Interest, motivation and learning: An educational-psychological perspective

Author(s): Andreas Krapp

Source: European Journal of Psychology of Education , MARCH 1999, Vol. 14, No. 1
(MARCH 1999), pp. 23-40
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23420114

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/23420114?seq=1&cid=pdf-
reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to European
Journal of Psychology of Education

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
European Journal of Psychology of Education
1999, Vol. XIV, n° 1, 23-40
© 1999,1.S.P.A.

Interest, motivation and learning:

An educational-psychological perspective

Andreas Krapp
University of the German Forces, Germany

Within the last few years, researchers have shown a renewed

interest in "interest". Especially in the field of educational psychology
many studies have been conducted to analyze how learning and
achievement are influenced by motivational and cognitive factors,
which are connected with individual and/or situational interests. In this
paper, results from empirical research will be presented besides
theoretical considerations concerning the interest-construct. Interest
has typically been studied as an independent variable. Dependent
variables have been either some aspects of learning outcome
(knowledge structure, academic achievement) or hypothetical mediators,
which probably can be used to explain the interest effects (e.g., learning
strategies, attention, emotional experiences). There is also a growing
number of studies which try to explore the conditions of interest
development within educational settings. Future lines of research will be
discussed in light of the demands of educational theory and practice.

Introduction

The concept of interest plays a predominant role in everyday-thinking, as well as i

professional considerations of teachers about inter- and intraindividual differences in learnin
and achievement (Todt, 1978; Travers, 1978). At the beginning of this century, famo
psychologists advocated that interests were the most important motivational factors in
learning and development (Claparède, 1905; Dewey, 1913; Thorndike, 1935; Lunk, 1926
Berlyne, 1949; for a summary see Arnold, 1906). However, in the middle of the century ther
was a noticeable decline in research devoted to this topic. As a result, the overarching
theories on interest were excluded from scientific discussion. The development of mor
discrete research approaches and theories in the field of learning and motivation (e.g
curiosity, attention achievement motivation, intrinsic motivation, flow) rendered the concep
of interest superfluous. Yet, within the last 10-15 years it has become clear that concepts an
theories developed in these specialized fields of research do not adequately account for a
important aspects of the traditional concept of interest (Schiefele, Krapp, Prenzel, Heiland,
Kasten, 1983; Nenniger, 1987; Prenzel, 1988; Renninger, 1990; Todt, Drewes, & Heils,
1991). As a result, researchers have shown a renewed interest in "interest" as an explanator

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 24 A. KRAPP

construct in the fiel

Renninger, 1992; Hoff

Basic conceptualizatio

In general, research
firstly, interest em
(Valsiner, 1992; Oert
person and some topi
(Nuttin, 1984). This i
An important aspect i
well as cognitive comp
positive emotional exp
notion of personal re
-related tasks. Interes
becomes part of a syn
In of these spite
com
researchers use differ
and methodological
research (Krapp, Ren
identified three conce
discussions on motiv
person, (2) interest as
interest as a psycholo
other. Especially, the
characteristics and th
environment.

Characteristics

o as a disposition
ndividual interest

of the person

Characteristics of the

C^Tjnterestingness

learning context

Figure 1. Three approaches to interest research (Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992).

A first line of research interprets interest as a personality trait or motivational disposition

(e.g., a long-lasting preference for a certain topic). Most research approaches which refer to
such a concept of individual interest ask questions from a structural perspective. According to
the paradigm of differential psychology (Anastasi & Foley, 1949; Amelang & Bartussek,
1985), their main concern is to describe and explain interindividual differences with respect
to learning and development. Individual interests are seen either as dependent or independent
variables within a network of interrelated factors.
There are also researchers who consider interest as a specific psychological state rather
than as a disposition or trait. They focus on the cognitive and affective states and processes

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 INTEREST, MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 25

which are evoked while experiencing an "actualized interest". According

general psychology, empirical research is primarily concerned with u
interest-related phenomena (Renninger, 1992). It is this lens of scient
characterizes Dewey's (1913) early thoughts on the role of intere
development.
It is important to realize that research on individual interest is mainly
subjective side of the "person-object-relationship". This approach cont
approaches that are primarily engaged with the "objective" side of th
explore the conditions and effects of interestingness of educational set
For example, reading researchers have often been trying to understand ho
of texts can generate and sustain interest on the part of the reader. Featu
can generate "text-based interest" are novelty, character identification,
themes, and intensity of action (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, & Fieldin
Anderson (1992) note, however, that situational interest is different from
(Berlyne, 1960). Situational interest may be tied to very specific con
structural features, implying that it may last longer than simple arousal a
a personal interest (Hidi, 1990; Hidi & Berndorff, 1998). Like individual
interest can be described from the perspective of either the situation
conditions which induce interest, or from the perspective of the experien
is being engaged in an interest-based activity. It is important to note
psychological state can be traced back either to "interesting" factors of th
or to an already existing (dispositional) interest. As a rule, we assume tha
results from an interaction between individual and situational factors. On
have to take into account that interest can be created in some cases prim
and in other cases primarily by a disposition.

An educational-psychological approach: The person-object-theory of inter

New concepts and research approaches stem from diverse discipli

traditions, such as developmental psychology, motivation, text-learning, r
science education, gender differences and giftedness. In most of these stu
a subordinate factor. Researchers seldom refer to a specific theoretical as
construct. In contrast to the situation at the beginning of this century,
which try to integrate the results from different lines of research are
educational psychologists have begun this major venture and propos
different components or meanings of the construct are specified (e.g., T
1988; Schiefele, 1991; Gardner, 1998; Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992
develop a conceptual model and an outline of an educational theory of int
by Hans Schiefele and his colleagues (Schiefele et al., 1983; Prenzel, K
1986; Prenzel, 1988, 1992; Krapp, 1992, 1993).

