the smaller valve is exceeded. Warm Up
Low
Temperature
Temperature Sensor
Control
Moisture Valve
Separator
Strainer
Steam
Supply

Spira-tec

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Loss
Detector
Storage
Spira-tec Tank
Check Loss
Float & Strainer Valve Detector
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Condensate Thermostatic
Return Steam Trap Strainer

Figure II-32
P1 Pilot Operated Draining Heat Exchanger under Constant “Stall”
Temperature
Control Valve Condition with Pumping Trap in Closed Loop System
Moisture
Separator Strainer

Steam
Supply
Sensor
Heat Exchanger
Float & Hot
Thermostatic Check Valve
Steam Trap
Strainer Cold

Motive Drain Thermo-

Pressurized to Safe static
Steam
Spira-tec Return Place Air Vent
Supply
Loss System
Detector
P2

Strainer
Thermo-
Dynamic Reservoir
Steam
Trap

Draining L.P. Heat Exchanger to Pressure

Powered
Overhead Return. Pressure at pump Pump
outlet P2 always exceeds supply pres-
sure P1 to Heat Exchanger.
Completely immerse control sensor
without well, right at hot outflow.
To prevent overheating, the sensor
must not see a “dead” flow.

99
 Safety
Valve
Figure II-33
Vacuum
Breaker Combined Pressure
and Temperature
Moisture
Control of Heat
Strainer
Separator Drip Pan Exchanger
Elbow

Note: scensor must

not see a
“dead” flow.
Pilot Operated
Pressure/Temperature
Control Valve
Steam Sensor
Supply

Heat Exchanger

Float & Spira-tec

Thermostatic Loss
Steam Trap Detector
Cold
Water
When the pressure of the steam supply is higher than Supply Spira-tec
the heat exchanger can withstand, or is at a higher value Loss
than necessary to allow for fouling of the heat exchange
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Detector
surfaces, a pressure reducing valve is required. This can
economically be combined with a temperature control by
Strainer
using pressure sensing and temperature sensing pilots Gravity Float &
to operate a common main valve. Sensor bulb must be Return Thermostatic
fully immersed right at hot outflow and use of a separable Steam Trap
well should be avoided.

Self Acting Thermostatic

Temperature Air Vent
Steam Moisture Control
Separator Vacuum Drain
Supply Strainer Breaker to Safe
Place
Steam Trap Station

Strainer
Float &
Thermostatic Spira-tec Temp.
Steam Trap Loss Detector Liquid Control Heat Exchanger
In/Out Sensor
Flow

Multiple Loads Note: scensor must Steam Trap Station

Connected to not see a H
Vented Receiver “dead” flow.

Strainer
Condensate See Fig. II-34A for Float &
Return the preassembled Thermostatic Spira-tec
Condensate Steam Trap Loss Detector
Recovery Module

Strainer Receiver

Figure II-34
Draining Small Heat Exchanger and
Other Loads to Pressure Powered Pump

Pressure Arrangement of Small Steam/Liquid Heat

Thermo- Powered Exchanger where steam space pressure may fall
Dynamic Pump
Steam Trap
below back pressure and trap has gravity drain.
Note: Head “H” must be enough to give trap
capacity needed when steam space pressure
falls to zero.

100
 Pneumatic Controller
Control
Valve
P1 Control Supply
Signal Air
Moisture
Separator Note: To prevent
Steam Strainer
overheating,
Supply the scensor
Steam Trap Station must not see
a “dead” flow.

Sensor
Strainer
Float &
Thermostatic Spira-tec Hot
Steam Trap Loss Detector Heat Exchanger Flow
Cool
Return

Thermo-
Motive
Steam Supply
Drain
to Safe
static Figure II-35
Elevated or Air Vent
Pressurized
Place Draining Equipment to Pressurized
See Fig. II-35A for
Return the preassembled Return with Closed Loop Pump/

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Process Condensate Trap Drainage System
P2 Removal Module
Reservoir Pipe
P exceeds P except when partial
1 2

Strainer loads “stall” the exchanger. With this

Thermo- hook up, the reservoir pipe is always
Dynamic connected to, and at the same pres-
Steam Trap
sure as, the heat exchanger steam
space. Condensate drains to it freely.
Spira-tec Pressure The pump body is connected in the
Float &
Loss Detector Thermostatic Powered same way, except during the discharge
Steam Trap Pump stroke when the inlet check valve and
the exhaust valve are closed. After dis-
Liquid Expansion charge, the residual steam in the pump
Steam Trap body is exhausted to the heater and
its latent heat can then be recovered.
Drain Steam trap functions at full load and
Thermoton drains at shutdown.

Figure II-34A Figure II-35A

Condensate Recovery Module Process Condensate Removal Module
A preassembled modular pumping system can be used A preassembled modular will remove condensate from the
to recover and reuse the condensate. heat exchanger under all operating conditions.

101
 Figure II-36
Low Pressure Steam Absorption Chiller

Check
To Valve
Condensate
Return
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Drain to
Motive Safe Place
Steam Supply
Steam Supply
(15 psig or less)

Absorption
Thermo- Chiller
Dynamic Reservoir Pipe
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Pressure
Float &
Powered
Thermostatic
Pump
Steam Trap

Figure II-37
High Pressure Steam Absorption Chiller

Vent Steam Supply

(normally 45
psig or higher)
Motive
Steam Supply
To
Condensate
Return Absorption Chiller

Packaged
Pressure
Powered
Pump

Note: Depending on chiller manufacturer, a steam trap

Thermo-Dynamic may not be required or it may be supplied with the chiller.
Steam Trap Other specialties needed may include a steam pressure
with Integral reducing valve on the inlet, steam separator with trap,
Strainer
steam safety valve or inlet strainer.

102
 Figure II-38 Automatic Control of Batch
Processor with Electrical Time Sequence
Electric Programmer
Operator
Power Safety
Steam Valve
Filter
Pressure
Sensing Line
Pitch Down
Moisture Drip
Separator Pan
Steam Elbow
Supply
Strainer
Pilot Operated
Pressure/Temperature
Control Valve
with Solenoid Balanced
Pressure
Spira-tec Thermostatic
Loss Drain to Steam Trap
Detector Safe Place
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Float & Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Autoclave

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Float & Strainer

Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Float & Thermostatic Spira-tec

Steam Trap Loss Detector

Figure II-39
Controlling Temperature of Open Tank
for Plating, Dyeing of Process Work

Moisture Pilot
Separator Operated
Temperature
Control Valve
Strainer

Steam
Supply Small
Bore
Riser
Strainer
Float &
Spira-tec Thermostatic
Strainer Loss Steam Trap
Spira-tec Detector
Loss
Detector

Gravity
Float & Return
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Loop
Seal

103
 Electric
Operator
Power Safety
Valve

Drip
Pressure Pan
Moisture Sensing Line
Separator Elbow
Strainer Pitch Down

Steam Pressure Reducing Thermo-Dynamic

Supply Control Valve Steam Traps with
Spira-tec with Solenoid Integral Strainer
Loss
Detector

Strainer Float &

Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Figure II-40
Controlling Platen Press Temperature
with Pressure Regulator and Electric
Programmer. Indicating Pilot Permits
Fast Temperature Changes
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Spira-tec
Condensate Return Loss Detector

Figure II-41
Controlling Temperature of Pressurized Boiler Feed Water Tank

Safety Thermostatic
Valve Air Vent
Vacuum
Drain to
Breaker
Moisture Safe Place
Separator
Strainer Strainer
Steam
Supply Pilot Operated
(125 psi Pilot Operated Back Pressure
or less) Pressure/Temperature Control Valve
Control Valve
Condensate
Return
Make up
Float & Water
Spira-tec Thermostatic Supply
Loss Steam Trap
Detector

Pack Heat
Compound
in Bulb Well

Perforated
Heater Tube

Pump
Note: When supply pressure is above 125 psi, install an additional Suction
Spirax Sarco pressure control valve ahead of pressure/temperature
control valve to reduce pressure to 125 psi.

104
Figure II-42
Controlling Temperature of Vented Boiler Feed Water Tank

Vent
Head
Condensate
Return
Condensate
Return
Temperature
Control Valve Vacuum
Breaker

Strainer

Make up
Sensor Water

Perforated Heater Tube

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Steam
Supply

To B.F. Pump
Suction

Figure II-43
Controlling Temperature of Large Open Tank Heated by Direct Steam Injection

Moisture Vacuum
Separator Breaker
Strainer

Steam
Supply

Pilot Operated
Temperature
Control Valve Open
Tank
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer Float &

Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Steam
Injector
Provide suitable support
and protection for
capillary tubing and
temperature bulbs

105
 Figure II-44
Controlling Temperature of Small Open Tank, Heated by Direct Steam Injection

Vacuum
Strainer Breaker

Open Tank

Steam
Injector/
Thermoton
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Figure II-45
Controlling Temperature of Water Supplied
to Spray Nozzles of Egg Washing Machine

Pilot Operated
Vacuum
Moisture Temperature
Breaker
Separator Control Valve
Strainer

Steam Vent Warm

Gravity Water
Supply Return Supply
Cold from to Washer
Water Washer Spray
Supply Nozzles

Spira-tec
Loss Float Operated
Detector C.W. Valve

Strainer Float &

Thermostatic Pack Sensor Well
Steam Trap with Heat Conducting
Compound
Steam Injector