Basic ideas

The basic ideas of this theoretical approach are summarized in the following statements:

(1) The theoretical framework is based on metatheoretical premises. They refer, for
example, to the question of ultimate aims of an educational theory on motivated
learning. With respect to educational practice, it seems to be necessary not only to
describe and explain the motivational aspects of single learning episodes
(Boekaerts, 1996, this volume), but also to describe and explain the role of
motivation in the course of human development.
(2) In accordance with ideas of Lewin (1951), Nuttin (1984), Renninger (1990, 1992),
Deci and Ryan (1985, 1991), Oerter (1995) and many others, it is postulated that
the individual, as a potential source of action, and the environment as the object of
action, constitute a bipolar unit. Therefore, the interest-construct is conceptualized

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 26 A. KRAPP

as a relational conce
between a person a
Lewin, 1951). It can
(3) It is assumed tha
environment in a m
consists of units tha
We refer to these u
an interest for a sho
concrete things, a t
the cognitively repr
(4) The most import
one's values and fe
value-related and f
The value-related va
of personal signific
states while being e
arousal or feelings
-based interactions w
modes that combin
goals) and positive
Under extremely op
1988). Flow can be
1993, p. 73). A furth
-based activities me
interest-related goa
growing self (Deci &
what a person has to
to do (Dewey, 1913;
(5) An interest-based
analysis: on a first
individual. Here, in
occupied with an ob
level, interest refers
learning activity (ac
(6) Referring to a dy
Deci and Ryan's (19
emergence and dev
interests is often re
self. Developmenta
processes of identi
person encounters
assimilated to the se
are not only (or f
consideration (e.g.,
-related experience
cognitive approac
Heckhausen, 1989,
1996) are not suffici
In addition, concept
psychological proce
concept of basic ps
basis for describing
origin and basic fun

Interest and intrinsic motivation

The concept of interest, as defined here, can also be used to specify the meaning of

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 INTEREST, MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 27

intrinsic learning-motivation. Many authors have criticized the

as misleading, unless it is clarified on the basis of a model of m
1997; Nenniger, Eigler, & Macke, 1993; Rathunde, 1993).
intentional (goal-oriented) learning into consideration, the
-motivation refers to the fact that a learner has an actualized w
specific learning activity (Schiefele, 1996a). One possibi
differences is the distinction between extrinsic and intrinsi
important role in the field of educational psychology (Schie
respect to goal-oriented learning, we suppose that the exper
always results from a more or less obvious connection betwe
individual's objects of interest (Krapp, 1993; Schiefele, 1996
identified him- or herself with these objects, the related learnin
"self-intentionality", and the realization of an interest is (by d
experience of being intrinsically motivated. In Boekaerts' (199
Learning" (PaL) this optimal learning situation is referred
episode". It differs from other learning opportunities in the sen
appraise the learning situation and experience personal meanin
in the learning activity.

Empirical approaches

Interest as an independent variable

Research approaches that have examined interest as an ind

great extent on models and procedures that analyze the inte
interests and academic achievement. This is in contrast to research lines which focused on the
influence of situational interest on learning and achievement. Next, I will briefly discuss the
main research lines.

Individual interest and academic achievement. Studies which investigated the relation
between individual interest and learning-outcome have often used a correlational approach.
Dependent variables are mostly grades or test scores. In a meta-analysis covering all studies
of the last 3 decades (Schiefele, Krapp, & Winteler, 1992) it was found that across all school
types, grade levels, and subjects, the best (average) correlative estimate of the "interest
-achievement-relation" is approximately .30. This relationship appears to be a function of
sex, age or grade level, and school subject. Specifically, interest has a greater effect on the
grades of male students than on those of female students. There also seems to be a closer
relationship between interest and academic achievement at higher grade levels. This might be
the result of reciprocal effects: With growing age, specifically after puberty, students begin to
identify more seriously with selected fields of knowledge and competence and tend to reject
others (Todt, Drewes, & Heils, 1991; Fend, 1994). As a consequence, learning efforts are
concentrated on selected topics and yield better learning results.
If we compare the interest-achievement correlations with the results of prediction studies
in which other measures of motivation are used, for example measures of achievement
motivation, the correlations are more stable, and mostly higher (Schiefele, 1996a). However,
the critical question is what they can tell us about the role of interest in learning. Teacher
-ratings of achievement are very poor measures of what really has been learned. Better
indicators are measures of cognitive changes during learning, e.g., changes in the representa
tional structure of domain-specific knowledge.

Individual interest in specific subject areas and acquired knowledge. A few studies have
tried to investigate the interest-achievement-relation at this level of analysis. Most of them
have been done in the domain of text-learning (cf., Schiefele, 1990, 1991; Schiefele & Krapp,
1996). In these studies high-interest and low-interest students were compared with regard to

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
28 A. KRAPP

different indicators o
questionnaire to meas
series of tests to mea
were also administered
Finally, after reading
All studies displayed
controlling for previo
enhance the quantity
the quality of learning
go beyond the text's su
(for a summary see S

Situational interes
instruction suggest t
achievement (Travers
will automatically lead
to get involved with t
some correlational stu
text-learning, which
interestingness and
Anderson (1992), H
methodology has usu
investigation is rated
relationship between t
interestingness turned
experiments it was fou
(e.g., readability) to ex
Interestingness, how
shown in experimenta
1992). The backgroun
interestingness of le
anecdotes, which are n
the basic information
influence of importan
interestingness were r
were asked to read a
operationally defined
information. Another
effects were measure
and, in addition, som
reported by Garner, G
important informatio
who read the text wi
rated as most import
43% of these ideas. I
read and recall inform
have a powerful effe
interest plays a key
interestingness is the
information is of no re

Studies referring to p

Relatively few studi

interestby analyzing

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 INTEREST, MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 29

as attention, learning-behavior, flow, and other emotional experien

scare studies that have been conducted will be briefly reviewed here.

Attention. Interesting as well as important information tends to

than uninteresting and/or unimportant information. Researchers
increased learning is due to the allocation of extra attention (An
Reynolds, 1988). This hypothesis is the basic premise of the Selec
Model (SAS; Reynolds, 1992; Hidi, 1995). Based on the assumption
information processing system is limited, it is predicted that a reade
the interesting portions of a text and hence needs more time for
experiments designed to test this assumption failed to confirm this
the prediction of the SAS, adults tend to take less time to read intere
uninteresting ones, although children do take longer to read inter
predicted by SAS. Causal analysis of the data revealed that no caus
interest, attention, and learning outcome (Hidi, 1995; cf., Reynol
presentation of the data). Shirey and Reynolds (1988) and others c
plays no causal role in readers' increased learning of interesting i
taking into consideration that attentional control is a complex pheno
somewhat premature conclusion. Modern theories of attention postu
components and functions. They have led to a re-examination of
learning (Hidi, 1995). Some theoretical models distinguish between tw
cognitive control. One system requires conscious and voluntary ac
second system is working automatically, without the need of cons
argues that interest-based learning is connected with the second s
true for the early stages of a "learning episode" as opposed to a m
(cf., Boekaerts, 1996). As a consequence, interest-based forms of
require less effort, and are, at the same time both, faster and more eff

Learning Strategies. Learning strategies can be conceptualized

ways. Entwistle (1988) and others distinguish between deep-level p
surface-level strategies. Students who tend to use deep-level processi
subject-matter from different angles; they establish diverse relations
and solve difficulties on their own. In contrast, students who rely on
strategies are satisfied to memorize facts and prefer those aspects of
can easily be mastered. Empirical studies have demonstrated that, alt
to work with deep-level processing strategies, they often do no
motivational factors that have been shown to influence the use of lea
-related variables turned out to have an important influence (Sch
Wild, 1996).
In one of our own studies we were able to demonstrate that, at the
interest affects students' attitude towards different kinds of learning s
specific use of learning strategies in concrete learning situations (S
1995). A total of 144 university students with different majors part
students were involved in courses with educational or psychologica
of the requirements in their first year. In the middle of the semester,
a number of questionnaires assessing the following variables: inte
extrinsic motivation to learn (e.g., learning to get good grades), the
devoted to course-related work and general use of learning strateg
namely at the end of the semester, all students took exams in their c
completed their tests, these students were asked to give an indi
strategies they actually used when preparing for the exam. In additi
how many hours they spent learning during the two weeks before
between motivation, study time, and learning strategies are shown in

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 30 A. KRAPP

Table 1

Zero-order correlatio
Wild, &Krapp, 1995)

Dependent Extrins
Interest
Variables

Study Time
During Semester .52** .09
Week before Exam .17 .14

General Strategy Use

Elaboration/Forming Relations 29** .02
Elaboration/Critical Thinking 27** .14
Rehearsal A6 .23**
Metacognition .08 .18*

Specific Strategy Use

Elaboration/Forming Relations .33** .14
Elaboration/Critical Thinking .33** .14
Rehearsal .05 33**
Metacognition .19* 31**

Note. n= 144; **p<.01 (two-tailed tests)

Interest was highly related to study time during the semester but weakly related to study
time before the exam. In contrast, extrinsic motivation was not significantly related to study
time during the semester. When looking at the relations between the two aspects of learning
motivation (interest vs. extrinsic motivation) and strategy use, we found nearly the same
pattern for the general as well as for the specific dimension of learning: interest was closely
related to elaboration strategies which are aspects of deep processing approach. Extrinsic
motivation was associated with rehearsal (and metacognitive) strategies, but not with
elaboration strategies. Even though it is well established that interest as well as other
motivation factors play an important role in selecting and using specific kinds of learning
strategies, we still do not know to what degree learning-strategies mediate the causal
relationship between interest and learning outcome (Schiefele & Krapp, 1996; Schiefele,
1996a; Wild, 1996).