Centrifugal
Pump

106
Figure II-46
Controlling Temperature of Greenhouse or Other Similar Buildings

Room
Thermostat

Moisture
Separator Fin-Tube
Strainer Radiation

Steam
Supply

Pilot Operated Liquid

On/Off Control Valve Expansion
Steam Trap
Spira-tec
Loss

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Strainer Detector

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Figure II-47
Steam Radiator

Radiator Thermostatic
Valve Radiator
Trap

Supply
Return

107
 Figure II-48
Thermostatic
Trapping and Air Venting Hospital Air Vent
Sterilizer with Dry Steam Supply
Ball Valve
Filter
Moisture Thermo-
Separator Strainer Dynamic
Steam Trap
Steam
Supply
Balanced
Pressure Drain to
Thermostatic Safe Place
Steam Trap
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer Float &

Thermostatic
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Moisture
Separator
Strainer

Self Acting Heating

Temperature Coil
Control
Steam
Supply

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Float &
Thermostatic Thermo-
Steam Trap Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Small size trap Detector
Figure II-49 is required
Control and Drainage Hook-up for
Hospital Blanket and Bedpan Warmer

108
Figure II-50
Trapping Small Utensil Sterilizer

Balanced Pressure
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Steam
Supply

Figure II-51
Condensate Drainage from
Hospital Mattress Disinfector

Thermostatic
Air Vent
Strainer
Steam
Supply

Drain to
Safe Place
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer Float &

Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

109
 Vacuum Figure II-52
Breaker
Float & Thermostatic Trap
Freeze Resistant Hook-up

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Liquid Expansion
Steam Trap Figure II-53
Thermoton Controlling Temperature
of Large Storage Tank
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer

Steam Storage
Supply Tank
Strainer

Liquid
Expansion
Steam Trap

Figure II-54
Equipment Drained with Permanent Connector Thermo-Dynamic Steam Traps
that fit into both Horizontal and Vertical Pipework

Steam Main

Thermo-
Dynamic
Steam Trap
Thermo- with Integral
Dynamic Strainer Thermo-
Steam Trap Dynamic
with Integral Steam Trap
Strainer with Integral
Strainer

Condensate
Return Floor

110
Figure II-55 Balanced
Draining and Air Venting Pressure
Thermostatic
Drain to
Flatwork Ironer Safe Place Air Vent

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Steam Beds

The steam traps are often located

at one end for ease of maintenance,
Sight Strainer
Glass with with long pipes connecting them to
Check Valve the drainage points. If steam-locking
is a problem in these long pipes,
then a Float / Thermostatic steam
trap with a steam-lock release is the
best selection. The beds should be
air vented at points remote from the
steam entry. Steam supply lines to
ironers should be drained, ideally

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
using a separator.

Gravity
Return

Steam Main

Drain to
Safe Place
Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Rotating
Cylinder

Strainer
Air
Reservoir

Float &
Figure II-56 Sight
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
System Units for Condensate Removal Glass with SLR
feature
and Air Venting of Rotating Cylinders
(for surface speeds below 800 FPM)

The Spirax Sarco units (Strainers, Float

& Thermostatic Steam Traps with SLR
Gravity
feature, Sight Glass, Air Reservoir with Condensate
Air Vent) provides for the best drainage Return
of condensate and non- condensibles
from rotating cylinders.

111
 Figure II-57 Draining High Speed Paper Machine using Cascading or “Blow-through” Systems
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Check
Spira-tec Valve
Dryer
Cans Loss Detector

Safety Valve
with Drip
Pan Elbow

Blow through
Separator Check
Valve
Paper Machines running at higher individual cylinders or banks of cylin-
speeds in modern plants usually have ders. The blow-through steam may Float &
a cascading or “blow-through” sys- pass on to sections of the machine Thermostatic
Condensate
Steam Trap
tem. Condensate is swept by the operating at lower pressures. The Return
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

flow of blowthrough steam, up the blowthrough separator is drained by

dryer can dip pipe and into a manifold an FT trap, unless the return is pres-
leading to a blowthrough separator. surized in which case a closed loop
Control of the blowthrough steam combination pressure powered pump/
may be at the separator outlet or on trap is required.

Figure II-58 Draining High Speed Paper Machine using “Thermal-compressor” or Reused Steam Systems
H.P. Steam
L.P. Steam
Thermal Compressor
Steam Thermo-Dynamic
Trap Steam Trap
Station with Integral
Strainer

Dryer Spira-tec
Cans Loss Detector

By-Pass
L.P.
Steam

See Fig. II-58A for

the preassembled
Condensate
Removal Module

Safety Valve
with Drip
Figure II-58A Condensate Removal Module Pan Elbow

High speed paper machines can be fitted with

Separator
a preassembled module that incorporates the
separator and condensate removal equipment. Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Condensate
Return

Modern paper machines also use “Thermal-

compresor” systems. Condensate is swept by the
flow of blow-through steam up the dryer can dip pipe
and into a manifold leading to a separator. The L.P.
steam from the separator is then reused through
an H.P. steam driven thermal compressor or by-
passed. The separator is drained like Fig. II-57 or
engineered systems package, Fig. II-58A.

112
Figure II-59
Air Venting and Condensate Drainage at Jacketed Kettle

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Steam Air Vent Drain to
Supply Safe
Place

Thermo-
Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer
Float &
Spira-tec Thermostatic
Loss Steam Trap
Detector
Spira-tec
Loss

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Detector
Strainer

Condensate
Return

Figure II-60 Figure II-61

Draining Tire Mold Steam Trapping High Pressure Coil (up to 600 psig)

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Steam Air Vent
Supply Strainer

Drain to
HP Safe
Heating Place
Coil

Steam Air
Supply

Flexible
Quick
Thermo- Disconnect
Dynamic Lines
Steam Trap

Strainer

Strainer
Float &
(Air supply temp. not lower than 32°F) Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Condensate Return

113
 Figure II-62
Draining High Pressure Reboiler

Steam
Supply

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Reboiler
Drain to
Safe
Place

Strainer

Strainer
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Thermo-
Dynamic
Steam Trap
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Condensate Return

Figure II-63
Draining Condensate to Vented Receiver and
Lifting Condensate to Overhead Return Main

Return Line
Pressure Gauge

Steam Condensate
Space Return Main
Float & Motive
Thermostatic Vent to Supply
Steam Trap Atmosphere
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss Detector
Total
Lift
Vented “H”
Receiver
Strainer

Filling
Head
Total back pressure is the height (H)
in feet x .0433 plus PSIG in return Thermo-
line, plus downstream piping friction Pressure Dynamic
Powered Steam Trap
pressure drop in PSI (Determined Pump
by the maximum instantaneous dis-
charge rate of the selected pump.)

114
 Check Valve

Balanced Drain to
Pressure Safe
Thermostatic Place
Air Vent
Evaporator
Pressure Motive Return
Evaporator Steam Main
1” Equalizer Line
Supply

Reservoir
Strainer
Thermo-
Dynamic
Steam Trap
Back
Pressure
Figure II-64
Draining Evaporator when Pressure Float &
Evaporator Steam Pressure Powered Thermostatic
Pump
can fall from Above to Below

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Steam Trap
Back Pressure

Figure II-65
Draining Condensate from vacuum Space to Return Main or Atmosphere Drain

1” Equalizer Line
Return
Main

Vacuum
Space
Steam
Supply

Total Elevated
Lift Discharge
“H” Connection

Reservoir

Strainer
Filling
Head 1/8”
Antisyphon
Hole

Pipe to Thermo-
Drain Dynamic Pressure Pipe to
Steam Trap Powered Drain
Pump
30”
Water
Column

Drain to
Atmosphere

115
 Figure II-66 Check Valve

Lifting Fluids from Low Pressure Source

Balanced
to Higher Pressure Receiver Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent Drain to
Safe Check Pressurized
Place Valve Receiver
Low Pressure Tank
Space
1” Equalizer Line

Steam
Supply

Reservoir
Total
Lift
“H”
Total back pressure is Strainer
the height (H) in feet
x 0.433 plus PSIG in
receiver, plus down-
stream piping friction
pressure drop in PSI
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Thermo-
(Determined by the Dynamic Pressure
Steam Trap Powered
maximum instan- Drain to Pump
taneous discharge Safe Place
rate of the selected
pump.)

Figure II-67
Draining Equipment with Condensate Outlet Near Floor Level using a Pump/Trap Combination in a Pit
Condensate Check Valve To
from Pressurized
Equipment Balanced Storage Tank
Pressure Drain to
Thermostatic Safe
Air Vent Place

Motive Gas or
Equalizer Line Steam Supply

Reservoir Pipe
Check
Valve

Check Valve
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer

Thermo-
Pressure Dynamic
Powered Steam Trap
Pump

Plug

116
 Figure II-68 Condensate
Motive
Installation of Pump/Trap Combination Check Balanced Supply
from Process
Pressure Equipment
when Vertical Space is Limited Valve
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Drain to
Safe
Place
Return
Main

Reservoir

Float & Strainer

Thermostatic
Steam Trap Check Valve
Check Valve

Drain to
Safe

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
PPF-Top
Thermo- Place
Pressure Dynamic
Powered Steam Trap
Pump

Figure II-69 When multiple pumps in parallel

are used to meet the load, Pump
Multiple Pressure Powered Pump Hookups
Vent #1 fills first and Pump #2 oper-
for Staged Operation and Standby Duty ates at full load. Supply piping is
arranged to reduce simultaneous
discharge. Better staging occurs
Condensate when Pump #2 is elevated 3” to
Supplies 6” above the floor.
Intake pipe to Pump #3 is located
above the Filling Head required
by Pump #1 & #2 so it will function
as a “Standby” and only operate
on peak loads or in the event of
primary pump failure.
Receiver

Exhaust

Return

Return Pressure Pressure Pressure

Powered Powered Powered
Pump #3 Pump #1 Pump #2

117
 Figure II-70
Drain
Pressure Powered Pump Draining Water from Sump Pit
Pump Exhaust
Covering Grate Piped to Safe Place

Total back pressure is the Motive

height (H) in feet x .0433 Supply
plus PSIG in return line,
plus downstream piping fric-
tion pressure drop in PSI
(Determined by the maximum
instantaneous discharge rate
of the selected pump.) Height
“H”
Strainer

Operating
Water
Thermo- Level
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Dynamic
Steam Trap 15° Pressure
Swing Powered
Strainer Pump
Check

Figure II-71
Pressure Powered Pump Discharging to Long Delivery Line
(Air Eliminator needed above return main wherever
elevation changes form a water seal.) Vacuum
Breaker
Float Operated
Condensate Line Size Air Vent
Check Valve

Return Line Size

Main Check Valve

See Fig. II-72 for

hook-up option with Water Receiver
Lift at Remote End Seal
Receiver

Figure II-72
Pressure Powered Pump Discharging to
Motive
Supply Long Delivery Line with Lift at Remote End

Line Size Line Size

Pressure Check Valve Return Check
Powered Main Valve Receiver
Pump

118
 Sub Atmospheric Line

Equalizer
Figure II-73 Line
Inlet Open to
Draining Small Condensate Loads from Atmosphere
Vacuum using Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure Check valve should be vacuum

Powered tight and water sealed. Larger
Pump drop reduces emptying time.

Minimum
Swing Drop 3”
Check
Valve To Drain

Vent to

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Atmosphere
Condensate from
Low Pressure
System
Pump
Discharge

Electric
Condensate Figure II-74
Pump Typical Electric Pump Hook-up
for Subcooled Condensate
Floor

Figure II-75 Vent

Head
Electric Pump Lifting Condensate H. P.
Condensate
from Vented Receiver to Higher Vent
Pressure or Elevation

Receiver

Pump
Discharge

Strainer

Electric
Condensate Gate &
Pump Check Valves

Drain

119
 Condensate from high pressure loads releases steam by flash- Figure II-76
ing as it passes to the lower pressures, downstream of the high
Typical Flash Steam
pressure traps. The mixture of steam and condensate is read-
ily separated in Flash Vessels of appropriate dimensions and Drain to Thermostatic Recovery Hook-up
Safe Place Air Vent
proportions. A supply of Low Pressure steam then becomes
available for use on any application which can accept steam at
this low pressure, or the separated steam may simply be taken Safety
into the LP steam mains, where it is supplemented through Valve L. P. Steam Main
pressure reducing valves, for general plant use.
Where the supply of flash steam may at times exceed the
demand from the LP system, the surplus flash steam can be
discharged through a back pressure control valve. This is set Drip
at a few psi above the normal LP steam pressure, but below Pan Elbow
the setting of the LP safety valve. See Figure II-77.
Flash
The condensate leaving the flash recovery vessel is at low Recovery
pressure. Usually it is handled by a float-thermostatic steam Vessel H. P. Condensate
trap and is delivered to the receiver of a condensate pump for
return to the boiler house. Any residual flash steam from the
low pressure condensate is vented from the pump receiver.
Spira-tec
(Figure II-78.) Loss
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Detector
In some cases, pressures are sufficiently high that the flash
can be taken off at an intermediate pressure and the conden- L. P.
sate leaving the flash vessel still contains a useful amount of Strainer Float & Condensate
sensible heat. It can then be taken to a second flash vessel Thermostatic
working at low pressure, so that the maximum heat recovery Steam Trap
is effected. The use of two flash vessels in series, or “cas-
cade”, means that these vessels may be installed generally
as Figure II-76 and II-77.
Alternatively, it may be desirable to use the recovered flash
steam at a low pressure, below that in the condensate return Drain to Thermostatic
line or perhaps the de-aerator tank. The arrangement adapt- Safe Air Vent
Place
ed may then be either as Figure II-78 or as Figure II-79. This Vent
latter system uses a steam powered pump, with the bottom
of the flash recovery vessel serving as the pump receiver.
Power steam used by the pump is vented to the LP steam
line, so that pumping is achieved at virtually zero cost and the Strainer
use of unsightly or wasteful vents is avoided.
Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve
Moisture
Separator
Strainer
H. P.
Steam L. P.
Supply Steam

Spira-tec Pilot Operated Safety

Loss Pressure Valve
Detector Control Valve

Drip
Strainer
Float & Pan
Thermostatic H. P. Condensate Elbow
Steam Trap

Flash
Recovery
H. P. Condensate Vessel

Float &
Thermostatic
Figure II-77 Strainer Steam Trap

Flash Steam Recovery with Live Steam Make up

and Back Pressure Surplussing Valves
Spira-tec Check L. P.
Loss Detector Valve Condensate

120
 Figure II-78
Flash Steam Recovery at Pressure above Atmospheric with L.P.
Condensate Returned by Packaged Pressure Powered Pump Unit

Vent

Moisture
Separator
Strainer Strainer
High Pressure
Makeup Supply
Safety
Valve Pilot Operated Pilot Operated
Back Pressure Pressure
Control Valve Control Valve
Drip Low Pressure
Pan Steam System
Elbow
Steam Trap Station
Spira-tec Loss
Detector
Flash
Recovery
H. P. Condensate Vessel Strainer Float &
L.P. Thermostatic

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Condensate Steam Trap
Steam Trap Station Inlet
Float & Vent to
Spira-tec Thermostatic
Loss Atmosphere
Steam Trap
Detector See Fig. II-78A for
the preassembled
Check Condensate
Strainer Valve Strainer Recovery Module

Condensate
Strainer Return
Packaged
Pressure
Powered
Pump

Pressure Thermo-
Powered Dynamic
Pump Steam Trap

Figure II-78A
Condensate Recovery Module
A preassembled modular pump-
ing system provides a sole source
solution for condensate recovery
applications.

121
 Figure II-79
Flash Steam Recovery at Pressure Above or Below Atmospheric
in ASME Coded Receiver of Packaged Pump Unit
Pilot Operated
Pressure Reducing
Valve (for makeup)
Safety
Vent to Valve
Atmosphere Moisture
Separator
Pilot Operated Strainer
Drip
Back Pressure Pan
Control Valve Elbow H. P.
Makeup
Supply

Strainer L. P.
Steam Trap Station Makeup
Float & Thermostatic Supply
Steam Trap

Strainer

Motive Steam
Supply
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Float &
H. P. Thermostatic
Steam Trap To
Condensate Condensate
(from traps) Return
Main

Packaged ASME
Code Stamped
Pressure Powered Strainer
Pump Unit
Overflow
to
Drain
Pressure
Powered
Pump

See Fig. II-79A for the preassembled

Condensate and Flash Steam
Recovery Module

Figure II-79A
Condensate and Flash Steam
Recovery Module
A preassembled modular pumping
system will recover condensate and
direct flash steam to a low pressure user.

122
Figure II-80
Heating Water using Recovered Flash Steam with Packaged
Pump Unit Also Handling Other Condensate
Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve Safety
Valve
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Drip Vacuum
Breaker Pipe to
Pan
Safe Place
Elbow

Heated Water

Heat Exchanger
Cold Water Inlet

H.P. Motive
Flash Steam
Condensate Recovery Float & Thermostatic
& Flash Steam Trap or Gas
Vessel

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Steam Trap Station
Strainer
Float & Thermostatic
Steam Trap Steam Trap Station Condensate
Return
Vent to
Atmosphere
Strainer

See Fig. II-80A

for the
Pump preassembled
Exhaust Condensate
Condensate from high pressure steam sources is Strainer
Recovery
collected in a flash steam recovery vessel. Flash Module
steam is separated from the condensate which
drains through an F & T trap set to the vented
receiver of a condensate pump. The flash steam is
condensed in a heat exchanger, giving up its heat
Pressure Thermo-
content to the water which is to be heated (or pre- Dynamic
Powered
heated). Condensate from the exchanger also drains Pump Steam Trap
through an F & T trap set to the pump receiver. Non-
condensibles are discharged at the receiver vent.

Figure II-80A
Condensate Recovery Module
A preassembled modular pumping system can be used
to recover and reuse the condensate.

123
 Figure II-81
Heating Water using Flash Steam Recovered in ASME Coded
Receiver of Packaged Pressure Powered Pump Unit

Safety
Vent to Valve
Atmosphere
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Pilot Operated Drip
Back Pressure Pan
Control Valve Pipe to
Elbow Safe Place

Strainer
Heated Water

Heat Exchanger
Cold Water Inlet
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

H.P.
Condensate
& Flash

Pump
Exhaust
Condensate
Strainer
Return
Packaged
ASME Code
Stamped Unit Thermo-
Dynamic
Steam
Trap

Pressure
Powered
Pump

124
 Figure II-82
Recovery of Flash Steam and Pump Power Steam on Preheater (Steam in the Shell)

To
Safety
To Pilot Vent Motive Steam Supply
Valve Check
Vent Operated Valve
Back
Pressure Drip
Pan Air
Valve Air Vent
Elbow Vent Vacuum
Breaker Moisture
Pipe to
Pipe to Safe Separator
Safe Place Strainer
Strainer Place
Temperature Steam
Sensor Control Supply
Valve
Heated
Outlet
Heat Exchanger
Pre-Heater
Check
Cool Valve
Return

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Check Float &
Valve Thermostatic
Strainer Steam Trap
Flash
Recovery
Vessel Float & To
Strainer Condensate
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Return

Thermo-Dynamic
Pressure Steam Trap
Powered
Pump

Condensate from the main heat Residual condensate from the flash A Packaged Pump Unit with ASME
exchanger flows to a flash Steam vessel, with that from the preheater, coded receiver can be used in place
Recovery Vessel. The flash steam is falls to the inlet of the Pressure of the component flash vessels and
separated and led to the Preheater Powered Pump. Pump exhaust Pressure Powered Pump.
where it is condensed as it preheats steam is taken to the Flash Steam
the incoming cool water or other line and its heat content recovered in
liquid. Any incondensibles are dis- the preheater.
charged to atmosphere through the
thermostatic air vent.