Feeling-related states and experiences. The effectiveness of learning is not only a matter
of cognitive factors; feeling-related states and the quality of experience during a learning
episode also play an important role (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988; Christianson, 1992; Boekaerts,
1995). Quality of experience is a multidimensional construct. According to Schiefele
(1996b), the core dimensions of this construct include activation or arousal (e.g., feeling
vigorous), affect (e.g., feeling happy), and concentration. Measuring feeling-related variables
retrospectively is a problem, because the quality of emotional experiences changes very
quickly and subjects do not always correctly remember their emotional states during the
process of an activity. Therefore it is important to use methods which provide valid
information about the emotional states experienced during an interest-related action.
In a recent study Schiefele (1996b) asked high school seniors, what kind of feelings and
experiential states they had while reading a text. The quality of the subjective experience was
assessed by means of rating-scales that were inserted into the text at different points. Topic
interest was found to be significantly related to involvement (activation), enjoyment (happi
ness) and concentration.
Another empirical approach is the "Experience Sampling Method" (ESM;
Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1987). Subjects are provided with an electronic pager which is
individually programmed with randomly selected signal-times. Whenever the subject
receives a signal he or she is asked to respond immediately to a small number of self-report

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 INTEREST, MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 31

items (e.g., rating-scales). By collecting many situation-specific

between learning-conditions and the occurrence of experienti
systematically. ESM has successfully been used in different psy
Only recently, educational psychologists have tried to transfer
domain of motivation and interest. For example, Schiefele an
investigated the relation between interest in four different subje
experience in class during the period of one week. The results dem
good predictor of various dimensions of experience in class. Ac
was most strongly associated with the experience of intrinsic m
concentration, and "potency" (feeling active, strong and exited).
achievement motivation did not decrease the strength of these rela
Continuing this research line, we have started a longitudina
vocational education (Wild & Krapp, 1996; Wild, Krapp, Schreye
aim of this study was to investigate the role of emotional experie
psychological needs for autonomy, competence and social related
assumed that the emergence of a new interest-oriented person-ob
changes in already existing interest-patterns depend on the per
one's basic needs.

3.8
Feeling of autonomy
—LG-1
3.7 company
3.6
—s-LG-2
3.5 company
3.4 :
3.3
3.2
school ^school
3.1
3

phase 1 phase 2

Feeling of competence
3.8
company school

3.5 company
3.4
—LG-1
3.3
school —b— LG-2
3.2
3.1
3

phase 1 phase 2

4
3.9 . —n school
3.8
3.7
3.6
company
3.5
3.4
3.3
school —LG-1
3.2
3.1 —s- LG-2
3

phase 1 phase 2

Figure 2. Experience of autonomy, competence, and social r

learning context and sequence of learning (Wild, Schiefele

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 32 A. KRAPP

Results from the fi

-related feelings is hig
example, there are la
noted that the "dual s
Professional training
(Berufsschule) and per
these two settings sev
(LG-1) started in a s
Another group starte
average ratings of s
competence and socia
but also on whether s
a close relationship be
need-related indicator
analysis will refer to
developmental chang
education (cf., below)

Interest as a dependen

Findings on empirica
interest-based motiv
learning (Schiefele, 1
perspective, it seems
educational goals. It
individualinterest d
school can become an

Descriptive studies.
descriptive. For exam
different groups, and
Findings from studi
1992) indicate that al
young age interests
differentiated over t
have been studied usi
negative trend. Helm
children. This negativ
(cf., Todt, 1978; Lehr
this time, especially
degree, a similar decl
Cross-sectional stud
groups can only show
differences and some
caused by individual a
be found when one considers the relation between interest and the context in which interest
-related information is conveyed. Gender really is the only moderator variable that has been
carefully studied (cf., for a summary, Hoffmann et al., 1998). Many suggest that the decline
of subject-matter-interest in the natural sciences is most apparent among female students. For
example, in biology, girls' interests have been found to increase in anthropology and ecology,
while they decrease in zoology and botany. Differential effects of this kind have also been
found in other domains, such as sociology, politics and physics (Birnstengel, 1989; Todt &
Schreiber, 1998). In an extensive study of 5th to 10th graders developing interests in physics
(cf., Hoffmann & Lehrke, 1986), both the different subject areas of physics (e.g., optics,

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 INTEREST, MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 33

mechanics) and the contexts within which the topics were cove
laws of physics vs. the application of these laws to real-world
account. An undifferentiated (global) data-analysis revealed a gen
was more distinct for girls than it was for boys. Separate consider
the types of contextual integration resulted in a more differen
(Hoffmann, Hàupier, Peters-Haft, 1997). In classes primarily
demonstrate general rules in physics, the interest for topics in phy
both boys and girls. A much stronger interest can be seen with
however, if cross-references are made to the students' interest (e.
devices). This effect is particularly pronounced for girls.

Explanatory approaches. How can different aspects of in

explained? Several researchers have tried to identify varia
development in diverse learning contexts (e.g., kindergarten, fam
factors are used to predict the emergence of inter-individual diff
small amount of variance could be explained (Todt, 1978, 1985; G
These results have sometimes been interpreted as if school had
the stimulation and keeping of school interests (Todt, 1978). Or
has put it even more graphically: "The school is more likely to be a
developer". Is such a far-reaching inference justified? Results from
give any indication in what way the influence could be increased
the curriculum or the teaching behaviour in specific domains. That
have an influence can be derived from the fact that there are stron
of school-related interests between students of comparable sch
Results from experimental studies in natural settings provide
thoroughly planned study with 5th-graders compared the effects
physics with a new curriculum developed on the basis of theoretic
about how to foster student's interest in this area. Special atte
teachers could deal with the negative attitudes of girls. It turned
school year, girls reached a much higher level of achievement a
interest could be influenced positively (vgl. Hoffmann, HàuB
Prenzel, Eitel, Holzbach, Schoenheinz, and Schweiberer (199
positive effect of a curricular revision on the interest developmen
in the area of surgery training.
Studies of this kind can demonstrate that the formation and c
influenced to a considerable extent by the arrangement of the lear
do these effects come about? What do we know about the
processes? Is it possible to identify functional priniciples, whic
the level of causal hypotheses? It is important to note that this
different kind of explanation. Instead of exploring the predict
differences of the developmental outcome, the focus is on gene
and mechanisms, which are principally valid for all individuals in
Krapp (1998) has supplied some considerations on how to dev
of interest genesis". Both the explanation for keeping up a situati
newly "produced" by interestingness factors and the explanati
changes in an individual's already existing structure of individual
two components of action control. The first component concer
processes of intention formation or the deliberate selection of lea
empirical questions connected with this component of action-cont
thoroughly in traditional motivation research, based on (cognitive
(Heckhausen, 1989, 1991; Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Nenniger,
component of action-control refers to processes of immediate e
quality of subjective experiences during action has found only com
in recent research. However, in accordance with Deci and Rya
(1996, this volume) and many other motivation researchers we ass
a crucial role in human behavior and development.