125
 Figure II-83
Recovery of Flash Steam and Pump Power Steam in Preheater (Steam in Tubes)

Temperature
Control Vacuum
Valve Breaker Heated
Moisture Outlet
Separator Strainer

Heat
Exchanger
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Float &
Strainer Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer
To
Spira-tec Vent
Loss To Back
Detector Pipe to Vent Pressure
Safe Safety Valve Control
Place with Drip Valve
Air Vent Pan Elbow

Strainer
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer

Pre-Heater

Cool
Return

Flash
Sight Recovery
Glass Vessel

Condensate
Return

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Pressure
Check Powered
Valve Pump

126
Figure II-84
Flash Steam Condensing by Spray
(Alternate)
Temperature
Control Sensor
Vent

Self Acting
Temperature
Control

Cooling
Water
Strainer
Flash
Condenser

H.P. Condensate

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Condensate Receiver

Waste
Overflow

Boiler
Makeup Centrifugal
Tank Pump

Residual flash steam for which no use boiler feed quality water is used, the A self-acting, normally closed tem-
can found often causes a nuisance if warmed water and condensed flash perature control with sensor in the
vented to atmosphere, and of course steam is added to the condensate in vent line can control the coolant
carries its valuable heat content with the receiver and reused. Condensing flow. This minimizes water usage,
it. This steam may be condensed water which is not of feed water and where condensed flash steam is
by spraying in cold water, in a light quality is kept separate from the returned, avoids overcooling of the
gauge but corrosion resistant cham- condensate in the receiver as shown water in the receiver.
ber fitted to the receiver tank vent. If dotted.

127
 Figure II-85
Clean Steam Drip Station
Clean
Steam
Supply Sanitary Diaphragm
Valve with Inlet
Drain Boss

A
1:120 min.
Product/Media
Line

Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap

Stainless Steel
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Ball Valve

1:120 min.

Install valve “A” close to Condensate Manifold

must be free draining
product/media line.
Close-couple valves “A” and “B”

Figure II-86
Culinary/Filtered Steam Station
Steam Filter
with a 2.8 micron
absolute filter
element
Moisture Sanitary
Plant Steam Separator B A Check Valve
Inlet

Strainer with a
Fine Mesh Screen Stainless Steel
Ball Valve
Stainless Steel
Ball Valve
Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector Cooling
Water
Outlet
Strainer Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Sample
Cooler

A All piping, fittings, valves, etc. downstream Cooling

Water
of this point shall be of austenitic stainless Inlet
steel and of sanitary design
B Recommended position of plant steam Cooled
Sample
pressure reducing valve if required
Pressure gauges, fittings, valves, etc., are not
shown for clarity.

128
Figure II-87 Tank Sterilization

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Clean Steam Trap
Steam installed as
Supply Air Vent

Stainless Steel Diaphragm

Stainless Steel Ball Valve Valve
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap

Stainless Steel Diaphragm Diaphragm

Ball Valve Valve Valve
Diaphragm

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Valve Product Outlet

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Condensate

Figure II-88 Clean

Steam
Block and Bleed Sterile Barriers Supply

Sanitary Diaphragm
Valve with inlet Drain Boss

Aseptic A Aseptic
Process Process
Line Line
Sanitary
Diaphragm
Valve Sanitary
Diaphragm
Valve

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

1:120 min.

Condenate Manifold
must be free draining

A Close-couple valves

129
 Clean
Steam Sanitary Diaphragm
Valve with inlet Drain Boss Sanitary
Supply Pressure
Regulator Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Steam Separator
Product/ A Reduced
Media Sanitary Pure Steam
Line Diaphragm Steam Pressure
Valve Supply
See Fig. II-85 Stainless Steel
for proper Clean Thermostatic Stainless Steel Stainless Steel
Steam hook-up Steam Trap Ball Valve Ball Valve
to product/media
line
Stainless Steel
Ball Valve Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Condenate
1:120 min. Manifold
Stainless Steel
Figure II-89 must be free
draining
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
Product/Media Figure II-90
Process Line Sterilization Pressure Regulating Station
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

A Close-couple Diaphragm Valves for Pure Steam Service

Figure II-91 Stainless Steel

Sterilizer Utilizing High Purity Steam Thermostatic
Steam Trap
installed as
an Air Vent
Stainless Steel
Sanitary Ball Valve
Pressure
Regulator
Stainless Steel
Ball Valves
Stainless Steel
Steam Separator
Stainless Steel
A Ball Valve Stainless Steel
Pure Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Stainless Steel Steam Trap
Supply Thermostatic
Stainless Steel Steam Trap
Ball Valve installed as
an Air Vent

Stainless Steel Stainless

Ball Valve Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
Sterilizer

Stainless Steel
Ball Valves

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Traps

Stainless Steel
Ball Valves

Note: Provide over pressure protection for

chamber and jacket with properly sized
safety valve(s) or rupture disc(s).

130
 Figure II-92
Spiraflo Saturated Steam (Density
Thermostatic
Compensated) Metering System
Air Vent
Pipe to
Safe Signal Flow
Place Conditioning Computer
Unit

Steam
Separator
Steam
Supply
Isolating Spiraflo Check
Valve Steam Meter Valve

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Check
Strainer Valve

Figure II-93
Typical Superheated Steam (Density Compensated) Metering System

Temperature
Transmitter
Gilflo Meter

Steam
Supply

Pressure
Transmitter Isolating Isolating
Valve Valve

3-Valve
Manifold

Differential
Pressure
Transmitter
Flow
Computer

Note: The same configuration is

suitable for the Standard Range Gilflo,
Gilflo ILVA and Orifice Plate Systems.

131
 Figure II-94 Orifice Plate

Typical Saturated Steam

or Liquid Metering System Steam
or Liquid
(No Density Compensation) Supply

Isolating Isolating
Valve Valve

3-Valve
Manifold
Flow
Indicator

Differential
Pressure
Transmitter
Note: The same configuration is
suitable for the Gilflo, Standard Range
Gilflo, and Gilflo ILVA Systems.
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Figure II-95 Temperature

Gilflo ILVA

Typical Saturated Steam Transmitter

(Density Compensated)
Metering System Steam
Supply

Isolating Isolating
Valve Valve

Note: The same configuration is

suitable for the Gilflo, Standard Range
3-Valve
Gilflo, and Orifice Plate Systems. Flow Manifold
Computer
For Saturated Steam, Density
Compensation is achieved by the
flow computer accepting a signal from Differential
Pressure
either a Temperature Transmitter Transmitter
(as shown here) or a Pressure
Transmitter (see Fig. II-96)

Figure II-96 Gilflo ILVA

Typical Saturated Steam

(Density Compensated) Steam
Supply
Metering System

Isolating Isolating
Pressure Valve
Transmitter Valve
Note: The same configuration is
suitable for the Gilflo, Standard Range
Gilflo, and Orifice Plate Systems. 3-Valve
Flow Manifold
For Saturated Steam, Density Computer
Compensation is achieved by the
flow computer accepting a signal Differential
from either a Pressure Transmitter Pressure
Transmitter
(as shown here) or a Temperature
Transmitter (see Fig. II-95)

132
Figure II-97 Figure II-98
Hand Operated Rotary Filter Motorized Rotary Filter with Single Blowdown Valve
Electric Supply
to Motor
Hand Operated
Rotary Filter
Motorized
Rotary Filter

Dirty Filtered
Media Media

Dirty Filtered
Media Media

Control of rotor and blowdown

valve is made with user sup-
Reservoir plied timers. The blowdown
Pipe valve should stay open for
Hand Electric Supply to approximately 10 seconds to
Operated Motorized Valve

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Blowdown purge filtered dirt and debris
Valve from reservoir pipe. Interval
Full Port
Quarter Turn and duration of the rotor and
Motorized Valve blowdown valve will vary
Removed
depending on the nature and
Removed
Solids Solids quantity of the dirt and debris.