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 34 A. KRAPP

With respect to int

continuously in a cert
the basis of rational c
or she experiences t
satisfactory. Referrin
assume that emotio
competence, autonom
possible emotional asp
experience during m
relationships between
with respect to acade
Wild & Krapp, 1996;

Perspectives for futur

The theoretical and e

current research on i
psychology. It was sh
has led to an increase
interest-related resear
encouraging and exi
different disciplines
frames and different
& Hoffmann, 1998; B
Berlyne, 1949) nor is
characterizes other g
memory, learning st
methodical approaches
is fraught with diffic
point where various de
How can this problem
it is neither necessar
aspect in order to hav
should be developed t
framework would pr
research but also acros
reasons.

Another problem refers to the question of how to operationalize the co

The criterion of object-specificity requires measures which take not o
characteristics of an interest-relationship into account (emotional and val
but also the content-structure of the interest-domain. Standardized tes
provide valid measures only in those cases where the object area can
narrowly (e.g., specialized field of knowledge). In all other cases, rathe
have to be used in order to cover relevant aspects of the content-structu
the procedures used in the IPN-studies on physics). Several researchers ha
on qualitative measures instead (e.g., interviews or observations in natura
Fink, 1992; Lewalter et al., 1998; Prenzel, Kramer, & Drechsel, 1998).
well as quantitative methods have their own problems, it is reasonab
combination of both approaches would be the best choice.
As long as individual or situational interests have to be operationaliz
their structural or dispositional components many well-known procedu
what about measuring processes, experiential states and situtation-speci
as affective components of interest-based actions? I agree with Boekae
future research on motivation should focus much more on context-sen

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 INTEREST, MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 35

that it is essential to record the unique ways in which students ex

opportunities. To measure relevant parameters that students us
situation, Boekaerts and colleagues have developed an "on-line m
some of our studies, we have tried to apply the Experience-Sampli
empirical indicators of the quality of experience during teachi
Other researchers have used observation-techniques, retrospe
(Prenzel, Kramer, & Drechsel, 1998).
Frequent discussions of the empirical methods used by various
to improve research. With respect to the goals of educational-p
quality of research is, first of all, a matter of how phenomena of
are theoretically reconstructed and empirically tested. The ultim
research is its applicability and the extent to which it can be u
problems in educational settings. But what are the real central
education? In empirical research on motivation, literally hundr
relationship between motivational predictors and variables indic
academic achievement. Most of these studies use correlation-methods and other statistical
tools to describe and explain (interindividual) differences. There can be no doubt that
educators and teachers have to be informed about the extent and the sources of achievement
-related differences. However, more central targets of the educational endeavour include
building up enduring motivational dispositions (values, goal-orientations; individual
interests) or fostering the development of a realistic and satisfactory self-concept, which is
the basis of well-being and psychological health in the course of life. From this point of view,
the research on interest, motivation and learning has to enlarge its theoretical and empirical
perspectives. On the one hand, future research should focus on theoretic models which try to
integrate concepts and theories of learning with those of individual development and the
growing self. That is a challenge which can be met by the proposed person-object-theory of
interest but also by other theoretical conceptualization that receive more and more attention
in motivation research, such as Boekaerts' (1996) theory of "Personality and Learning" (PaL)
or Deci and Ryan's (1985, 1991) motivational theory of self-determination. On the other
hand, motivational analyses have to go beyond the paradigm of prediction research. What is
needed are empirical approaches that explore the mediating effects in short-term as well as
long-term learning situations (Nenniger, Straka, Spevacek, & Wosnitza, 1996; Schiefele &
Rheinberg, 1997).
Therefore I would applaud experimental studies and empirical approaches that can
analyze developmental processes over a longer period of time in natural settings.

References

Amelang, M., & Bartussek, D. (1985). Différentielle Psychologie und Persônlichkeitsforschung. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

Anastasi, A., & Foley, J.P. (1949). Differential psychology. New York: Macmillan.

Anderson, R.C. (1982). Allocation of attention during reading. In A. Flammer & W. Kintsch (Eds.), Discourse
processing (pp. 287-299). Amsterdam: North Holland.

Anderson, R.C., Shirey, L.L., Wilson, P.T., & Fielding, L.G. (1987). Interestingness of children's reading material.
In R.E. Snow & M.J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction: Cognitive and affective process analyses
(pp. 287-299). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Arnold, F. (1906). The psychology of interest. I. Psychological Review, 13, 221-238.

Arnold, F. (1906). The psychology of interest. II. Psychological Review, 13, 291-315.

Berlyne, D.E. (1949). Interest as a psychological concept. The British Journal of Psychology, 39, 184-195.

Berlyne, D.E. (1960). Conflict, arousal and curiosity. New York: Grove Press.

Birnstengel, U. (1989). Die Interessen von Hauptschülern des achten bis zehnten Schuljahres. Bad Heilbrunn:
Klinkhardt.

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 36 A. KRAPP

Boekaerts, M. (1992). The

Psychology: An internation

Boekaerts, M. (1995). The i

In D.H. Saklofske & M. Ze
New York: Plenum.

Boekaerts, M. (1996). Personality and the psychology of learning. European Journal of Personality, 10, 377-404.

Christianson, S.A. (Ed.) (1992). The handbook of emotion and memory: Research and theory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Claparède E. (1905). Psychologie de l'enfant et pédagogie expérimentale. Genève: Kundig.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). The flow experience and its significance for human psychology. In M. Csikszentmihalyi
& I.S. Csikszentmihalyi (Eds.), Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness (pp. 15-33).
New York: University Press.

Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Larson, R. (1987). Validity and reliability of the experience-sampling method. The Journal of
Nervous and Mental Disease, 175, 526-536.

Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum
Press.

Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.),
Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 38 Perspectives on Motivation (pp. 237-288). Lincoln, NE: University
of Nebraska Press.

Dewey, J. (1913). Interest and effort in education. Boston: Riverside Press.

Entwistle, N. (1988). Motivational factors in students' approaches to learning. In R.R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning
strategies and learning styles (pp. 21-51). New York: Plenum Press.

Epstein, S. (1990). Cognitive-experiential self theory: Implications for developmental psychology. In M. Gunnar &
L.A. Sroufe (Eds.), Minnesota Symposia on child psychology: Self processes and Development (pp. 79-123).
Hilsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Fend, H. (1994). Die Entdeckung des Selbst und die Verarbeitung der Pubertal. Bern: Huber.

Gardner, P.L. (1998). The development of males' and females' interests in science and technology. In L. Hoffmann,
A. Krapp, A.K. Renninger, & J. Baumert (Eds.), Interest and Learning. Proceedings of the Seeon-Conference on
Interest and Gender (pp. 41-57). Kiel: IPN.

Garner, R., Brown, R., Sanders, S., & Menke, D.J. (1992). "Seductive details" and learning from text.
In K.A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 239-254).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Garner, R., Gillingham, M.G., & White, C.S. (1989). Effects of "seductive details" on macroprocessing and
microprocessing in adults and children. Cognition and Instruction, 6, 41-57.

Heckhausen, H. (1989). Motivation und Handeln. Berlin: Springer.

Heckhausen, H. (1991). Motivation and action. Berlin: Springer.

Helmke, A. (1993). Die Entwicklung der Lernfreude vom Kindergarten bis zur 5. Klassenstufe. Zeitschrift fiir
Pàdagogische Psychologie, 7, 77-86.

Hidi, S. (1990). Interest and its contribution as a mental resource for learning. Review of Educational Research,
60, 549-571.

Hidi, S. (1995). A reexamination of the role of attention in learning from text. Educational Psychological Review,
7, 323-350.

Hidi, S., & Anderson, V. (1992). Situational interest and its impact on reading and expository writing. In
K.A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 215-238).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Hidi, S., & Berndorff (1998). Situational interest and learning. In L. Hoffmann, A. Krapp, A. Renninger, & J. Baumert
(Eds.), Interest and learning. Proceedings of the Seeon-Conference on Interest and Gender (pp. 74-90).
Kiel: IPN.

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 INTEREST, MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 37

Hoffmann, L., HàuBler, P., & Peters-Haft, S. (1997). An den Interessen von Màdchen
Physikunterricht. Kiel: IPN.

Hoffmann, L., Krapp, A., Renninger, A., & Baumert, J. (1998). Interest and learning
-conference on interest and gender. Kiel: IPN.

Hoffmann, L., & Lehrke, M. (1986). Eine Untersuchung über Schülerinteressen an Physik
Pàdagogik, 32, 189-204.

Krapp, A. (1992). Das Interessenkonstrukt. Bestimmungsmerkmale der Interessenhand

Interesses aus der Sicht einer Person-Gegenstands-Konzeption. In A. Krapp & M.
Lernen, Leistung (pp. 297-329). Münster: Aschendorff.

Krapp, A. (1993). The construct of interest: Characteristics of indvidual interests and inter
perspective of a person-object-theory (Studies in Educational Psychology). Munich: Un

Krapp, A. (1998). Entwicklung und Fôrderung von Interessen im Unterricht. Psychologie in

45, 186-203.

Krapp, A., & Fink, B. (1992). The development and function of interests during the critical transition from home to
preschool. In K.A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development
(pp. 397-429). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Krapp, A., Hidi, S., & Renninger, K.A. (1992). Interest, learning and development. In K.A. Renninger, S. Hidi, &
A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 3-25). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Krapp, A., & Prenzel, M. (Eds.). (1992). Intéressé, Lernen, Leistung. Neuere Ansàtze einerpàdagogisch-psychologischen
Interessenforschung. Münster: Aschendorff.

Krapp, A., Renninger, A., & Hoffmann, L. (1998). Some thoughts about the development of a unifying framework for
the study of individual interest. In L. Hoffmann, A. Krapp, A. Renninger, & J. Baumert (Eds.), Interest and
learning. Proceedings of the Seeon-Conference on Interest and Gender (pp. 455-468). Kiel: IPN.

Lehrke, M. (1988). Interesse und Desinteresse am naturwissenschaftlich-technischen Unterricht. Kiel: IPN.