Figure II-99
Control Panel Hook-up for One Valve Blowdown VRS-2 Rotary Filter System

Motor
Wiring

Outlet
Inlet P1 P2 Pressure
Pressure Line
Line Model VRS-2
Model VRS Rotary Filter
Control Panel

Main
Power

Full Port
Quarter Turn Reservoir
Motorized Pipe
Valve

Valve
Wiring
D.P.
Switch
Removed
Solids

The Control Panel with user adjust- to purge the reservoir pipe of filtered pressure drop occurs. This hook-up
able timers controls interval and dirt and debris. The Control Panel is illustrates an automatic filtration sys-
duration of the rotor and blowdown shown with optional cycle counter and tem, providing continuous production
valve operation. The blowdown valve differential pressure switch which will flow with minimal product loss.
opens for approximately 10 seconds activate rotor operation if excessive

133
 Figure II-100
Control Panel Hook-up and Operation of Two Valve Blowdown VRS-2 Rotary Filter System

Figure II-100A Figure II-100B

Motor Motor
Wiring Wiring Outlet
Outlet
Inlet
P1 Model P2 Pressure Inlet
P1 Model
P2 Pressure
Pressure Line Pressure Line
Model VRS VRS-2 Model VRS Line VRS-2
Line Rotary Filter Rotary Filter
Control Panel Control Panel
Main Main
Power Power

CV1 CV1
D.P. Valve D.P.
Switch Wiring Switch Valve
Reservoir Wiring Reservoir
Pipe Pipe
Full Port Full Port
Quarter Turn Quarter Turn
Motorized Motorized
Valve CV2 Valve CV2
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Removes Removed
Solids Solids

The Control Panel operates rotor As the reservoir pipe fills, valve CV1 of flow. This hook-up illustrates an
and blowddown valves CV1 and CV2 closes and valve  CV2 opens purging automatic filtration system, providing
automatically. Fig. II-100A shows the only material held in the reservoir continuous product flow with virtually
normal running mode with CV1 valve leg, Fig. II-100B. CV2 closes and CV1 no loss of usable fluid.
open and CV2 valve closed, to allow reopens returning system to nor-
reservoir to fill with dirt and debris. mal running mode with no stoppage

Figure II-101
Motorized Rotary Filter with Motor
Wiring
Three Valve Blowdown System
for Viscous FLuids Outlet
Inlet P1 P2 Pressure
Pressure Model VRS-2 Line
Line Rotary Filter
Model VRS
Control Panel

Main
Power

CV3 CV1
D.P.
Switch

High
See Fig. II-100A and Pressure Full Port
Purge Reservoir Quarter Turn
II-100B for sequence of Pipe Motorized
operation. In addition to Valves
the blowdown valves on Valve
the reservoir pipe, a third Wiring
valve CV3 has been added
for a high pressure purge CV2
fluid or air should the Removed
debris in the reservoir pipe Solids
prove to be too viscous to
flow by gravity.

134
Figure II-102 Cooling
Control
Freeze Proof Safety Shower
with Antiscalding Protection

Fit T-44 control (with Overheat

bypass closed), 85˚F Drain
to 135˚F range, in
1-1/4” or larger pipe. Strainer
Flow crosses sensor
to shower, to cool- Spring Closed
Valve To
ing valve inlet ending #8 set
Shower Head
@ 40°F
at the #8 that opens
when ambient drops
below 40°F. Line flow Water
prevents both freeze Supply
up and solar over-

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
heating.

Figure II-103
Automatic Contol of Smaller Compressor
Cooling with Overheat Protection
The T-44 control valve incorporates a bypass needle valve to keep a mini-
mum flow of water past the sensor even when the main valve has closed. Float
A float-type drainer is preferred for the separator rather than a TD drainer, Operated
Air Vent
to ensure immediate and complete drainage of the separated liquid.
Larger compressors or low pressure cooling water supplies may call for
a separate supply of water to the aftercooler, with a solenoid valve or
similar, to open when the compressor runs.

Cooling
Strainer Control
Cooling
Water

Moisture
Separator
Warmed
Coolant Air Line
After
Compressor Cooler
Jacket

Strainer

Liquid
Drain
Trap
Drain

135
 Figure II-104
Condensate Cooling System To
Vent

Flash Tank

Vacuum
Breaker Condensate
Return

Sparge Pipe

Cooling Cooling
Sensor Control Water
Valve
To Drain
140°F
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Max.

Figure II-105
Condensate Cooling and Flash Knockdown System

To
Vent

Cooling
Control
Valve

Cooling
Water
Vacuum
Breaker Spray Nozzle
Condensate
Return

Sensor

Flash Tank

To Drain
140°F
Max.

136
Figure II-106 Vent
Head
Continuous Boiler Blowdown
Cooling System To
Vent

Blowdown
Continuous Vessel
Vacuum Boiler
Breaker Blowdown

Sparge Cooling
Pipe Control
Valve
Cooling
Water
Sensor

To Drain
140°F

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Max.

Figure II-107
Controlling Coolant Flow to Vacuum Still
Condenser and Draining Evaporator

Self Contained
Temperature
Steam Main Control

Strainer

Condenser

Evaporator
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer Cold
Water
Supply Waste Water
Sight Drain
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector
Distillate
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Gravity
Strainer Float & Thermostatic Condensate
Steam Trap Return

137
 Cooling
Cold Strainer Control Valve
Water
Supply

Figure II-108
Controlling Grinding Mill
Temperature Temperature
Water
Control
of Ball Grinding Sight Sensor Jacket
Drain
Mill Jacket

Self Contained
Cold Strainer Cooling Control
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Water
Supply

Cool Oil

Oil Cooler
Sight
Drain

Figure II-109 Hot Oil

Controlling Temperature of Oil Cooler

Self Contained
Strainer Cooling Control

Cooling
Water Cooled
Out Cooling Solvent
Water
Discharge
Check
Valve
Filter Cooler Sight
Drain
Hot Solvent

Cold
Water
Supply

Figure II-110 Drain

Controlling Temperature of Horizontal Solvent Condenser

138
Figure II-111 Self Contained
Controlling Temperature Strainer Cooling Control
of Vertical Solvent Still

Solvent to
Equipment

Pipe Waste
Water
To Drain

Cooler

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
Cold
Water
Supply

Check
Valve
Filter
Drain
Solvent

Drain

Float
Operated
Cold Air Vent Drain
Water
Mixing Tank

Perforated Pipe
Holes Pointing Down
Self Contained
Cooling Control

Centrifugal
Pump
Strainer

Cooling
Flow Water
Balancing Discharge
Valve

Roll

Roll
Figure II-112
Cooling Water Economizer Roll
for Multiple Rolls

139
 Figure II-113
Alternate Methods of Draining Compressed Air Receiver

Balance Line

Air Receiver

Strainer

Liquid
Drain Liquid
Trap Strainer Drain
Trap
HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Small air receivers are often “drained” receivers may be mounted so low as end of even on top, with an internal
through a manual valve at low level to preclude the use of the CA14 or dip pipe to reach the collected liquid.
on a once per day basis. Continuous FA pattern drainers. The drain point The only possible option is the TD
drainage helps to maintain better may be in the center of the dished drainer.
quality in the air supplied but small

Figure II-114 Figure II-115

Draining Compressed Air Draining Riser in Compressed
Dropleg to Equipment Air Distribution Line

Main

Balance
Line

Main Supply
Equipment Supply

Balance lines are not

always necessary on
Branches are best taken Air Drainers. They
off the top of main lines. become necessary
Condensation swept when the trap loca-
along the lines when air tion is more remote
Strainer tools are used may over- Strainer from the line being
load the filter of the air drained and when
set at the take-off point, condensation quanti-
so a drainer is provid- Liquid ties are greater. It is
ed at the bottom of the Drain preferred to connect
Trap
Liquid
supply leg to remove as balance lines down-
Drain much as possible of this stream of the point
Trap condensation. being drained.
Drain Drain

140
141
142
 Section 3
Product
Information
 Product Information

Condensate Recovery
• Pressure Powered Pumps™ • Packaged Pressure Powered Pumps™
• High Capacity Pressure Powered Pump™ • Electric Pumps
Spirax Sarco offers the solutions to maintaining efficiency in all areas of
condensate recovery. For the total system solution, Spirax Sarco’s non-electric
pumps drain and return condensate and other liquids from vacuum systems,
condensers, turbines, or any other steam condensing equipment. The Pressure
Powered Pump™ can handle liquids from 0.65 to 1.0 specific gravity and capaci-
ties up to 39,000 lb/hr. Available in cast iron or fabricated steel (ASME code
stamped) with stainless steel internals and bronze or stainless steel check
valves, the rugged body allows a maximum pressure of 125-300 psig and a
maximum temperature of 450˚F. This system solution saves energy and pro-
vides optimum system efficiency with low maintenance.
For easy installation, Pressure Powered Pump™ packaged units are pre-piped
and combine any Pressure Powered Pump™, up to 3” x 2” with a receiver.
Spirax Sarco’s electric pumps are packaged units completely assembled,
PRODUCT INFORMATION

wired and tested. Electric condensate return pumps are available in simplex units
with an integral float switch or a mechanical alternator on the duplex units.

Controls & Regulators

• Automatic Control Valves
• Direct Operated Temperature Regulators
• Direct Operated Pressure Regulators
• Pilot Operated Temperature Regulators
• Pilot Operated Pressure Regulators
• Safety Valves
Maximum productivity requires delivering the steam at its most energy
efficient pressure and temperature resulting in optimum energy usage, and a
safe, comfortable environment. Spirax Sarco has a complete range of controls to
efficiently provide the right heat transfer for any process or heating application.
Ranging in sizes from 1/2” to 6”, operating pressures up to 600 psi, and
capacities up to 100,000 lb/hr, the complete range of controls and regulators
provide steam system solutions industry wide. Available in iron, steel, stainless
steel, and bronze, Spirax Sarco controls and regulators are suitable for virtually
all control applications.

Service Capabilities
• Steam Trap Surveys • Model VRS Control Panel
• Steam System Audits • Steam System Management
• Contracted Site Management
When the question is steam the answer is Spirax Sarco. Strategic alliances with Spirax
Sarco have benefited many of the world’s largest steam users through energy savings, pro-
cess improvement and out sourcing of non-core activities.

144
 Product Information

Steam Traps
• Balanced Pressure Thermostatic • Bimetallic
• Float & Thermostatic • Inverted Bucket
• Thermo-Dynamic® • Liquid Expansion
• Steam Trap Fault Detection Systems • Steam Trap Diffuser
Spirax Sarco designs and manufactures all types of steam traps in a vari-
ety of materials. Whether it be for steam mains, steam tracing, or heating and
processing equipment, Spirax Sarco has the knowledge, service and products
to improve your steam system.
Mechanical steam traps are available in iron and steel with NPT, socket
weld, or flanged connections in sizes ranging from 1/2” to 4”. Thermostatic types
are available in brass, forged steel, stainless steel, cast alloy steel with stainless
steel internals with NPT and socket weld connections and are available in sizes
1/2” to 1-1/2”. The kinetic energy disc types are available in stainless, alloy and
forged steel and range in sizes from 1/2” to 1” with NPT, Socket Weld and ANSI
connections.

PRODUCT INFORMATION
Liquid Drain Traps
Many industrial processes involve the removal of a liquid from a pressurized
gas. Spirax Sarco Liquid Drain Traps are ideally suited for this purpose as well
as removing condensate from compressed air lines. The float operated design
instantly and automatically adjusts to variations in liquid load and pressure.
The traps can handle liquids with a specific gravity as low as 0.5. Liquid
Drain Traps have a maximum operating pressure to 465 psi and range in size
from 1/4” to 4” with capacities of up to 900,000 lb/hr. Construction is cast iron,
ductile iron, carbon steel or 316L stainless steel bodies with NPT, socket weld
or flanged connections.

Pipeline Auxiliaries
• Flash Vessels • Steam Separators
• Strainers - Pipeline and Basket • Sight Glasses/Checks
• Air Handling Equipment • Trap Diffusers
• Radiator Valves • Vent Heads
• Ball Valves • Vacuum Breakers
• Steam Injectors

The Spirax Sarco line of Pipeline Auxiliaries complete the steam system and are
available in a variety of materials and sizes to suit your needs.

145
 Product Information

Stainless Steel Specialty Products

A comprehensive range of stainless steel products:
• Steam Traps • Separators • Hygienic Ball Valves
• Pressure Controls • Filters • Sample Coolers
The use of clean or pure steam to reduce the risk of product or process
contamination spans many industries and applications, including pure steam for
sterilization of equipment in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries,
culinary steam for direct cooking and heating of foods, clean steam for humidifi-
cation of clean rooms, and filtered steam for hospital sterilizers. Spirax Sarco’s
range of stainless steel specialty products have been designed and manufac-
tured to the highest standards and specifications required to withstand the rigors
of service in clean steam and other aggressive process fluids.
PRODUCT INFORMATION

Engineered Systems
Complete modular solutions for steam users worldwide:
• Preassembled Steam Trap Stations
• Steam Distribution and Condensate Collection Manifolds
• Forged Steel Manifolds
• Process Condensate Removal Modules
• Condensate and Flash Steam Recovery Modules
From institutional condensate recovery applications to draining critical pro-
cess heat transfer equipment, Spirax Sarco’s modular pumping systems are the
most cost effective and provide the lowest total installed cost. The conventional
method of individually specified and procured components with on-site assembly
is labor intensive and not conducive to today’s competitive plant standards.
The Engineered Systems Advantage expedites the installation process and
delivers a quality solution to numerous types of steam users. Each modular
pumping system utilizes reliable Pressure Powered Pump™ technology and
saves 25% over the conventional method. Spirax Sarco backs each unit with a
sole source guarantee and unequaled expertise in steam system technology.

Training
Years of accumulated experience has enabled the development and
nurturing of in-depth expertise for the proper control and conditioning of
steam. Experienced field personnel work closely with design, operations, and
maintenance engineers, continuously evaluating ways to improve productivity.
Often, these solutions pay for themselves many times over.
The four U.S. training centers located in Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles,
and Blythewood, SC, have on-site steam systems providing hands-on train-
ing. Education programs include the theory of steam, the application of steam
products, and plant design and system efficiency, to name just a few. Programs
also can be tailored to meet individual needs. Thousands of engineers complete
Spirax Sarco training programs each year and return to continue broadening
their knowledge of steam systems.

146
147
 Subject Index

Page
Absorption Chiller.............................................................................................................................................................................. 36, 102
After Coolers........................................................................................................................................................................................... 135
Air Compressor......................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Air Compressor Cooling.................................................................................................................................................................... 62, 135
Air Eliminators on Liquid Service............................................................................................................................................118, 135, 139
Air Heating Coils.................................................................................................................................................. 30-37, 95, 96, 97, 98, 113
Air Leakage from Comp. Air System......................................................................................................................................................... 64
Air Drainer Traps.......................................................................................................................................................................62, 135, 140
Air Venting (see Vents, Air for Steam Spaces)
Autoclaves............................................................................................................................................................................................... 103

Back Pressure Control (see Pressure Control Valves)

Back Pressure, Effect on Trap Cap...................................................................................................................................................... 9, 46
Balance Valves.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Baseboard Radiation............................................................................................................................................................................... 107
Batch Processor, Automatic Control....................................................................................................................................................... 103
Blenders and Three-Port Valves...................................................................................................................................................28, 29, 30
Blowdown, Continuous............................................................................................................................................................................ 137
Boiler Feed Water Heating......................................................................................................................................................104, 105, 127
Boiler Steam Header Drainage.......................................................................................................................................................8, 84, 92
Boiler Working Pressure.......................................................................................................................................................................... 2, 9

Clean Steam
Characteristics................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Definitions.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Distribution........................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
Generation......................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Requirements.................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
System Design.............................................................................................................................................................................52-53
Clean Steam Applications
Block and Bleed Sterile Barriers............................................................................................................................................... 53, 129
Condensate Drainage....................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Drip Stations.................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
Filtered Steam Stations............................................................................................................................................................. 55, 128
Pressure Regulation........................................................................................................................................................................ 130
Process Line Sterilization................................................................................................................................................................ 130
Tank Sterilization............................................................................................................................................................................. 130
Sterilizers......................................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Hospitals.................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Using Pure Steam................................................................................................................................................................... 130
Closed Loop System................................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Co-efficients, Heat Transfer................................................................................................................................................................ 33, 67
Coils,
Air Heater.................................................................................................................................................................30-37, 95, 97, 113
Fan Coil Unit..................................................................................................................................................................................... 98
High Pressure, Draining......................................................................................................................................................35, 97, 113
Pre-heat and Re-heat.................................................................................................................................................................. 32, 96
Combination Pump/Traps............................................................................................................. 35, 49, 95, 101, 102, 112, 115, 116, 117
Compressed Air Drainers..........................................................................................................................................................62, 135, 140
Pipe Sizing............................................................................................................................................................................63, 64, 66
Services....................................................................................................................................................................................... 62, 63
Compressor Cooling.....................................................................................................................................................................64-65, 135
Condensate—Calculating Loads.....................................................................................................................................................9, 10, 24
Collecting Legs........................................................................................................................................................................8, 11, 38
Coolers.................................................................................................................................................................................... 136, 137
Discharge into Plastic or Fiberglass Line.......................................................................................................................................... 87
Lifting to Main at Same Level............................................................................................................................................................ 86
Lifting from Trap to High Level.......................................................................................................................................................... 86
Lifting to Trap at High Level.............................................................................................................................................................. 87
Loads from Steam Mains.............................................................................................................................................................. 9, 10
Pumped Returns..........................................................................................................................................................................47-49
Sizing Return Lines......................................................................................................................................................................43-47
Condenser, Solvent Control............................................................................................................................................................ 138, 139
Controls
Back Pressure or Surplussing (see Pressure Control Valves)
Combination, Pressure Reducing/Electric....................................................................................................................................... 104
Combination, Pressure Reducing/Temperature...................................................................................................................... 100, 104
Combination, Pressure/Temperature/Electric................................................................................................................................. 103
Definitions.................................................................................................................................................................................... 23, 28
Pilot Operated Electric.............................................................................................................................................................. 94, 107
Pressure Reducing (see Pressure Control Valves)

148
 Subject Index
Safety................................................................................................................................................................................................ 98
Sizing....................................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 23-30
Temperature (see Temperature Control Valves)
Convectors.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 107
Conversion Tables.............................................................................................................................................................................. 74, 75
Coolers............................................................................................................................................................................................ 135, 138
Corrosion .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Culinary Steam (see Filtered Steam)
Cv ........... 23, 25, 29
Cylinders, Rotating.......................................................................................................................................................................... 111, 112

Direct Injection
Steam..................................................................................................................................................................27, 28, 104, 105, 106
Water...............................................................................................................................................................................136, 137, 139
Drain Traps, Air and Gases.......................................................................................................................................................62, 135, 140
Dryers ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 111, 112
Dyeing Equipment................................................................................................................................................................................... 103

Elevating Condensate by
Electric Pump.................................................................................................................................................................................. 119
Non-electric Pump........................................................................................................................... 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121-126
Line Pressure........................................................................................................................................................................................
Engine—Jacket Temperature Control..................................................................................................................................................... 135
Evaporators..................................................................................................................................................................................... 115, 137
Exchanger—Heat............................................................................................................................... 93, 99, 100, 101, 123, 124, 125, 126
Expansion Loops, Draining....................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Expansion of Pipes.................................................................................................................................................................................... 66

Filtered Steam................................................................................................................................................................................... 50, 103

Filtration (Rotary Filters).................................................................................................................................................................. 133, 134
Flash Steam.....................................................................................................................................................................................3, 41-47
Flash Steam, Recovery Hookups............................................................................................. 97, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127
Flowmeters (see Steam Meters)
Freeze Resistant Hookups........................................................................................................................................................96, 110, 135

Gilflo (see Steam Meters)

Gilflo I.L.V.A. (See Steam Meters)
Grinding (Ball) Mill Jacket Temperature Control..................................................................................................................................... 137

Heat Exchangers (see Exchangers)

Heaters, Air.......................................................................................................................................................................36, 37, 95, 97, 98
Heaters, Hot Water Storage................................................................................................................................................................ 98, 99
High Limit Overheat Protection................................................................................................................................................................. 98
Hospital Equipment......................................................................................................................................................................... 108, 109
Hot Water Blending.......................................................................................................................................................................28, 29, 30

Ironer, Flatwork....................................................................................................................................................................................... 111

Kettle, Jacketed....................................................................................................................................................................................... 113

Lift Fitting ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 103

Liquid Flowmeters (see Steam Meters)
Low Pressure Steam Main Drainage........................................................................................................................................................ 84

Mains
Air .............................................................................................................................................................................................62-66
Condensate Return (see Condensate)
Piping Sizing................................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 6
Steam
Air Venting (see Vents, Air for Steam)
Automatic Heatup.................................................................................................................................................................. 9, 94
Collecting Leg Sizing................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Condensate Loads................................................................................................................................................................ 9, 10
Draining.........................................................................................................................................................................11, 38, 45
Draining End of HP Lines.......................................................................................................................................................... 85
Draining End of LP Lines.......................................................................................................................................................... 84
Draining Boiler Header.......................................................................................................................................................... 8, 92
Draining Expansion Loops........................................................................................................................................................ 85
Draining Mains to Return to Same Level.................................................................................................................................. 86
Draining Main, Automatic Startup.....................................................................................................................................8, 9, 86
Draining Main, Supervised Startup....................................................................................................................................... 8, 86
Draining Main, with Trap at Higher Level............................................................................................................................ 86, 87

149
 Subject Index

NPSH Calculations.................................................................................................................................................................................... 48

Oil Cooler—Temperature Control............................................................................................................................................................ 138

Orifice Plate Flowmeters (see Steam Meters)
Overheat Protection of HW Storage Cylinder........................................................................................................................................... 98
Overheat Protection of Reinforced Plastic Condensate Lines.................................................................................................................. 87

Paper Machines...................................................................................................................................................................................... 112

Parallel Operation of Pressure Reducing Valves................................................................................................................................ 21, 89
Pipe & Flange Dimensions.................................................................................................................................................................. 80, 81
Platen Press.................................................................................................................................................................................... 104, 110
Plating Tanks........................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Preheat and Reheat Coils......................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Presses, Laundry............................................................................................................................................................................ 110, 111
Pressure Drop
in Steam Mains.......................................................................................................................................................................2, 3, 4, 5
in Water Lines............................................................................................................................................................................. 76, 77
in Air Lines........................................................................................................................................................................................ 66
in Water Fittings................................................................................................................................................................................ 79
Pressure Powered Pump
Closed System....................................................................................................................... 35, 49, 95, 99, 101, 102, 112, 116, 117
Discharging to Long Delivery Line............................................................................................................................................ 47, 118
Discharging to Long Delivery Line with Lift at Remote End............................................................................................................ 118
Draining Air Heater Coil........................................................................................................................................................95, 97, 98
Draining Condensed Flash Steam with Other LP Condensate.........................................................................................48, 123, 125
Draining Evaporator as Pumping Trap............................................................................................................................................ 115
Draining Equipment Near Floor Level..................................................................................................................................... 116, 117
Draining Flash Steam Recovery Vessel...........................................................................................................97, 121, 123, 125, 126
Draining Large Heater............................................................................................................................................................... 97, 101
Draining LP Heater to Overhead Main.............................................................................................................................................. 99
Draining Condensate from Vacuum........................................................................................................................................ 115, 119
Draining Water from Sump Pit........................................................................................................................................................ 118
Hookup for Staged & Standby Operation........................................................................................................................................ 117
Lifting Atmospheric Condensate to Overhead Main....................................................................................................................... 114
Lifting from LP Source to HP Receiver........................................................................................................................................... 116
Modules.....................................................................................................................................................95, 101, 112, 121, 122, 123
Pumping Condensate from Small Heater & Other Loads............................................................................................................... 100
Pumping Preheater & Reheater Condensate................................................................................................................................... 96
Vented System..................................................................................................................... 49, 96, 97, 100, 101, 102, 114, 117, 121
Pressure Reducing Valves
Back Pressure............................................................................................................................................... 22, 92, 97, 104, 120-126
Combined Pressure/Temp. Control of Heat Exchanger.................................................................................................................. 100
Control of Batch Processor with Electric Programmer.................................................................................................................... 103
Controlling Boiler Feed Water Temp. Using Pressure/Temperature Control.................................................................................. 104
Controlling Live Steam Makeup to Flash Steam Recovery............................................................................................120, 121, 122
Controlling Platen Press.................................................................................................................................................................. 104
Direct Operated Valves............................................................................................................................................................... 19, 91
Installation in Tight Spaces............................................................................................................................................................... 91
Low Capacity PRV Station................................................................................................................................................................ 91
Noise Considerations........................................................................................................................................................................ 19
Parallel PRV Station........................................................................................................................................................20, 21, 22, 89
Pilot Operated Valves............................................................................................................................................19, 94, 97, 120-122
Pneumatically Operated Valves.................................................................................................................................................. 19, 93
PRV for Motive Steam....................................................................................................................................................................... 94
PRV Station Components................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Remote Air Pilot Control of PRV....................................................................................................................................................... 92
Remote Operation of PRV’s........................................................................................................................................................ 90, 92
Sizing.............................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 23, 24, 25
Two-Stage PRV Station........................................................................................................................................................20, 22, 90
Typical Pressure Reducing Valve Station................................................................................................................................... 20, 89
Pressure/Temperature Control (see controls)
Programmers
On Supply to Platen Press.............................................................................................................................................................. 104
Mains Heatup, Pressurizing and Shutdown.................................................................................................................................. 9, 94
Batch Processor Sequencing.......................................................................................................................................................... 103
Psychrometric Chart.................................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Pumping Trap (see Pressure Powered Pump)
Pumps, Electrical.................................................................................................................................................................47, 48, 119, 127
Pumps, Packaged Units........................................................................................................... 97, 100, 101, 102, 112, 121, 122, 123, 124
Pure Steam............................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Pyrometers................................................................................................................................................................................................ 55

150
 Subject Index
Radiation—Baseboard Fin Tube, Hot Water and Steam........................................................................................................................ 107
Reboiler, Draining HP Condensate......................................................................................................................................................... 114
Receiver, Compressed Air, Drainage...................................................................................................................................................... 140
Reducing Valves (see Pressure Reducing Valves)
Reheat-Preheat Coil.................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Remote Opertion of Controls........................................................................................................................................................90, 92, 93
Return Lines, Hot Water...................................................................................................................................................................... 45, 47
Rotating Cylinders................................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Running Load, Steam Main................................................................................................................................................................... 9, 10

Safety Factors for Steam Traps............................................................................................................................................................ 9, 39

Safety Relief Valve Sizing......................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Safety Showers....................................................................................................................................................................................... 135
Scrubber, Natural Gas, Drainage............................................................................................................................................................ 116
Separators
Air ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 135
Steam..............................................................................................8, 19, 60, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104,
105, 107, 108, 120, 121, 122, 125, 128, 130, 131
Series Opertion of Reducing Valves......................................................................................................................................................... 90
Sight Glasses............................................................................................................................................................................................ 55
Sizing
Air Lines................................................................................................................................................................................63, 64, 66
Compressed Air Drainers.................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Condensate Lines...........................................................................................................................................................43, 45, 46, 47
Control Valves.......................................................................................................................................................................23, 24, 25
Flash Steam Recovery Vessels.................................................................................................................................................. 42, 43
Sparge Pipes............................................................................................................................................................................... 27, 47
Steam Mains.........................................................................................................................................................................2, 3, 6, 11
Steam Traps................................................................................................................................................................9, 16, 38, 39, 40
Vent Lines...............................................................................................................................................................................3, 42, 43
Water Lines.....................................................................................................................................................................45, 76, 77, 79
Solvent Cooler—Temperature Control.................................................................................................................................................... 138
Sparge Pipe Sizing.................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Specific Heat of
Solids................................................................................................................................................................................................. 70
Liquids............................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Gases................................................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Foodstuffs.................................................................................................................................................................................... 72, 73
Spiratec Leak Detector System........................................................................................................................................................... 56, 58
Standard Range Gilflo (SRG) (see Steam Meters)
Stall Chart............................................................................................................................................................................................ 33, 34
Steam Consumption Rates................................................................................................................................................................. 68, 89
Steam Injection............................................................................................................................................................27, 28, 104, 105, 106
Steam Mains (see Mains)
Steam Meters
Accuracy............................................................................................................................................................................................ 59
Density Compensation...................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Installation......................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Liquid Metering System................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Meter Location................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Repeatability...................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Steam Conditioning........................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Spiraflo Saturated Steam Metering System.................................................................................................................................... 131
Saturated Steam Metering System................................................................................................................................................. 132
Steam Conditioning Station............................................................................................................................................................... 60
Superheated Steam Metering System............................................................................................................................................ 131
Turndown.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Steam Lines, Draining............................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Steam Needs Analysis Program (SNAP).................................................................................................................................................. 39
Steam Purity.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Steam Quality............................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
Steam Tables.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Steam Tracing................................................................................................................................................................................12-18, 88
Steam Traps (see Traps, Steam)
Sterilizer Hookup............................................................................................................................................................................. 108, 109
Sterilizer, Trapping and Air Venting........................................................................................................................................................ 108
Still Condensers, Cooling Control........................................................................................................................................................... 137
Storage Tank Heating.................................................................................................................................................................98, 99, 110
Sump Pit Drainage.................................................................................................................................................................................. 118
Superheated Steam.................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Surplussing Valve (see Back Pressure Control)
System Stall..................................................................................................................................................................................33, 34, 35

151
 Subject Index

Tanks
Boiler Feed Water...........................................................................................................................................................104, 105, 127
Flash (sizing)..........................................................................................................................................................................42-44, 49
Flash Steam Recovery (see Flash Steam, Recovery Hookups)
Hot Water Storage...................................................................................................................................................................... 98, 99
Open........................................................................................................................................................................................ 103, 105
Plating, Dyeing & Process............................................................................................................................................................... 103
Product Storage.............................................................................................................................................................................. 110
Temperature Control Valves
Cooling Service..........................................................................................................................................................87, 127, 135-139
Direct Operated....................................................................................................... 26-29, 87, 88, 105, 127, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139
Heating Service (liquid)..................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Heating Service (steam).......................................................26, 27, 28, 88, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 125, 126
Installation......................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Pilot Operated.......................................................................................................................... 26, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 103, 105, 106
Pneumatically Operated................................................................................................................................................27, 28, 93, 101
Remote Setting.................................................................................................................................................................................. 93
Sizing............................................................................................................................................................................................23-30
Three-Port (blending, diverting)............................................................................................................................................28, 29, 30
Two-Port Direct Acting (heating)..................................................................................................................... 26-29, 88, 98, 105, 108
Two-Port Reverse Acting (cooling)............................................................................................ 28, 87, 127, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139
Testing Steam Traps............................................................................................................................................................................55-58
Thermostatic Air Vents (see Vents, Air, for Steam Spaces)
Three Port Valves..........................................................................................................................................................................28, 29, 30
Tire Mold Hookup.................................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Tracer Lines,
Control.............................................................................................................................................................................16, 17, 18, 88
Trapping....................................................................................................................................................................15, 17, 18, 38, 88
Tracer Systems........................................................................................................................................................................12-18, 38, 88
Trap Diffuser.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 47
Traps, Drain...............................................................................................................................................................................47, 135, 140
Traps, Steam
Discharge Modes.............................................................................................................................................................................. 56
Location...........................................................................................................................................................................11, 17, 32, 38
Sanitary Clean Steam Systems..........................................................................................................................52, 53, 128, 129, 130
Selection and Sizing....................................................................................................................................................9, 16, 38, 39, 40
Steam Loss Estimates...................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Testing of......................................................................................................................................................................................55-58

Unit Heater Drainage................................................................................................................................................................................. 98

Vacuum Breakers.............................................................................31, 93, 96, 97, 98, 100, 104, 105, 110, 118, 123, 125, 126, 136, 137
Vacuum—Draining Condensate from.............................................................................................................................................. 115, 119
Valves
Accuracy (droop)............................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Balancing........................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Cv 23, 25, 29
Definitions.................................................................................................................................................................................... 23, 28
Pressure (see Pressure Control Valves)
Proportional Band........................................................................................................................................................................ 23, 26
Sizing....................................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 23-30
Temperature (see Temperature Control Valves)
Velocity,
Steam Mains...........................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 6, 8
Water Mains................................................................................................................................................................................ 76, 77
Air Lines...................................................................................................................................................................................... 63, 64
Vents, Air, for Steam Spaces................................................ 11, 31, 60, 85, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 108, 109, 111, 113
114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 131
Vortex Flowmeters (see Steam Meters)

Warmup Loads, Steam Main................................................................................................................................................................. 9, 10

Warmers, Blanket and Bedpan, Hospital................................................................................................................................................ 108
Washers, Egg.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Water For Injection (WFI).......................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Water Hammer...................................................................................................................................................................................... 8, 32
Water Logging..................................................................................................................................................................................... 31, 35

152
 Group Companies and Sales Offices

Argentina Hygromatik Lufttechnischer Spirax Sarco Sales Representative

Spirax Sarco S.A. Apparatebau GmbH 2-C Gulistan-E-Zafar P.R.E.C.H.S.
Ruta Panamericana Km. 24,900 Lise-Meitner-StraBe 3 Near SMCHS Block B
1611 Don Torcuato D-24558 Henstedt-Ulzburg Postal Code 74400
Buenos Aires, Argentina Germany Karachi, Pakistan
Australia Great Britain Poland
Spirax Sarco Pty. Limited Spirax Sarco Limited Spirax Sarco Sp. z o.o.
P.O. Box 6308 Head Office Fosa 25
Delivery Centre Charlton House, Cheltenham 02-768 Warszawa, Poland
Blacktown Gloucestershire, GL53 8ER Portugal
N.S.W. 2148, Australia Great Britain Spirax Sarco-Equipamentos
Hong Kong Industrias Lda.
Austria
See Singapore Rua da Quinta do Pinheiro, 8
Spirax Sarco Ges.m.b.H.
Eisgrubengasse 2/PF 41 Hungary Portela de Carnaxide
A-2334 Vosendorf-Sud. Spirax Sarco Ltd. 2795-653 Carnaxide, Portugal
Austria 11-1143 Budapest
Zászlós u. 18. Russia
Belgium Hungary Spirax Sarco Ltd.
Spirax Sarco N. V. (Room 1401)
India 4 Vozrozhdenija Str.
Industriepark Zwijnaarde 5 Spirax Marshall Limited
9052 Gent - Zwijnaarde 198097 St. Petersburg, Russia
P.B. No. 29
Belgium Bombay Poona Road Singapore
Brazil Kasarwadi Spirax Sarco Pvt. Limited
Spirax Sarco Ind. E Com Ltda Pune 411 034, India 464 Tagore Avenue
Rodovia Raposo Tavares Km. 31 Upper Thomson Road
Indonesia
Caixa Postal 143 Singapore 787833
See Singapore
06700-000. Cotia S.P. South Africa
Italy
Brazil Spirax Sarco Srl Spirax Sarco (Pty) Ltd.
Via Per Cinisello, 18 P.O. Box 925
Canada Kempton Park 1620
Spirax Sarco Canada Limited 20054 Nova Milanese
Milano, Italy Transvaal, South Africa
383 Applewood Crescent
Concord Japan Spain
Ontario L4K 4J3, Canada Spirax Sarco (Japan) Limited Spirax Sarco S.A.
2-37, Hamada, Mihamaku Sant Josep, 130
China Chiba 261-0025 Poligon El Pla
Spirax Sarco Engineering (China) Ltd. Japan 08980 Sant Feliu de Llobregat
No. 107 Gui Qing Road Spain
Caohejing Hi Tech Park Korea
Shanghai, China Spirax Sarco Korea Limited Sweden
Postcode 200233 3rd-5th Floor, Jungwoo Building Spirax Sarco AB
1552-8 Seocho-dong Västberga Allé 60
Colombia Seocho-ku S-126 30 Haegersten, Sweden
Spirax Sarco Internacional Ltda Seoul 137-070, Korea
Apartado Aereo 32484 Switzerland
Lebanon
Cali (Valle) Spirax Sarco A. G.
Spirax Sarco Resident Engineer
Colombia, South America Gustav-Maurer-Str.9
P.O. Box 11-3052
8702 Zollikon, Switzerland
Czech Republic Beirut, Lebanon
Spirax Sarco Spol. s. r. o. Malaysia Taiwan
V korytech (areal nakladoveho nadrazi CD) Spirax Sarco Sdn Bhd Spirax Longbridge Limited
100 00 Praha 10 Strasnice 25, Jalan PJS 11/1 6th Floor
Czech Republic Bandar Sunway No. 8, Lane 94, Tsao Ti Wei
46150 Petaling Jaya Shen Keng Hsiang
Denmark Taipei County
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Spirax Sarco Limited Taiwan, Republic of China
West Malaysia
Birkedommervej - 31
2400-Copenhagen N.V., Denmark Mexico Thailand
Spirax Sarco Mexicana S.A. de CV Spirax Boonyium Limited
East Africa Apartado Postal 5287-K 9th Floor, Benjaporn Building
Spirax Sarco Limited Monterrey NL 222 Krungtep-kreetha Road
3rd Floor (above Gilani’s) 64000 - Mexico Bangkapi
ABC Place, Waryaki Way New Zealand Bangkok 10240, Thailand
Westlands, Nairobi Spirax Sarco Limited
Kenya U.S.A.
P.O. Box 76-160 Spirax Sarco, Inc.
Finland Manukau City Northpoint Park
Spirax Oy Auckland, New Zealand 1150 Northpoint Blvd.
Sorvaajankatu 9 Nigeria Blythewood, SC 29016
00810 Helsinki, Finland Spirax Sarco Sales Representative
Cakasa Company Ltd. Watson-Marlow Bredel Inc.
France
96 Palm Ave. 220 Balladvale Street
Spirax Sarco S.A. Wilmington, MA 01887
P.O. Box 871
B P 61
Mushin, Lagos, Nigeria
F 78193 Trappes Venezuela
Cedex, France Norway Spirax Sarco S.A.
Spirax Sarco Limited (Norge) Apartado 81088
Germany P.O. Box 47
Spirax Sarco GmbH Caracas 1080A, Venezuela
1483 Skytta, Norway
Postfach 10 20 42
D-78420 Konstanz, Germany Pakistan
153
 Spirax Sarco, Inc
1150 Northpoint Blvd
Blythewood, SC 29016
Phone: (800) 883-4411

154
 Spirax Sarco, Inc.
1150 Northpoint Blvd.
Blythewood, SC 29016
(803) 714-2000
Fax: (803) 714-2200

SPC1005