Lehrke, M., Hoffmann, L. & Gardner, P.L. (Eds.). (1985). Interests in science and technology education. Kiel: IPN.

Lewalter, D., Krapp, A., Schreyer, I., & Wild, K.-P. (1998). Die Bedeutsamkeit des Erlebens von Kompetenz,
Autonomie und sozialer Eingebundenheit fiir die Entwicklung berufsspezifischer Interessen. In K. Beck &
R. Dubs (Eds.), Kompetenzentwicklung in der Berufserziehung - Kognitive, motivationale und moralische
Dimensionen kaufmànnischer Qualifizierungsprozesse. Zeitschrift fur Berufs- und Wirtschaftspàdagogik
(Supplement 14, pp. 143-168). Stuttgart: Steiner.

Lewin, K. (1951). Fieldtheory in social science. New York: Harper & Row.

Lunk, G. (1926). Das Intéressé. Leipzig: Klinkhardt.

Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social pschological perspective. Annual Review of
Psychology, 38, 299-337.

Nenniger, P. (1987) How stable is motivation by contents? In E. DeCorte, H. Lodewijks, R. Parmentier, & P. Span
(Eds.), Learning and Instruction (vol. 1, pp. 159-168). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Nenniger, P. (1988). Das Pàdagogische Verhàltnis als motivationales Konstrukt. Weinheim: Deutscher Studien Verlag

Nenniger, P. (1993). Von der summativen zur strukturellen Betrachtung des Unterrichts. Zu den theoretischen Folgen
des methodologischen Zugangs in der Unterrichtsforschung. Empirische Pàdagogik, 7, 21-35.

Nenniger, P, Eigler, G., & Macke, G. (1993). Studien zur Mehrdimensionalitat von Lehr-Lern-Prozessen. Bern: Lang.

Nenniger, P., Straka, G.A., Spevacek, G., & Wosnitza, M. (1996). Die Bedeutung motivationaler Einflussfaktoren fiir
selbstgesteuertes Lernen. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 3, 250-265.

Nuttin, J. (1984). Motivation, planning, and action. Leuven: University Press.

Oerter, R. (1995). Entwicklung der Motivation und Handlungssteuerung. In R. Oerter & L. Montada (Eds.),
Entwicklungspsychologie (pp. 758-822). Weinheim: PVU.

Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in education. Theory, research and applications. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall.

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 38 A. KRAPP

Prenzel, M. (1988). Die Wir

Westdeutscher Verlag.

Prenzel, M. (1992). Selective

in learning and developme

Prenzel, M., Eitel, F., Holzb

Unterricht in der Chirurgi

Prenzel, M., Kramer, K., D

Halfway through the study
Proceedings of the Seeon-C

Prenzel, M., Krapp, A., &

Pàdagogik, 32, 163-173.

Rathunde, K. (1993). The e

development. In M. Maeh
London: Jai Press Inc.

Rathunde, K. (1998, in press). Undivided and abiding interest. Comparisons across studies of talented adolescents and
creative adults. In L. Hoffmann, A. Krapp, A. Renninger, & J. Baumert (Eds.), Interest and learning.
Proceedings of the Seeon-Conference on Interest and Gender (pp. 367-376). Kiel: IPN.

Renninger, K.A. (1990). Children's play interest(s), representation, and activity. In R. Fivush & J. Hudson (Eds.),
Knowing and remembering in young children (pp. 127-147). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Renninger, K.A. (1992). Individual interest and development: Implications for theory and practice. In K.A. Renninger,
S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 361-395). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.

Renninger, K.A. (1998). The role of individual interests and gender in learning: An overview of research on preschool
and elementary school-aged children/students. In L. Hoffmann, A. Krapp, A. Renninger, & J. Baumert (Eds.),
Interest and learning. Proceedings of the Seeon-conference on interest and gender (pp. 165-174). Kiel: IPN.

Renninger, K.A., & Hidi, S., & Krapp, A. (Eds.). (1992). The role of interest in learning and development. Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.

Renninger, K.A., & Leckrone, T.G. (1991). Continuity in young children's actions: A consideration of interest and
temperament. In L. Oppenheimer & J. Valsiner (Eds.), The origins of action: Interdisciplinary and international
perspectives (pp. 205-238). New York: Springer.

Reynolds, R.E. (1992). Selective attention and prose learning: Theoretical and empirical research. Educational
Psychological Review, 4, 345-391.

Rheinberg, F. (1997). Motivation (2nd ed.). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

Schiefele, H., Krapp, A., Prenzel, M., Heiland, A., & Kasten, H. (1983). Principles of an educational theory of interest.
(Paper presented at the 7th Meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development in
Munich).

Schiefele, U. (1990). The influence of topic interest, prior knowledge, and cognitive capabilities on text comprehension.
In J.M. Pieters, K. Breuer, & P.R.J. Simons (Eds.), Learning environments: Contributions from Dutch and
German research (pp. 323-338). Berlin: Springer.

Schiefele, U. (1991). Interest, learning and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26, 299-323.

Schiefele, U. (1996a). Motivation und Lernen mit Texten. Gôttingen: Hogrefe.

Schiefele, U. (1996b). Topic interest, text representation, and quality of experience. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 21, 3-18.

Schiefele, U., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1994). Interest and the quality of experience in classrooms. European Journal of
Psychology of Education, 9, 251-270.

Schiefele, U., & Krapp, A. (1996). Topic interest and free recall of expository text. Learning and Individual Differences,
8, 141-160.

Schiefele, U., Krapp, A., & Winteler, A. (1992). Interest as a predictor of academic achievement: A meta-analysis of

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 INTEREST, MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 39

research. In K.A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interes
(pp. 183-212). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Schiefele, U., & Rheinberg, F. (1997). Motivation and knowledge acquisition: Sea
In M.L. Maehr & P.R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievemen
Press.

Schiefele, U., & Schreyer, I. (1994). Intrinsische Lernmotivation und Lernen. Ein Überblick zu Ergebnissen der
Forschung. Zeitschrift far Pàdagogische Psychologie, 8, 1-13.

Schiefele, U., Wild, K.P., & Krapp, A. (1995). Course-specific interest and extrinsic motivation as predictors of specific
learning strategies and course grades. Paper presented at the 6th EARLI Conference in Nijmegen.

Shirey, L.L., & Reynolds, R.E. (1988). Effect of interest on attention and learning. Journal of Educational Psychology,
80, 159-166.

Thorndike, E.L. (1935). The psychology of wants, interests, and attitudes. New York: Appleton-Century.

Todt, E. (1978). Das Intéressé. Bern: Huber.

Todt, E. (1985). Elements of a theory of science interests. In M. Lehrke, L. Hoffmann, & P.L. Gardner (Eds.), Interests
in science and technology (pp. 59-69). Kiel: IPN.

Todt, E., Drewes, R., & Heils, S. (1991). The development of interests during adolescence: Social context, individual
differences, and individual significance. In R.K. Silbereisen & E. Todt (Eds.), Adolescence in context: The
interplay of family, school, peers and work in adjustment (pp. 82-95). New York: Springer.

Todt, E., & Schreiber, S. (1998). Development of interests. In L. Hoffmann, A. Krapp, A.K. Renninger, & J. Baumert
(Eds.), Interest and Learning. Proceedings of the Seeon-Conference on Interest and Gender (pp. 25-40). Kiel: IPN.

Travers, R.M.W. (1978). Children's interests. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Michigan University, College of Education.

Valsiner, J. (1992). Interest: A Meta-Theoretical Perspective. In K.A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of
interest in learning and development (pp. 27-41). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Wade, S.E., & Adams, R.B. (1990). Effects of importance and interest on recall of biographical text. JRB: A Journal of
Literacy, 22, 331-353.

Wild, K.P. (1996). Die Beziehung zwischen Lernmotivation und Lernstrategien als Funktion personaler und situativer
Faktoren. In R. Duit & C.V. Rhôneck (Eds.), Lernen in den Naturwissenschaften (pp. 69-86). Kiel: IPN.

Wild, K.P., & Krapp. A. (1996). Die Qualitàt subjektiven Erlebens in schulischen und betrieblichen Lernumwelten.
Untersuchungen mit der Erlebens Stichproben Methode. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 24, 195-216.

Wild, K.-P., Krapp, A., Schreyer, I., & Lewalter, D. (1998, in press). The development of interest and motivational ori
entations: Gender differences in vocational education. In L. Hoffmann, A. Krapp, A.K. Renninger, & J. Baumert
(Eds.), Interest and Learning. Proceedings of the Seeon-Conference on Interest and Gender (pp. 441-454). Kiel:
IPN.

Wild, K.-P., Schiefele, U., & Krapp, A. (1996). Moods, motivations, thoughts, and external events in the classroom and
in the workplace as assessed by the experience sampling method. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association 1996 in New York.

Au cours des dernières années, la problématique de l'"intérêt" a

connu un renouveau d'intérêt auprès des chercheurs. En psychologie
de l'éducation, en particulier, beaucoup de travaux ont été effectués
pour étudier comment l'apprentissage et la réussite scolaire sont
influencés par des facteurs motivationnels et cognitifs en liaison avec
des intérêts individuels et/ou situationnels. L'auteur présente des
résultats de recherches empiriques à partir de considérations
théoriques concernant le construct d'intérêt. L'intérêt a classiquement
été étudié comme une variable indépendante, les variables dépendantes
étant, de leur côté, soit certains aspects des résultats de l'apprentissage
(structure de connaissance, réussite scolaire), soit des médiateurs

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 40 A. KRAPP

hypothétiques pou
l'intérêt (par exem
réactions émotionn
essaient d'explorer
environnement éd
discutées par référ
par l'éducation.

Key words: Achieveme

Received: June 1998

Andreas Krapp. Fakultât für Sozialwissenschaften, Universitàt der Bundeswehr München, 85577
Neubiberg, Germany, Tel./Fax: +049-89-6004-3128.

Current theme of research:

The role of interest in learning and human development.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Krapp, A. (1993). Psychologie der Lernmotivation - Perspektiven der Forschung und Problème ihrer pâdagogischen
Rezeption. Zeitschriftfur Pàdagogik, 39, 187-206.

Krapp, A., & Prenzel, M. (Eds.). (1992). Intereresse, Lernen, Leisiung. Neuere Anzàtze einer pàdagogisch
-psychologischen Interessenforschung. Münster: Aschendorff.

Renninger, K.A., Hidi, S., & Krapp, A. (Ed.). (1992). The role of interest in learning and development. Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.

Weidenmann, B., & Krapp, A. (1993). Pàdagogische Psychologie - ein Lehrbuch. Weinheim: PVU.

This content downloaded from

193.50.135.4 on Fri, 24 Sep 2021 10:39:06 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms