Thesis Report Group No 07

Comparative Feasibility Analysis of the Micro- Stepping and
Hybrid Stepper Motors for Precision Stepping
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Science
in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering
by
G.M. Selim (17.01.05.007)
Shahed Hossain (17.01.05.035)
Md. Tanvir Shikder (17.01.05.044)
Abu Saleah (17.01.05.047)
to the
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

AHSANULLAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Dhaka-1208, Bangladesh
November 2021
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the research work entitled “Comparative Feasibility Analysis of the
Micro-Stepping and Hybrid Stepper Motors for Precision Stepping’’ by G.M. Selim,
Shahed Hossain, Md. Tanvir Shikder, Abu Saleah has been carried out under my direct
supervision. To the best of my knowledge this thesis is an original one and has not been
submitted anywhere for diploma or a degree.
Supervisor
…………………………
(Dr. Omar Farrok)
Professor
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology
ii
DECLARATION
We do hereby solemnly declare and certify that this research work has been done by us
and has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any degree or diploma.
Signature of the students
------------------------------
G.M. Selim
Shahed Hossain
Md. Tanvir Shikder
Abu Saleah
DEDICATION
We would like to dedicate this thesis paper to our parents and honorable teacher Dr.
Omar Farrok for their immense support and guidance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All the admiration to Almighty Allah, the most merciful and beneficent who has enabled us
to submit this paper.
It is our great pleasure to acknowledge the generous contributions of many individuals who
have encouraged us in writing this dissertation. We would like to express our deep sense of
gratitude and indebtedness to our thesis supervisor, Dr. Omar Farrok, Professor, Department
of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE), Ahsanullah University of Science and
Technology (AUST), for his supervision, kind advice, constant encouragement and valuable
guidance throughout the course of this work. We will remain ever grateful to him for his
cooperation and erudite supervision in accomplished this work.
We would like to thank our parents and friends who have helped us with their valuable
suggestions and guidance has been helpful in various phases of the completion of the thesis.
We must admit that without his full support, guidance and supervision this study would not
have been possible.
ABSTRACT
As we all know that the main functionality of any motor is to convert electrical energy to
mechanical energy, speed, and torque. So, the exceptional feature of stepper motors is they
hold the ability to precisely managing control related to functional angle and speed. This
paper start the concept of the stepper motor and then move ahead to the hybrid stepper motor
and micro-stepping stepper motor. A high-performance system for stepper motor control in a
micro-stepping mode, which is analyzed here and performance of micro-stepping is also
analyzed. The performance of the stepper motor can be improved using micro- stepping.
Now-a-days, microprocessors-based hybrid stepper motors are widely used in the numerical
control of machine tools where they have to perform high-precision positioning operations.
Nevertheless, the variations of the mechanical configuration of the drive, which are common
to these applications, can lead to a loss of synchronism for high stepping rates. Stepper motor
is widely used in electrical and mechanical applications where at low speed, positioning
accuracy, and high speeds dynamic are determining factors. Full drive and half drive mode
are general modes of stepper motor. The operation of stepper motor in micro-stepping mode
requires precise rotor position tracking. The position of the rotor provides information on
angular rotation and speed. This is used to estimate the step positional error, positional
accuracy, current ripple and power loss at different switching frequencies. Numerous
techniques have been developed to track the rotor position and determine the positional error
to improve the dynamic performance of the stepper motor. This paper also presents an
overview of the hybrid stepper motor and its different types. The literature review is then
carried out by highlighting the features of the hybrid stepper motor and then the types of the
hybrid stepper motor are compared and discussed. It focused on the industrial and
commercial application of a hybrid stepper motor. There are several control mechanism and
scheme of hybrid stepper motor are discussed here. The schemes of control theory for the
controller of the stepper motor are also presented. The micro-stepping control system
improves the positioning accuracy and eliminates low speed ripple and resonance effects in a
stepper motor electrical drive. The amount of resolution is increasing, in contrast we can
reduce the resonance, vibration problems using micro-stepping at a low step rate.
CONTENTS
Thesis Title Page no

Certificate ii
Declaration iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Abstract vi
List of figures xii
List of tables xvii
List of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-3
1.1 Motivation 2
1.2 Objective 3
1.3 Possible outcomes 3
1.4 Organization 3
Chapter 2 Comparative Feasibility Analysis of the Micro-Stepping 4-46

Stepper Motor
2.1 Introduction to Stepper Motor 4

2.2 Construction & Working Principle of Stepper Motor 4
2.3 Step Angle 5
2.4 Historical Background of Stepper Motor 6
2.5 Operating Modes of Stepper Motor 7
2.5.1 Full Stepping 7
2.5.2 Half Stepping 8
2.5.3 Wave Stepping 8
2.5.4 Micro-Stepping 9
2.6 Classification of Micro-Stepping 9
2.6.1 Micro- Stepping Square Path 9
2.6.2 Micro-Stepping Circular Path 10
2.6.3 Micro- Stepping Arbitrary Path 10
2.7 Reason for Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor 11
2.8 Introduction to Micro-Stepping 12
2.9 Historical Background of Micro-Stepping 13
2.10 Construction of Stepper Motor While Micro-Stepping 13
2.11 Micro-stepping Operation 14
2.12 Micro-Stepping Basics 16
2.13 Micro-Stepping Myths and Realities 18
2.14 Working Principle of Micro-Stepping 21
2.14.1 Micro-Stepping Limitations 23
2.15 Design a Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor 25
2.16 The Steps Per Inch or Resolution Formula for Each Axis 25
2.17 Performance Analysis of Micro-Stepping 26
2.18 Sources of Error in Micro-Stepping Systems 28
2.18.1 Quantization Error 29
2.18.2 Detent Error 29
2.18.3 Motor Pole Placement Error 29
2.18.4 Lead Screw Pitch Error 29
2.18.5 Stiction and Backlash Error 30
2.18.6 Sources of Failure in Micro-Stepping Systems 30
2.19 Mathematical Model of Stepper Motor 30
2.20 Mathematical Equation of Micro-Stepping 33
2.21 The Accuracy of Micro-stepper Motors 34
2.22 The Evolution of Micro-stepper Drives (From the 35
Manufacturer)
2.23 Company Name 36
2.24 Industrial Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor Operation System 36
2.25 Regional Segmentation for Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor 38
Market
2.26 Some Modern Stepper Motor & Driver with Micro-stepping 39
2.27 Pros & Cons of Micro-Stepping 44
2.27.1 Pros of Micro-Stepping 44
2.27.2 Cons of Micro-Stepping 45
Chapter 3 Micro-Stepping for Industrial/Commercial Application 47-81

and Control
Application
3.1 47
3.1.1 3D Printers
47
3.1.2 FPGA Based Micro-Stepping Scheme for Stepper
49
Motor in Space-Based Solar Power Systems
3.1.3 Micro-Stepping for Step-Motor in the Automatic
50
Blood Viscosity Measurement In the Automatic
3.1.4 Side-View Raman Micro Endoscopic with Micro-
51
Stepping Motor and its Ex-Vivo Test for Real-Time
Cancer Detection
3.1.5 CNC Sewing and Embroidery Machine
52
3.1.6 Design and Development of XYZ Scanner for 3D
55
Printing
3.1.7 A Desktop SCARA Robot Using Stepper Motors
58
3.1.8 Image Recorder with Micro-Step Driven Motor 59
Transport
3.1.9 Low-Vibration Micro-Stepping Controller for Dom- 61
Camera
3.2 Control Methods 63
3.2.1 Reconfigurable Micro-stepping Control of Stepper 63
Motors Using FPGA Embedded RAM
3.2.2 TSK-Type Self-Organizing Recurrent-Neural-Fuzzy 65
Control
3.2.3 Micro-Stepping of Ultrasonic Stepping Motors 69
3.2.4 Open-Loop Step Motor Control System 73
3.2.5 Close-Loop Step Motor Control System 74
3.3 Driver for Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor Control 75
3.3.1 STSPIN820 76
3.3.2 STSPIN220 Low-Voltage Stepper Motor Driver 77
Carrier
3.3.3 STAC5-Q-E220 - AC Advanced Micro-step Driver 79
Chapter 4 Hybrid Stepper Motor for Precision Stepping 82-137
4.1 Introduction 82
4.1.1 Variable -reluctance type stepper motor 82
4.1.1.1 Advantages of Variable Reluctance Stepper 85
Motor
4.1.2 Permanent magnet type stepper motor 85
4.1.2.1 Advantages of permanent magnet stepper Motor 87
4.1.2.2 Disadvantages of permanent magnet stepper 87
motor
4.2 Hybrid Stepper Motor Definition 87
4.3 Hybrid Stepper motor characteristics 87
4.3.1 Static Characteristics 88
4.3.1.1 Torque displacement characteristics 88
4.3.1.2 Torque current characteristics 90
4.3.2 Dynamic characteristics 91
4.3.2.1 Operation in pull-out (pull-out torque) 92
4.3.2.2 Operation in pull-in (pull-in torque) 92
4.4 Step angle 93
4.4.1 Step mode/operating mode 93
4.5 Hybrid Stepper Motor Driver 93
4.6 Hybrid Stepper Motor Controller 93
4.7 Hybrid Stepper Motor Classification 94
4.8 Construction of hybrid stepper motor 94
4.8.1 Construction of Rotary Hybrid Stepper Motor 94
4.8.2 Construction of Linear Hybrid Stepper Motor 95
4.9 Working principle 97
4.9.1 Working principle of Rotary Hybrid Stepper Motor 97
4.9.2 Working principle of Linear Hybrid Stepper Motor 99
4.10 Multi-phase hybrid stepper motor 100
4.10.1 Four-Phase Hybrid Stepper Motor 100
4.10.2 Five-Phase Hybrid Stepper Motor 104
4.10.3 differences between 2-phase and 5-phase stepper 106
motors
4.10.4 2-phase and 5-phase Head-to-head 106
4.10.5 Vibration 107
4.10.6 Development of 6-phase and Dual Stator Systems 108
4.10.7 Development of 7-phase Systems 109
4.10.8 Development of 9-phase Systems 109
4.10.9 Development of Higher Phase Order Systems 109
4.10.10 Claims of Hybrid Stepper Motor: 110
4.11 Historical background 113
4.12 Mathematical model of hybrid stepper motor 114
4.12.1 Mathematical model of a rotary hybrid stepper motor 114
4.12.2 Mathematical model of a linear hybrid stepper motor 115
4.13 Electrical degrees 122
4.14 Pros of Hybrid Stepper Motor 122
4.15 Cons of hybrid stepper motor 123
4.16 Some modern hybrid stepper motor 124
Chapter 5 Hybrid Stepper Motor for Commercial/ 138-184

Industrial Applications and Control
5.1 Applications 138
5.1.1 Floppy disk drive 138
5.1.2 Automatic Sun-Tracking System 139
5.1.3 Electro hydraulic valve with the hybrid motor 140
5.1.4 Smart Dish 142
5.1.5 CNC Machines 144
5.1.6 Motorized Moving Stage 146
5.1.7 Delta 3D Printer 149
5.1.8 Inkjet Printer 154
5.2 Hybrid stepper motor control 155
5.2.1 Open loop control 156
5.2.2 Closed loop control 157
5.2.3 Open-Loop Control Using Voltage to Frequency 157
Converter
5.2.4 PID Controller 160
5.2.5 The Modified PID Control Technique 162
5.2.6 Fuzzy Logic Controller 163
5.2.7 Sensor-less Control of Hybrid Stepper Motor 167
5.3 Driver System 172
5.4 Some Modern Hybrid Stepper Motors with Specification and 179
Description
Chapter 6 Discussion 185-188
6.1 Advantages & disadvantages of some types of stepper motor in 185

tabular form
Chapter 7 Conclusion 189-190
7.1 Contribution 189

7.2 Upcoming technology 189
7.3 Recommendations 190
References 191-209
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure no. Figure Name Page no.
1.1 Hybrid Stepper motor 1
2.1 Stepper motor 4

2.2 Internal structure of the stepper motor 4
2.3 Stepper motor construction 5
2.4 Pawl drive 6
2.5 Stepper motor history 6
2.6 The Royal Navy pioneered the use of stepper motors in gun 6
turrets in the 1930s.
2.7 Phase diagram (full stepping) 8
2.8 Timing diagram (full stepping) 8
2.9 Phase diagram (half stepping) 8
2.10 Timing diagram (half stepping) 8
2.11 Phase diagram (wave stepping) 8
2.12 Timing diagram (wave stepping) 8
2.13 Phase diagram (square path micro-stepping) 9
2.14 Timing diagram (square path micro-stepping) 9
2.15 Phase diagram (circular path micro-stepping) 10
2.16 Timing diagram (circular path micro-stepping) 10
2.17 Phase diagram (arbitrary path micro-stepping) 10
2.18 Timing diagram (arbitrary path micro-stepping) 10
2.19 Operating drive mode of stepper motor 12
2.20 Stepper motors and their associated drives from oriental motor 12
can micro- step
2.21 Stepper motor micro-stepping mode 13
2.22 Construction of stepper motor with micro-stepping 14
2.23 Resolution increases micro-stepping 14
2.24 Phase current while micro-stepping with rotor position 14
2.25 Current waveform for individual phase 14
2.26 Full step position vs Time 15
2.27 Micro-stepping position vs Time 15
2.28 Full step velocity deviation vs Time 16
2.29 Micro-stepping velocity deviation vs Time 16
2.30 Phase current and Vibration of Micro-stepping 16
2.31 (A)-Torque and speed ripple as function of load angle, full-step 17
mode. (B)-torque and speed ripple as function of load angle,
micro-stepping 1/8-full-step mode.
2.32 (A)-Flux direction for normal half and full-step positions. 17
Length is proportional to holding torque. (B) micro-stepping
flux direction. direction lengths are variable.
2.33 Torque Vs. shaft position 18
2.34 Incremental torque per micro-step/full step 20
2.35 Micro-stepping 21
2.36 Torque vs angular position for an ideal two winding motor 22
2.37 Bipolar micro-stepping from maximum torque 23
2.38 Static friction imposed on torque vs angular position 23
2.39 Motor torque minus static friction 24
2.40 Real vs actual rotor position 24
2.41 Micro-stepping construction 25
2.42 B-H curve 25
2.43 Relative excitation energy as function of electrical step length 27
2.44 Rotor position as function of stepping mode 28
2.45 Zaber quantization error 30
2.46 Block diagram of stepper motor 30
2.47 Plot of pulse generated by A coil 33
2.48 Plot of pulse generated by C Coil 33
2.49 Plot of current generated by A coil 33
2.50 Plot of current generated by C coil 33
2.51 Plot of motor speed 34
2.52 Plot of motor rotation 34
2.53 Plot of torque generated by motor 34
2.54 2 Phase micro stepper motor VSM1069 39
2.55 10mm micro metal gearmotor stepper motor 41
2.56 Permanent magnet micro stepper motor 2 phase 4 wire 4g 42
VSM1070
2.57 34MD - stepper motors with integrated drivers 44
3.1 3D printer (The Prusa i3 MK3S+) 49

3.2 Power Generation by SBSP 49
3.3 The design of the circuit structure 51
3.4 Conceptual schematic of the side-view Raman 52
3.5 The singer sewing machine 53
3.6 The frame of the sewing machine 53
3.7 The linear translation stages 53
3.8 The timing belt transmission 54
3.9 The driver and the power supply 55
3.10 The CNC sewing and embroidery machine 55
3.11 Experimental results 55
3.12 Proposed 3D printing process 55
3.13 Stepper motor based XY scanning Stage 57
3.14 XY and Z-stage for 3D printer 58
3.15 3D model of robotic arm 58
3.16 Actual model of robotic arm 58
3.17 Block diagram of Image recorder with micro-step 60
3.18 Dom-camera-system. 62
3.19 H/W block diagram of experimental system. 62
3.20 Controllers and motor block diagram 64
3.21 Mechanical structure of the two-phase HLSM. 67
3.22 Diagram of current vectors in d − q coordinates 68
3.23 System configuration of current-controlled LMSM system 69
3.24 Experimental system schematic representation of the 69
hardware
3.25 Experimental photograph of the LMSM drive system. 69
USSM configuration
3.26 Principle of stepping. 71
3.27 FEM simulated vibration pattern. 71
3.28 Control and driving circuit block diagram. 72
3.29 Micro-step drivers 72
3.30 PCB of STSPIN820 75
3.31 Block diagram of STSPIN820 77
3.32 STSPIN220 low-voltage stepper motor driver 77
3.33 Minimal wiring diagram for connecting a microcontroller to a 78
3.34 STSPIN220 low-voltage stepper motor driver carrier 79
3.35 STAC5-Q-E220 - AC Advanced Micro-step Driver 80
3.36 Torque curve of STAC5-Q-E220 - AC Advanced Micro-step 81
Drive
3.37 Torque curve of STAC5-Q-E220 - AC Advanced Micro-step 81
Drive
4.1 Types of Stepper Motor. 82

4.2 Variable reluctance stepper motor 83
4.3 Variable reluctance stepper motor 83
4.4 Variable Reluctance Motor 84
4.7 Permanent magnet type stepper motor 85
4.10 Torque-Displacement 88
4.11 Holding torque characteristics 88
4.12 Holding torque characteristics 89
4.13 Torque current characteristics 90
4.14 Torque characteristics 91
4.15 Dynamic characteristics curve 91
4.16 Dynamic characteristics curve 92
4.17 Classification of Hybrid Stepper Motor 94
4.18 Construction of Rotary Hybrid Stepper Motor 94
4.19 Hybrid linear stepper motor 95
4.20 The outer magnet type hybrid linear stepper motor 95
4.21 The eight poles compact hybrid linear stepper motor 96
4.22 Tubular variant of the hybrid linear stepper motor 96
4.23 Surface hybrid linear stepper motor 97
4.24 2-phase hybrid stepper motor 97
4.25 Hybrid stepper motor schematic diagram 98
4.26 Hybrid stepper motor rotation sequence 98
4.27 Four positions of the mover 99
4.28 Tangential force variation under the mover poles 100
4.29 The command currents sequence and the corresponding 100
displacements
4.30 Front view of motor of prior arts 101
4.31 Sectional view of stepper motor of prior art 101
4.32 Torque wave form diagram of prior art 102
4.33 Vector diagram indicating the holding-torque of prior 103
4.34 Torque-vector diagram of 5 phase motor of prior art 104
4.35 5 Phase Stepping Motor: (a)Cross-Section Parallel to Shaft; (b) 106
Cross-Section Perpendicular to Shaft
4.36 The position of the stator and rotor teeth (a) when phase A is 106
excited (b) when phase B is excited
4.37 2 phase and 5 phase Stepper motor 107
4.38 2 phase and 5 phase vibrations 107
4.39 2-Phase Torque Displacement 108
4.40 5-Phase Torque Displacement 108
4.41 Cyclonome 9 Series Stepping Motors 113
4.42 Series AC Synchronous Motors 113
4.43 The standstill current decay test setup 116
4.44 Block diagram of the circuit-field-mechanical model 117
4.45 a) A simple configuration with iron core, permanent magnet and 118
coil b) The equivalent magnetic circuits c) The second
quadrant characteristic of the permanent magnet d) Norton's
equivalent circuit of the permanent magnet
4.46 The magnetic equivalent circuit a) without command MMF b) 119
with command MMF and permanent magnet reluctance
4.47 The equivalent magnetic circuit in absence of the command 120
MMFs.
4.48 Magnetic equivalent circuit of one electromagnet. 121
4.49 Simplified mechanical model 122
4.50 Torque curves 124
4.51 NEMA 6 Standard Hybrid Stepper Motors Dimension 124
4.52 0.9 Degree Step Angle Nema 14 Stepper Motor For Cutting 125
Plotter 35HSM Series
4.53 0.9 Degree Step Angle Nema 14 Stepper Motor For Cutting 126
Plotter 35HSM Series Dimension
4.54 1.8 ° 35mm NEMA 14 2Phase Hybrid Stepper Motor 126
4.55 Mechanical Dimension of 1.8 ° 35mm NEMA 14 2Phase 128
Hybrid Stepper Motor
4.56 Nema 8 stepper motor 133
4.57 NEMA 23 Power Plus Hybrid Stepper Motors 134
4.58 Torque Curves 134
4.59 42HM NEMA17 2Phase 0.9° 135
4.60 Stepper motor P010 104 series 136
4.61 36 series Planetary Gearbox 137
5.1 Position of read head relative element used to disk track 139
5.2 Read write read a floppy disk. 139
5.3 Sun pointing actuator principles. 139
5.4 Circuit diagram of the 139
LDR.
5.5 Structure of the valve 140
5.6 View of valve with hybrid stepping motor 141
5.7 MATLAB Simulink simulation model of the valve. 142
5.8 Represent the system block diagram 143
5.9 Represent graphical user interface 143
5.10 Represent buttons in smart dish software 144
5.11 Represent signal columns 144
5.12 Basic CNC Schematic 145
5.13 Physical appearance of of HLA external type 146
5.14 Converting Mechanism Rotary Movement into Translation. 146
Movement in HLA.
5.15 Control Algorithm of Single axis Motorized Moving Stage. 147
5.16 Block Diagram of Motorized Moving Stage Control 147
5.17 Anti-Backlash Principle 148
5.18 HLA Installation on Microscope Moving Stage (X-Axis and Y- 148
Axis)
5.19 HLA Assembled in XZS -107BN Stage 149
5.20 HLA’s Limit Switch 149
5.21 DELTA printer motion structure 150
5.22 Block diagram of the delta 3D printer. 150
5.23 3D model of the Delta 3D printer. 150
5.24 Top view of the proposed design. 151
5.25 Tower assembly 151
5.26 Bowden extruder motor assembly 152
5.27 Extruder head assembly. 152
5.28 Flowchart of the printing algorithm. 153
5.29 Inkjet Printer inner parts 154
5.30 Open loop control of a hybrid stepper motor(a)From logic 156
sequences to motor (b) input controller
5.31 Close loop control of hybrid stepper motor. (a)Simple close 156
loop system(b) uses of microprocessor. (c)with current control
5.32 System control implemented in MATLAB-Simulink 157
5.33 Pulse train at the output converter. 157
5.34 Output signals A, B and C. 158
5.35 Functions to minimize the driver command pulses. 159
5.36 Control signals for the driver full step sequence. 159
5.37 Supply voltage of phases. 160
5.38 The two coils are driven by sine and cosine waveforms. 161
5.39 Block diagram of the PID controller with HSM 161
5.40 The modified PID control system 162
5.41 Fuzzy controller structure. 163
5.42 Phase plane trajectory. 163
5.43 Effects of the fuzzy set numbers on the controller performance. 164
(a) Chosen fuzzy sets. (b) Open-loop response. (c) Response
with three fuzzy sets. (d) Response with five fuzzy sets. (e)
Response with seven fuzzy sets. (f) Response with nine fuzzy
sets.
5.44 Fuzzy controller output 165
5.45 Experimental setup 170
5.46 Sensor less drive implementation 171
5.47 Block diagram of a typical hybrid stepper motor control 172
5.48 A unidirectional logic sequencer for two phases on operation of 172
a two-phase hybrid motor.
5.49 Direction of the Magnetic Field based on the Direction of the 173
Coil Current
5.50 Unipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit 174
5.51 Bipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit 174
5.52 A unipolar drive configuration. 176
5.53 A bipolar drive configuration. 176
5.54 Bipolar chopper drive circuit 177
5.55 Motec 2 Phase Hybrid Stepper Controller 178
5.56 DM2207 Three Phase Hybrid Stepper Driver 180
5.57 2-phase hybrid stepper motor driver Q2HB613M 181
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Table Name Page No.
2.1 Incremental torque per micro-step 19

2.2 10° step angle & 6 pole Micro-stepping 25
2.3 Motor Specifications 32
2.4 2 Phase Micro Stepper Motor VSM1069 specification 40
2.5 10mm geared stepper motor VSM10-817G specification 41
2.6 10mm micro stepper motor VSM1070 specification 43
4.1 Diagram indicating for varying pole of each of stator poles 103
of prior art
4.2 General specification of 0.9 Degree Step Angle Nema 14 125
Stepper Motor for Cutting Plotter 35 HSM Series
4.3 Specification of 20H NEMA8 2Phase 1.8° 132
4.4 Specification of 42HM NEMA17 2Phase 0.9° 135
4.5 Specification of 36 series Planetary Gearbox 137
5.1 Implications of De-numerator Constant Setting upon 148

Linear Resolution Movement
Truth Table
5.2 158
Fuzzy Matrix
5.3 165
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
A stepper motor is a brushless electromechanical device which converts the train of electric
pulses applied at their excitation windings into precisely defined step-by-step mechanical
shaft rotation. The shaft of the motor rotates through a fixed angle for each discrete pulse.
This rotation can be linear or angular. It gets one step movement for a single pulse input.
When a train of pulses is applied, it gets turned through a certain angle. The angle through
which the stepper motor shaft turns for each pulse is referred as the step angle, which is
generally expressed in degrees. The number of input pulses given to the motor decides the
step angle and hence the position of motor shaft is controlled by controlling the number of
pulses. This unique feature makes the stepper motor to be well suitable for open-loop control
system wherein the precise position of the shaft is maintained with exact number of pulses
without using a feedback sensor [1]. Stepper motor is an incremental motion
electromechanical device which is commonly used in positioning applications. They are used
in a variety of applications, including computer peripherals, machine tools, robotics etc.
Stepper motors are also used in biomedical applications like medical scanners, fluid pumps
etc. Stepper motors require less maintenance and they are durable [2]. There are three basic
types of stepper motor. These stepper motor types vary by construction and in how they
function. Each stepper motor type offers a solution to an application in a different way. The
three basic types of stepper motor include the Variable Reluctance, Permanent Magnet, and
Hybrid [3]. Hybrid Stepper Motor is the most popular type of stepper motor as it provides
better performance in terms of step resolution, holding torque and speed. However, these
motors are more expensive than other stepper motors. It combines the best features of both
variable reluctance and permanent magnet stepper motors. These motors are used in
applications that require very small stepping angle such as 1.5, 1.8 and 2.5 degrees. A hybrid
stepper motor consists of a permanent magnet sandwiched between the two rotor halves
(causing axial polarity), which make up the spinning part of the motor, placed into a stator
housing where the stator coils of wire make up the different motor phases.
The rotor is connected to the motor shaft, which gives the output rotation and torque of the
motor when voltage and current pulses are applied to the motor windings. The bearings on
either side of the rotor allow for smooth rotation with little friction
Figure 1.1: Hybrid Stepper motor [4]

1
and wearing. The bearings are placed into their designated spaces in the front and rear
endcaps, which allow for concentricity of the rotor inside the stator. Perfect alignment of the
rotor and the stator is very important because the airgap between them, where the motor
torque is generated, must be equal on all sides and is only a few nanometers wide - thinner
than a strand of hair [4].
There are four excitation modes that are commonly used with the stepper motor. These
stepper motor modes are the wave-step, full‐step, half‐step‐ and micro-step [5]. In the stepper
motor micro-step mode, a stepper motor’s natural step angle can be divided into much
smaller angles [3]. Micro-stepping is a means of moving a stepper motor’s stator flux
smoother than in half- or full-step modes, resulting in less vibration and noiseless stepping
down to zero hertz as well as facilitating smaller step angles and better positioning. When a
stepper motor is driven in half- or full-step mode the stator flux rotates forty-five and ninety
electrical degrees respectively [6]. Micro-stepping stepper motor has tighter position control
accuracy and better performance. The speed of stepper motor driven by micro-stepping is less
than one step per movement. The stepper motor works by turning each current pulse into a
complete step under normal working conditions. Micro-stepping allows the stepper motor to
make finer steps. This is accomplished by having the controller and driver send appropriate
types of current pulses to the stepping motor. Micro-stepping stepper motor use pulse width
modulation (PWM) voltage to control the current of the stepper motor winding, therefore, it
can have a plurality of stable intermediate states between zero current and maximum current,
and the generated synthetic magnetic field vector realizes subdivision of the magnetic field,
thereby realizing subdivision of the step angle. The most obvious advantage is reducing the
stepper motor step angle and enhancing the positioning resolution. Another important benefit
is improving smoothness of motor motion. Since stepper motor is an incremental motion
device that resonates when the step frequency approaches the natural frequency of the motor.
Therefore, it will limit the application of stepper motors at low speeds. With micro-stepping,
there will be no overshoot, damped oscillations and resonance [7]. Micro-stepping a stepper
motor will cause the rotor to move much smoother on low frequencies because the stator flux,
which controls the stable rotor stop position, moves more continuously than it would in half-
step or full-step mode. Micro-stepping has a relatively minor effect on the rotor movement
compared to full-stepping with frequencies above two to three times the stepper motor
system’s natural frequency. This happens because of the filtering effect of the load and rotor
inertia — a stepper motor system acts as a low-pass filter [6].
1.1 Motivation of this thesis

Step motor and brushless electromechanical device have been available for quite long
time. Brushless technology is becoming increasingly popular as applications take advantage
of its technology. The accuracy, resolution, and repeatability of a stepper motor driven device
is controlled by the stepper motors are often used in applications where a high accuracy is
needed. Motion control devices have been an integral part of several industries for a long
time where hybrid stepper motor can be used for precise stepping and suitable for any kind of
commercial application. In some applications, lower speed is needed. There is increasing
demand for compact sized actuators and other motion control devices. Thus, there is an
increasing demand for compact-sized motors where high resolution is need. For this, micro-
stepping is the way to drive the stator flux more smoothly with desired smaller steps. Today,
it is common to find different types of motorized actuators. Some devices are fitted with
different types of electric motors, which makes them smoother, less vibrative, and noiseless
2
than their earlier counterparts. Like any other motor-driven device, these motion control
systems have immensely gained from the advancements in motor technology.
1.2 Objective of the thesis

The objectives of the thesis are the following:
 Analysis of hybrid stepper motor for precision stepping.
 Analysis of micro-stepping and other mode of stepper motor.
 Analysis of mathematical models of hybrid stepper motor and micro-stepping.
 Analysis of industrial and commercial application of stepper motor and micro-
stepping.
 Analysis of different type control method of stepper motor and micro-stepping
1.3 Possible outcomes

The possible outcomes of thesis are as follow:
 Various methods of controlling can be studied.
 Industrial and commercial applications of hybrid stepper motor and micro-
stepping can be found out.
 Operation of low-speed ranges along with different step size can be observed.
 Various types of hybrid stepper motor and their corresponding motor driver
will be analyzed.
 Some characteristic curve of micro-stepping can be dipicted.
 History of micro-stepping and hybrid stepper motor can be acknowledged.
1.4 Organization of the thesis
 Introduction of thesis work is presented in chapter 1.

 Comparative feasibility analysis of the micro-stepping stepper motor as full
stepping, half stepping, wave stepping & micro-stepping, micro-stepping history
are discussed in chapter 2.
 In chapter 3, Micro-stepping for industrial/commercial application and control
are discussed.
 In chapter 4, hybrid stepper motor for precision stepping, mathematical model of
hybrid stepper motor, history of hybrid stepper motor is discussed
 In chapter 5, hybrid stepper motor for commercial/ industrial applications and
control.
 Discussion and conclusion of the thesis work has been presented in chapter 6.
3
CHAPTER 2
COMPARATIVE FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS OF THE MICRO-STEPPING
2.1 Introduction to Stepper Motor

The name Stepper Motor itself shows that the rotor movement is in the form of various
steps or discrete steps. It is also known as Stepping Motor. The number of pulses fed into the
controller circuit determines the angular rotation of the motor. Each input pulse produces one
step of the angular movement. The drive is considered as an analog to digital converter. It has
an in-built logic, which causes appropriate windings to be energized and de- energized by the
solid states switches in the required sequence [8].
Figure 2.1: Stepper motor [9]
2.2 Construction & Working Principle of Stepper Motor

The construction of a stepper motor is fairly related to a DC Motor. It includes a
permanent magnet like Rotor which is in the middle & it will turn once force acts on it. This
rotor is enclosed through a no. of the stator which is wound through a magnetic coil all over
it. The stator is arranged near to rotor so that magnetic fields within the stators can control the
movement of the rotor.
The stepper motor can be controlled by energizing every stator one by one. So that the stator
will magnetize & works like an electromagnetic pole which uses repulsive energy on the
rotor to move forward. The stator’s alternative magnetizing as well as demagnetizing will
shift the rotor gradually & allows it to turn through great control.
4
Figure 2.2: Internal structure of the stepper motor [10]
The stepper motor working principle is Electro-Magnetism. It includes a rotor which is

made with a permanent magnet whereas a stator is with electromagnets. Once the supply is
provided to the winding of the stator then the magnetic field will be stator. Now rotor in
the motor will start to move with the rotating magnetic field of the stator. So that this is the
fundamental working principle of this motor.
Figure 2.3:
Stepper motor
construction [11]
In this motor, there is a soft iron that is

enclosed through the electromagnetic
stators. The poles of the stator as well as
the rotor don’t depend on the kind of
stepper. Once the stators of this motor are energized then the rotor will rotate to line up itself
with the stator otherwise turns to have the least gap through the stator. In this way, the stators
are activated in a series to revolve the stepper motor [12].
2.3 Step Angle

The step angle of the stepper motor can be defined as the angle at which the motor’s
rotor turns once a single pulse is given to the stator’s input. The resolution of the motor can
be defined as the number of steps of the motor and the number of revolutions of the rotor.
Resolution = Numbers of Steps /Number of Revolution of the Rotor
The motor’s arrangement can be decided through the step-angle & it is expressed within
degrees. The resolution of a motor (the step number) is the no. of steps which make within a
single revolution of the rotor. When the step-angle of the motor is small then the resolution is
high for the arrangement of this motor.
The exactness of the arrangements of the objects through this motor mainly depends on the
5
resolution. Once the resolution is high then the accuracy will be low.
Some accuracy motors can create 1000 steps within a single revolution including 0.36
degrees of step-angle. A typical motor includes 1.8 degrees of step angle with 200 steps for
each revolution. The different step angles such as 15 degrees, 45 degrees, and 90 degrees are
very common in normal motors. The number of angles can change from two to six and a
small step angle can be attained through slotted pole parts.
Steps for Each Revolution

The steps for each resolution can be defined as the number of step angles necessary for a total
revolution. The formula for this is 360°/Step Angle.
Steps for Each Second

This kind of parameter is mainly used for measuring the number of steps covered within each
second.
Revolution per Minute

The RPM is the revolution per minute. It is used to measure the frequency of revolution. So,
by using this parameter, we can calculate the number of revolutions in a single minute. The
main relation between the parameters of the stepper motor is like the following.
Steps for Each Second = Revolution per Minute x Steps per Revolution / 60 [12].
2.4 Historical Background of Stepper Motor

As predecessor of the stepper motor, the so- principle is simple: a coil rotates the rotor,
when energized, for a certain angle as if it were a ratchet. This drive was already used in 1850
in telegraphy in the context of the "pointer telegraph".
The stepper motor is an advancement, that was used in the 1930s by the British Navy for the
control of turrets and cannons [13].
Figure 2.4: Pawl drive [14]
6
Figure 2.5: Stepper motor history Figure 2.6: The Royal Navy pioneered the use
[15] of stepper motors in gun turrets
in the 1930s. [16]
The first recorded example of a stepper motor being used in a practical application was by
one of the biggest drivers of innovation in the 18th, 19th and 20th century, the British Royal
Navy. The system was developed in the 1930s as a means of controlling gun turrets and
cannons on large ships and similar systems remain in use today.
In the 1960s this type of basic stepper motor began to be superseded by large angle
permanent magnet stepper motors similar to the types commonly in use today.
However, these motors suffered with a number of issues. Positional accuracy was limited
due to the absence of accurate stepper motor controllers and resonance issues within the
motor casings would often cause the motor to have to be stopped and restarted [17].
By 1960, the PM step motor (large-angle type) had become the primary step motor in use.
There were no cures for resonance or shaft velocity vibration other than stop the step motor
shaft and restart the motion. The key attributes were the PM step motor’s open loop
position accuracy of +5% and the non-cumulation of position error.
Typical step motor applications in 1960 included drone control readouts, railway car sorting
indicators, portable weighing station indicators, and digital differential altimeters. The
development of stepper motor is closely related to the development of the transistor
semiconductor device. In 1950 diode semiconductor came out, and then MOS semiconductor
in 1964. IC (integrated circuit) appeared in 1965, and LSI/CSI was practically used in 1967.
In particular, after the high development of semiconductor materials from 1950 to 1965, it
entered into 1970s. The microprocessor burst into the motion market in the early 1970s. It
provided near perfect control “clock” needed to time the pulse trains to the step motor.
Variable pulse rates, then reaching speeds of 1,000 to 2,000 pulses per second let the step
motor accelerate and decelerate under close timing control.
Overcoming the step motors’ phase inductance and delayed phase current build up required
special drive circuitry. Series resistance techniques, first reported in 1970, represented by
L/nR, where n=2 to 4, lower the step motor’s electrical time constant which allows fast phase
current rise and fast accelerating torque development. Other drive techniques such as bi-level
and dual voltage techniques were developed to overcome the delay in current caused by
higher winding inductances [18].
2.5 Operating Modes of Stepper Motor

The following are the most common drive mode in stepper motor:
 Full step mode
 Half step mode
 Wave mode
 Micro-stepping mode [19]
2.5.1 Full Stepping

In full stepping operation, the current required in each winding is either −I max or + I max
. A step sequence of 4 full steps makes up one complete step cycle. Note that these full step
7
positions are the same as the odd numbered positions from the half stepping sequence.
Figure 2.7: Phase diagram (full stepping) Figure 2.8: Timing diagram (full
[20] stepping) [20]
2.5.2 Half Stepping

In a half stepping operation, the current required in each winding is either −I max, 0, or
+ I max. A step sequence of 8 half steps makes up one complete step cycle.
Figure 2.9: Phase diagram (half stepping) Figure 2.10: Timing diagram (half
[20] stepping) [20]
2.5.3 Wave Stepping
Wave stepping is another method of full stepping, but with reduced power
requirements (and corresponding torque output) since only one winding is powered at a time.
The current required in each winding is either −I max, 0, or + I max. A step sequence of 4 full
steps makes up one complete step cycle. Note that these full step positions are the same as the
even numbered positions from the half stepping sequence.
8
Figure 2.11: Phase diagram (wave stepping) Figure 2.12: Timing diagram (wave
[20] stepping) [20]
The arrows in each phase diagram are called “phasors”. The angle theta that the phasor moves
from one position to the next is the step or micro step angle. On a phase diagram, 90°
corresponds to one full step and 360° corresponds to a “full step sequence”. A full step
sequence is a sequence of steps or micro steps which, when repeated, will produce continuous
rotation of the motor. Assuming adequate torque, any continuous path which traverses the 4
quadrants of the phase diagram with at least one point per quadrant will suffice to rotate the
stepper motor. If the controller is designed with the capability to control the magnitude of the
current in each winding, then micro-stepping can be implemented. The phase diagrams
below all show different implementations of “divide by 4” micro- stepping. Note that it is the
phasor angle (not its length) that determines the micro step position. The phasor length
affects power consumption and available torque as we will see later.
2.5.4 Micro-Stepping
Stepper motors can perform positioning with higher resolution than a full step when
combined with drivers capable of electronically splitting the mechanical step of the motor.
Micro-stepping is used to achieve higher stepper motor resolution, offering smoother
movement at low speeds.
For example, a stepper motor with a pitch angle of 1.8° results in a rotation of 200 steps
(resolution) for each complete revolution of the motor (360 ÷ 1.8). Because of this discrete
movement, the motor rotation is not perfectly smooth.
A reduction in the size of the motor steps using the micro-stepping technique can deliver
smoother movement at low speeds. The micro-stepping control divides each complete step
into smaller values: For example, a 1.8° pitch can be divided up to 256 times, providing a
pitch angle of 0.007° per revolution. This data indicates the resolution of the position and not
its accuracy, which depends on the electromechanical precision of the engine, as shown in the
engine’s specifications (5% for good-quality hybrid engines). [21]
2.6 Classification of Micro-Stepping

 Square Path
 Circular Path
 Arbitrary Path [20]
2.6.1 Micro- Stepping Square Path

This method of micro-stepping provides the highest peak torque if you are limited by
available supply voltage.
9
Figure 2.13: Phase diagram (square path Figure 2.14: Timing diagram (square path
micro-stepping) [20] micro-stepping) [20]
2.6.2 Micro-Stepping Circular Path

This method is also referred to as sine cosine micro-stepping and is usually what
people are referring to when they talk about micro-stepping, though in fact it is only one
method.
Figure 2.15: Phase diagram (circular path Figure 2.16: Timing diagram (circular
micro-stepping) [20] path micro-stepping) [20]
2.6.3 Micro- Stepping Arbitrary Path

There would be little reason to use a method such as this. It is presented only to
illustrate the possibilities. Although it looks very strange compared to the other two methods,
in theory it will produce the same angular rotation of an ideal motor. Only the available thrust
would differ.
Figure 2.17: Phase diagram (arbitrary path Figure 2.18: Timing diagram (arbitrary
10
micro-stepping) [20] path micro-stepping) [20]
While it is convenient to think of the I aand I baxes as representing full step positions, it
should be recognized that this is an arbitrary choice and any 4 positions in the phase diagram
that are 90° apart from each other could be considered full step positions. However, for the
sake of simplicity, let us consider the positive I aaxis to represent theta = 0°. As theta
increases, the phasor moves counter-clockwise from this position. At theta = 90° the phasor
lies along the positive I baxis, one full step from its starting position. Any angle theta between
0 and 90° represents a possible micro step position (a position between full step positions). If
you wish to implement “divide by 10” micro stepping, then you must generate values of I a
and I b that correspond to values of theta equal to 0, 9, 18, 27 ... 81, 90°, etc.
theta = tan−1( I b/ I a ) (2.1)
There are many values of I aand I bthat could be chosen to produce the same phasor angle
theta. The choice of phasor length is typically decided based on the motor power rating and
the applications torque requirements. Power and torque are both related to phasor length. The
power draw at any given angular position is given by the formula:
Power= I 2 R+ I 2 R
(2.2)
where R is the winding resistance (both windings should have the same resistance)
The length of the phasor is given by the formula:
2 2
Phasor length= Sqrt ( I a + I b) = Sqrt (Power/R) (2.3)
The phasor length gives an indication of the power draw at each micro-step angle. Torque is
directly proportional to current (assuming magnetic saturation is not reached). Thus, the
available torque is directly proportional to phasor length, and the phase diagram gives an
indication of how torque may vary with micro-step position.
Aside: note that phasor length is proportion to torque and to Sqrt (Power). Then the torque is
proportional to Sqrt (Power). In other words, a 2x increase in torque requires a 4x increase in
power (assuming magnetic saturation is not reached).
A phasor of constant length is typically used for smoothest operation (minimum torque
ripple) and constant power output. This results in a circular path around the phase diagram,
the phasor length being the radius of the circle. This technique is referred to as “sine cosine
micro-stepping” because the target values for I aand I b are proportional to sin(theta) and
cos(theta) respectively. In practice, the term micro-stepping usually refers to sine cosine
micro-stepping, but in theory, sine cosine micro-stepping is only one method of micro-
stepping. As mentioned above, a functioning micro-stepping algorithm may be designed
around any arbitrary path which traverses the 4 quadrants of the phase diagram and has at
least one point per quadrant.
The maximum continuous power output of a motor is usually specified by the manufacturer.
This places an upper limit on:
11
2 2
phasor length= Sqrt ( I a + I b) (2.4)
The effective limit that this places on I aand I b will depend on the geometry of the path chosen
around the phase diagram.
One must also consider the limitations of the power supply being used to drive the motor. In
voltage-controlled products, the maximum values of I aand I bmay be limited by the power
supply voltage (I=V/R). In this case, using a square phase profile is a way to achieve higher
torque without requiring a higher voltage power supply.
However, there is a price to pay and that is torque ripple. You can see that as you move
around the phase diagram along a square path, the torque (proportional to the length of the
phasor) will be constantly increasing and decreasing. This results in less smoothness of
operation and less micro- stepping accuracy. Generally, it is easier to achieve higher torque
simply by increasing the current limit. However, sometimes, your maximum current limit is
restricted by your or the capabilities of your controller. In this case, reduced smoothness and
accuracy may be an acceptable compromise for additional torque [20].
2.7 Reason for Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor

For completing full rotation micro-stepping can divide a full step by as much 256 times,
where step angle as small as 0.007 degrees (51,200 steps per revolution) when the full step
angle is 1.8 degrees. Micro-stepping is considered as the best alternative to mechanical
gearing because it can’t produce any backlash error into the system or decrease the system’s
maximum speed [22].
For the implementation of the micro stepping the driver should deliver variable amount of
current to the motor winding which requires a PWM type or a chopper such that its
implementation becomes much complex as compared to full or half stepping method. It is
to be noted that themotor winding current is either sine or cosine of the peak current (I p)
called micro step. Such that the motor is made to move in equal and small micro step before a
complete full step can be completed. It is the best method of driving a stepper motor as
compare the other two as there is no low speeds vibrations if each of the micro step chosen
carefully and the implementation with the chopper or PWM type is done properly [23].
2.8 Introduction to Micro-Stepping

Micro-stepping is driving a stepper motor at less the one full step per movement. Under
usual operating conditions, a stepper motor operates by turning one full step with every pulse
of current. Micro-stepping allows a motor to make far finer steps. This done by having the
controller and drive send the proper kinds of current pulses to the stepper motor [24].
12
Figure 2.19: Operating drive mode of stepper motor [25]
A micro-stepping drive does not send a full pulse of current to the stepper motor to make it
move. Rather various algorithms developed by manufacturers allow the drives to send only
partial pulses to the stepper motor. As a result, the motor spin only a fraction of a step. Usual
values of micro- stepping are 16 to 64 micro- steps per one full step. For a 1.8° stepper motor,
this makes for steps from 0.1124° to 0.028° [26].
Figure 2.20: Stepper motors and their associated drives from oriental motor can
micro- step [27].
2.9 Historical Background of Micro-Stepping

The micro-stepping was invented in 1974 by Larry Durkos, who was working as a
mechanical engineer for American Monitor Corporation. The company was a medical
equipment vendor, and they were using a large Superior Electric 1.8 degree per step stepping
motors to directly drive the 20 inches diameter turntable of their Kinetic Discrete Analyzer.
The turntable was used to bring each of 100 blood samples into position for analysis.
That is 2 steps per sample, and the motion was so abrupt that the samples tended to spill. The
system was controlled by a Computer Automation LSI 2 minicomputer (today, we would use
a microcontroller), and Durkos worked out how to do computer-controlled sine-cosine micro-
stepping in order to solve this problem. The solution was published in the technical service
manuals for the KDA analyzer, but it was never patented. Representatives of Superior
Electric learned of micro-stepping from Durkos, and that company was the first to market a
micro-stepping controller [28].
Throughout the 1970s and especially the 1980s and 1990s major advances were made in
developing controllers which could address some of the resonance issues found in stepper
motor. as well as manufacturing developments which reduced the cost of stepper motor,
However, stepper motor at this time reduced the cost of stepper motor. However, stepper
motor at this time remained expensive and were typically used in defense and aerospace
13
applications.
By the early 2000s these developments were so significant that the cost of stepper motors
and stepper motor controllers began to fall, enabling them to be used in a range of
applications where they were previously too expensive to use [17].
2.10 Construction of Stepper Motor While Micro-Stepping

The most common method of controlling stepper motors nowadays is the Micro-
stepping. In this mode we provide variable controlled current to the coils in form of sin wave.
This will provide smooth motion of the rotor, decrease the stress of the parts and increase the
accuracy of the stepper motor.
Figure 2.21: Stepper motor micro-stepping mode [29]
Another way of increasing the resolution of the stepper motor is by increasing the
numbers of the poles of the rotor and the numbers of the pole of the stator.
Figure 2.22: Construction of stepper motor Figure 2.23: Resolution

increases with micro-stepping [30] micro-stepping[31]
2.11 Micro-stepping Operation

Micro-stepping is a way to make small steps even smaller. The smaller the step is the
higher the resolution and the better the vibration characteristics. In micro-stepping, a phase is
not fully on or fully off. It is partially on. Sine waves are applied to both phase A and phase
B, 90° apart. When the maximum power is in phase A, phase B is at zero. The rotor will line
up with phase A. As the current to phase A decreases, it is increasing to phase B. The rotor
14
will take tiny steps toward phase B until phase B is at its max and phase A is at zero. The
process continues around the other phases and we have micro-stepping. There are some
problems associated with micro-stepping, mostly accuracy and torque.
Then why micro-stepping? There are still compelling reasons other than high resolution for
micro-stepping. They include reducing mechanical noise, gentler mechanical actuation, and
reducing resonance problems.
Micro-stepping serves two purposes. First, it allows a stepping motor to stop and hold a
position between the full or half-step positions; second, it largely eliminates the jerky
character of low-speed stepping-motor operation and the noise at intermediate speeds; and
third, it reduces problems with resonance.
Figure 2.24: Phase current while micro-stepping with rotor position [32]
Figure 2.25: Current waveform for individual phase [33]

By controlling direction and amplitude of the current flow in each winding, the resolution
increases and the characteristics of the motor improve, giving less vibration and smoother
operation. Because the sinewaves work together there is a smooth transition from one
winding to the other. When current increases in one it decreases in the other resulting in a
smooth step progression and maintained torque output.
With maximum current in phase A, phase B is zero. The rotor will line up with phase A. As
current to phase A decreases, it increases to phase B. The rotor will take small steps towards
phase B until phase B is at its maximum and phase A is at zero. The process then continues
around the other phases [33].
Stepper motors move in discrete steps, or fractions of a revolution. For example, a stepper
motor with a 1.8 degree’s step angle will make 200 steps for every full revolution of the
motor (360 ÷ 1.8). This discrete motion means the motor’s rotation isn’t perfectly smooth,
and the slower the rotation, the less smooth it is due to the relatively large step size. One way
to alleviate this lack of smoothness at slow speeds is to reduce the size of the motor’s steps.
This is where micro-stepping comes in.
Micro-stepping control divides each full step into smaller steps to help smooth out the
motor’s rotation, especially at slow speeds. For example, a 1.8 degree’s step can be divided
15
up to 256 times, providing a step angle of 0.007 degrees (1.8 ÷ 256), or 51,200 micro-steps
per revolution.
Figure 2.26: Full step position vs Time [34] Figure 2.27: Micro-stepping
position vs Time [34]
Here, Micro-stepping significantly reduces positioning oscillations. Micro-stepping is

achieved by using pulse-width modulated (PWM) voltage to control current to the motor
windings.
The driver sends two voltage sine waves, 90 degrees out of phase, to the motor windings.
While current increases in one winding, it decreases in the other winding.
Figure 2.28: Full step velocity deviation vs Time Figure 2.29: Micro-
stepping [34] velocity deviation vs Time[34]
Here, Micro-stepping also reduces velocity ripple. This gradual transfer of current results in
smoother motion and more consistent torque production than full- or half-step control. While
the smoothness of torque delivery, low-speed motion, and resonance are improved with
micro-stepping, limitations in control and in motor design prevent them from reaching their
ideal characteristics. This is primarily because micro-stepping drives can only approximate a
true sine wave, so some torque ripple, resonance, and noise remain, although each one is
greatly reduced in comparison to full- and half-stepping modes. In addition, torque
16
production from a stepper motor with micro-stepping control is only about 70 percent of the
torque produced with full-step control.
Figure 2.30: Phase current and Vibration of Micro-stepping [35]
Instead of taking big, 1.8-degree steps, the steps are made smaller electrically. Resolution is
increased and vibration reduced due to the smaller steps [34].
2.12 Micro-Stepping Basics

Micro-stepping is a way of moving the stator flux of a stepper more smoothly than in
full- or half-step drive modes. This results in less vibration, and makes noiseless stepping
possible down to 0 Hz. It also makes smaller step angles and better positioning possible.
There are a lot of different micro-stepping modes, with step lengths from 1⁄3-full-step down
to 1⁄32-full-step—or even less. Theoretically it is possible to use non-integer fractions of a
full-step, but this is often impractical.
A stepper motor is a synchronous electrical motor. This means that the rotor’s stable stop
position is in synchronization with the stator flux. The rotor is made to rotate by rotating the
stator flux, thus making the rotor move towards the new stable stop position. The torque (T)
developed by the motor is a function of the holding torque (T H) and the distance between the
stator flux fs and the rotor position f r.
T = T H. Sin (fs – f r)
(2.5)
where fs and f r are given in electrical degrees.

The relationship between electrical and mechanical angles is given by the formula:
f el=(n/4). f mech
(2.6)
where n is the number of full-steps per revolution.
17
Figure 2.31: (A)-Torque and speed ripple as Figure 2.32: (A)-Fludirection
function of load angle, full-step mode. For normal half and full
(B)-torque and speed ripple as function -step positions. Length
of load angle, micro-stepping is proportional to
1/8- full-step mode [36] holding torque.
(B)micro-stepping flux direction.
direction lengths are variable [36]
When a stepper is driven in full-step and half-step modes the stator flux is rotated 90 and 45
electrical degrees, respectively every step of the motor. From the formula above we see that a
pulsing torque is developed by the motor (see figure 2.31(A)), which also shows the speed
ripple caused by the torque ripple). The reason for this is that f s- f r is not constant in time due
to the discontinuous motion of fs.
Generating a stator flux that rotates 90 or 45 degrees at a time is simple, just two current
levels are required Ion and 0. This can be done easily with all type of drivers. For a given
direction of the stator flux, the current levels corresponding to that direction are calculated
from the formulas:
I A= I Peak . sin (fs)

(2.7)
I A= I Peak . cos (fs) ( 2.8)
By combining the Ion and 0 values in the two windings we can achieve 8 different
combinations of winding currents. This gives us the 8 normal 1- and 2-phase-on stop
positions corresponding to the flux directions 0, 45, …, 315 electrical degrees (see figure
2.32 (A)).
If we have a driver which can generate any current level from 0 to 141% of the nominal 2-
phase- on current for the motor, it is possible to create a rotating flux which can stop at any
desired electrical position (see figure 2.32 (B)).
It is therefore also possible to select any electrical stepping angle—1⁄ 4-full-step (22,5
electrical degrees), 1⁄ 8-full-step or 1⁄ 32-full-step (2.8 electrical degrees) for instance. Not
18
only can the direction of flux be varied, but also the amplitude. From the torque development
formula, we can now see that the effect of micro-stepping is that the rotor will have a much
smoother movement on low frequencies because the stator flux, which controls the stable
rotor stop position, is moved in a more-continuous way, compared to full and half-step
modes, (see figure 2.31(B)) [36].
2.13 Micro-Stepping Myths and Realities

The lure of Micro-stepping a two-phase stepper motor is compelling. Visions of Micro-
stepping a 1.8-degree hybrid stepper motor with 256 micro-steps per full step flash in your
mind. The resolution of 51,200 micro-steps per revolution entices you.
Sinusoidal torque vs. shaft position

The real compromise is that as you increase the number of micro-steps per full step, an
incremental torque per Micro-step drops off drastically. Resolution increases. However,
accuracy will suffer.
Few stepper motors have a pure sinusoidal torque vs. shaft position and all have higher order
harmonics that distort the curve and affect accuracy (see graph below). While micro-stepping
drives have come a long way, they still only approximate a true sine wave.
Figure 2.33: Torque Vs. shaft position [37]

Dotted line: Suitable response for precise micro-stepping positioning. Red line: Distorted
curves.
It’s also critical to note that any load torque will result in a “magnetic backlash”, displacing
the
TINC = THFS x sin (90/ μ PFS) (2.9)
The incremental torque for N micro-steps is:
T N = T HFS x sin ((90 x N)/ μ PFS) (2..10)
Where:
SYMBOLS AND UNITS

19
Symbol Definition Unit(s)
μ PFS Number of Micro-steps per Full Step Integer
N Number of Micro-steps Taken Integer

N Less than or equal to μ PFS oz-in
T HFS Holding Torque Full step oz-in
T INC Incremental Torque per Micro-step oz-in
TN Incremental Torque for N Micro-steps
N Less than or equal to μ PFS
It is to be noted that n<= μ PFS [38].
Table 2.1 dramatically quantifies the significant impact of the incremental torque per micro-
step as a function of the number of micro-steps per full step.
A full step is considered one micro-step per full step for Equations 2.9 and 2.10. A half
step is two micro-steps per full step.
Table 2.1: Incremental torque per micro-step

Incremental Torque per Micro-step
As the Number of Micro-steps per Full Step Increase
Micro-steps/full step % Holding Torque/Micro-step

1 100.00%
2 70.71%
4 38.27%
8 19.51%
16 9.80%
32 4.91%
64 2.45%
128 1.23%
256 0.61%
20
Figure 2.34: Incremental torque per micro-step/full step [37]
What Does It Mean?

The consequence is that if the load torque plus the motor’s friction and detent torque is
greater than the incremental torque of a micro-step, successive micro-steps will have to be
realize until the accumulated torque exceeds the load torque plus the motor’s friction and
detent torque.
Simply stated, taking a micro-step does not mean the motor will actually move. If reversing
direction is desired, a significant number of micro-steps may be needed before movement
occurs. That’s because the motor shaft torque must be decremented from whatever positive
value it has to a negative value that will have sufficient torque to cause motion in the negative
direction.
Accuracy vs. Resolution

What if the motor is not loaded? Thinking of using micro-stepping for some type of pointing
or inertial positioning?
Well, the stepper motor still has friction torque due to its bearings and it has a detent torque
(in addition to other harmonic distortions). You’ll have to “wind up” enough incremental
torque to overcome the bearing friction. Even more disruptive than the bearing friction is the
detent torque, which is typically 5 to 20% of the holding torque. Sometimes, the detent torque
is adding to the overall torque generation. However, it can also subtract from the powered
torque generation. In any case, it wreaks havoc with your overall accuracy.
Indeed, some manufacturers fabricate “micro-stepping” versions of their motors. With

standard motor constructions, the efforts typically are to reduce the detent torque. This can be
at the expense of holding torque in order, to make the torque vs. rotor position closer to a sine
wave, and it can also serve to improve linearity of torque vs. current. These efforts
reduce but not eliminate the compromises associated with micro-stepping in regards to
accuracy. Only specific magnetic designs (like the Faulhaber ADM1220S) are intrinsically
detent torque free.
How about using a lookup table to “correct” for the inaccuracies in the motor and micro-
stepping drive? The problem is that if the load torque changes from when the lookup table
was made, the results can be worse than if you had not utilized a “calibrated” table [38].
2.14 Working Principle of Micro-Stepping

Micro-stepping can be seen as a further enhancement of half-step mode, because it
allows to reduce even further the step size and to have a constant torque output. This is
achieved by controlling the intensity of the current flowing in each phase. Using this mode
requires a more complex motor driver compared to the half and full step.
21
Figure 2.35: Micro-stepping [39]
Figure 2.35 shows how micro-stepping works. If I MAX is the maximum current that can flow in
phase, starting from the left, in the first figure I A = I MAX and I B= 0. In the next step, the
currents are controlled to achieve I A = 0.92 x I MAX and I B = 0.38 x I MAX , which generates a
magnetic field that is rotated by 22.5° clockwise compared to the previous one. This step is
repeated with different current values to reach the 45°, 67.5°, and 90° positions. This
provides the ability to reduce by half the size of the step, compared to the half-step mode;
but it is possible to go even further. Using micro-stepping helps reaching very high position
resolution, but this advantage comes at the cost of a more complex device to control the
motor, and a smaller torque generated with each step. Indeed, the torque is proportional to the
sine of the angle the steps are smaller, the torque is smaller. This may lead to missing
some steps, meaning the rotor position does not change even if the current in the stator
winding has [40].
Single stepping a motor results in jerky movements of the motor, especially at lower speeds.
Micro-stepping is used to achieve increased step resolution and smoother transitions between
steps. In most applications micro-stepping increases system performance while limiting noise
and resonance problems.
Micro-stepping works on the principle of gradually transferring current from one winding to
another. This is achieved by pulse-width modulating the voltage across the windings of a
motor. The duty cycle of the signal charging one winding is decreased as the duty cycle of the
signal charging the next winding is increased.
In order to understand the fundamentals of micro-stepping, it’s necessary to look at the torque
exerted by a stepper motor as it turns. Figure 2.36 shows a graph of torque verses rotor
position for an ideal two-winding stepper motor. Note the sinusoidal shape of the waveforms;
in real motors, these waveforms will only be approximately sinusoidal, and the sum of the
torques from the two windings will not be the perfect arithmetic sum of the torques with just
one or the other winding powered.
Figure 2.36: Torque vs angular position for an ideal two winding motor [41]
The desired motion of a stepper motor is linear. This means the steps should be equal in size
with no noticeable acceleration or deceleration of the shaft as the motor turns. Good micro-
stepping implementations strive to get as near to this linear motion as possible.
The torque curve for one winding of the ideal two winding stepping motor in Figure 2.36 can
22
be expressed mathematically by the following equation:
T 1=Hsin[{(π/2)/s}θ]
(2.11)
where T1 = torque of the first winding H = holding torque

S = step angle, in radians
θ= shaft angle, in radians
The torque of the second winding is expressed by the following equation.
T 2=Hcos[{(π/2)/s}θ] (2.12)
A technique referred to as sine-cosine micro-stepping adjusts the current in each winding so

the net torque is constant. In an ideal motor, the torque produced by each winding is
proportional to the current in that winding, and the torques add linearly. Saturation and
fringe-field effects make real motors non-ideal, but in practice, they are close enough that
we can ignore these Nonlinearity as a result, if we want to hold the motor rotor at the angle θ,
we can do so by setting the currents through the motor windings to the values given in
Equation 2.13 and Equation 2.14.
I 1= I MAX cos[{(π/2)/s}θ]
(2.13)
I 2= I MAX sin[{(π/2)/s}θ]
(2.14)
These equations assume that the current in the windings will not exceed I MAX .The next section
will talk about current limiting considerations.
A second way to implement micro-stepping maximizes torque in a bipolar stepping motor,
though the torque is not constant while the motor turns. In this method, one winding is
energized while the current flow in the other winding is ramped down, reversed and then
ramped up again. The second winding then remains energized while the first winding
undergoes the polarity reversal. Like the sine-cosine micro-stepping method, smooth
movement of the motor is achieved with this method by changing the current in the windings
in a sinusoidal fashion. Figure 2.37 shows the way the current in each winding is altered as
the shaft turns.
Figure 2.37: Bipolar micro-stepping from maximum torque [41]
23
In an ideal motor, micro-stepping can be used to achieve arbitrarily fine angular resolution,
but in practice friction and departures from the ideal sinusoidal torque versus shaft angle
curve make this impractical. In practice, it is rarely worthwhile to subdivide each motor step
into more than 32 micro-steps, and even this is generous!
Using 32 micro-steps per step, we can step in increments of 0.23 degrees using an in
expensive permanent magnet motor with 7.5 degrees per step. We could achieve the same
resolution using 1:32 reduction gearing, but this introduces backlash and it reduces the
maximum speed. Compared to micro-stepping, gearing has the benefit of increasing the
torque and position-holding stiffness of the motor.
It is impractical to calculate the sine or cosine of the duty cycle for the PWM signal
supplying a winding because the time to process the calculation and code space needed. It’s
more practical to have a sine lookup table with the values for the duty cycle. In practice, only
one look-up table is needed because cosine is just an offset of sine. The look-up table pointers
corresponding to each winding just need to be offset by 90 degrees [41].
2.14.1 Micro-Stepping Limitations

The previous discussion assumed an ideal two winding stepping motor. There are
several factors that affect the linearity of micro-stepping in real motors. The first limitation is
static friction in the system. Figure 2.36 shows a graph of torque verses position of the motor
shaft. Figure 2.38 shows
this same graph (for one winding) with the dotted lines representing the effect static friction
has on the system. Redrawing the graph in Figure 2.38 to show only the available torque for a
single winding results in the graph shown in Figure 2.39. Notes the resulting dead zone
between the zones of available torque. Also note that the magnitude of torque overall is less
than the ideal case.
Figure 2.38: Static friction imposed on torque vs angular position [41]
Figure 2.39: Motor torque minus static friction [41]

24
The dead zone has an impact on micro-stepping because it limits the angular resolution of the
stepping motor. It also makes it impossible to produce perfectly smooth transitions between
steps.
Another limitation to micro-stepping is the fact that the torque verses position curve is not
perfectly sinusoidal for real motors. The toothed shape of the rotor and other physical
characteristics of the motor contribute to this. Figure 2.40 shows a plot of actual position vs.
expected position for a typical motor.
Figure 2.40: Real vs actual rotor position [41]
The digital nature of the motor drive circuitry poses two additional limits on the accuracy of
micro-stepping. If current levels through the motor windings are produced from digital data,
either by using analog-to-digital converters or by measuring the current using digital-to
analog converters, the precision of these conversions introduces problems. In addition, if the
currents through the motor windings are set by pulse-width modulation, once the stepping
rate comes anywhere near the pulse rate used for current control, the precision of the current
control system becomes almost meaningless.
With frequencies above 2 to 3 times the system’s natural frequency, micro-stepping has only
a small effect on the rotor movement compared to full-stepping. The reason for this is the
filtering effect of the rotor and load inertia. A stepper motor system acts as a low pass filter
[41].
2.15 Design a Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor
Design a micro-stepping stepper which has the step angle of 10° etc.
we have step angle 10°, as we get 6 poles where 60° for 1 pole.
25
Figure 2.41: Micro-stepping construction [42] Figure 2.42: B-H curve [42]
Step Angle 60°/6 = 10°
Table 2.2: 10° step angle & 6 pole Micro-stepping
Angular Position of the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Stator
Angular Position of the 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°
rotor
(°)
Voltage for A V V V V 2V/3 V/3 0
Voltage for B 0 V/3 2V/3 V V V V
°
Step Angle (°) 10° 10° 10 10° 10° 10°
2.16 The Steps Per Inch or Resolution Formula for Each Axis
The formula and calculation are a starting point to get into the area of steps per inch.
You will then need to use the mach3 calibration utility to get the exact steps per inch.
Formula:
step per inch = (motor steps * micro-stepping) / (travel at one turn of the motor in
inches) if micro-stepping is set at 16 (1/16 on the driver) then and you are using a sprocket
and chain with a pitch of .25 inches and 12 teeth on the drive sprocket.
= (200*16)/ (12*.25)
=3200/3
= 1066.666 steps per inch
For lead screw that has a travel of .5 inches at one turn like the 5 start 1/2 inches lead screw
and using 4 micro-steps per step (1/4):
= (200*4)/ (.5)
=800/.5
= 1600 steps per inch.
With a 1/2 lead screw what is the optimal steps for the stepper motor driver 1/16, 1/8, 1/4 etc.
We typically use a 1/4 micro-stepping for lead screws, but you want to determine the micro-
26
stepping only after you determine what resolution you want on that axis of the machine.
The formula:
Resolution is steps per inch or steps per millimeter I will go over this using steps/inch:
steps = motor steps x driver micro-stepping.
inch = the amount of travel with one full stepper motor rotation.
In the case of our 1/2" 5 start 10 TPI lead screw, the axis will travel .5 inches with one
stepper motor rotation.
Let's use 1/4 micro-stepping (4 micro-steps for each stepper motor step)
Therefore:
(200 steps x 4) / .5 inches =
800 steps / .5 inches =
1600 steps/inch
Now let's use 1/2 micro-stepping (2 micro-steps) (200 steps x 2) / .5 inches
=400 steps / .5 inches =
800 steps/inch
Remember that increasing micro-steps, the torque is also reduced, but the smoothness from
the motor is increased.
2.17 Performance Analysis of Micro-Stepping

In many applications micro-stepping can increase system performance, and lower
system complexity and cost, compared to full- and half-step driving techniques. Micro-
stepping can be used to solve noise and resonance problems, and to increase step accuracy
and resolution.
Running at resonance frequencies:

The natural frequency, F0(Hz) of a stepper motor system is determined by the rotor and load
inertia,
JT=JR+JL (kgm2) (2.15)
holding torque, TH(Nm) (with the selected driving mode and current levels) and number of
full - steps per revolution (n).
n T H 0.5
F 0=( ) /4 π (2.16)
JT
If the system damping is low there is an obvious risk of losing steps or generating noise when
the motor is operated at or around the resonance frequency. Depending on motor type, total
inertia, and damping; this problem can also appear at or close to integer multiples and
fractions of F0, that is: …F0/4, F0/3, F0/2, 2F0, 3F0, 4F0…………………... Normally the
frequencies closest to F0 gives the most problems.
When a non-micro-stepping driver is used, the main cause of these resonances is that the
stator flux is moved in a discontinuous way, 90 or 45 (full-step and half- step mode) electrical
degrees at a time. This causes a pulsing energy flow to the rotor. The pulsations excite the
27
resonance. The energy transferred to the rotor, when a single step is taken, is in the worst case
(no load friction) equal to:
(4T H/n) [1-cos (f0)]

(2.17)
TH and n are as above and f s = electrical step angle, 90 degrees for full-step, 45 degrees for
half- step. This shows that using half-steps instead of full-steps reduce the excitation energy
to approximately 29% of the full-step energy.
If we move to micro-stepping 1⁄ 32-full-step mode only 0.1% of the full-step energy remains
( figure 2.43). It appears that, by using micro-stepping techniques, this excitation energy can
be lowered to such a low level that all resonances are fully eliminated.
Unfortunately, this is only true for an ideal stepper motor. In reality there are also other sources that
excite the system resonances. Never the less, using micro-stepping will improve the movement in
almost all applications and in many cases micro-stepping will alone give a sufficient reduction
of the noise and vibrations to satisfy the application.
Figure 2.43: Relative excitation energy as function of electrical step length [36]
Extending the dynamic range towards lower frequencies

When running a stepper motor at low frequencies. in half-step or full-step mode. the movement
becomes discontinuous, shows a great deal of ringing, and generates noise and vibrations. The
stepping frequencies where this happens are below the system’s natural frequency. Here micro-
stepping offers an easy and safe way to extend noiseless stepping frequencies down towards 0 Hz.
Normally it is not necessary to use smaller steps than 1⁄ 32-full-step. With this small electrical step
angle the energy transferred to the rotor/electrical step is only 0.1% of the full step energy,
as described above, and is so small that it is easily absorbed by the internal motor friction—so no
ringing or overshot is generated by the stepping (see figure 2.44). The deviation of the micro-
stepping positions from a straight line is due to the use of uncompensated sine/cosine profiles.
28
Figure 2.44: Rotor position as function of stepping mode [36]
Electronic “Gear box”:

In some applications, where small relative movements or higher step resolution are required,
micro-stepping can replace a mechanical gearbox. In many applications, this is often a better
and less-complex solution—even if a larger motor has to be used. To get the best results in
this type of application careful motor selection and development of customized sine/cosine
profiles are recommended.
System complexity
Even though the electronics for generating micro-stepping is more complex than electronics
for full- and half stepping, the total system complexity including motor, gear box and
transmission is less complex and costs less in many applications. Micro-stepping can replace
or simplify gearboxes and mechanics for damping of noise and vibrations. Also motor
selection becomes easier and more flexible.
In a microprocessor based micro-stepping application it is possible to use software and

PWM- timers or D/A-converters internal to the microprocessor to replace an external micro-
stepping controller to achieve lowest possible micro-stepping hardware cost. It is then
possible to achieve the same hardware cost as in full- and half step systems for similar motor
sizes [36].
2.18 Sources of Error in Micro-Stepping Systems

Stepper motor control systems are usually open loop. That is, the controller does not
have position feedback and therefore is not aware of the “actual” position of the motor.
Therefore, it is important to be aware of possible sources of error that will result in the actual
position being different from the calculated position.
2.18.1 Quantization Error

In any digital controller, it is impossible to achieve infinitely variable I a and/or I b.
Only discrete or “quantized” values are possible. The number of discrete values depends on
the resolution achievable by the controller. For example, if the maximum current output of
the controller is 1 A, and the controller has a resolution of 0.1 A, then there are 10 possible
current values for I a and/or I b, not including 0. The number of discrete values possible
determines how close mathematically the phasor can be set to a particular length and micro-
29
step angle. The error between the desired phasor angle and the actual phasor angle achieved
is the quantization error.
A maximum quantization error equivalent to 0.5 micro-steps is a typical design requirement

in any micro-stepping control algorithm. Note that by adjusting the phasor end point to a
nearby I a , I bpoint rather than sticking to a strictly circular or square profile can often reduce
the quantization error, but may add some torque ripple. Thus, the current resolution you
require for I aand I b will be determined by the number of micro-steps per step you want to
achieve, the quantization error you can tolerate, and the torque ripple you can tolerate.
In Zaber’s stepper motor control algorithm, our design requirements were 128 micro-steps
per step with a quantization error less than 0.5 micro-steps, and a torque ripple less than
2.5%. Determining how many discrete current values are required for I aand I bis a task best
left to a spreadsheet application, such as Excel. Even then, it requires a certain degree of trial
and error. As it turns out, 80 discrete current settings (between 0 and the running current) are
required to achieve 128 micro- steps per step with a quantization error less than 0.5 micro-
steps, and a torque ripple less than 2.5%. The resulting quantization error at each micro-step
position is plotted below in Figure 2.45.
2.18.2 Detent Error

Detent torque is the maximum torque that can be applied to an unenergized stepper
motor without causing continuous rotation. If anyone plotted torque versus shaft angle as he
slowly rotates the stepper motor with no current in either winding, then he would find that the
torque is approximately sinusoidal with shaft angle. The detent torque is just the amplitude of
the sine curve. In an ideal motor, the torque curve would be perfectly sinusoidal. What is
commonly referred to as “detent error” isn’t due to the existence of the detent torque per but
due to the non-sinusoidal component of the detent torque. The shape of the torque curve is
affected by motor pole geometry. In that sense, detent error is really pole geometry error.
Because different motor manufacturers use different pole geometries, this error can vary from
one manufacturer to another as well as from one motor to another.
2.18.3 Motor Pole Placement Error

Motor pole placement error results in a varying step size. There is typically an error
that repeats every 4 steps (one complete step cycle), as well as an error that repeats every full
revolution. This has an obvious effect on micro-stepping. The micro-step size within large
steps will be proportionally larger than the micro-step size in small steps. Pole placement
error in a typical motor is less than 0.5 steps of cumulative error over half a revolution of the
motor. Given that a typical motor has 200 steps per revolution, that translates to an error in
step size of roughly +/- 0.5%. It is possible to eliminate pole placement error in any
application simply by moving in increments of one full revolution of the motor. If that is not
possible, then some error can be eliminated by moving in increments of 4 steps. However,
moving in increments of 4 steps or full revolutions is clearly not micro-stepping. Therefore,
all micro-stepping applications invariably suffer from some pole placement error.
2.18.4 Lead Screw Pitch Error

Many motorized systems convert rotary motion to linear motion via lead screw.
Stepper motor applications are no exception. In these types of systems, any error in the lead
screw pitch will contribute to the total system error.
30
Figure 2.45: Zaber quantization error [20]
2.18.5 Stiction and Backlash Error

In micro-stepping systems, mechanical stiction and backlash are frequently much
larger than the micro-step resolution. There are many systems on the market capable of
micro-stepping at 256 micro-steps per step, but there is little point to this if mechanical
stiction in the system will be on the order of 5 to 10 micro-steps at that micro-step resolution.
2.18.6 Sources of Failure in Micro-Stepping Systems

This discussion has centered on the challenges of designing a micro-stepping system,
but there are also challenges when implementing a system. If the load on a stepper motor
exceeds its maximum torque, then the motor poles will not follow the changing magnetic
field and the motor stalls. To avoid this type of failure, micro-stepping systems must either
keep the load below the maximum torque, or include position sensors to detect and
compensate for stalls [20].
2.19 Mathematical Model of Stepper Motor:

In order to investigate the dynamics of mechanisms driven by stepper motors a model
had to be created. With a minimum related of basic laws of electromagnetism and motor
physics, this section provides a brief derivation of a non-linear model of the 2-phase PM
stepper motor shown in Figure 2.46. As explained earlier, when the windings of a phase are
energized, a magnetic dipole is generated on the stator side. If for example phase 2 is active
(phase 1 is switched off), winding 3 produces an electrical north pole and winding 4 a South
Pole. Alternatively powering the windings of the stator commands the rotor flux to follow the
stator field.
Figure 2.46: Block diagram of stepper motor. [43]

31
V a= voltage applied to the winding A.
i a= winding current.
e a= flux induced voltage in the winding.
V c = voltage applied to the winding C.

i c = winding current.
e c = flux induced voltage in the winding.
Stator winding A,
di a
V a=Ri a+ L +e a (2.18)
dt
Stator winding C,
di c
V c =Ri c+ L +e c
dt
(2.19)
φ a and φAre the magnetic flux in the stator windings A and C.
φ a=φ mcos nθ
(2.20)
φ m =maximum stator flux.
The voltages e a and e c that are induced in the stator windings given by,
d φa dθ
ea = m =−¿ mnφ msin nθ =−k cw sin nθ
dt dt
(2.21)
d φc dθ
ec = m =−¿mnφ mcos nθ =−k cw cos nθ (2.22)
dt dt
Conservation of energy:
Mechanical power out = electrical power in,
wT a=i a ea
(2.23)
wT c=i c e c (2.24)
T a=−i a k c sin nθ (2.25)
T C=i a k c cos nθ (2.26)
Complete model using equations:

d2θ dθ
J r 2 + D r =T+T a+T c (2.27)
dt dt
=T −i a k c sin nθ+i c k c cos nθ
(2.28)
32
d ic
V a=Ri a+L −¿wk c sin nθ (2.29)
dt
di
V c =Ri c+L c + wk c cos nθ (2.30)
dt
Where we have,
ia, ic = currents in phases a and c.
L , R = self-inductance and resistance of each phase winding.
ea, ec= currents phases a and c.
n = number of rotor teeth on each of the two rotor poles.
Jr= rotor inertia.
W = Rotor speed.
.θ=motor position
D = Viscous friction constant.
State variable form:
dθ
=w
dt
(2.31)
dw T Dr kc kc
== − w −i a sin nθ+i c cos nθ (2.32)
dt Jr Jr Jr Jr
d ia 1 R kc
= V a− i a+w sin nθ (2.33)
dt L L L
d ic 1 R kc
= V c −¿ i b−w cos n θ
dt L L L
(2.34)
Table 2.3: Motor Specifications [42]
SSM values SAGEM values

motor motor
paramet param
er eter
Rotor inertia 1e-07kg𝑚2 Rotor inertia 500e-07kg𝑚2
Power 11w Power 8w
Resistance 48 ohms Resistance 42 ohms
Time const 2msec Time const 2msec
Voltage 28v Voltage 13v
Inductance 96mh Inductance 105mh
Load inertia 1e-07kg Load inertia 5kg𝑚2
Holding 0.7Nm Holding 0.7Nm
torque torque
Gear ratio 157 Gear ratio 200
33
Step size 1 degree Step size 15degree
Torque const 1.489Nm Torque const 0.12Nm
Maximum 0.47A Maximum 0.31A
Rate current Rate current
Mathematical modelling of the two-phase stepper motor is derived and the equation in the
state variable form is solved using Runge- Kutta numerical integration method. Solutions for
I a , I b, w Theta are calculated, simulated. Initial time and final time for operation of motor
and step size are defined. Total inertia of the motor is calculated as,
JT=Jm+(J1/N2) (2.35)
when the motor is connected to the load of inertia J 1The value of w and Theta is found and
the graph is plotted where calculation done with load connected to the motor by a gear ratio
of 1:157 from the equations of stepper modelling [42].
2.20 Mathematical Equation of Micro-Stepping

Micro-stepping mode that controls the current in the motor windings. Micro stepping is
typically used in applications that require accurate positioning and a fine resolution over a
wide range of speeds. Smooth movement at low speeds. Increased step positioning resolution
as a result of smaller step angle.
nπ
V a=sin ( )
2 kv
(2.36)
nπ
V c =cos ( ) (2.37)
2 kv
Where, n = 0, 1, 2, (4kv -1) kv = number of steps. sine and Cosine of the input voltage
divided into given number of steps here kv = 8 and n= 31 as shown in the below figures 2.47
and 2.48.
In Micro stepping mode the currents in the winding are continuously varying as shown in
Figure 2.49 and 2.50. Plots of motor speed and motor rotation of step angle 1 deg as shown in
the figures 2.51 and 2.52. Motor position for micro-stepping is highly accurate and linear,
smooth. So micro- stepping is used in all space application.
34
Figure 2.47: Plot of pulse generated by A coil Figure 2.48: Plot of pulse generated by
[43] C Coil [43]
Figure 2.49: Plot of current generated by A coil Figure 2.50: Plot of current
[43] generated by C coil [43]
Figure 2.51: Plot of motor speed [43]
The major disadvantage of the micro step drive is the cost of implementation due to the need
for partial excitation of the motor windings at different current levels. If static friction is in
the system, the angular precision is limited. Cost of implementation is high. In wave-drive
and two-phase on excitation, step size is equal to the natural step size.
In half-step excitation, step number is doubled and step size is halved. Non-linear factors of
the system bring limitations on the number of micro-steps achievable and introduce
difficulties in achieving constant current and torque outputs. Micro-stepping method can
significantly improve system performance.
35
Figure 2.52: Plot of motor rotation [43] Figure 2.53: Plot of torque generated
by motor [43]
Maximum torques at both low and high step rates is as shown in the figure 2.53 [42].
2.21 The Accuracy of Micro-stepper Motors

Micro-stepping can be very helpful at times; however, full steps are generally a better
option when you can use them. That’s because they are more accepted and compatible, and
they have more torque than micro-steps. In theory, while full steps aren’t any more precise,
they can hold their positions stronger than micro-steps.
A micro-stepping system’s true accuracy is usually less than its resolution. System accuracy
is a complex function of:
 Motor accuracy
 Electronic tolerances
 Errors in mechanical transmission
The combination of micro-positioning and smooth operation has enabled micro-stepping

systems to become the standard in X-Y positioning systems requiring:
Up to 0.001-inch resolution
 Precise grinding
 Precise turning
 Precise surface-finishing machines
Additional precision motor-control applications include:

 Optical scanning and inspection
 Disk memory media manufacturing
 Fiber-optics manufacturing [44].
2.22 The Evolution of Micro-stepper Drives (From the Manufacturer)

Micro-stepper motor manufacturers have been making the respective drives for at least
ten years with varying degrees of sophistication. Today, fully packaged motor-drive systems,
card- level indexers and drives, and chipsets aimed at high-volume original equipment
manufacturers (OEMs) are available in the U.S., Europe and Japan.
Modern drive resolutions range from 2,000 steps per revolution (the minimum for micro-
stepping) to 50,000 steps per revolution. The largest drives can micro-step 6.5-inch motors
and produce torques to 5,000 ounce-inches. Although many drive systems operate from an
external DC power supply, there is an increasing trend toward direct, off-line systems that run
36
at 120 volts AC (VAC) and have no internal transformer.
The elimination of transformers, combined with today’s high-efficiency pulse-width-
modulated (PWM) amplifiers, has made it possible for 0.5-cubic-foot drives to produce 2,000
watts or more. Modern semiconductor power devices, including metal-oxide-semiconductor
field-effect transistors (MOFSETs) and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), help
increase package densities and often run cool enough to preclude fans.
Among the most recent design trends from micro-stepper motor manufacturers is the
integration of the indexer, drive and power supply in one package. The systems are lower in
cost and sophisticated enough to control machines directly with no external computer or
programmable logic controller (PLC). They store a variety of motion-control programs in
nonvolatile memory, and some units accept position feedback from external optical encoders
for critical positioning applications.
An advantage of linear motors is the ability to provide speeds in excess of 80 in-sec. Such
speeds are generally not achieved with lead screw transmissions. High-speed linear motors
are ideal for applications such as printed-circuit-board component placement, insertion
equipment and inspection machinery.
Micro-stepper Motors and Positioning:

While micro-stepping provides increased positional resolution and smoothness, simple
setup and freedom from drifts are not appropriate for all motion- control applications. Simple
micro-stepping systems operate in an open loop. There is no position feedback device to
guarantee the shaft position is correct. This is generally not a problem for applications where
shaft loads are relatively constant, such as scanners, X-Y tables and packaging machines.
An accepted design rule to prevent problems with shaft position uncertainties is to select a
motor with twice as much torque as computed. When considering custom micro-stepper
motors, it is important to keep in mind that the stiffness of the shaft’s position is a function of
the load and the motor’s rated torque. The efficiency of step motors in torque-per-volume and
torque-per-ampere usually minimizes any problems with using a large motor. Interestingly, a
step motor that provides twice the calculated torque requirements may even be physically
smaller than a similarly specified servomotor.
Large intermittent shaft loads in excess of the motor’s available torque, which decreases with
speed, can cause the motor to stall or lose position. Applications with widely varying torque
demands, such as industrial robots, usually need a closed-loop system that responds to the
respective requirements efficiently. However, closed-loop systems may be more expensive.
Manufacturers must add feedback devices (e.g., encoders and resolvers) and more
sophisticated control systems. These feedback elements tend to be more fragile than the
motor itself.
A positioning system’s repetition-related ability is one of the most important design

parameters. Open-loop micro-steppers are highly repeatable with appropriately selected
elements.
Systems with large and variable frictions that load a large percentage of the motor’s available
torque can produce significant positional errors. In general, the shaft will deflect about 1
when applying a torque that’s equal to half of the motor’s rated torque. This isn’t a problem
for systems with repeatable loads, such as lead screw-driven tables or scanners. However,
micro-stepper motor manufacturers use a larger motor than torque calculations would
37
normally indicate to improve overall system stiffness [45].
2.23 Company Name
 Direct Industry
 India-mart
 Made-In-China
 Microchip
 Fujitsu Microelectronics
 Spark Motors Private Limited
 Motion king
 JC Motor
 ICP Das
 Allegro Micro
 Gen-next control
 Infineon
 Micro-Step Motor
 Motion Control Products
 Sainsmart
 McLennan
 EltrexMotion
 Aspina-Group
2.24 Industrial Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor Operation System

Step motors have several qualities that make them particularly suited for control
systems. They are stiff when stopped, produce high torque for their physical size, and are
brushless making them virtually maintenance free. Step motors have a serious drawback,
however, when used for precise positioning.
Such large step size can also cause motor-shaft oscillations at resonance points that occur at
low speeds. But there is a widely used technique that retains the advantages of step motors
and overcomes low speed roughness and low resolution. The technique is called micro-
stepping.
Micro-stepping increases the position resolution and smoothness of conventional hybrid step
motors. This is done with electronic control in the drive circuits. The drive subdivides each
full step electronically into a large number of smaller steps. For example, a micro-stepping
drive that subdivides each full step of a 200-step/rev motor into 125 micro-steps produces
25,000 steps/rev (200 X 125 = 25,000).
Motors and drives must provide high positional resolution in applications such as
semiconductor fabrication. A 25,000 step/rev system attached to a 10-pitch lead screw on an
X-Y table can position a silicon wafer to one part in 250,000/in. This high positional
resolution often eliminates gearboxes (and gear backlash) or other mechanical reducers
otherwise needed to place wire bonds or test probes on exposed IC wafers. But many
applications that do not need high resolution can also benefit from micro-stepping.
The biggest advantage of micro-stepping is smooth operation and the elimination of
resonance over its entire speed range, typically 0 to 3,000 rpm. Smooth operation permits full
torque utilization and freedom from rattling and mechanical wear.
38
The true accuracy of a micro-stepping system is usually less than its resolution. System
accuracy is a complex function of motor accuracy, electronic tolerances, and errors in the
mechanical transmission. But the combination of micro-positioning and smooth operation has
enabled micro-stepping systems to become standard in X-Y positioning systems requiring 1 °
in. to 0.001 in. of resolution, and precision grinding, turning, and surface- finishing machines.
Other precision motion-control applications include optical scanning and inspection, disk
memory media manufacturing, and optical fiber manufacturing.
Micro-stepping systems are generally easy to install and use because they have no tuning or
setup requirements like typical servo systems. And they are stable and free from drift when
stopped.
Drives now provide resolutions from 2,000 (the minimum for micro-stepping) to 50,000
steps/rev. The largest drives can micro-step 6.5-in. motors and can produce torques to 5,000
oz-in. Though many drive systems operate from an external dc power supply, there is an
increasing trend towards direct, off-line systems that run at 120 or 240 Vac and have no
internal transformer.
The elimination of transformers combined with today's high efficiency PWM amplifiers have
made possible 0.5−ft 3 drives producing 2,000 W or more. Modern semiconductor power
devices, including MOSFETs and IGBTs, help to increase package densities and often run
cool enough to preclude fans.
Several indexers specifically for micro stepping now have the ability to control multiple axes
of motion. They can work from a variety of serial and parallel data buses including RS-232C,
PC AT, IEEE-488, Multi bus, STD bus, VME bus, and NU BUS. They are also relatively
easy to program because of features in some stand-alone machines such as touch screens and
simple menus.
The most recent design trend is to integrate the indexer, drive, and power supply in one
package. These systems are low in cost and sophisticated enough to control machines directly
with no external computer or PLC. They store a variety of motion-control programs in non-
volatile memory. And some units accept position feedback from external optical encoders for
critical positioning applications.
Rotary micro stepping systems are by far the most widely used solution today, but direct
linear micro-stepping motor drive systems have also been developed. Most motion-control
applications ultimately need linear motion and, therefore, require a lead screw, belt, or band
to convert shaft rotation into linear motion. The linear motor provides this motion directly
and has virtually no backlash.
An advantage of linear motors is that they can provide speeds in excess of 80 in./sec. Such
speeds generally cannot be realized with lead screw transmissions. High-speed linear motors
are ideal for applications like printed-circuit-board component placement, insertion
equipment, and inspection machinery Though micro-stepping provides increased positional
resolution and smoothness, simple setup and freedom from drift is not appropriate for all
motion-control applications.
Simple micro-stepping systems operate open loop. There is no position feedback device to
guarantee that the shaft position is correct. Normally this is not a problem for applications
39
where shaft loads are relatively constant, such as X-Y tables, scanners, and packaging
machines.
To head off problems with shaft position uncertainties, an accepted design rule is to select a
motor with twice as much torque as computed. Also, the stiffness of the shaft position is a
function of the motor's rated torque and the load. The high efficiency of step motors in
torque-per-volume and torque-per-ampere usually minimizes any problem with using a larger
motor. In fact, a step motor that provides twice the calculated torque requirements may even
be physically smaller than a similarly specified servomotor. Applications with widely varying
torque demands, such as industrial robots, usually need a closed-loop system that can respond
to these requirements efficiently.
But closed-loop systems are more expensive. Feedback devices, such as encoders and
resolvers, and a more sophisticated control system must be added. And these feedback
elements tend to be more fragile than the motor itself.
The repeatability of a positioning system is often the most important design parameter. Open-
loop micro-steppers are very repeatable if the elements are selected as discussed.
Systems with large and variable frictions that load a large percentage of the motor's available
torque can produce significant positional errors. As a guide, the shaft will deflect about 1°
when torque equal to half of the motor's rated torque is applied. This is not a problem for
systems with repeatable loads, such as lead screw-driven tables or scanners. But experts use a
larger motor than torque calculations would normally indicate, simply to improve the overall
system stiffness. Large intermittent shaft loads in excess of the motor's available torque
(which decreases with speed) can make the motor stall or lose position [45].
2.25 Regional Segmentation for Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor Market
o North America
o The U.S.
o Canada
o Europe
o The U.K.
o Germany
o Asia Pacific
o China
o India
o Japan
o Latin America
o Brazil
o Mexico
o Middle East & Africa [46]
2.26 Some Modern Stepper Motor & Driver with Micro-stepping
 High Resolution Miniature Stepper Motor / 2 Phase Micro Stepper Motor VSM1069
40
Figure 2.54: 2 Phase micro stepper motor VSM1069 [47]
Place of Origin: Jiangsu, China (Mainland)
Brand Name: VIC-TECH
Certification: RoHS
Model Number: VSM1069
VSM1069 10mm micro stepper motor 2 phase pm stepper motor for

precision medical devices
Description: This is a special precious micro stepper motor (or say liner stepper motor) with
a bracket and movable slide (when motor rotate, the slide will move forward or backward),
the moving speed can control by the precious micro stepper motor driving pulse frequency,
the moving distance can be controlled by the precious micro stepper driving pulse number.
for this typical motor, when motor driving 2-2 phase, 1 pulse make the slide move 0.02 mm.
the basic slide is a black plastic (POM) unit as the photo show, also the slide can
customization in any shape.
Table 2.4: 2 Phase Micro Stepper Motor VSM1069 specification
Product Name 10mm micro stepper motor

Model VSM1069
Rated Voltage 3.0 V
Current Per Phase 200 mA /phase
Coil Resistance 15 Ω±7%
No. Of phase 2 Phase
Step Angle 18 degrees
Excitation Method 2 Phase Excitation
Drive Mode Bipolar Drive
Pull-In Torque 3.0 gf.cm At 480 PPS
41
Pull-Out Torque 3.8 gf.cm At 480 PPS
Max. Response Frequency 800 PPS, No Load
Max. Starting Frequency 1100 PPS, No Load
Insulation Class Class E for Coils
Insulation Strength 300 V AC for One Second
Insulation Resistance 50 MΩ (DC 100 V)
Operating Temperature Range -20~+70 ℃
Technical Features
VSM1069 is a precision lead screw motor, the output shaft with a pitch of 0.4 mm of the
screw, through the screw and the screw rod supporting the turn of the screw into a thrust.
Motor basic step angle is 18 degrees, the motor running 20 steps every week, so the resolution
of displacement can reach 0.02 mm, to achieve the purpose of precision control.
Actuator aspects using subdivision drive way to meet.
Because of its small size, high precision, easy to control and other excellent characteristics,
so this micro the motor input part of the FPC, but can according to the customer demand can
be changed to a connecting line needle, PCB and other forms.
Competitive Advantage
 High quality and the best price.
 Fast deliver, storage company and rich inventory
 Near Shanghai port, the traffic is very convenient.
Typical Applications
 Intelligent Security Products
 Camera Lenses
 Door Locks
 Wearable device
 Product Details: [48]
 2 Phase 4 Wires 10 mm Micro Metal Gearmotor Stepper Motor with Metal Gear Box
SM10-817G
42
Figure 2.55: 10mm micro metal gearmotor stepper motor [49]
Place of Origin: China
Certification: RoHS
Model Number: SM10-817G
Table 2.5: 10mm geared stepper motor VSM10-817G specification
PRODUCT NAME 10mm geared stepper motor

MODEL VSM10-817G
RESISTENCE 39Ω±7%
OPERATING -0~+55 ℃
TEMPERATURE RANGE
OEM & ODM SERVICE AVAILABLE
2 Phase 4 Wires 10mm Micro Metal Gearmotor Stepper Motor with Metal Gear Box
SM10- 817G
Description: SM10-831G is the use of diameter 10MM micro stepper motor and 10*24
precision metal reduction gearbox combination, the reduction ratio can be customized
according to customer needs.
Motor basic step angle is 18 degrees, that is, 20 steps per turn, plus the deceleration box
deceleration effect, the final motor rotation angle resolution can reach 0.05~6 degrees, can be
used in many requirements.
Precise control of the rotating position of the field

43
1:5 1:3 1:20 1:10 1:380 1:30 1:50 1:63 1:150 1:298 and so on, the customer can according to
different use torque speed requirements to match the speed ratio, at the same time.
Given the proper driving frequency of the stepper motor can reach the determination of the
speed and torque.
This product gear box uses the most advanced equipment in the international processing
related parts, so the high precision, high efficiency, low noise, and the use of reasonable and
reliable process, make the product has better reliability.
The power input part and standard stepper motor can be used as probe structure, FPC, FFC,
PCB cable and other forms.
Part of the output of the motor can be used in a variety of output structure, such as the
circular axis, D axis, and the wire rod!
 Saliva Analyzer
 Blood Analyzer
 Welding Machine
 Fiber Fusion Splicer
 Digital Electronics
 Product Details [48]
 CW/CCW Rotation Permanent Magnet Micro Stepper Motor 2 Phase 4

Wire 4g VSM1070
Figure 2.56: Permanent magnet micro stepper motor 2 phase 4 wire 4g VSM1070[50]
Table 2.6: 10mm micro stepper motor VSM1070 specification
44
Product Name 10mm micro stepper motor
Model VSM1070
Rated Voltage 3.3V
Current Per Phase 100 mA /phase
Coil Resistance 40 Ω±7%
No. Of phase 2 Phases
Step Angle 18 degrees
Excitation Method 2 Phase Excitation
Drive Mode Bipolar Drive
Pull-In Torque 5.4 gf. cm, (AT 5.0 V DC)
Pull-Out Torque 6.0 gf. cm, (AT 5.0 V DC)
Max. Response Frequency 1250 PPS, (AT 900 PPS, 5.0 V
DC)
Max. Starting Frequency 1950 PPS, (AT 900 PPS, 5.0 V
DC)
Insulation Class Class E for Coils
Insulation Strength 100 V AC for One Second
Insulation Resistance 1.0 MΩ (DC 100 V)
Operating Temperature Range -10~+60 ℃
Weight 4 g(Ref.)
OEM & ODM SERVICE AVAILABLE
Description: Motor basic step angle is 18 degrees, that is, 20 steps per turn, plus the
deceleration box deceleration effect, the final motor rotation angle resolution can reach
0.05~6 degrees, can be used in many requirements.
Certification: RoHS
Model Number: VSM1070
 Camera Lenses
 Door Locks
 Wearable device
 Product Details: [48]
45
 34MD - Stepper Motors with
Integrated Drivers
 Specifications:
 NEMA 34 Stepper Motor and Micro-step Driver

 Eliminates Motor Wires
 20-80V Power Requirement
 Torque up to 1,700 oz-in
 Compact Package
 Optically Isolated Inputs
 Ideal for Precise Positioning
 0.180° Resolution per step
 Efficient and Durable
 Long Life Expectancy
 RoHS Compliant
Figure 2.57: 34MD - stepper motors with integrated drivers [51]
Description: The 34MD Series is a compact construction that implements a micro-stepping

driver and a step motor in one streamline package. With the two parts combined into one
casing, the need to include motor wires has been eliminated. The 34MD Series has an output
current capability of
1.5 Amps minimum to 10.0 Amps maximum (Peak Rating). The micro-stepping driver will
operate off 20V DC minimum to 80V DC maximum. The inputs are optically isolated with a
minimum sourcing of 1.0 mA per input (+3.5VDC minimum to +8.6V DC maximum). The
clock input is set
to receive either positive or negative edge clocks with a maximum frequency of 100 KHz.
The micro-stepping driver features a resolution of 2000 steps/revolution, providing smooth
rotary operation. The 34MD series comes in motor stack lengths of 1, 2, or 3 allowing for
varying amounts of start-up torque and inertia. The 34MD series features include built in over
current and short circuit shut down, automatic 50% reduction in current after clock pulses
stop being received, and status LEDs to indicate power on (green LED) and clocks being
received (yellow LED). A power supply is required (purchased separately).
2.27 Pros & Cons of Micro-Stepping
2.27.1 Pros of Micro-Stepping:
46
Better resolution: Micro-stepping control can divide a full step by as much as 256
times, producing a step angle as small as 0.007 degrees (51,200 steps per revolution) when
the full step angle is 1.8 degrees. This significantly increases resolution (the smallest
increment the motor can move). But with increased resolution comes decreased torque
production per incremental step, which can degrade the motor’s accuracy if the incremental
torque is insufficient to overcome the load and motor inertia.
Smooth motion: Another benefit of micro-stepping control is very smooth motor rotation.
This is because micro-stepping allows a gradual build-up and decay of current in each motor
winding, which delivers more consistent torque and, therefore, smoother motion than full-
step operation. This is especially evident at slower speeds, where full-step operation causes
pronounced detent torque.
Reduced resonance: Resonance can be problematic in stepper motor applications as the

motor operates near, or moves through, its natural frequency range. The pulses of energy
delivered in full- or half-stepping mode can excite resonances, especially when the motor is
unloaded or lightly loaded. By providing smooth motion of the stator flux, and, therefore, a
more continuous flow of energy to the rotor, micro-stepping control can reduce or virtually
eliminate resonance issues.
 Reduced mechanical noise
 Reduced vibration problem
 Gentle mechanical actuation [52]
 Full torque utilization thanks to smooth operations
 Freedom from rattling and mechanical wear
 Simple installation
 Easy to use because of no tuning or setup requirements like those seen in servo
systems
 Stability
 Free from drift when stopped [53]
2.27.2 Cons of Micro-Stepping:
Low Efficiency: Some of the top Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor disadvantages are
in that the motors idle a low efficiency. The Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor draws substantial
power (remembering holding torque) regardless of load.
No Feedback is used to Indicate Potential Missed Steps:

One of the advantages in using a Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor is it will operate in open
loop control, but this two under varying load scenarios become a disadvantage when no
feedback to the control system is used to indicate potential missed steps.
And while speaking of open loop systems, a drawback of open-loop control using steppers is
that if the machine load is too high, or the motor attempts to move too quickly then positional
steps may be skipped.
The controller has no means of detecting this and so the machine continues to run slightly out
of adjustment until the position is reset.
For this reason, more complex robots and machine tools will utilize Servo motors that
47
incorporate encoders and closed-loop controllers.
Low Torque to Inertia Ratio: Micro-Stepping Stepper Motors have low torque to inertia
ratio, which means they cannot accelerate loads very rapidly and the motor can get very hot
in high performance Configurations.
Micro-Stepping Stepper can be very Noisy: Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor can be

audibly very noisy at moderate speeds and have low output power for size and Weight.
Holding Torque has to be overcome: And finally, detent or holding torque has to be
overcome in order for the motor to move, it reduces the ideal torque that the motor can
produce when it’s running.
Overcoming the detent torque requires more power from the motor, and the amount of
power needed is proportional to speed. So, the faster the motor turns, the greater the effect
that detent torque will have on the motor’s actual torque output. [54]
Micro-stepping does not increase the accuracy of a stepper motor. This is because stepper
motors will have inherent error because of their construction. In this way, micro-stepping
does not increase accuracy. In fact, as micro-steps get smaller, accuracy can actually begin to
decrease.
The other downside of micro-stepping is that incremental torque decreases as you increase
the number of micro-steps. If there’s any load torque, there will be a magnetic backlash,
displacing the rotor from its intended position until enough torque is generated [54].
48
CHAPTER 3
MICRO-STPPING FOR INDUSTRIAL/COMMERCIAL APPLICATION AND
CONTROL
3.1 APPLICATION
Micro-stepping stepper motors are diverse in their uses, but some of the most common
include:
 3D printing equipment
 Textile machines
 Printing presses
 Gaming machines
 Medical imaging machinery
 Small robotics
 CNC milling machines
 Welding equipment
While these applications are the most common, they’re a fraction of what micro-stepping
stepper motors can be used for. Generally speaking, any application that requires highly
accurate positioning, speed control, and low speed torque can benefit from the use of stepper
motors [55].
3.1.1 3D PRINTERS
“3D printing is a new approach for product prototyping. Technological improvements
and lower costs are encouraging the technology to spread quickly to professionals and
hobbyists. The demand for precision, speed, and smooth print-head movement is a challenge
for mechanical systems. A new motor driver can meet all these requirements using a dynamic
micro-stepping operation.”
--Dario Cucchi, Enrico Poli
The mechanical system of a 3D printer, containing rails, gears, and motors, must be very
precise and free of vibrations and deformations, and have tight tolerances to move the
extruder quickly and precisely to fulfill the resolution requirements.
Fundamental to guaranteeing a 3D print without defects are stepper motors, and especially
because the resolution of a single step is not precise enough, the motors need micro-stepping
driving techniques to move the motor shaft by fractions of a single step. Naturally, the higher
the micro-stepping resolution, the smaller fraction of a step the motor can handle. For
example, a printer can better reproduce an area rich with details using a high micro-stepping
resolution or change to lower-resolution stepping for less complex areas. The motor-driving
technique should adapt and drive these changes of speed and resolution to optimize printing
49
time and resolution. This is where choosing a motor driver IC that can support all these
working conditions is crucial.
The requirements listed above—adaptable and precise motion control—are met by

STMicroelectronics’ STSPIN820 device for smooth and reliable motion control.
Improving Precision with Micro-stepping

Although the micro-stepping driving technique can achieve a high level of precision and
reduction in vibrations, the higher micro-stepping resolution means that the MCU must
manage the higher step clock (STCK). Since there are acceleration and deceleration profiles
to be computed, the higher the STCK frequency, the higher the effort required by the MCU.
When high speeds and high resolutions are involved, the required STCK frequency becomes
very high, too. Although the STSPIN820 maintains step counting even at frequencies up to 4
MHz, decreasing the micro-stepping resolution could be an option to decrease the STCK
frequency. In fact, when the motor rotates at high speeds, precision in the positioning is not
as crucial, and the micro-stepping resolution can be decreased. Reducing the step clock
frequency reduces the MCU overhead—a nice tradeoff between micro-stepping resolution
and rotation speed. Choosing the right micro-stepping resolution provides a way to limit the
step clock frequency without losing performance while still guaranteeing the desired
acceleration and speed profiles. Micro-stepping driving techniques are key for reducing
vibration and ensuring smooth movement for high-quality 3D printing. [56]
Real World Examples

Micro-stepping has advanced significantly over time, and now, 1/256 micro-steps are
possible if the firmware and mainboard permit it. For reference and comparison, below we’ve
listed three popular 3D printers and their micro-stepping capabilities:
 The Creality Ender 3 (Pro and V2), equipped with a 32-bit V4.2.7 mainboard and
Marlin 2.0, uses 1/16 microsteps by default.
 The Prusa i3 MK3S+, with a 8-bit Einsy Rambo mainboard and Prusa Marlin
firmware, is capable of 1/256 micro-steps.
 The Anet A8, with its stock mainboard and original Marlin-based firmware, is capable
of 1/16 micro-steps.
 Prusa Mini+
Below are three additional mainboards and their maximum micro-stepping values:
 Smoothieboard V2: 1/256
 Duet 2 Wifi: 1/256
 MKS Gen L: Manually adjustable up to 1/32, depending on drivers
50
Figure 3.1: 3D printer (The Prusa i3 MK3S+) [57]
Overall, micro-stepping can be very useful to make precise moves on 3D printer for more
dimensionally-accurate prints. However, the smaller the micro-stepping value, the less torque
the steps will produce, and they could fail. So, for this reason, micro-stepping is used in prints
and use full steps if your design permits it [56].
3.1.2 FPGA Based Micro-stepping Scheme for Stepper Motor in Space-Based Solar
Power Systems
Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) systems require high precision in positioning of the
photovoltaic panels, which can be attained through the use of stepper motors. The precision
of the shaft movement can be improved by employing a micro-stepping scheme in the stepper
motor controller. Micro-stepping renders to advantages which include dynamics with high
precision, accurate positioning, ripple reduction and attenuation of mechanical resonance.
The present paper focuses on the hardware implementation of a high-performance FPGA
based algorithm developed using Very High-Speed Integrated Circuit Hardware Description
Language (VHDL) for a micro-stepping scheme of a stepper motor for solar-tracking of
photovoltaic panels in SBSP.
The work has demonstrated the design and implementation of a FPGA based current control
mechanism employing micro-stepping scheme using a XILINX Spartan 3AN board. It can be
used for solar tracking in space-based solar power systems in order to obtain a high resolution
in rotational movement. The firing pulses, which are fed to the inverters have varied duty
cycles controlled by the algorithm developed using VHDL.
51
Figure 3.2: Power Generation by SBSP [58]
This induces a varying current flow in the windings of the stepper motor as required for a
micro-stepping drive mode. FPGAs allow a substantial decrease in processing time over
microprocessors owing to its much evolved and advanced architecture thus enabling a single
FPGA chip to simultaneously drive multiple stepper motors. This advantage of the FPGA can
be exploited in a SBSP system where a large number of stepper motors are employed for the
individual positioning of each of the photovoltaic panels and concentrating mirrors [58].
3.1.3 Micro-stepping for step-motor in the automatic blood viscosity measurement

In the automatic blood viscosity measurement system, the mechanical movements of
moving parts are supported by step-motors. The step angle of step-motor can’t meet the
requirements of precise positioning of parts, so the introduction of micro-stepping method is
proposed to improve accuracy. At the same time, micro-stepping improves the running
performance of step-motor. In the system adopts A3977 which has decoder inner chip drives
hybrid step-motor (two-phase four-shot). The most important feature of A3977 is that it
integrates hardware micro-stepping inner chip, and the mainly electrical structure is easy. The
system adopts eighth step by A3977, and uses C8051 to control enable, direction and step of
step-motor.
As the development of science technology, more and more instruments are becoming to the
automation, in order to reduce the human work and increase the accuracy of working.
Contemporary in the blood viscosity measurement area, all equipment are automatic and
every movement of parts is driven by step-motors. Step-motor is pure digital equipment,
which transforms electrical pulse to angle displacement. Actually, in the automatic blood
viscosity measurement system step-motors work in the mode of micro-stepping, so that can
satisfy the need of precision. On the other side, the micro-stepping of step-motor can improve
the performance of working. After micro-stepping the step of moving and the inner electric
are decreased, so that directly reduce the shake and noise during work. In the system, a
function of step-motor is mainly to move adding sample probe (including up and down, front
and back.) and rotate materials palate. Others are drive the peristaltic pump (including add
sample, water and discharge water).
There are 6 step-motors in the system totally, and every motor has its own address. The
address switches are used in the system to control different motors’ working in the right time.
All these movements need highly accuracy, so the system need software to control the step of
step-motor to make sure that the probe can move to the right place and add the right capacity
of sample. In the system, the micro-stepping is mainly used to improve the accuracy of
moving. The micro-stepping of step-motor mainly adopts hardware-micro-stepping. The
structure of hardware-micro-stepping is easier, more stable and faster than software-micro-
stepping. In this system A3977 of Allegro Microsystems is mainly used to meet the accurate
need of micro-stepping. It has stepping, direct decoding connector, front-back rolling
controlling circuit and double H bridge driver inner chip. 51SCM chooses different micro-
stepping via sending signal to pin MS1 and pin MS2 of A3977. Because 51SCM can control
different IO pins, the system can control more than one step-motor’ s working and micro-
stepping differently by different addresses of motors.
Figure 3.3 is the design of circuit structure. PC connects step-motor control board by USB
line. SMC51 of control board connects A3977. The SMC51 send nEN, DIR and STEP signal
to A3977, at the same time receives motor status from A3977 (position of motor). A3977 has
encoder phase table inner chip, so it can choose micro-stepping mode by electrical level of
MS1 and MS2. A3977 sends step signals and direction signals to step-motors to control their
52
movements.
In the system step-motor drives a turntable of 100 millimeters radius. In the principle of
micro-stepping a circumference has 360° and full-step running needs 200 steps, then 1/8-step
needs 1600 steps. The whole circumference is 2πR, so there is a formula which can calculate
the step-distance. It is ( 2πR)/N=(2π*100)/1600=0.392699mm at 1/8 step.
Figure 3.3: The design of the circuit structure [59]

In the automatic blood viscosity measurement system, 1/8 micro-stepping for 1.8° step-motor
can meet the accurate need of every moving part. When the adding sample probe is moving,
the SMC51 send signals that make sure the step-motor running right steps of 1/8 micro-
stepping to the right place (including probe cleaning, example plate and burette). The angle of
example plate rolling can roll to the right position with the adding sample probe. The micro-
stepping can meet the need of the whole system regular running, so the step-distance at 1/8
step can meet the accuracy need of moving in system [59].
3.1.4 Side-View Raman Micro Endoscopic with Micro-Stepping Motor and its Ex-
Vivo Test for Real-Time Cancer Detection
Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) are rapidly promoting the emergence of new
medical technologies aiming to offer new diagnostic or Therapeutic abilities to tackle
targeted diseases more effectively. One of the diagnostic areas that could make significant
contribution is medical imaging including Micro Endoscopic analysis. Screening of
respiratory tract is one of the promising applications of Micro endoscopes and a key ability to
effectively detect lung cancer, one of the commonest causes of death due to cancer
Worldwide. The use of MEMS actuators could largely improve the functionality of Micro
Endoscopes with enhanced field of view in miniaturized forms, extending their application to
diagnosis of small lumens such as peripheral lung bronchi for cancer detection in vivo. Micro
Endoscopes that embed mirror-coupled motors have been researched to enable full
circumferential scan of a probing energy beam and side-viewing catheters. This goal has been
approached through different approaches. For example, optical coherence tomography (OCT)
and ultrasound have been used in this area. Although each modality provides certain merits,
both techniques still pose a common issue in detecting early stages cancer. A dual-modern do
scopes with photo acoustic and ultrasonic methods was reported to use a small motor for
circumferential tissue imaging in vivo. Raman spectroscopy is a promising modality for both
53
ex-vivo assessment of tissue as well as for in-vivo diagnosis purposes while offering
potentially higher sensitivities than the photo acoustic modality. However, the studies of side-
viewing Raman probes have been limited. Furthermore, the reported devices have used either
a stationary prism mirror, which evidently limits the spatial viewing range, or a commercial
motor connected with a mirror that only allows for continuous rotation of laser light with
relatively high speeds without a capability to make stepping motions. The stepping scan is
acritical need for Raman spectroscopy to enable accurate analysis of tract’s internal walls that
may have tumor partly grown on the walls.
Figure 3.4: Conceptual schematic of the side-view Raman [60]
Micro Endoscope system: Circumferential Raman analysis is enabled by the integrated

micro stepping motor for angular step scanning of probing laser beam, targeting at
application for real-time peripheral lung cancer screening.
Screening of peripheral lung cancer is one area that most benefits from miniaturized Micro
Endoscopic probes with side-viewing functionality. The present work approaches to this
application area by way of meeting the above mention need for step actuation at the tip of a
probe while extending the preceding Micro Actuator work. In particular, a side-view Raman
Micro Endoscope device is prototyped by integrating and fully packaging a custom designed
electromagnetic (EM) micro stepping motor with a common forward-view Raman probe
(Figure. 1.47), enabling stepwise full 360° scanning of laser beam and showing high-
accuracy Raman analysis within small channels. The packaged Micro Endoscopic device is
tested to show angle resolved collection of RS signals from different chemical samples. The
device is also tested using bronchi of animal lung ex vivo. These experiments are performed
to reveal that all the Raman data acquired in real time match very well with reference data,
verifying the efficacy of the developed prototype for side-viewing Raman analysis [60].
3.1.5 CNC Sewing and Embroidery Machine

The sewing machine is a mechanical machine used to stitch fabric or other materials
together using a thread. The first sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial
Revolution. They appeared out of the necessity to increase the productivity of sewing and to
reduce the cost of the fabric. This paper present what can be accomplished using modern
CNC equipment to extend and improve the capabilities of a foot pedal operated sewing
machine.
For this application we used a one needle Singer model 99 sewing machine (Figure 3.5). The
54
frame of the machine was specifically designed for this sewing machine using low costs
materials like ply wood sheet.
Figure 3.5: The singer sewing machine [61]
The frame has two compartments: one for the PC and one for the CNC command system
(Figure 1.49). On top of the framed we have mounted two Stepper motor driven linear
translation stages (Figure 3.5). The linear stage consists of two induction hardened precision
steel shafts with a diameter of 16mm mounted in shaft supports. The X stage contains two
linear ball bearing slides, while the Y stage contains only one linear ball bearing slide on each
shaft. Both stages are driven by a TR12x3 lead screw. The nut is made of polyamide polymer
providing adequate accuracy and repeatability, quiet operation and low cost.
CNC Sewing and Embroidery Machine

The sewing machine is a mechanical machine used to stitch fabric or other materials together
using a thread. The first sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial
Revolution. They appeared out of the necessity to increase the productivity of sewing and to
reduce the cost of the fabric. This paper present what can be accomplished using modern
CNC equipment to extend and improve the capabilities of a foot pedal operated sewing
machine.
For this application we used a one needle Singer model 99 sewing machine (Figure 3.5). The
frame of the machine was specifically designed for this sewing machine using low costs
materials like ply wood sheet.
The frame has two compartments: one for the PC and one for the CNC command system
(Figure 3.6). On top of the framed we have mounted two Stepper motor driven linear
translation stages (Figure 1.50). The linear stage consists of two induction hardened precision
steel shafts with a diameter of 16mm mounted in shaft supports. The X stage contains two
linear ball bearing slides, while the Y stage contains only one linear ball bearing slide on each
shaft. Both stages are driven by a TR12x3 lead screw. The nut is made of polyamide polymer
providing adequate accuracy and repeatability, quiet operation and low cost.
55
Figure 3.6: The frame of the sewing machine Figure 3.7: The linear translation
[62] stages [62]
The linear translation stages, which are driven by stepper motors, move the embroidery hoop
in which we have placed the fabric. The main purpose of the linear stage is the
synchronization of the embroidery hoop’s movement with the movement of the needle. The
fabric can be moved only when the needle is in the up position; this ensures that the needle
will not break.
For this application the 57H76-2008B Stepper motor proved to be adequate. The motor is a
1.8 degrees/step stepper motor which provides a holding torque of 1.9 Nm in bipolar parallel
wiring.
The camshaft of the sewing machine is also driven by the same model stepper motor. The
Stepper motor that drives the camshaft is connected to the shaft using a synchronous timing
belt transmission (Figure 3.8). This transmission consists of two “T” pulleys. On the shaft of
the Stepper motor, we have a pulley with 16 teeth and on the camshaft a pulley with 36 teeth.
The pulleys are connected with a T 10 mm width timing belt with a 5mm pitch.
Figure 3.8: The timing belt transmission [63]
Stepper Motor Driver

The stepper motors are driven by a Stepper motor driver. The stepper motor driver is an
electronic equipment which provides an interface between a step pulse generator (in this case
a PC) and the stepper motors. The CNC4X35A is a 4 axis’s stepper motor control board
which is capable of controlling up to 4 different stepper motors in bipolar micro stepping
mode. The driver can control a wide variety of stepper motors (5-30V and 0.7- 3A) in full,
56
half, quarter and 1/16 micro stepping resolutions. The current limit and the micro stepping are
adjustable by dip switches. The driver requires a minimum of 15V DC and accepts a
maximum of 32V DC and is connected to a PC using the parallel port.
For this application we used a professional a Mean Well SP-320-27 320W, 27V DC CNC
power supply. For the XY stage stepper motors we used a current of 2.25A and half-step
micro stepping mode. The camshafts stepper motor was set to run also on 2.25A current but
without a micro-0020 stepping mode (full-step mode).
The stepper motor driver and the power supply assembly can be seen in Figure 3.9 [64].
Figure 3.9: The driver and the power supply [64]
Figure 3.10: The CNC sewing and embroidery Figure 3.11: Experimental results
machine [64] [64]
3.1.6 Design and Development of XYZ Scanner for 3D Printing

The primary step for any 3D printing process is the designing of a 3D CAD model.
This can be created using 3D software programs (such as Catia, Creo, Solid-works and many
such others) in the industry whereas for hobbyists and consumers there are simpler, more
easily available programs. A digital model can be also prepared by scanning an object with a
3D scanner. The design model is then ‘sliced’ into layers, thereby converting it into a file that
can be read by the 3D printer. The material processed by the printer is then layered according
to the design model and the selected process.
57
Figure 3.12: Proposed 3D printing process [65]
3D CAD Model
At the initial stage of processing the CAD model is designed of the part to be printed.
Suitable CAD software (Pro Engineer Wildfire 4.0) is used to design the CAD model with
exact dimensions of the part to be manufactured. The designed model is then saved as stereo-
lithographic file (STL) to store model information. STL file is also known as Standard
Tessellation Language file. As explained by Burns (1993/2015), “An STL (‘Stereo
Lithography’) file is a triangular representation of a 3D geometrical surface. This surface is
tessellated or broken down logically into a sequence of small triangles or faces. Each face is
described by a perpendicular height and three other points representing the apexes of a
triangle. The regular format of a STL file contains basic data about the envelope of the model
and its shape, but not the way it is built.
Slicing Algorithm
Once the STL file is generated the 3D part is sliced to the required thickness with each sliced
section representing the 2D cross section of the designed model. The base algorithm includes
the cutting of triangles with planes. In FDM, the STL file gives out the required triangles in
order to apply the melted filament layer by layer onto the printing area. Those there are many
cutting planes through the object which parallel to the surface of platform with varying values
of height. The planes intersecting with the object is the layer to be printed. Plenty of layers
printed from the bottom to the top conclude in the item.
Scan Path
This sliced image then produces the code (through the program) which is fed through the
electronics system to the driver system. The parameters such as speed of print, thickness of
layer, and infill density can be adjusted according to the need. The code generated from
slicing the model is passed to the stepper motor using a suitable electronic configuration
commanding it to perform the required movement of the printhead and bed along with
additional extrusion commands which tell the printer how much filament to unspool into the
hot-end. These instructions are formatted in a standardized g code file. Those layer by layer
of the model is printed and the development continues until the complete part is
manufactured.
Post Processing
After the fabrication of the object, the part may or may not need post processing depending
on the design. In post processing support material, if used, is removed either by using suitable
chemicals or stripping it way. Since the chemicals are relatively toxic, care should be taken
58
while working with these chemicals. To smooth ABS plastic acetone vapor is used and for
PLA hand polishing with Tetrahydrofuran (THF) is brought in use. The surface of the model
is then finished and cleaned.
XY and Z scanner for 3D printer

Proposed 3D printer consists of XY scanning mechanism, Z-platform, Extruder with its
plastic feeding system and base platform for 3D printer.
Planned work targets the following:
1. Design modeling of XY and Z scanning stage.
2. Manufacturing of XY and Z scanning system.
3. Linking the 3D printing system with PC via Arduino board.
4. Motion control of the XY & Z stage.
5. Experimental testing by tracing X, Y and Z direction.
Figure 3.13 shows, the XY scanning stage that consists of dual motion segments. The Y axis
stage consists of three support rods (two guide rods and one lead screw) and the extrusion
mount. The supports are located in between the two side support plates, with the lead screw
in between the two guide rods. Moreover, it allows linear motion of the X stage along the
axis of the rod. A Stepper motor shaft is coupled to the lead screws of both the axes having,
allowing for the motion of both the Y stage and the X stage platforms together. Similar to the
Y-axis, the X-axis stage also consists of three supports as two guide rods and lead screw.
Moreover, the X stage is located between the two side support plates to restrict its linear
motion through the X-axis. The entire XY stage assembly rests on the support rods of square
grooved cross section made of Aluminum.
Assembly: During the assembly of the entire stage, care has been taken to ensure the axis
alignment and secure fastening of components. Linear bearings have been press fitted at the
guide way linings in the motion stages itself. Stepper Motor selection criteria Several factors
affect the choice of stepper motor for particular application such as the type of motor, the
torque requirement of the system, complexity of the controller, and the physical
characteristics of the motor. Selection of stepper motor is done based on the application.
A standard 1.8 step size stepper motor has 200 steps per revolution. Single phase full step
mode occurs when the motor is operated with only one phase energized at a time. This needs
the least power from the driver power supply and can be used where the motor is run at a
constant speed. On the other hands dual phase delivers improved torque, but consumes more
power. Half step operation includes alternating single and dual phase operation and delivers
twice the resolution resulting in increased smoothness at lower speeds. Micro step operation
divides each full step into smaller angles using cosine and sine functions to drive the
windings Thus, considering our application, a NEMA 17 bipolar stepper motor is selected
which gives the optimal requirements as 1.8 step angle with 4.4 kg.cm of torque which is
suitable to lift the load about 1kg. It is also suitable for micro stepping modes.
59
Figure 3.13: Stepper motor based XY scanning Stage [65]
By providing the appropriate tolerances and fits we have ensured the motion parameters and
end fixity factors. With the use of precision machines for milling, drilling our setup is ready
to assemble. Assembling is ensured by proper axis alignments. While assembling the entire
stage care should be taken to ensure the axis alignment and fastening methods. Linear bearing
is pressed fitted at the guide way linings of in the motion stages. Motor mounting plates are
ensured by straightness measurements with vernier caliper with respect to support plates.
Firstly, the Y stage is assembled then X stage is mounted on it.
Once XY stage is ready, Z-stage was manufactured and similar way alignment and motion of
platform is ensured viva appropriate experimentations.
Figure 3.14: XY and Z-stage for 3D printer [65]
3.1.7 A Desktop SCARA Robot using Stepper Motors

The proposed design of SCARA robot developed using Autodesk Inventor is shown in
Figure 3.15 and the implemented design is shown in Figure 1.59. The robot comprises of two
links in a parallel axis joint layout which are capable of movement in horizontal plane and a
lead screw nut arrangement for movement in the z-axis. To ensure smooth movement in the
vertical axis, four linear bearings are used along with guide rods to support the platform that
supports the stepper motors. Alumina extrusion beam is used as a substructure for rigid
support of vertical axis stepper motor. Each of the links, as well as the lead screw, is driven
by a separate stepper motor. The shaft of the second link is connected to the stepper 2 using
belt and pulley arrangement to reduce the load on the arm. This enables selecting a motor
with lower torque which eventually reduces cost. A 40 teeth pulley is used at output and 20
teeth at the motor shaft. This gives a speed ratio of 0.5 for link 2. The end effector is
introduced in such a way that it allows various user requirements. The materials are selected
such that the rotational moment and the weight of the assembly are minimized. Motor
supports and links are manufactured from acrylic material by laser cutting which also helps to
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reduce cost.
Figure 3.15: 3D model of robotic arm Figure 3.16: Actual model of robotic arm.
[66] [66]
The workspace of the SCARA arm forms a cardioid shape with outer diameter 600 mm &
inner diameter 100 mm. Angular reach is 240 º. When the link 1 reaches ±120º the link 2 can
be further extended to 120º.
Due to high accuracy and repeatability, stepper motors are selected for the application. To
ensure proper working, steppers having torque greater than the joint torque of each joint are
to be selected. The Lagrange-Euler formulation is used to calculate the joint torque. The z
axis motor is selected on the basis to the torque required to overcome gravity and torque to
overcome inertia.
Number of Steps Per Degree

Since the input to stepper motors is given as number of steps instead of angle, it is necessary
to convert angle into number of steps. As the configuration of all the three steppers is
different from each other, number of steps per degree is also different. Stepper 1 is directly
coupled to link 1, Stepper 2 is connected to link 2 via belt pulley arrangement with reduction
ratio of 0.5, while the stepper 3 is connected to the lead screw having 4 starts directly using a
flexible coupling. The stepper motor driver DRV8825 supports six micro stepping modes viz.
M0, M1, M2, M3, M4 and M5 for full step, half step, step, step, 1/16 step and 1/32 step
respectively. To achieve maximum possible accuracy, M5 mode is selected with 1/32 step.
For stepper motor 1 (Link1):
I revolution (360˚) = 200×32 = 6400 steps.
1˚ = 6400/360 = 17.778 steps.
For stepper motor 2 (Link2):
Reduction ratio = 0.5
1 revolution (360˚) = 2×200×32 = 12800 steps.
1˚ = 12800/360 = 35.556 steps.
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For stepper motor 2 (Vertical axis):
Lead screw pitch = 2 mm.
Number of starts = 4
Lead = 8 mm Thus, 1 mm = 1/8 revolution = 6400/8 = 800 steps [66].
3.1.8 Image Recorder with Micro-step Driven Motor Transport

An image forming apparatus for forming in series a plurality of images on a
photosensitive film of the long roll type having a film transporting mechanism using a
stepping motor, a micro-step driver for controllably driving the stepping motor in a plurality
of micro-steps constituting one step unit of the stepping motor and an imaging device for
forming an image on the film being transported by the film transporting mechanism.
Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to an image forming apparatus for recording image information
by means of laser beam irradiation on a film of the long roll type being transported by drive
of a stepping motor.
There is known an image forming apparatus of the above-noted type comprising a housing, a
film delivery section for a film of the roll type placed inside the housing, a film
accommodating section disposed in the housing for forming a film transport passage together
with the film delivery section, a main drive unit disposed on the film transport passage in the
housing and for driving the film at a fixed speed and an image information re cording section
constituted by a laser optical unit for applying a laser beam onto the film in a width direction
of the film being driven and transported by the main drive unit.
Figure 3.17: Block diagram of Image recorder with micro-step [67]

The main drive unit includes a stepping motor and a platen roller driven by the motor for
trans porting the film contacting an outer circumferential face of the roller. In the image
forming apparatus constructed as above, two-dimensional images are formed in series on the
long-length film by a laser beam scanning operation in the film is width direction while the
film being trans ported. In order for the above apparatus to obtain an image of good quality, it
is essential that the film transport operation be carried out at a constant and equal speed.
According to one known arrangement attempting to meet this requirement, there is provided a
micro-step driver for sub-dividing one step unit of the stepping motor powered ON and OFF
by a CPU into smaller (micro) step units, thereby minimizing such transport irregularities or
errors. The stepping motor employed in the above-described conventional image forming
apparatus has an inherent disadvantage to be described next. That is, the stepping motor is in
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a magnetically balanced, i.e., stable state when one of its rotor pairs is opposed to a stator.
Thus, if a predetermined amount of film transport is completed in the middle of one-step
rotation of the stepping motor, there occurs a magnetic instability such that either pair of the
rotors will stop only after automatically proceeding or receding in its rotation to become
opposed to the stator in order to regain the stability. Therefore, if the stepping motor is re-
energized for the next film transport, this film transport operation is inadvertently carried out
from the above-noted stabilized position of the motor which has shifted from the previous
position assumed by the motor before being re-energized. However, if an image is formed on
a long-length film as used e.g. in a page printer, its frame pitch must be maintained exactly
constant. In such case, the stepping motor is disadvantageous because of its above-noted
instability which necessarily results in inconsistency in the frame pitch. This problem appears
conspicuously in the case of a microfilm where an image is recorded in micron unit precision
to be enlarged for use thereafter.
The primary object of the present invention is to provide an image forming apparatus using a
stepping motor driven micro-step-wise as film transport means, the apparatus being capable
of forming images on a film with an accurately constant frame pitch. The foregoing object is
accomplished in one embodiment by providing film transport means driven by the stepping
motor, the transport means being constructed such that the frame pitch of the images to be
formed on the film is a multiple of an integer of a film transport distance covered by one step
amount of the drive provided by the stepping motor.
According to the above construction, when the stepping motor is stopped after completion of
a predetermined amount of film transport, one of the rotor pairs is always placed in the
magnetically stable state as being opposed to and attracted by the stator. Thus, there is no
possibility that the predetermined amount of film transport operation is stopped in the middle
of one step rotational unit of the motor. As the result, the leading edge of the image to be
formed next is always placed at the predetermined leading edge of the frame pitch [67].
3.1.9 Low-Vibration Micro-Stepping Controller for Dom-Camera

Fast, smooth and accurate motion is the important properties of Dom-camera (DC). In
the case of a high ratio zoom lens, low vibration characteristic is an also crucial point in
driving pan-tilt mechanism in DC. In this paper, a novel micro-stepping controller with a
function of adjusting reference current was designed using field programmable gate arrays
(FPGA) technology for high zoom ratio Dom-camera. The proposed variable reference
current (VRC) control scheme reduces vibration and increases maximum acceleration without
missing steps. By employing VRC control scheme, the vibration in low speed could be
significantly minimized. The proposed controller can also make very high speed of 378k pps
micro-step driving, and increase maximum acceleration in motion profiles.
Now it is a common practice to install surveillance cameras to help prevent people from ever-
increasing crimes. Accordingly, there are increased demands on Dom-camera (DC) which
covers wide surveillance area with high zooming ratio lens. The performance of DC largely
depends on fast, smooth, accurate motion and low vibration of the camera platform. Step
motors have frequently been used for DC operation tasks. They rotate synchronously to the
input pulse with a fixed resolution of rotation angle. Also step motors require low-cost
amplifier and usually no position feedback sensor. Meanwhile the main disadvantages of the
step motor (SM) are a limitation of rotational resolution and relatively big torque ripples in
movement, and sometimes the missing steps might occur at high speed and high acceleration
driving. Therefore, it might not be desirable to use it in delicate positioning as well as ripple
63
control at low speed. To overcome these problems, micro-stepping scheme was proposed in
the middle of 70's. Differ from conventional driving scheme, the micro-stepping method
controls the current of motor phases as sinusoidal so that it can attain a more precise rotation
angle, and thus makes it possible to achieve a high precision position control, thereby
correcting the problems occurring on resonate surface. So, the micro-stepping with step
motor system is a good solution for a small and precise mechanical system that needs not
only a high precision position control but also a application with small ripple at low speed.
Although the effectiveness of micro-stepping has already been widely recognized, there are a
number of limitations such as rotational speed, vibration, and sound noise etc. for the precise
equipment like DC. In this paper, a novel micro-stepping scheme that makes platform
vibration much lower especially at low-speed moving was proposed. The proposed micro-
stepping scheme controls the overall current in motor coils according to acceleration, which
named as variable reference control (VRC) in this paper. VRC also reduces the overall
current consumption during running status, and includes a function of power saving mode in
pause position as well. The proposed micro-stepping controller can drive a step motor by 8r-
J256 micro-stepping resolutions with the maximum speed of 378k pps, and it reduces the
possibility of missing step at high acceleration driving. System on chip technology enabled
the proposed controller to be installed in simple H/W structures and minimum number of
chips. Following sections describe design of the VRC micro-stepping controller and
experimental results.
A conventional Dom-camera-system consists of motor I (Yaw) and mortor2 (Pitch). If PC

sends a target position and driving parameters, the motion controller calculate s motion
profiles and makes a movement of the platform on which zoom camera is installed.
Figure 3.18: Dom-camera-system [68]
board including FPGA (Altera Cyclone II). Motion control board has 4 channels of D/A
converters for micro-stepping which control four phases of two motors and 2 additional
channels for overall current control which will be described in following section.
VRC control scheme is for high-speed micro-stepping motor of Dom-camera. VRC control
scheme adjusts the overall current in motor coils according to rotational acceleration, which
enables much low vibration and sound noise at low speed, and reduces the possibility of
missing steps in high acceleration driving mode. In this study, the occurrences of missing step
were measured in various reference current statuses, and VRC control logic was designed
based on the measured missing steps data. The VRC also reduced overall current
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consumption and sound noise those are very important points for DC product in market.
Figure 3.19: H/W block diagram of experimental system [68]

FPGA technology enabled the proposed controller to be installed in the minimum number of
chips and to make high frequency outputs. Experimental results showed that the VRC micro-
stepping control scheme was very effective in reducing vibration and the possibility of
missing steps.
3.2 CONTROL METHODS

3.2.1 Reconfigurable Micro-stepping Control of Stepper Motors using FPGA
embedded RAM
The control of stepper motors using micro-steps in open-loop systems is a well-known
mechanical and electrical improvement. The most common stepper motor controllers have all
the elements to perform a micro-stepping control requiring only the digital control for the
current level and direction in each winding. In this design we propose a cost-effective
solution to integrate this control into high-speed FPGA based designs. The Core uses an
FPGA block ram to save conventional logic resources. Also, if the system needs to change
the micro-stepping control granularity while the system is running, a partial dynamic
reconfiguration can be performed only by changing the content of the Block Ram attached to
the Core.
Micro-stepping control
Simple open-loop control systems based on stepper motors are widely employed. An open-
loop control is enough for many devices such as small milling machines, printers and
consumer electronics due to a small acceleration applied to static load. Great improvement
can be done to the conventional open-loop stepper motor half-step contro1, this is, the micro-
stepping control. When this control is applied the windings are energized with sinusoidal
currents increasing the step resolution. This control improves half step driving and quarter
step driving performing a torque compensation. Not only is the step increase an advantage
that permits stop and hold between half-step, it also reduces the oscillations and resonance
when the motor and load are driven at the natural resonance frequency or subharmonic. Also,
it largely eliminates the jerky character of lower speed stepping motor operation and the noise
at intermediate speeds. For a variable reluctance or a two winding permanent magnet motors
(ideals) the torque versus shaft angle is determined by the following formulas:
65
h=√ a2 +b2 (3.1)
S
( ba )
[ ( )]
x= π
2
tan−1
(3.2)
Where.
a= Torque applied by winding with equilibrium at angle 0
b= Torque applied by winding with equilibrium at angle S
h= Holding torque of composite
x= Equilibrium position
S= Step angle.
Supposing that the magnetic circuits are not saturated, a linear relation exists between the
torque and the intensity. In order to obtain a torque compensation, the current applied to the
two windings of the motor must be selected such a way that a constant torque is obtained. A
common way is to control the current in each winding making the sum h of the torques have a
constant magnitude equal to the single-winding holding torque:
π
a=h1∙ sin ⌊
2
∙θ⌋ () (3.3)
b=h1∙ cos ⌊ ( π2 )∙ θ ⌋ (3.4)
where
hl= Single-winding holding torque
π
∙θ = The electrical shaft angles
2
I a= I max ∙sin ⌊ ( π2 ) ∙θ ⌋ (3.5)
I b= I max ∙cos ⌊ ( π2 )∙ θ ⌋ (3.6)
where,
I a= Current through winding with equilibrium at angle 0
I b= Current through winding with equilibrium at angle S
I max= Maximum allowed current through any motor winding
Replacing a and b in 1 with the values given in 3 and using the current control proposed in 4,
a torque with constant magnitude is obtained
h = hl
(3.7)
Lots of stepper motor drivers allow micro-stepping by embedding a little Digital-To-Analog

66
converter which allows different current limit fractions of the maximum allowed current for
the winding. The levels are quantized. The resolution of the DAC limits the micro-stepping
levels, but in general lots of intermediate position inter steps are not practical.
Figure 3.20: Controllers and motor block diagram [69]
A very common configuration for bipolar control of a stepper-motor is done with a current
limited H-bridge driver, using one bit signal for current direction flow and a DAC for each
winding.
To perform a digital control of the stepper motor like the one shown in Fig.4 with torque
compensation these signals are needed:
 Current direction flow for each winding (one bit for each).
 The number of digital signals that are needed to cover all the different values of the
controller DAC (one group for each controller).
For example, to perform a bipolar control with quarter step torque compensation for a two-
winding stepper motor employing controllers with 4 bits DACS 10 digital signals are
necessary. One more if "brake" functionality is employed. Another important consideration
about the digital control for micro-stepping operation is that the frequency with which control
signals must change increases directly with the number of inter steps positions that want to be
reached. For example, to perform a half step drive with torque compensation the frequency
must be twice the motor speed in steps per second. In the case of quarter step driving will be
four times higher. It is a common solution to use a microcontroller to control these signals.
This approach forces the use of lots of U0 pins of the microcontroller and increases the
processing load with a repetitive operation. In this paper a cost-effective system will be
presented to generate all the control sequences for the micro-stepping control employing
added features to the new FPGA families. These new facilities permit the generation of
repetitive control sequences using a very little amount of F'PGA internal logic and routing
resources. Nowadays many industrial control process units have an onboard FPGA to
perform many tasks where this improvement can be added [69].
3.2.2 TSK-Type Self-Organizing Recurrent-Neural-Fuzzy Control

A Takagi–Sugeno–Kang-type self-organizing recurrent-neural-fuzzy network (T-
SORNFN) is proposed for the trajectory tracking control of linear micro-stepping motor
(LMSM) drives. Without a priori knowledge, the T-SORNFN is constructed to model the
inverse dynamics of a LMSM drive by a set of recurrent fuzzy rules built online through
concurrent structure and parameter learning. The fuzzy rules in the T-SORNFN can be either
generated or eliminated to obtain a suitable-sized network structure, and a recursive recurrent
67
learning laws of network parameters are derived based on the supervised gradient-descent
method to achieve fast-learning converge. Based on the Lyapunov stability approach, the
convergence of the T-SORNFN is guaranteed by choosing varied learning rates. Furthermore,
an inverse-control architecture that incorporates T-SORNFN and a proportional–derivative
controller is used to control the LMSM drive in a changing environment. A recursive least-
squares (RLS) algorithm is utilized for online fine-tuning the consequent parameters in T-
SORNFN to obtain a more precision model. Simulated and experimental results of a LMSM
drive are provided to verify the effectiveness of the proposed T-SORNFN control system, and
its superiority is validated in comparison with NFN and RNFN control systems.
Linear micro-stepping motors (LMSMs) have been widely used over the years in robotic
manipulators, industrial process machinery, and computer peripherals due to their high
precision speed and positioning operations. Most LMSMs are two-phase hybrid stepping
motors and operated in the open positional loop with micro-stepping, where the motor
currents are controlled in sinusoidal fashion to increase the positioning accuracy and reduce
thrust vibrations. These motors have a compact structure comprised by a permanent-magnet
mover with armature coils and a thin steel plates with many teeth. They possess all the
advantages of permanent-magnet synchronous motors, while their costs are much lower and
also have distinctive features, such as ruggedness, high reliability, and holding force at an
aligned position. However, the open-loop control scheme leads to low-performance capability
and lack of adaptability to payload variations. Moreover, LMSM drives also suffer from
various uncertainties in their dynamics, such as inertia parameter, nonlinear friction, force
ripple, and cogging forces, which will cause uneven position and velocity motion. Recently,
many researches have attempted to achieve high-precision performances of LMSM drives
using adaptive control methods with position/velocity feedback. The control strategy can
online tune the parameters of control models and achieve good performance by attenuating
the effects of system uncertainties. However, the precise model of the LMSM drive is
impossible to obtain in practical applications. Intelligent control approaches, such as neural
networks (NNs) and fuzzy inference systems possess several advantages of robustness,
model-free, and universal approximation. Thus, they have attracted more attention to deal
with the complex control problems of LMSM drives. Sanchez proposed a NN-based inverse-
control approach for the trajectory tracking of a permanent-magnet stepping motor. Melin
and Castillo used fuzzy-NN architecture to build a fuzzy inverse-dynamic model for
controlling a stepping motor drive. Rubaai developed a dynamic NN to simultaneously
identify and adaptively control the trajectory tracking of a hybrid stepping motor. These
methods were successful in that intelligent control approaches, which do not require
mathematical models and have the ability to approximate nonlinear systems. However, some
constrained conditions and initial system information were required in the control systems.
Neural fuzzy network (NFN) is multilayered connectionist network, which brings the
learning abilities of NNs to realize the elements and functions of fuzzy systems. The NFN
possesses the merits of low-level learning and computation power of NNs, and the high-level
human-like thinking and reasoning of fuzzy theory. Recently, the Takagi–Sugeno–Kang
(TSK) type of fuzzy models has received considerable attention of the fuzzy modeling
community due to their very effectiveness for system modeling problems. In TSK-fuzzy
models, fuzzy rules are equipped with functional-type consequences instead of fuzzy terms as
that in the Mamdani fuzzy inference. Therefore, The TSK-fuzzy models provide more
powerful representation than the Mamdani fuzzy models. Wai and Chen presented a TSK-
type NFN control scheme for position tracking of robot manipulators to guarantee the
68
convergence of tracking errors via Lyapunov stability. Gao and Joo proposed a robust
adaptive TSK-type NFN controller for identification and control of uncertain multiple-input–
multiple-output (MIMO) nonlinear systems. Ouyang developed a TSK-type NFN technique
for system modeling problems via fuzzy clusters. It is known from approximation theory that
the NFN is able to approximate any continuous functions closely. However, the NFN is only
capable of static mapping of input–output training data due to its feedforward network
structure. On the other hand, recurrent NFN (RNFN) has superior dynamic capability than the
feedforward NFN. The dynamic response of a system can be captured without using external
feedback through delays, since the RNFN has an internal feedback loop to capture system
dynamics. Thus, the RNFN is a dynamic mapping and usually obtains good control
performance in the presence of system uncertainties. Wang and Lee designed a self-adaptive
RNFN control scheme for controlling an autonomous underwater vehicle. Lin applied a
RNFN controller to the trajectory tracking of permanent-magnet linear-synchronous motor
(PMLSM) drives. Juang and Chen proposed a TSK-type RNFN (TRFN) for a temperature
system control by modeling plant inverse. Although these RNFN techniques can incorporate
fuzzy rules with dynamic elements for better approximation of nonlinear dynamics, how to
build a suitable-sized network structure and reduce control complexity is the major
challenging problem.
Most of the current research interest in the NFN system is focused on how to generate an
optimal number of fuzzy rules and investigate self-organizing methods of adding and pruning
fuzzy rules. Without the need for preliminary knowledge, the self-organizing method presents
the properties of generating the rules automatically. For structure learning, many clustering
methods have been proposed to extract fuzzy rules from a given set of training data. Lin and
Hsu proposed an evolutionary learning method for automatically determining the number of
fuzzy rules to construct a compact RNFN system with high-classification power. McGinnity
and Prasad presented a hybrid-learning algorithm based on a genetic algorithm to design a
growing fuzzy NN. However, these methods are essentially offline and all parameters are
trained by the gradient-descent algorithm that leads to heavy computation load and slow
convergence. To overcome this problem, several self-organizing NFN (SONFN) methods are
proposed to perform structure identification and parameter estimation automatically and
simultaneously. Lin proposed a self-constructing RNFN control system for the position
control of a PMLSM drive with structure- and parameter-learning phases concurrently. The
structure-learning phase is based on the partition of the input space and the parameter
learning phase is based on the supervised-gradient-decent method using the delta-adaptation
law. Er developed an enhanced dynamic NFN (EDNFN) for an adaptive noise cancellation.
In the EDNFN, the network structure and parameters are trained online concurrently based on
the self-organizing mapping and the recursive least-square error estimator techniques,
respectively. Chen presented a self-organizing adaptive-neural fuzzy control (SANFC) for the
trajectory tracking of electrically driven robot manipulators. The structure and parameters in
the SANFC can be adjusted online to achieve a suitable-sized network structure, and the
adaptive tuning laws of network parameters are derived in the sense of the Lyapunov
synthesis approach to ensure network convergence and stability.
69
Figure 3.21: Mechanical structure of the two-phase HLSM. [70]
Unfortunately, these SONFN structures could increase significantly as the input data have
large variations.
The design and analysis of a TSK type self-organizing RNFN (T-SORNFN) for LMSM
drives to achieve the high-precision position tracking. The uncertainties in LMSM drives,
such as payload variations, nonlinear friction, force ripple, and external disturbance can lead
to low performance capability and a loss of synchronism for high stepping rates. To address
the mentioned problems, an inverse control architecture that incorporates the T-SORNFN and
a simple proportional–derivative (PD) controller is investigated to the position tracking
control of a LMSM drive. In the control scheme, the T-SORNFN is constructed to model the
inverse dynamics of the LMSM drive by a set of recurrent fuzzy rules built online through
concurrent structure and parameter learning. The objective behind the development is that,
through gradually approaching the suitable-sized network structure for sufficiently
approximating the inverse dynamics, all parameters of the T-SORNFN are simultaneously
adjusted to reduce modeling error, and improve control performance. Simulated and
experimental results of a LMSM drive are provided to verify the effectiveness of the
proposed T-SORNFN control methodology and its superiority is validated in comparison
with NFN and RNFN control schemes.
Linear Micro-stepping Drive System

The machine structure of a two-phase hybrid linear stepping motor (HLSM) is shown in Fig.
1. The d − q model of the circuit can be described in the stationary reference frame as
follows:
Liqs 2π 2π
V qs = Riqs +
dt
+ km( ) ( )
pt
x˙cos
pt
x (3.8)
Lids 2π 2π
V ds = Ri ds +
dt
-km ( )
pt
x˙sin ( )
pt
x
(3.9)
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Figure 3.22: Diagram of current vectors in d − q coordinates [70]
where V qs , V ds and i qs , ids are the winding voltages and currents, respectively, x is the mover
position, Pt is the tooth pitch, R is the phase winding resistance, L is the phase winding
inductance and km is the back electromotive coefficient. The d − q axis theory is usually used
to analyze the linear motor when the mover is viewed as the stator of a rotating motor. Fig. 2
shows the space relations of the stationary d s − q s axis and the rotating d e − q eaxis, where θr
= (2π/Pt) x is the angular position of the mover, θe is the electrical angle, and w e is the
electrical angular velocity. Transforming (1) into a frame rotating synchronously yields
V qe = L
di qe
dt
+ Riqe + L we ide +km ( 2pπ )
t
x˙cos ∆θ e
(3.10)
V de = L
di qe
dt
+ Riqe - L we ide +km ( 2pπ ) t
x˙sin ∆θe
(3.11)
where ∆θe = ¿ − θr ¿ , and V qe , V de and i qe, i de are the voltages and currents in the
synchronous rotating frame, respectively. The developed electromagnetic force is given by
F e= k t(i qe cos ∆θe + i de sin ∆θe ) (3.12)
where kt is the force coefficient. The motor force Fe is clearly shown in (5) to be a sinusoidal
function of ∆θe . When micro-stepping, the mover position is controlled using the current
orientation. The configuration of a current-controlled LMSM system is depicted in Fig. 3,
where i ∗ q and i ∗ d are the two-phase current commands, and i q and id are tuned by a
current controller. In general, i ∗ q and i ∗ d is set to zero and the rated current of the motor,
respectively. The voltage source inverter and sinusoidal space vector pulse width modulation
(SVPWM) inverter are used in current control. The excitation frequency ω e is determined
according to the required mover speed. The two trigonometric terms of km (2πx˙/Pt) sin ∆ θe
and km (2πx˙/Pt) cos ∆θe could be viewed as disturbances to the current controller, since ∆ θ e
is a function of the external load force. With the implementation of synchronous frame
71
current control, the mover dynamic equation could be de
Figure 3.23: System configuration of current-controlled LMSM system [70]
Figure 3.24: Experimental system schematic representation of the hardware [70]

configuration.
Figure 3.25: Experimental photograph of the LMSM drive system. [71]
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3.2.3 Micro-Stepping of Ultrasonic Stepping Motors
The ultrasonic stepping motor (USSM) using spatially shifted standing vibrations
shows the advantages of high torque, good controllability and open-loop operation. Due to
the segmentation problem of piezoelectric materials, the corresponding step size is practically
limited. The purpose of this paper is to propose and implement micro-stepping control of this
USSM. Different from the available half-step operation, the proposed control simultaneously
varies both the combination of phase excitations and the magnitude of applied voltages in
such a way that the desired step size can be attained. Digital implementation and
experimental verification are given to validate the proposed micro-stepping control.
The traveling-wave ultrasonic motor (TWUSM) has become attractive for servomechanism,
since it offers the distinct advantages of high torque density, lightweight, compact size, fast
response, no electromagnetic interference (EMI), quiet operation and power-down holding
torque capability. Nevertheless, the TWUSM still suffers from the drawback of closed-loop
operation, thus desiring precision sensing devices. In order to get rid of this bulky and costly
closed-loop system, the first ultrasonic stepping motor (USSM) was proposed in 1993.
However, this motor generally involves many projections on the stator and many slits in the
rotor, hence suffering from the difficulty in controlling the degenerated modes.
Recently, a viable USSM using spatially shifted standing vibrations has been proposed in
which the stator does not have any projections. This motor shows the definite advantages of
high torque, good controllability and open-loop operation. However, due to the segmentation
problem of piezoelectric materials which are usually made of lead zirconate titanate (PZT),
the corresponding step size or the number of steps per revolution is practically limited. Very
recently, an attempt has been made to improve the step size of this USSM by borrowing the
half-step operation of the conventional electromagnetic stepping motor.
Following the spirit of, the purpose of this paper is to propose and implement the micro-
stepping control of the USSM using the principle of spatially shifted standing vibrations.
Different from the previous half-step operation which successively conducts single-phase-on
and two-phase-on excitation modes, the proposed micro-stepping control simultaneously
varies both the combination of phase excitations and the magnitude of excitations in such a
way that the desired step size can be attained. Different from the micro-stepping control of
electromagnetic stepping motors in which the phase currents are modulated, the proposed
micro-stepping control is to modulate the applied phase voltages.
Principle of Operation
The configuration of the USSM using spatially shifted standing vibrations is depicted in Fig.
1. It is an 80-step (N=80) USSM with the order of vibration mode n=8, the number of spatial
phase shifts (which is equivalent to the number of driving phases) p=5, the number of
electrode divisions q=20 and the number of sections m=4 to excite a mode each time. The
rotor consists of 16 blades machined at the contact surface with the stator.
the principle of stepping of the USSM. When the electrodes of phase A are fed by the applied
voltage, the standing-wave vibration is excited. Then, the force F is applied to the rotor by the
flexural bending vibration of the stator. The corresponding horizontal component F x pushes
the rotor moving to the nodal line position of the stator. By exciting the phases in sequence,
the nodal line moves along the circumference of the stator. Thus, the rotor moves with the
nodal line.
The design criteria and design procedure of this USSM have been discussed. The normal
operation (namely, the small step size operation) of the USSM is considered, whereas the
abnormal operation (namely, the large step size operation) is ignored.
73
2 πN
q=
N−2 n
(3.13)
N
p=
2n
(3.14)
q
m=
p
(3.15)
In order to determine the driving frequency to excite the desired vibration mode, a vibration
analysis is conducted. In general, a commercially available finite element method (FEM)
software package can be utilized. The analysis result is shown in Fig. 3, in which the B08
vibration mode is adopted. Hence, the resonant frequency can be calculated as 44.9 kHz.
Figure 3.26: USSM configuration [71]
74
Figure 3.27: Principle of stepping. [71]
Firstly, the vibration mode, namely B_08, is experimentally verified by using a laser Doppler
vibrometer. Fig. 10 shows the measured spatial distribution of the vibration when the phase A
is excited, which agrees with the FEM simulated vibration pattern shown in Fig. 3.27
Figure 3.28: FEM simulated vibration pattern [71]
Secondly, the dynamic characteristics of the proposed micro-stepping control approach for
the USSM are investigated. Two integer multiples of micro-steps, namely the 50%-step and
33%-step operations, are implemented. Fig. 11 shows the position response for a command of
five forward steps when micro-stepping control is activated for 50%-step operation.
Similarly, the position response under 33%-step operation is shown in Fig. 12. It is obvious
that the measured responses well verify the accuracy of micro-step angles (2.25° for 50%-
step operation and 1.5° for 33%-step operation).
Finally, the transient performances of the proposed approach for the USSM are investigated.
A step command is adopted for illustration. These measured transient position and speed
responses at different load torques, respectively. It can be found that the response times are
all less than 80 ms, confirming.
Figure 3.29: Control and driving circuit block diagram. [71]
A new micro-stepping control approach has been proposed and implemented for the USSM
using spatially shifted standing vibrations. The key is to simultaneously adjust both the
75
combination of phase excitations and the corresponding voltage amplitude ratio in such a way
that the desired step size can be attained. Digital implementation and experimental
characteristics of the USSM at the 50%-step and 33%-step operations are given to verify the
proposed micro-stepping control [71].
3.2.4 Open-Loop Step Motor Control System

The invention relates generally to motor control and more particularly, to open-loop
Step motor control Systems that reduce acoustic noise while maintaining Sufficient torque.
A step motor applies torque to its load in a Series of discrete Steps and consequently may act
as a Sound transducer, generating an audible tone with a fundamental frequency equal to its
Step rate. If the motor is to be operable over a wide range of Step rates, one or more of these
rates will probably excite resonant frequencies of the motors mechanical load, or of the motor
itself, resulting in the production of objectionable amounts of acoustic noise and in less
efficient operation. In the medical equipment field, it is usually desirable to lower the noise
level of the equipment for the benefit of the patient and others. For example, infusion pumps
containing Step motors are generally located next to a patient and may operate for hours. It
can be disturbing to a patient when the pump generates a large amount of noise. Additionally,
certain medical equipment, including many infusion pumps, must be powered by a portable
power Supply having a limited reservoir of power, such as batteries, and therefore the
equipment must be designed to consume as little power as possible. In this way, the
equipment can Support the patient for as long as possible before a battery change or recharge
is required. Thus, lowered levels of noise and lowered levels of power consumption are
desirable characteristics in infusion pumps and other medical equipment.
A Source of acoustic noise in a step motor is the wave shape of the motor drive. The Simplest
means of driving a step motor is the “full step” mode in which a two-phase motor is driven by
a current or Voltage Square wave of constant magnitude. In this mode, each Step corresponds
to one of 2 possible motor winding current polarity states where N is the number of motor
windings (or phases). This type of drive generates acoustic noise with high harmonic content
due to the high angular acceleration resulting from the high rate of change of torque that
occurs at the leading edge of each Step. Additionally, where the drive rate is Sub-optimum
and the rotor reaches its position before the winding currents are Switched, a damped
oscillation of the rotor about the motor magnetic field position may occur with resulting
excess noise and wasted power in providing negative torque to hold the rotor and energy is
lost in merely heating the windings due to the resistance encountered.
The noise component can be reduced if the magnitude of the torque pulses is decreased by
reducing the magnitude of the motor drive pulse. Such a reduction, however, also reduces the
motors available torque reserve, resulting in an increased risk of motor stall or “pull out”
where “pull out” refers to the loss of Synchronization because the load on the motor exceeds
the power available to the motor to move the load, thus the motor “pulls out” of its movement
cycle and loses one or more Steps. This condition can result in positioning errors due to the
lost Steps.
Having an adequate torque reserve is necessary in the case where certain undesirable
conditions may occur. In the medical field where a Step motor is used to drive a pumping
mechanism, such as a peristaltic pump, the head heights of the infusion fluid change, infuses
may be particularly Viscous, and cold temperatures may require greater power to move the
peristaltic mechanism, for example. The motor’s rated torque should be high enough to
76
handle all of these circumstances but in any case, its rated torque plus its torque reserve must
be high enough or motor pullout may occur. Typically, a mechanism has a rated torque and a
torque reserve. In one embodiment, the reserve torque is Set at Seventy percent of the rated
"no Stall” torque. It has been found that motor noise can be significantly reduced by the
technique known as “micro-stepping.” "Micro-stepping” is a means of driving a motor
through a Step with a Series of current magnitude States that generate Smaller angular
displacements of the motor magnetic field vector position. The Sum of these displacements
equals that of one step. Because instantaneous torque is approximately a sinusoidal function
of the angular displacement of a motor's field vector position from its rotor position, a
Smaller angular displacement results in a lower instantaneous torque. A lower instantaneous
torque generates an angular acceleration at the leading edge of each “micro-step' Smaller than
that which would be generated at the leading edge of each step in “full step” drive mode. The
effect is to Spread the large acceleration that normally occurs at the beginning of a step over
the entire Step as a Series of Small accelerations, thus reducing the level of acoustic noise.
However, “micro-stepping is not a Satisfactory noise reduction technique if power

consumption must be limited, as in battery-powered applications. In the micro-step technique,
motor winding currents, that define the State Sequence, must be maintained throughout the
Sequence, resulting in relatively high-power consumption. Other lower power consumption
Step modes are available, such as "one phase on mode where the winding currents are turned
off after the initial acceleration to conserve power. However, these modes are noisier than the
micro-stepping mode. Micro-stepping is also not desirable where controller band width is
limited. AS the number of micro-steps increases, the controller bandwidth requirement
increases requiring greater hardware capability to Support a faster clock Speed. This greater
ability results in increased expense and complexity. The type of motor drive circuit can also
have a direct effect on expense. For example, closed-loop drive circuits typically require
Sensors to provide the necessary feedback for control. The cost of the sensors as well as the
additional processor bandwidth required to use the Sensor inputs to control the drive circuit
can result in a Substantial increase in cost. An open-loop control System is preferable in this
regard.
Thus, greater control over power consumption is important in applications where long battery
life is desired. Providing excessive power to the Step motor windings can cause wasted
power and shortened battery life. Power can be lost as heat due to winding resistance.
Similarly, moving the motor at its resonance frequency is inefficient and can result in wasted
power because relatively little torque is created from the large input power that is provided to
the motor. Thus, precise motor control is desirable to avoid wasting limited energy. Hence
those skilled in the art have recognized the need for lowering the acoustic output of medical
devices while also lowering the power consumption, but retaining an adequate torque reserve.
Additionally, those skilled in the art have also recognized the need for an open-loop control
System to reduce hardware and processor costs. The present invention fulfills these needs and
others [72].
3.2.5 Close-Loop Step Motor Control System

Stepper motors are inherently open-loop devices. They don’t require feedback because
each pulse of current delivered by the drive equals one step of the motor (or a fraction of a
step in the case of micro-stepping). Plus, with small step sizes (or step angles) the motor’s
position can be determined very precisely without the need for a feedback device and
complicated control schemes. Precise knowledge of the motor’s position only occurs if the
77
motor never loses steps. And in the real world, there are multiple situations that can cause the
motor to lose or miss steps — for example, a machine jam that prevents the motor shaft from
rotating.
To deal with these possibilities, stepper motors are often oversized to handle torque spikes,
stalls, or other anomalies that would otherwise cause the motor to miss steps. But when lost
steps can be detrimental to the application or process, another solution is to operate the
stepper motor in a closed-loop system, with position feedback to detect and correct
positioning errors.
There are generally three types of closed-loop control for stepper motors, each offering a
different level of positioning control and complexity.
Step-loss compensation: Reactive position correction at the end of the move:

The most common type of closed-loop stepper system is based on step-loss compensation,
also referred to as step-loss control or stepper position maintenance. In this setup, the drive
operates in micro-stepping mode, and an encoder tracks the shaft (or load) position. If lost
steps are detected, based on the commanded position (number of steps multiplied by step
angle) versus the actual position read by the encoder, the controller commands additional
steps so the motor (or load) reaches the desired position.
Step-loss compensation is the simplest closed-loop scheme for stepper motors, and as
mentioned-above, is the most widely adopted, but its primary drawback is that it only
compensates for missed steps at the end of a move, not continuously throughout the move
profile.
Load position control: Continuous, real-time position correction without complex

controls:
Load position control, also referred to as closed-loop micro-stepping, continuously monitors
the shaft (or load) position and generates an error signal. The controller uses this error signal
to adjust the commands in real-time, during the entire move profile.
With load position control, the system still operates as a stepper system in micro-stepping
mode, but the move profile is more precisely followed, rather than allowing the motor to
deviate during the move and issuing a single position compensation command at the end of
the move [73].
3.3 Driver for Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor Control

Step motors are commonly driven by micro-stepping drives. Micro-step Drivers apply
power to the appropriate step motor winding to produce torque. They precisely divide the
current between the motor phases thus positioning the step motor at smaller increments
between full steps. They provide higher resolution but with less torque. Micro-stepping does
not increase step accuracy, but will allow a motor to run with less noise, minimize low speed
resonance effects and produce smooth rotation over a wide speed range. Micro-stepping is
commonly used to increase a motor's resolution. The degree of the improvement depends on
the step accuracy of the motor. Micro-step motor drives offer unparalleled performance for
today's modern machine builders. From the ground up these drives offer best-in-class current
control for optimal smoothness and torque, robust and flexible on-board control options, and
industry-standard industrial network communications. Electro-mate supplies micro-stepper
78
drivers and bipolar stepper motor drivers throughout Canada in regions like Ontario, British
Columbia, and Quebec.
Figure 3.30: Micro-step drivers [74]

Common to most micro-step driver models are the following multiple control options,
including:
• "S" drives for basic applications such as step & direction or velocity mode
• "Plus" drives for stand-alone Q programming with limited I/O
• "Q" drives for stand-alone Q programming with more I/O and options for encoder
feedback, RS-485, and Ethernet UDP & TCP communications
• "Si" drives for stand-alone Si programming and optional encoder feedback
• "C" drives for use as slave nodes on CAN open networks, with or without encoder
feedback
• "IP" drives for use in Ether Net/IP communication networks, with full Q
programming capabilities and optional encoder feedback [75].
STSPIN STEPPER MOTOR DRIVERS

The STSPIN portfolio comes with extensive low-cost evaluation hardware and software as
well as a technical documentation toolbox to help minimize time to market.
The benefit of our 10 and 15years longevity program is available for our industrial grade
STSPIN motor drivers.
3.3.1 STSPIN820
STSPIN820 256 µsteps capable, and 45 V rated stepper motor driver perfectly suits
new-generation applications, thanks to:
• Extreme position accuracy and motion smoothness: with up to 1/256 micro-steps per
full step
• Integration of the PWM control and the power stage made by 500 mΩ RDS(ON)
MOSFETs guarantees one of the best performance-cost trade-offs
• Easy step-clock and direction interface
• 7 to 45 V operating voltage for wide range of applications
• Maximum reliability: UVLO, over-current and thermal protections
• Compact 4 x 4 mm QFN makes it the smallest integrated micro-stepping driver with
these ratings
Dimensions
Size: 0.6″ × 0.8″
Weight: 1.4 g1
General specifications
Motor driver: STSPIN820
Minimum operating voltage: 7 V
Maximum operating voltage: 45 V
Continuous current per phase: 0.9 A
Maximum current per phase: 1.5 A
Minimum logic voltage: 2V
Maximum logic voltage: 5.5 V
79
Micro-step resolutions: full, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, 1/128,
1/256
Current limit control: potentiometer
Included Hardware
The STSPIN820 stepper motor driver carrier ships with one 1×16-pin breakaway 0.1″ male
headers (for a version of this carrier with header pins already installed). The headers can be
soldered in for use with solderless breadboards or 0.1″ female connectors.
Figure 3.31: PCB of STSPIN820 [76]
Figure 3.32: Block diagram of STSPIN820 [77]
3.3.2 STSPIN220 Low-Voltage Stepper Motor Driver Carrier

This breakout board for STMicro’s STSPIN220 low-voltage micro-stepping bipolar
stepper motor driver offers micro-stepping down to 1/256-step and operates from 1.8 V to 10
V, allowing stepper motors to be powered with voltages that are too low for other drivers. It
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can deliver up to approximately 1.1 A per phase continuously without a heat sink or forced
air flow (up to 1.3 A peak). The module has a pinout and interface that are very similar to that
of our popular A4988 carriers, so it can be used as a drop-in replacement for those boards in
many applications.
Overview
This product is a carrier board or breakout board for the STSPIN220 low-voltage stepper
motor driver from STMicroelectronics (ST); This stepper motor driver offers micro-step
resolutions down to 1/256 of a step, and it lets you control one bipolar stepper motor at up to
approximately 1.1 A per phase continuously without a heat sink or forced air flow.
Here are some of the driver’s key features:

• Simple step and direction control interface
• Nine different step resolutions down to 256 micro-steps: full-step, half-step, 1/4-step,
1/8-step, 1/16-step, 1/32-step, 1/64-step, 1/128-step, and 1/256-step
• Adjustable current control lets you set the maximum current output, which lets you
use voltages above your stepper motor’s rated voltage to achieve higher step rates
• Motor supply voltage: 1.8 V to 10 V (for a higher-voltage alternative, consider the
STSPIN820 carrier, which operates from 7 V to 45 V)
• Can deliver 1.1 A per phase continuously without additional cooling
• Can interface directly with 3.3 V and 5 V systems
• Over-temperature thermal shutdown, over-current shutdown, and short circuit
protection
• 4-layer, 2 oz copper PCB for improved heat dissipation
• Exposed solderable ground pad below the driver IC on the bottom of the PCB
• Module size, pinout, and interface match those of our A4988 stepper motor driver
carriers in most respects
Figure 3.33: STSPIN220 low-voltage stepper motor driver [78]
Hardware
The STSPIN220 low-voltage stepper motor driver carrier ships with one 1×16-pin breakaway
0.1″ male headers (for a version of this carrier with header pins already installed). The
headers can be soldered in for use with solderless breadboards or 0.1″ female connectors.
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Power Connections
The driver requires a logic supply voltage (3 – 5 V) to be connected across the VCC and
GND pins and a motor supply voltage of 1.8 V to 10 V to be connected across VIN and
GND. These supplies should have appropriate decoupling capacitors close to the board, and
they should be capable of delivering the expected currents (peaks up to 3 A for the motor
supply). [80]
Figure 3.34: Minimal wiring diagram for connecting a microcontroller to a
STSPIN220 low-voltage stepper motor driver carrier [79]
3.3.3 STAC5-Q-E220 - AC Advanced Micro-step Driver

Features
o Programmable, micro-stepping digital step motor driver in compact package
o Advanced anti-resonance algorithm
o Torque ripple smoothing
o Micro-stepping to 51,200 steps/rev
o Operates from 220 VAC
o Provides motor current up to 2.55 A/phase (peak of sine) with idle current
reduction
o Fast 10/100 Ethernet for programming and communications
o 744 lines of stored Q program capability
o Math calculations using analog and digital parameters
o Supports all STAC5-S control modes as well
o UDP & TCP support
o 12 digital inputs, 6 digital outputs, all optically isolated
o 1 analog input, +/-10-volt range
o Encoder feedback provides stall detection and stall prevention when used with
a motor-mounted incremental encoder
Description
The STAC5-Q-E220 stepper drive employs sophisticated current control designed for optimal
smoothness over a wide speed range. Anti-resonance, torque ripple smoothing, and micro-
stepping work together to bring step motor performance to a new high. To complement the
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drive Applied Motion offers a specially matched set of low-loss NEMA 23 and 34 frame
motors (see Related and Recommended Products below), all specifically designed with high
voltage operation in mind. Power to the drive comes from single-phase 220 VAC, and the
drive can output up to 2.55 A/phase (peak-of-sine) to the step motor. Protection features like
over-voltage, over-temperature, and over-current prevent damage while running in adverse
conditions.
The STAC5-Q-E220 can operate in all of the same control modes as a STAC5-S drive (pulse
& direction, velocity, streaming commands), plus it has the ability to run stand-alone Q
programs stored in non-volatile memory. Q programs are created using the Q Programmer™
software, which provides multi-tasking, math functions, conditional processing, data register
manipulation, and more features in a robust yet simple text-based programming language.
Initial setup of the drive, including selecting the control mode, setting up the motor, and
configuring other drive parameters is done using the ST Configurator™ software.
For connecting to external devices such as limit switches, proximity or photoelectric sensors,
PLC I/O, lamps, and other devices, the drive comes with 12 digital inputs, 6 digital outputs,
and 1 analog input. The drive also features an Ethernet port for configuration and
communications. The Ethernet port is fast 10/100 Mbit, and the drive supports both TCP and
UDP communication protocols.
Figure 3.35: STAC5-Q-E220 - AC Advanced Micro-step Driver [81]
The STAC5-Q-E220 comes with an encoder feedback connector for applications that demand
a higher level of position control than ordinary open-loop step motor systems can provide.
Use our double-shaft step motors with incremental encoders and activate either Stall
Detection or Stall Prevention in the drive. Stall Detection notifies the system as soon as the
required torque is too great for the motor, which results in a loss of synchronization between
the rotor and stator, also known as stalling. Stall Prevention automatically adjusts motor
speed to maintain synchronization of the rotor to the stator under all conditions. This unique
feature allows step motors to operate in a much broader range of applications than previously
possible, such as torque-control. The Stall Prevention feature also performs static position
maintenance, which maintains the position of the motor shaft when at rest. Additionally, the
inclusion of the optional encoder allows the motor to be precisely homed to the index
(marker) pulse.
Specification
Model Number: STAC5-Q-E220
Part Number: 5000-199
Supply Voltage: 94-265 VAC
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Supply Voltage Type: AC
Control Modes: Streaming Commands
Analog Positioning
Q Programming
Output Current: 0.5-2.55 A/phase
Communication Ports: Ethernet
Encoder Feedback: Yes
Step Resolution: Full
Half
Micro-stepping
Setup Method: Software setup
Digital Inputs: 12
Digital Outputs: 6
Analog Inputs: 1
Dimensions: 5.5 x 4.5 x 2.0 inches
Weight: 22.4 oz
Operating Temperature Range: 0 to 70 °C
Status LEDs: 1 red, 1 green
Circuit Protection: Short circuit
Over-voltage
Under-voltage [81]
Torque Curves
Figure 3.36: Torque curve of STAC5-Q-E220 - AC Advanced Micro-step Drive [82]
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Figure 3.37: Torque curve of STAC5-Q-E220 - AC Advanced Micro-step Drive
[83][84]
CHAPTER 4
HYBRID STEPPER MOTORS FOR PRECISION STEPPING
Stepper motor
Permanent Variable
Hybrid Stepper
Magnet Stepper Reluctance
Motor
Motor Stepper Motor
4.1 Introduction
A stepper motor is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a full rotation into a number
of equal steps. The motor's position can then be commanded to move and hold at one of these
steps without any feedback sensor (an open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully
sized to the application in respect to torque and speed. The stepper motor is known by its
property to convert a train of input pulses (typically square wave pulses) into a precisely
defined increment in the shaft position. Each pulse moves the shaft through a fixed angle.
Stepper motors' nameplates typically give only the winding current and occasionally the
voltage and winding resistance. The rated voltage will produce the rated winding current at
DC, but this is mostly a meaningless rating, as all modern drives are current limiting and the
drive voltages greatly exceed the motor rated voltage. A stepper's low speed torque will vary
directly with current. How quickly the torque falls off at faster speeds depends on the
winding inductance and the drive circuitry it is attached to, especially the driving
voltage. Stepper motors do not offer as much torque or holding force as comparable DC servo
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motors or DC gear motors. Their advantage over these motors is one of positional control.
Whereas DC motors require a closed loop feedback mechanism, as well as support circuitry
to drive them, a stepper motor has positional control by its nature of rotation via fractional
increments. There are three main types of stepper motors: permanent magnet stepper, hybrid
synchronous stepper and variable reluctance stepper [85].
Figure 4.1: Types of Stepper Motor.
4.1.1 Variable -reluctance type stepper motor

The operation principle of the variable reluctance stepper motor can be ascribed to the
tendency of mobile parts to be arranged in minimum reluctance conditions. This operation
corresponds to attaining inductance and maximum flux. Reluctance, precisely, measures the
opposition of a material to the transit of the magnetic flux. The VR motor has a grooved-iron
rotor and a stator constituted by a stack of laminations with toothed poles [86].
Figure 4.2: Variable reluctance stepper motor [87].
It is the most basic type of stepper motor. The stator of this motor consists of a three-phase
wounded type. It has six salient poles with concentrated windings around each one of them.
The rotor has 4 slots to produce the effects of 4 poles [89].
Figure 4.3: Variable reluctance Stepper motor [88].
The two stator windings which are in the opposite direction are connected in series. These
windings are then energized by three different switches as shown in the figure, The basic
principle of working of reluctance motor is based on the various reluctance positions of the
rotor. When a voltage signal is given to any one of the phases of the stator and excited, its
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setups a magnetic field whose axis lies along the poles. Now the rotor tries to rotate in such a
direction that it has to achieve minimum reluctance. Such a rotation means a position where
the axis of the magnetic field set up by a stator will be equal to the axis passing through any
two poles of the rotor. Let us see the operation when the windings A, B, and C are connected
in sequence and energized one after the other, with the help of switches SW1, SW2, and SW3.
Case – 1
When the supply is connected across the terminals of AA¹, with closing the switch SW1.
There exist magnetic poles between the windings AA¹. Now, due to the force of attraction of
this magnetic poles’ rotor tries to achieve the minimum reluctance position. Therefore, axis
of the rotor 1 and 3 tries to get in aligning with the axis of the poles AA¹ [89].
Figure 4.4: Variable Reluctance Motor [90]
Case – 2
Now when the supply is connected across the windings BB¹. There is a change in the
magnetic axis of the stator poles axis from to BB¹. Now the rotor again tries to achieve a
minimum reluctance path, thereby moving the rotor [88].
87
Here we can see that the rotor pole axis 2 and 4 are nearer to the windings BB¹. This causes a
rotation of the rotor so that the axis of the rotor poles 2 and 4 get aligned with BB¹.Therefore,
moving the rotor to a step movement of angle 30 degrees as shown in the below figure [89].
Case – 3
Similarly, when the windings CC¹ gets supplied with switch SW3 and AA¹ and BB¹ are dis-
connected. The rotor pole axis tries to align its position with the stator pole axis. Here we get
another 30° of rotation by the rotor. We totally get an angle of 60° of step motion from
phases AA¹ to CC¹ [89].
By successively exciting the three phases in the specific sequence, the motor takes 12 steps to
complete one revolution. The direction of rotation of the motor depends upon the sequence of
supply given to each stator phase. The torque developed by the motor, which acts on the rotor
is proportional to the square of the phase current (T α i2) [89].
4.1.1.1 Advantages of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor:

 High torque to inertia ratio.
 High rates of acceleration.
 Fast dynamic response [93].
 Simple and low-cost machine.
 Rotor construction is robust due to the absence of brushes [89].
4.1.2 Permanent magnet type stepper motor

Permanent magnet types have a permanent magnet rotor that is axially magnetized,
meaning it has alternating north and south poles parallel to the rotor shaft. These motors are
also referred to as “can stack” or “tin can” motors because their stators consist of two coils
contained in soft iron housings with teeth on the inside that interact with the rotor. Permanent
magnet steppers typically have a step angle of 3.6 degrees (100 steps per revolution),
although models are available with 1.8degree step angles.
These motors can be operated in full-step, half-step, or micro stepping modes for higher
resolution. Permanent magnet stepper motors have higher torque capabilities than variable
reluctance types, but at limited speeds, so they’re best for applications that require low to
moderate torque at low speeds [93].
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Figure 4.7: Permanent magnet type stepper motor [94].
The Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor has a stator construction similar to that of the single
stack variable reluctance motor. The rotor consists of permanent magnet poles of high
retentivity steel and is cylindrical in shape. The concentrating windings on diametrically
opposite poles are connected in series to form a two-phase winding on the stator [95].
The rotor poles align with the stator teeth depending on the excitation of the winding. The
two coils AA’ connected in series to form a winding of Phase A. Similarly, the two coil BB’
is connected in series forming a phase B winding s. The figure below shows 4/2 Pole
Permanent Magnet stepper motor [95].
Figure 4.8: Permanent magnet type stepper motor [96]
In figure (a) the current flows start to the end of phase A. The phase winding is denoted by
A+ and the current by i+A. The figure shows the condition when the phase winding is excited
with the current i+A. The south pole of the rotor is attracted by the stator phase A. Thus, the
magnetic axis of the stator and rotor coincide and α = 0⁰. Similarly in the figure (b) the
current flows from the start to the end at phase B.
The current is denoted by i+B and the winding by B+. Considering the figure (b), the windings
of phase A does not carry any current and the phase B is excited by the i +B current. The
stator pole attracts the rotor pole and the rotor moves by 90⁰ in the clockwise direction. Here
α = 90⁰.The figure (c) below shows that the current flows from the end to the start of the
phase A. This current is denoted by i–A and the winding is denoted by A–. The current i–A is
opposite to the current i+A. Here, phase B winding is de-energized and phase A winding is
excited by the current i–A. The rotor moves further 90⁰ in clockwise direction and the α =
180⁰ [95].
89
In the above figure (d), the current flows from end to starting point of phase B. The current is
represented by i–B and the winding by B–. Phase A carries no current and the phase B is
excited. The rotor again moves further 90⁰ and the value of α = 270⁰.Completing the one
revolution of the rotor for making α = 360⁰ the rotor moves further 90 degrees by de-
energizing the winding of phase B and exciting the phase A. In the permanent magnet stepper
motor the direction of the rotation depends on the polarity of the phase current. The sequence
A+, B+, A–, B–, A+ is followed by the clockwise movement of the rotor and for the
anticlockwise movement, the sequence becomes A+ B–, A–, B+, A+. The permanent magnet
rotor with large number of poles is difficult to make, therefore, stepper motors of this type are
restricted to large step size in the range of 30 to 90⁰. They have higher inertia and therefore,
lower acceleration than variable stepper motors. The Permanent Magnet stepper motor
produces more torque than the Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor [95].
Figure 4.9: Permanent magnet type stepper motor [96].
4.1.2.1 Advantages of permanent magnet stepper Motor:

Few of the advantages of the permanent magnet stepper motor are:
 It needs minimal power to operate [91]
 When compared to variable reluctance motor, permanent magnet stepper motor
delivers increased detent torque [90].
 There is no requirement of additional circuits for the operation of the rotor
 For each ampere of stator current, high torque is produced
 Shows better response for the operations of stop, start and reverse
 As there exist no contact brushes in this motor, it offers enhanced reliability
 When the windings are excited, the motor will have complete torque at standstill [92]
4.1.2.2 Disadvantages of permanent magnet stepper motor:

Few of the disadvantages of the permanent magnet stepper motor are [92]:
 It has a minimal acceleration
 It shows the very gradual dynamic response
 A reduced ratio of torque to inertia
 Works efficiently when the step angles are in the range of 300 to 900
90
4.2 Hybrid Stepper Motor Definition
The word Hybrid means combination or mixture. The Hybrid Stepper Motor is a
combination of the features of the Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor and Permanent Magnet
Stepper Motor. Like PM motors, they contain a permanent magnet in the rotor teeth. Two sets
of teeth called cups ring the rotor. One ring is all south poles, and the other ring is all north
poles. Like VR motors, hybrid stepper motors have stator poles. Stator poles in hybrid motors
are sometimes called teeth [93].
4.3 Hybrid Stepper motor characteristics

The Hybrid stepper motors characteristics under stationary and running conditions that
makes choice for different applications are [94].
 Static characteristics, and
 Dynamic characteristics.
4.3.1 Static Characteristics:

Static characteristics of a stepper motor are obtained at a stationary position. The static
characteristics of stepper motor are [95] .
 Torque displacement characteristics
 Torque current characteristics
4.3.1.1 Torque displacement characteristics

It is a curve drawn between torque developed in the motor to displace it from an
equilibrium position as shown below. It is seen that the torque at stationary position increases
almost linearly up to displacement angleθm , and after decreases with further increase in θ
[94].
Figure 4.10: Torque-Displacement Curve [94]
Holding Torque
A stepper motor’s holding torque is the amount of torque needed in order to move the motor
one full step when the windings are energized but the rotor is stationary. Holding torque is
one of the primary benefits that stepper motors offer versus servo motors, making stepper
designs a good choice for cases where a load needs to be held in place [96].
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Figure 4.11: Holding torque characteristics [95]
Holding torque is typically higher than running torque, and is limited primarily by the
maximum current the motor can withstand. From a practical standpoint, holding torque is the
sum of the magnetic force exerted by the coils to hold the motor’s current position, plus the
detent torque. Once the motor is moving, the torque available at low speeds equals the
holding torque minus two times the detent torque (because the motor has to work against
the detent torque [95].
When the coil of the stepping motor is through direct current, the relationship between the
electromagnetic torque of the loaded rotor (the recovered electromagnetic torque generated
by balancing the load torque is called static torque or static torque) and the rotor power angle
is called angle-still. Torque characteristics, this is the static characteristics of the motor. As
shown below:
Figure 4.12: Holding torque characteristics [98]
Since the rotor is a permanent magnet and the resulting air gap magnetic density is sinusoidal,
the theoretical static torque curve is a sine wave. This angle-stationary torque characteristic is
an important indicator of the ability of the stepping motor to generate electromagnetic torque.
The larger the maximum torque, the better, and the closer the torque waveform is to the
sinusoid, the better. In fact, there is cogging torque under the magnetic pole, which causes the
combined torque to be distorted. For example, the cogging torque of the two-phase motor is 4
times harmonic of the static torque angle period, and is added to the sinusoidal static torque.
The torque shown is:
92
θL
( )
T L =T M sin[
θM
n
]
2
(4.1)
WhereinT L and T M each represent a load torque and a maximum static torque (or a holding
torque), and the corresponding power angles areθ L ∧θM the change of the displacement angle
determines the positional accuracy of the stepping motor.
According to the above formula:
2θ M T
θ L=( ) n
arcsine ( L )
TM
(4.2)
The step angle θ S of the PM permanent magnet stepper motor and the HB hybrid stepping
motor is described in the previous lesson: θ S=¿¿ 180° /P N r , and the angle is changed to
the mechanical angle (radian), then it becomes the following formula [13]:
θ S=¿n /(2 N )¿
r
(4.3)
The above formula N r is the number of rotor teeth or the number of pole pairs, so the two-
phase motor θ M =θ S.
The load torque is the load of the electromagnetic torque (such as the spring force or the
lifting force of the heavy object, etc.),
if the motor is to move in the forward and reverse direction, it will produce an angular
deviation of2 θL . To improve the positional accuracy, θ Lis small, therefore, based on for the
2θ M T
θ L= ( ) n
arcsin ⁡( L ) , a stepping motor with a maximum static torque Tm and a small step
TM
angleθ S should be selected, that is, a high-resolution motor. According to the equation
θ S=¿n /(2 N )¿ , the smaller the θ Sis, the larger the N r is.
r
In addition, the rotor structure of the high-resolution stepping motor is roughly classified into
three types: PM type, VR type, and HB type, and HB type resolution is the best. Due to the
relationship between the PM type stator magnets and the claw-level structure, the increase in
the number of stator poles is limited by machining. The surface of the HB type rotor has no
teeth, and the N pole and the S pole are alternately magnetized on the surface of the rotor.
Therefore, the pole number is the pole logarithm N r . Similarly, the increase of the rotor pole
N r is also limited by the magnetizing mechanism.
When the number of teeth of the VR type rotor is the same as that of the HB type, the same
N r is used because the permanent magnet is not used, but the step angle θ S is twice the HB
type, and since there is no permanent magnet pole, the maximum torque T m is smaller than
the HB type. When the two-phase stepping motor has an outer diameter of about 42 mm, N r
= 100 teeth and a step angle of 0.9 °, which is the highest resolution in actual use.
As N r becomes larger and the reactance increases, the torque will decrease at high speeds.
Therefore, a motor with N r = 50 and a step angle of 1.8 is widely used. For the HB type
structure, the step angle accuracy of the full step state is 3%, the stepping motor running
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angle θ=nθ S, there is no cumulative error in each step of operation, and the speed of the motor
is large enough to increase n (θ Ssmall) to improve positional positioning accuracy [96].
4.3.1.2 Torque current characteristics

It is the curve plotted with holding torque against the current. As we know that, torque is
directly proportional to current. The electromagnetic torque produced in a stepper motor also
increases with an increase in current as shown below [99].
Figure 4.13: Torque current characteristics [100]
Detent Torque:
Detent torque is defined as the torque at the maximum load that is applied to the shaft of the
motor which is unexcited without causing continuous rotation. It is also known as Restraining
torque and is produced in the rotor of the permanent magnet motor.
The detent torque exists because of the residual magnetism in the Permanent magnetic
material used for the construction of the rotor of the motor. It is produced when the stator
coils are not energized. This torque prevents the rotor from Drifting when the motor supply is
turned off [101].
Figure 4.14: Torque characteristics [102]
The torque which is caused by the motor when the rated current flow across the winding is
known as the holding torque. Detent torque is beneficial for stepping the motor. It also resists
the momentum of the moving rotor and the friction in the rotating components. Such type of
torque is range from 5 to 20% of the holding torque. When the motor is unexcited the
permanent magnet, and hybrid stepper motor develops a Detent torque confining the rotation
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of the rotor [101].
4.3.2 Dynamic characteristics

Dynamic characteristics are those, that are obtained under running conditions of the
motor (with respect to time). To control the stepper motor in various applications it is
important to know the stepping rate for input pulse. The dynamic characteristics give the
stepping rate of the motor with respect to the input pulse. There are two characteristic curves
1 and 2 shown in the figure below. Curve one is denoted by a blue color line is known as
the Pull-in torque. It shows the maximum stepping rate for the various values of the load
torque at which the motor can start, synchronize stop or reverse [103].
Figure 4.15: Dynamic characteristics curve [104]

Similarly, the curve 2 represented by red color line is known as pullout torque characteristics.
It shows the maximum stepping rate of the motor where it can run for the various values of
load torque. But it cannot start, stop or reverse at this rate. Let us understand this with the
help of an example, considering the above curve. The motor can start, synchronize and stop
or reverse for the load torque Ʈ L if the pulse rate is less than S 1. The stepping rate can be
increased for the same load as the rotor started the rotation and synchronized. Now, for the
load ƮL1, after starting and synchronizing, the stepping rate can be increased up to S2 without
losing the synchronism. If the stepping rate is increased beyond S 2, the motor will lose
synchronism. Thus, the area between curves 1 and 2 represents the various torque values, the
range of stepping rate, which the motors follow without losing the synchronism when it has
already been started and synchronized. This is known as Slew Range. The motor is said to
operate in slewing mode [102]
Operating the motor with some piloting circuits, it is possible to assess the operation of
stepper motors in dynamic conditions. In technical literature, we can distinguish two
operation typologies [106].
4.3.2.1 Operation in pull-out (pull-out torque):

The maximum torque the motor can develop during the rotation is called pull-out
torque and it is equal to about 90% of the holding torque. In practice, we suggest choosing
the size of the motor to work with torque corresponding to about 50% of the Holding Torque.
At the so-called pull-out speed, the relative torque annuls. Catalogues, then, provide graphs
of the Pull-out torque according to speed [106].
4.3.2.2 Operation in pull-in (pull-in torque):

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To allow the motor to develop the Pull-out torque, it is necessary that the drive takes
it to the wished speed, through opportune acceleration ramps. The frequency of impulses to
single phases must gradually increase up to the desired frequency, if we want to develop the
pull-out torque. However, drives are not always so sophisticated: in many applications, the
still motor is immediately powered at the maximum frequency, without using gradual
acceleration ramps. This is the operation in pull-in. If the speed is low, the motor starts in
pull-in without difficulty but, at higher speeds than the so-called pull-in speed, the thing is no
longer possible and the motor does not start even without load. In catalogues, manufacturers
provide the torque curve in pull-in, too [106].
Figure 4.16: Dynamic characteristics curve [105]
4.4 Step angle

Conventional electric motors rotate continuously, but stepper motors rotate or step in
fixed angular increments. One revolution involves the motor taking a specific number of
steps determined by the number of teeth, motor construction, and type of drive scheme used
for control. This measurement, called the step angle or step resolution, can be stated as an
angular measurement or a specific number of steps. The most commonly specified step
resolution is 1.8°/step or 200 steps/rev [107].
4.4.1 Step mode/operating mode

Hybrid stepper motors have three main operating modes. Using a rotor with 200 teeth
as a basic example, the operating modes are [102]:
Full Step Mode: For each 360° rotation of the motor shaft, the rotor proceeds through 200
distinct steps, each exactly 1.8°. During full step operation, two of the phases on the stator are
always energized. This provides maximum torque, but angular resolution is limited by the
number of teeth on the rotor.
Half Step Mode: For each 360° rotation of the motor shaft, the rotor proceeds through 400
distinct steps, each exactly 0.9°. During half step operation, there is an alternation between
having one or two phases on the stator energized. This provides twice the level of angular
resolution for increased positioning accuracy but comes at the expense of torque.
Micro Step Mode: For each 360° rotation of the motor shaft, the rotor proceeds through
51,200 distinct steps, each exactly 0.007°. During micro-step operation, phases on the stator
can be either energized, de-energized or partially energized. This mode is used in applications
where highly accurate positioning is needed, although torque rating can be reduced by as
much as 30%.
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4.5 Hybrid Stepper Motor Driver
A stepper motor driver is an electronic component which can convert an input signal of
some kind into movement of the stepper motor without itself being able to issue instructions
(or control) the stepper motor. It is often useful to consider the driver as a ‘translator’
between input signals and the physical movement of the stepper motor. Stepper motor drivers
convert pulse signals from the controller into motor motion to achieve precise positioning. In
some cases, stepper motor drivers may be designed specifically to work with a set
communication protocol such as analogue or CAN bus but the broad principle is simple
– they do not have any ability to control the motor themselves except where they are given
control instructions from a computer, PLC or other control device [109].
4.6 Hybrid Stepper Motor Controller

Hybrid steppers require very special signals that make the stepper rotate. These are a
sequence of pulses applied to the phase coils. The timing and sequencing are critical and must
match the specific motor’s requirements. A stepper controller IC is designed to provide the
mix of signals needed to operate the motor. A driver is also usually needed because the
controller IC cannot supply the high phase current needed in some applications. External
power transistors are needed. There are two basic ways to control steppers: a microcontroller
or a special IC called a stepper motor controller/driver. Some products can be built with a
specially programmed microcontroller whose outputs operate discrete external components
(MOSFETs). Software and programming experience are required. The alternate approach is
to use a commercial IC product designed for stepper control. Using such a chip greatly
simplifies stepper equipment design and time to market. Those controller ICs implement
many beneficial control features. Some products require external components like MOSFET
drivers. Some low power stepper controllers package the high-power drivers directly on-chip
[110].
4.7 Hybrid Stepper Motor Classification
Hybrid Stepper Motor can be classified into two types based on their motion. Two types
are rotary and linear. Rotary Hybrid Stepper Motor will turn something a number of degrees
in a circle – it might be a limited number or an infinite number. Linear Hybrid Stepper
Motor, in essence, move something along a straight line, usually back and forth.
Hybrid
Stepper Motor
Rotary Hybrid Linear Hybrid

Stepper Motor StepperMotor
Figure 4.17: Classification of Hybrid Stepper Motor.
4.8 Construction of hybrid stepper motor

4.8.1 Construction of Rotary Hybrid Stepper Motor:
Hybrid stepper motor, as the name suggest is a motor designed to provide better
efficiency by combining the pros of both the permanent magnet stepper motor and variable
reluctance stepper motor. A hybrid stepper motor, like any rotating electric motor, consists of
97
a rotor and a stator. The stator is the stationary part, the rotor is the rotating part. Hybrid
stepper motor has a composite rotor including teeth (pole tips) made of soft magnetic material
and permanent magnets. A hybrid stepper motor consists of a permanent magnet sandwiched
between the two rotor halves (causing axial polarity), which make up the spinning part of the
motor, placed into a stator housing where the stator coils of wire make up the different motor
phases. The rotor has two caps with alternating teeth, and is magnetized axially [105]. One
end of the rotor becomes north pole and other end becomes south pole. Each pole has its own
teeth, and the teeth of one rotor pole are oriented between those of the other. The angular
difference between the two sets of teeth determines the step angle of the motor. The more
teeth the stepper has, the better the angular resolution. With a 2-phase stepper motor, each
phase has four coils. The phase is magnetized where the A and A- phases (or B and B-) are
magnetized at the same time so that both A phases are magnetized as
Figure 4.18: Construction of Rotary Hybrid Stepper Motor [112]
one pole, and both A- phases are magnetized as the opposite pole because the winding
direction of the A phase is opposite the winding direction of the A- phase. The rotor is
connected to the motor shaft, which gives the output rotation and torque of the motor when
voltage and current pulses are applied to the motor windings. The stator of a hybrid stepper
motor consists of poles with teeth, and each pole has a winding. Phases are made up of poles
connected by their windings. When current is applied to a phase, each pole in that phase will
be energized and magnetized. The stator has teeth that are approximately the same size as the
teeth on the rotor. The bearings on either side of the rotor allow for smooth rotation with little
friction and wearing. The bearings are [111].
placed into their designated spaces in the front and rear end caps, which allow for the
concentricity of the rotor inside the stator. Perfect alignment of the rotor and the stator is very
important because the air gap between them, where the motor torque is generated, must be
equal on all sides and is only a few nanometers wide – thinner than a strand of hair [111].
4.8.2 Construction of Linear Hybrid Stepper Motor:

The hybrid linear stepper motor consists of a moveable armature (the mover) suspended
over a fixed part, the platen. The platen is an equidistant toothed bar of any length fabricated
from high permeability cold-rolled steel. The mover consists of two electromagnets having
command coils and a permanent magnet between them. The permanent magnet serves as an
excitation bias source and also separates the electromagnets. Each electromagnet has two
poles. All the poles have the same number of teeth. The toothed structure in both parts, mover
and platen, has the same very fine-tooth pitch. Each of the two poles of an electromagnet is
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displaced with respect to the platen slotting by half of tooth pitch, as it can be seen in
Fig.4.18
The first pole of the right-side electromagnet is displaced by a quarter of tooth pitch with
respect to the first pole of the left side electromagnet [113].
Figure 4.19: Hybrid linear stepper motor [113]
The basic construction of the hybrid linear stepper motor presented above is very simple, but
is not the single one existing. An outer magnet type motor construction is presented in
Fig.4.19 [113].
Figure 4.20: The outer magnet type hybrid linear stepper motor [113]
The motor has two permanent magnets placed on the top of the two electromagnets. A back
iron closes the magnetic circuit of both mover parts. Each pole has its command coil. The
motor has good control facilities and the currents flow in the same single direction in all the
coils [113].
Figure 4.21: The eight poles compact hybrid linear stepper motor [113]
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The motor shown in Fig.4.20 contains 8 poles pieces and two command coils in a very
compact construction. Between the two half-parts of the motor is disposed an insulator for
magnetic separation purpose. The motor magnetic circuit is characterized by low mass and
small volume related to the holding force. A tubular variant of the hybrid linear stepper motor
is presented in Fig.4.21. The motor has four poles, two coils and one ring type permanent
magnet. The outer cylindrical part is the mover [113].
The operating principle is the same as of the motor presented in Fig.4.18
Figure 4.22: Tubular variant of the hybrid linear stepper motor [113]
Figure 4.23: Surface hybrid linear stepper motor [113]
A motor that can travel in any direction on a stationary base (a surface moving motor) can be
realized by combining two hybrid linear stepper motors in the way shown in Fig.4.22. One of
the motors will produce force in the x-direction, and other one in the y-direction. The great
variety of the hybrid linear stepper motor construction variants demonstrates that these
motors have a lot of advantages and can be used in a myriad of applications. From the large
variety of existing types, the simplest one, that shown in Fig.4.18, will be considered as the
basic type. This simple constructed motor has all the features of the class of motors
represented by it [113].
4.9 Working principle

4.9.1 Working principle of Rotary Hybrid Stepper Motor
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A 2-phase hybrid stepper motor typically has eight poles, or four poles (two pole pairs)
per phase. The stator teeth on the 8-poles correspond to the 48-rotor teeth, except for missing
teeth in the space between the poles. Note that the 48-teeth on one rotor section are offset by
half a pitch from the other. Due to this offset, the rotor effectively has 96 interleaved poles of
opposite polarity. This offset allows for rotation in 1/96 th of a revolution steps by reversing
the field polarity of one phase. Two-phase windings are common as shown below [113].
Figure 4.24: 2-phase hybrid stepper motor [115]
Though, there could be as many as five phases. The stator teeth on the 8-poles correspond to
the 48-rotor teeth, except for missing teeth in the space between the poles. Thus, one pole of
the rotor, say the south pole, may align with the stator in 48 distinct positions. However, the
teeth of the south pole are offset from the north teeth by half a tooth. Therefore, the rotor may
align with the stator in 96 distinct positions. This half tooth offset shows in the rotor pole
detail above or Figure below. As if this were not complicated enough, the stator main poles
are divided into two phases (φ-1, φ-2). These stator phases are offset from one another by
one-quarter of a tooth. This detail is only discernible on the schematic diagrams below. The
result is that the rotor moves in steps of a quarter of a tooth when the phases are alternately
energized. In other words, the rotor moves in 2×96=192 steps per revolution for the above
stepper. The above drawing is representative of an actual hybrid stepper motor. However, we
provide a simplified pictorial and schematic representation to illustrate details not obvious
above. Note the reduced number of coils and teeth in rotor and stator for simplicity. In the
next two figures, we attempt to illustrate the quarter tooth rotation produced by the two stator
phases offset by a quarter tooth, and the rotor half tooth offset. The quarter tooth stator offset
in conjunction with drive current timing also defines the direction of rotation [114].
Figure 4.25: Hybrid stepper motor schematic diagram [116]
Features of Hybrid Stepper Schematic

 The top of the permanent magnet rotor is the south pole, the bottom north.
101
 The rotor north-south teeth are offset by half a tooth.
 If the φ-1 stator is temporarily energized north top, south bottom.
 The top φ-1 stator teeth align north to rotor top south teeth.
 The bottom φ-1’ stator teeth align south to rotor bottom north teeth.
 Enough torque applied to the shaft to overcome the hold-in torque would move
the rotor by one tooth.
 If the polarity of φ-1 were reversed, the rotor would move by one-half tooth,
direction unknown. The alignment would be south stator top to north rotor
bottom, north stator bottom to the south rotor [114].
 The φ-2 stator teeth are not aligned with the rotor teeth when φ-1 is energized.
In fact, the φ-2 stator teeth are offset by one-quarter tooth. This will allow for
rotation by that amount if φ-1 is de-energized and φ-2 energized. The polarity
of φ-1 and drive determine the direction of rotation [114].
Figure 4.26: Hybrid stepper motor rotation sequence [115]
Hybrid Stepper Motor Rotation

 Rotor top is permanent magnet south, bottom north. Fields φ1, φ-2 are
switchable: on, off, reverse.
 φ-1=on=north-top, φ-2=off. Align (top to bottom): φ-1 stator-N: rotor-top-S,
φ-1’ stator-S: rotor-bottom-N. Start position, rotation=0.
 (b) φ-1=off, φ-2=on. Align (right to left): φ-2 stator-N-right: rotor-top-S, φ-2’
stator-S: rotor-bottom-N. Rotate 1/4 tooth, total rotation=1/4 tooth.
 (c) φ-1= reverse(on), φ-2=off. Align (bottom to top): φ-1 stator-S: rotor-
bottom-N, φ-1’ stator-N: rotor-top-S. Rotate 1/4 tooth from the last position.
Total rotation from start: 1/2 tooth.
 Not shown: φ-1=off, φ-2= reverse(on). Align (left to right): Total rotation: 3/4
tooth.
 Not shown: φ-1=on, φ-2=off (same as (a)). Align (top to bottom): Total
rotation 1-tooth [114].
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4.9.2 Working principle of Linear Hybrid Stepper Motor
In a hybrid linear stepper motor, the base, or platen, is a passive steel or stainless-steel
plate with slots milled into it. The forcer contains motor windings, permanent magnets, and
laminations with slotted teeth that serve to concentrate the flux that’s created when current is
applied to the coils. When a command coil is excited, the flux is concentrated into one pole of
the corresponding electromagnet. The flux density in that pole becomes maximum, while the
flux density in the other pole is reduced to a negligible value. By commuting this way, the
permanent magnet fluxes a tangential force is developed [113],
that tends to align the teeth of the pole where the flux density is maximum with the platen
teeth, minimizing the air gap magnetic reluctance
Figure 4.27: Four position of the mover [113]
For a displacement of one step to the right from the initial position (position number one in
Fig.4.27) the right-side command coil must be excited in a way to concentrate the magnetic
flux into the pole number four. The mover will be driven to the right a quarter tooth pitch
(one step) and the teeth of pole number four will be aligned with the platen teeth (position 2
in Fig.4.27).
The variations of the tangential forces developed under the four poles during the
above-described step from the initial position are shown in Fig.4.27[113].

Figure 4.28: Tangential force variation under the mover poles [113]
The representation is given for a simplified mode of the force variation, when the MMF
produced by the command coil is considered constant during the motion. The tangential force
developed under the fourth pole is the greatest one at the beginning of the step and reaches
zero at the end of the step. The tangential force developed under pole number one and two,
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which are at the beginning of the step aligned, respectively unaligned, starts from zero value.
These two forces, one tracking and other backing, are quite equal in absolute value, their sum
being almost zero. As the magnetic flux through pole number three is negligible, the
developed tangential force is insignificant, too. The total traction force is the sum of these
four tangential forces, and it can be considered equal with the force developed by the fourth
pole. ped by the fourth pole. In order to continue the displacement to the right, the command
coil of the right electromagnet must be de-energized and the other has to be excited. The flux
through the pole number two will be maximum and at the end of the step the teeth of this pole
will be aligned to the platen teeth. The sequences of the command coil currents for a four-
step displacement in two directions (to the right and respectively to the left) are given in
Fig.4.28 [113].
Figure 4.29: The command currents sequence and the corresponding displacements
[113]
4.10 Multi-phase hybrid stepper motor

4.10.1 Four-Phase Hybrid Stepper Motor
To minimize fluctuation of torque, improve torque stiffness, and reduce resonance
vibration during rotation in the hybrid stepper motor. The magnetic poles have two or more
teeth placed with the same spaces as with tooth pitch of the rotor. The total number (NS) of
the teeth of the nonsymmetrical stators is determined by NS = 5 x (n0 + n1), wheren0 is the
number of teeth of each of five poles and n1 is the number of teeth of each of remaining five
poles. The nonsymmetrical stator, of which the teeth are n1, is placed between the
nonsymmetrical stators, of which the teeth are n0 , so that the non-symmetrical stator, of
which the teeth are n0 , is placed on the opposite side of the nonsymmetrical stator, of which
the teeth aren1 , when the core of the rotation axis is the center. The total number (NS) of the
teeth (NR) of the rotor and the teeth of the stators corresponds to the relationship of NS ≧ 0.8
NR (NS is equal to or greater than 0.8 NR), and the difference between NR and NS is defined
by the equation NR-NS=K ( S0- S1) +10( S1-1 + B),
where K is an integer between 2 and 5, S0 and S1are integers as small as possible in such a
way that S1can also be equal to S0 , B is a fraction of 1, 10B is an integer. The ten windings
produce as many north-and south-poles as necessary by using a power supply method to
applied power to achieve full step angles = electrical angle 90 ° = a F, a F = 360 ° /10NR and
half step angle = electrical angle 45° = α H, a H = 360° /20NR.Hybrid stepper motors are
known to be excellent actuators whenever high precision positioning is required, for more
than twenty-five years. Areas of application include any kind of handling--equipment
manufacturing, up to full process automation, as well as in the computer peripherals industry
(i.e printers plotters, facsimiles, and disc-drives) [119].
104
The most common motor is a so called four-phase motor with 8 main poles. Fig. (a) and (b)
Figure 4.30: Front view of motor of prior arts [119]
illustrate cross- sectional views A-A and B-B of Fig, the four-phase hybrid stepper motor.
Each of these stator poles has a winding 11 and 5 teeth 12. As illustrated in Fig,
Figure 4.31: Sectional view of stepper motor of prior art [119]
teeth 12 face to the inner rotating teeth 15 of rotor caps 14 (hole cap, at least two) with are
mounted one on each side of an axial magnetized permanent magnet 13. In this case the rotor
caps 14 have 50 teeth 15 each, on creating north-poles, and the other one creating south-poles
with a tooth pitch of 360/50 degrees = 7.2 degrees. Two rotor caps 14 are offset to each other
in rotational direction by one half tooth pitch.
These rotor caps 14, mostly made out of silicon lamination material or solid magnetically soft
iron, together with the magnet mounted on a shaft 16, represent a rotor system. Currently
there are hybrid stepper motors on the market with more than on rotor system. Most
commonly, the tooth pitch of the stator pole teeth is the same as the rotor tooth pitch, Tp. In
Fig.(a),(b) adjacent poles in this case are 45° away from each other (Cent erof middle tooth of
the adjacent pole). The physical shift angle between any adjacent pole is now45° divided by
7.2° (tooth pitch) minus integer numbers of tooth pitch [118], and equals 1/4 of the tooth
pitch. This is equivalent to 90° electrical, since one tooth pitch represents 360° electrical.
105
This stator and its lamination can be considered to be a symmetrical stator-lamination, since
every pole has the same number of teeth with the same tooth pitch and the same winding-slot-
opening between adjacent outer teeth of adjacent poles. In this case 2.25 Tp minus tooth
width. Theoretically these motors could be built with 48 stator teeth (6 teeth per pole), if the
slot openings in the case of 1.25 Tp minus one tooth width allow the insertion of the winding
and create a phase-inductance as required. These motors can have a symmetrical lamination
for any number of rotor teeth which fulfills the following requirement of:
Number of rotor teeth divided by number of stator main poles
equal to K + 1/4, K being an integer.
As an example, 50/8 = 6.25 will create a symmetrical lamination. 48/8 = 6, does not work
because there is no shift angle. For instance, any motor with a number of rotor teeth NR =
8(K + .25) can have a symmetrical stator. So NR = 10; 18; 26; 34; 42; 50; and 58 will allow a
symmetrical lamination with 8 stator-poles. These motors create a sinusoidal detent-torque
which is periodical with on fourth of the tooth pitch and keeps the rotor in position without
any external stator pole excitation. When considering that every pole when energized,
together with the rotor system develops a nearly sinusoidal holding torque (Fi g.23) [119],
Figure 4.32: Torque wave form diagram of prior art [102]

Which is periodical with the tooth pitch Tp, and since each pole is 90° electrical away from
each other, one can design the following torque-vector-diagram, Fig [119].
Figure 4.33: Vector diagram indicating the holding-torque of prior art
106
[119]
It is easy to see that phase l is given by poles 1 and 5, phase II by poles 2 and 6, phase lll by
poles 3 and 7, and phase IV by poles 4 and 8. It can also be seen that maximum torque is
obtained when all of the 8 poles are energized. A full step angle of a F = 90° electrical or a F
=1/4 T Pwill be achived when the polarization of four phases (i.e1; 5; 3; 7) gets changed at the
same time. A half step angle of a H =45° or 1/8 T Pwill be reached when those
aforementioned poles are switched off instead of being changed in polarization. In this case
the torque varies in half step mode by4 2 to 1. Since two poles are always 180° away from
each other (i.e1 to 3 or 2 to 4), and also since the maximum torque will develop from step to
step when 4 poles get changed in polarity at the same time, phase I and III can be connected
with each other as well as phases and IV. This allows a relatively simple, so called H-Bridge
driver with a total of 8 transistors to achieve full step and half step modes. When energized in
these two modes, the 8 poles have a polarization as shown in Fig. Here step 1 represents a full
step position and step 2 a half step position [119].
Table 4.1: diagram indicating for varying pole of each of stator poles of prior art [119]
S POLE
T
E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P
1 N N S S N N S S
2 _ N _ S _ N _ S
3 S N N S S N N S
4 S _ N _ S _ N _
5 S S N N S S N N
This motor has as many north-poles as south-poles at any time. This means that the radial
forces on the north-rotor cap are the same as they are on the south-rotor cap. This is important
in order to avoid major bearing damage over lifetime, as well as to insure a better reaction
against mechanical inaccuracy to keep small step angle tolerances from fig.it is also visible
that whenever all 8 poles are energized, we have two north-poles adjacent, followed by two
adjacent south-poles.
This gives good stability at full step positions, since the detent (fourth harmonic) will not
support the stiffness of an 8-stiffness of an 8-pole energized holding torque when in phase
with a single pole [118].
107
Figure 4.34: Torque-vector diagram of 5 phase motor of prior art [119]
4.10.2 Five-Phase Hybrid Stepper Motor

Stepper motors are used to obtain the motion profiles in the field of Robotics and Automation
Engineering. Stepper motors are preferred in applications where high precision controls in
position and velocity, is important such as in aerospace, printers, scanners, copiers, faxes,
optical and magnetic disk devices, medical equipment, X-Y plotters, CNC machines,
semiconductor fabrication equipment, agricultural automation applications, textile
equipment’s and precision telescope positioning systems .Moreover reliability, lack of
contact, aging, mechanical ruggedness and availability of torque at zero speed are the
attractive features of Stepper Motors. Among the various types of stepping motors, the hybrid
stepping motor has a permanent magnet rotor and a toothed magnetic structure on both the
stator and rotor, so that a permanent-magnet torque as well as reluctance torque can be
generated [119].
Two – phase stepper motors are commonly used, but five-phase stepper motors have the
superior characteristics of resolution, vibration and performance compared with two phase’s
motors. When both stepping motors are operated in half step mode, two phase motor provides
a resolution of 400 steps per revolution while a five-phase motor has a resolution of 1000
steps [120].
This resolution is 2.5 times higher when compared with two phase stepper motor.
The applications where high precision, low vibration and low noise is required, five-phase
hybrid stepper motor can be employed compared to two-phase hybrid stepper motor. Five-
phase stepper motors are superior in dynamic performance. A high precise position control
using five-phase hybrid stepper motor is achieved in open loop control achieves. The higher
the number of phases, smaller will be positioning deviations.
Micro stepping is a technology that achieves low resonance, low noise operation, at
extremely low speeds by controlling the flow of electric current fed to the motor coil and
108
thereby dividing the motor’s basic step angle into smaller steps. Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) technique is usually used to excite the driver to operate the motors. The five-phase
hybrid stepper motor is developed with high resolution with no lows peed resonance
problems. The five-phase stepper can also be classified under permanent magnet hybrid
stepper motor. The stator windings are energized in the proper sequencer to produce a
rotating magnetic field which turns the rotor. The significant advantage of the five-phase
stepper motor is its excellent torque retention capability at high operating speed. The motor
used for implementation is a five-phase hybrid stepper motor and it is shown in Fig. 27. The
figures above show two cross-sections of a 5-phase hybrid stepping motor. Hybrid stepping
motors are composed primarily of two parts, the stator and the rotor. The rotor in turn is
comprised of three components: rotor 1, rotor 2 and the permanent magnet. The rotors are
magnetized in the axial direction, with rotor 1 polarized north and the rotor 2 polarized south.
The stator contains 10 magnet poles with small teeth, each of which is wrapped in wire to
form a coil. The coil is connected to the facing magnet pole and is wound so it becomes
magnetized to the small pole when current is run through it. (Running a current through a
given coil magnetizes the facing poles to the same magnetism, either North Pole or South
Pole.). The two facing poles form a single phase. Since there are five phases, A trough E, the
motor is called a 5- phase stepping motor. There are 50 teeth on the outside of the rotor, with
the teeth of rotor 1 and rotor 2 mechanically offset from each other by half a tooth pitch. Fig.
2 helps to describe the relationship on the positions of the stator and rotor teeth when
magnetized. When phase A is excited, its poles are polarized south. This attracts the teeth of
rotor cup 1, which are polarized north, while repelling the teeth of rotor cup 2, which are
polarized south. Therefore, the forces on the entire unit in equilibrium hold the rotor
stationary. At this time, the teeth of the phase B poles, which are not excited, are misaligned
with the south-polarized teeth of rotor 2 so that they are offset at 0.72°. When excitation
switches from phase A to B shown in Fig. 28, the phase B poles are polarized north,
attracting the south polarity of rotor 2 and repelling the north polarity of rotor cup 1. In other
words, when excitation switches from phase A to B, the rotor rotates by 0.72°. As excitation
shifts from phase A to phases B, C, D and E, then back around to phase A, the stepping motor
rotates precisely in 0.72° steps [120].
To rotate in reverse, the excitation sequence is reversed as phase A, E, D, C, B,

then back to phase A. High resolution of 0.72° is inherent in the mechanical offset between
the stator and rotor, accounting for the achievement of precise positioning without the use of
an encoder or other sensors [120].
Figure 4.35: 5 Phase Stepping Motor: (a)Cross-Section Parallel to Shaft; (b) Cross-
Section Perpendicular to Shaft [120].
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Figure 4.36: The position of the stator and rotor teeth (a) when phase A is excited
(b) when phase B is excited [120].
4.10.3 Differences between 2-phase and 5-phase stepper motors

There are two key differences between 2-phase and 5-phase stepper motors. The first is
mechanical. A step motor consists of basically two parts, a stator and a rotor. The rotor Tin
turn is made up of three components; rotor cup 1, rotor cup 2 and a permanent magnet [120].
In a 2-phase motor the stator is made up of 8 magnetic poles with small teeth, while the 5-
phase motor stator is made up of 10 magnetic poles. The poles in the stator are each provided
a winding. The second difference between 2-phase and 5-phase is the number of phases. A 2-
phase motor has two phases, an "A" phase and a "B" phase, while a 5-phase motor has five
phases. Essentially, the number of phases refers to the different combinations of poles that are
energized in sequence to attract the rotor [121].
4.10.4 2-phase and 5-phase Head-to-head

How do these differences affect performance? A number of factors are involved in
the performance of a step motor. There are a number of ways to drive a stepper motor and the
drive greatly affects the motor's performance. Wave Drive, Full Step, Half Step and Micro
stepper are the most common drive methods and each offers very different performances.
Without accounting for the various drive methods here are the key areas of performance for
2-phase and 5-phase stepper motors [121].
110
Figure 4.37: 2 phase and 5 phase Stepper motor [122]
4.10.5 Vibration
Because of the smaller step angles in 5-phase stepper motors, 0.72° versus 1.8° in a 2-
phase motor, the vibration in a 5-phase motor is much less than in a 2-phase. The graph to the
right shows the vibration generated from a 5-phase motor versus the vibration generated by a
2-phase stepper motor. As you can see the 2-phase motor produces much more vibration. The
graphs to the right represent micro stepping at 5K steps per rev. These graphs were created by
attaching a generator to a double shafted motor. As the motor vibrates the voltage generated
was graphed. The more the motor vibrated the greater the voltage generated [121].
Figure 4.38: 2 phase and 5 phase vibrations [123]

Each phase of the motor contributes the sine-shaped torque displacement curve to the total
output torque of the motor (illustrated below). The difference between the peak and the valley
is called the torque ripple. The torque ripple causes vibration so the greater the difference, the
greater the vibration. With more phases contributing to the total torque of the motor, the
torque ripple in a 5-phase motor is greatly reduced over a 2-phase motor. The difference
between the peak and valley in a 2-phase motor can be as great as 29%, while a 5-phase is
only about 5%. Since torque ripple contributes directly to vibration the 5-phase motor runs
smoother than the 2-phase [121].
111
Figure 4.39: 2-Phase Torque Displacement [124] Figure 4.40: 5-Phase
Displacement Torque [125]
4.10.6 Development of 6-phase and Dual Stator Systems

With the development of n-leg inverter system as specified in, the development of the
multiphase system advances into the 6-phase and dual stator systems. Many of the 6-phase
systems are analyzed with the concept of the split phase systems with the splitting of 30
degrees between the two sets of 3-phase systems. This approach is utilized in, where a d-q
model of 6-phase induction machine is derived with the analysis of the slot leakage coupling
between the two 3-phase groups. Similarly, the simple indirect FOC scheme for operation
and control of a 6-phase induction machine is analyzed in with an arbitrary displacement
between the two 3-phase winding sets. It is also shown that the independent control of the
two stator winding currents allows for the elimination of the problem of the unbalanced
current sharing between the two 3-phase winding sets. Similarly, the DTC solution for dual 3-
phase induction motor drives is implemented in, to simplify the control scheme and improve
the dynamic performance by elimination of the current control loops. It was experimentally
shown that the good response of stator flux and torque in both constant torque region and
field weakening region can be achieved by using the DTC scheme. In, 3rd harmonic injection
for 6-phase permanent magnet synchronous machine and its effects are analyzed. Here, it is
shown that the creation of an additional rotating field with angular speed equal to the
fundamental angular speed has the effect on the output power capability (OPC) of the interior
PMSM. Similarly, in, the establishment of direct torque control of split phase induction
machine is presented [126].
The two new methods of DTC technique for an SPIM is developed and it was shown that the
torque ripple of the motor can be reduced significantly compared to 3-phase DTC. In the
112
concept of vector decomposition used for the dual 3-phase machine is developed where the
voltages and currents of original six-dimensional vector space are mapped into three two
dimensional orthogonal subspaces. This gives the machine model as three sets of decoupled
equations. Similarly, a new space vector PWM technique is also developed based on the
vector space decomposition. It is shown that the existence of zero sequence component
provides the optimum current regulation of the multiphase machine. In the 2-motor
configuration is extended to 6-phase two motor configuration for decoupled control. Here, 6-
phase induction machine is used in series with 3-phase induction machine driven from a 6-
phase inverter. Full decoupling of the two machines is realized by using the vector control. In
the torque density improvement of a 6-phase induction motor with 3rd harmonic current
injection is discussed. Here it is shown that the injection of 3rd harmonic zero sequence
components in phase current greatly improves the machine torque density. Analytical, finite-
element, and experimental results are presented to show the system operation and to
demonstrate the improvement on the torque density [126].
4.10.7 Development of 7-phase Systems

The increasing trend of research in multiphase systems was also extended to 7-phase
systems in some literatures. In control of multiphase machine with odd number of phases
under open-circuit phase fault is analyzed for 7-phase induction motor. The mathematical
analysis is based on the space vector representation of the multiphase system and is valid
either in transient or steady-state operating conditions. In easyto-implement control strategies
are developed when a seven-phase axial flux permanent magnet machine is supplied by a
seven-leg voltage source inverter in fault operation mode. In this case, using a vectorial
multi-machine description, a seven-phase machine presenting a heightened ability to be
controlled with one or two open-circuited phases has been designed and new current
references are calculated to avoid high-torque ripples using vectorial approaches [126].
4.10.8 Development of 9-phase Systems

With the evolution of the multiphase machines and the concept to utilize the higher
harmonics of air gap, 9-phase systems were developed in recent years. In design, test and
harmonic analysis of 9-phase armature windings is performed. A harmonic analysis of the
designed winding in induction machine is also performed in this paper. In a 9-phase
permanent magnet synchronous motor drive system is developed based on multiple 3-phase
voltage source inverters. The mathematical model is simplified and drive system is controlled
by using the d-q control theory. Similarly presents the study of different configurations of an
axial-flux 9-phase concentrated-winding permanent-magnet synchronous generator for direct-
drive wind turbine. Here, an optimization process is utilized to minimize the total active
mass, maximize the power factor and also validation and measurements are performed in a
small-scale proto type.
In a fully generalized lumped parameter d-q model of an n phase synchronous machine is
developed along with a multiple harmonic synchronous reference frame control technique
implemented using a carrier-based pulse width modulator. The analytical machine model is
verified analytically through the characterization of a 9-phase synchronous machine
prototype [126].
4.10.9 Development of Higher Phase Order Systems

To get the advantage of the higher phase order, research and analysis is still ongoing
for higher phase order systems. In an n-phase PMSM is analyzed for the generation of
optimal current references in normal or fault mode (open-circuited phases). It also proposes a
113
novel way of generating optimal current references in real time in order to obtain a constant
torque regardless of the number of open-circuited phases of an phase PMSM. An indirect
vector control scheme with an improved flux pattern using 3rd harmonic injection is
developed in for the case of 11-phase induction machine.
An improved machine power density was realized by independently controlling both flux and
torque and to generate a nearly rectangular air-gap flux [126].
4.10.10 Claims of Hybrid Stepper Motor:
1.A multi-phase hybrid stepper motor comprising of a rotor system with at least one axially
magnetized permanent magnet, having one pole cap on each side; the pole cap made of soft
magnetic iron having on its periphery a number of NR evenly spaced, radially outward
directed teeth; the rotor pole caps on each side are offset in rotational direction to each other
by one half (1/2) tooth pitch T P= 360 /NR, a nonsymmetrical stator surrounding the rotor and
having ten (10) radially inwardly directed stator poles, each of the stator- poles having one
untapped winding; the stator poles having two or more teeth spaces with the tooth pitch T P, a
total number of stator teeth NS corresponding to the relation of NS = S(n0 + n1) with n0 being
number of teeth of each of 5 poles and n1 the number of teeth of each of remaining 5 poles,
each one of the poles in between of the 5 poles withn0 teeth placed in such a way that
opposite of each of the poles n0 teeth is one pole with n1, teeth, a relationship between the
number of rotor teeth NR and the total number of the stator teeth NS of NS a 0.8NR (equal or
greater than) and with a difference between NR and NS which is defined by the equation NR
- NS = K( S0 - S1) + 10( S1 - 1 + B), where K is any integer vary from 2 to 5, S0 and S1are
integers as small as possible in such a way that S1 can also be equal to S0 and where B is a
fraction of one (1) in such a way that 1 OB (10 times B) is always an integer; and a winding
scheme in such a way that the 10 windings can be energized through a voltage source or
current source so that said 10 windings form as many north-and south-poles necessary to
achieve full step angles = electrical angle 90 = a F, a F = 360 s/1 ONR and half step angle =
electrical angle 45 = a H, a H = 360 /20NR[119].
2. A stepper motor according to claim 1, wherein the 10 pole windings are connected in such
a way to term a decagon with 10 connecting points of which every point can be individually
connected through electronic switches with a voltage source, or current source north-and
south-poles such that at least two adjacent poles are south [119].
3. A multi-phase hybrid stepper motor comprising of a rotor system with at least one axially
having ten (10) radially inwardly directed stator poles, each of the poles having one up tapped
winding; the poles having two or more teeth spaced with the tooth pitch T P, a total number of
stator teeth NS corresponding to the relation of NS = 5( n0 +n1) with n0 being the number of
teeth of each of 5 poles andn1 the number of teeth of each of remaining 5 poles, each one of
the poles in between of the 5 poles with n0 teeth placed in such a way that opposite’ of each
of the polesn0 teeth is one pole with n1teeth, a relationship between the number of rotor teeth
NR and the total number of the stator NS of NS a 0.8 NR (equal or greater than) and with a
114
difference between NR and NS which is defined by the equation NR - NS = K( S0 - S1 ) + 10(
S1-1 + B)[119],
where K is any integer varying from 2 to 5, S0and S1 are integers as small as possible in
such a way that S1 can also be equal to S0 and where B has a value of 0.3 (B = 0.3) and a
winding scheme in such a way that the 10 windings can be energized through a voltage
source or current source so that the 10 windings form as many north-and south-poles
necessary to achieve full step angles = electrical angle 90 = a F, a F = 360 /10NR and half
step angle = electrical angle 45 = a H, a H = 360 /20NR, and an electrical shift angle of 36
will be achieved between poles 1 and 8, between poles 2 and 9, between poles 3 and 10, and
so on, counted in one direction[119].
4. A stepper motor according to claim 3, wherein the pole windings of two (2) opposite poles
get energized in such a way that the poles have opposite polarity (north and south).
5. A stepper motor according to claim 3, wherein the constants K, S0, S1, are chosen in such
a way that the stator has 10 teeth less than the number of rotor teeth NR; (NS = NR - 10)
[119].
6..A multi-phase hybrid stepper motor comprising of a rotor system with at least one axially
magnetic iron having on its periphery number of NR evenly spaced, radially outward directed
teeth; the rotor pole caps on each side are offset in rotational direction to each other by one
half (1/2) tooth pitch Tp = 360 /NR, a nonsymmetrical stator surrounding the rotor and
having ten (10) radially inwardly directed stator poles, each of the poles having one untapped
winding; the poles having two or more teeth spaced with said tooth pitch Tp, a total number
of stator teeth NS corresponding to the relation of NS = 5(n0 + n1)) with n0 being the number
of teeth of each of 5 poles andn1) the number of teeth of each of remaining 5 poles [119],
each one of the poles in between of the 5 poles with n0 teeth placed in such a way that
opposite of each of the polesn0 teeth is one pole with n1 teeth, a relationship between the
number of rotor teeth NR and the total number of the stator teeth NS of NS a 0.8 NR (Equal
or greater than) and with a difference between NR and NS which is defined by the equation
NR - NS = K( S0 - S1) + 10( S1 - 1 + B), where K is any integer varying from 2 to 5, and S0
and S1 are integer as small as possible in such a way that S1 can also be equal to S0 and
where B has a value of 0.7, (B = 0.7) and a winding scheme in such a way that the 10
windings can be energized through a voltage source or current source so that the 10 windings
form as many north-and south-poles necessary to achieve full step angle = electrical angle 90
=a F, a F = 360 /1 ONR and half step angle = electrical angle 45 =a H, a H = 360 /20NR, and
an electrical shift angle of 36 will be achieved between every fourth pole, as an example
between poles 1 and 4, between poles 2 and 5, and so on, counted in one direction [119],
7. A stepper motor according to claim 6, wherein the pole windings of two (2) opposite poles
get energized in such a way that the poles have opposite polarity (north and south)[119].
8. A stepper motor according to claim 6, wherein the constants K, S0, S1 are chosen in such a
way that the stator has 10 teeth less than the number of rotor teeth NR; (NS = NR - 10) [119].
115
winding; the poles having two or more teeth spaced with the tooth pitch T P, a total number of
stator teeth NS corresponding to the relation of NS = 5( n0 + n1) withn0 being the number of
teeth of each of 5 poles andn1 the number of teeth of each of remaining 5 poles, each one of
the poles in between of the 5 poles with n0 Teeth placed in such a way that opposite of each
of the polesn0 teeth is one pole with teeth, a relationship between the number of rotor teeth
NR and the total number of the stator teeth Ns 0.8 NR (equal or greater than) and with a
difference between NR and N5 which is defined by the equation NR - NS = K( S0 - S1 ) + 10(
S1 - 1 + B), where K is any integer varying from 2 to 5, S0 and S1 are integer as small as
possible in such a way that S1 can also be equal to S0 and B has a value of 0.2, (B = 0.2),
and a winding scheme in such a way that the 10 windings can be energized through a voltage
source or current source so that the 10 windings form as many north-and south-poles
necessary to achieve full step angle = electrical angle 90 = a F, a F = 360 /10NR and half step
angle 45 = a H, a H = 360 /20NR, and an electrical shift angle of 72 will be achieved between
every two adjacent poles [119].
10. A stepper motor according to claim 9, wherein the pole windings of two (2) opposite
poles get energized in such a way that the poles have the same polarity (north and south)
[119].
having ten (10) radially inwardly directed stator poles, each of the poles having one untap
winding; the poles having two or more teeth spaced with said tooth pitchT P, a total number of
stator teeth NS corresponding to the relation of NS = 5( n0 +n1) ) with n0 being the number
of teeth of each of 5 poles and n1) the number of teeth of each of remaining 5 poles, each one
of the poles in between of the 5 poles with n0 teeth placed in such a way that opposite of
each of the poles n0 teeth is one pole with n1 teeth, a relationship between the number of
rotor teeth NR and the total number of the stator teeth Ns of Ns≧ 0.8 NR (equal or greater
than) and with a difference between NR and N5 which is defined by the equation NR - NS =
K( S0 - S1) + 10( S1- 1 + B),
where K is any integer varying from 2 to 5, S0 and S1 are integer as small as possible in such
a way that S1can also be equal to S0 and B has a value of 0.3, (B = 0.3), and a winding
scheme in such a way that the 10 windings can be energized through a voltage source or
current source so that the 10 windings form as many north-and south-poles necessary to
achieve full step angle = electrical angle 90 = a F, a F = 360 /10NR and half step angle =
electrical angle 45 = a H, a H = 360 /20NR, and an electrical shift angle of 36 will be
achieved between poles 1 and 8, between poles 2 and 9, between poles 3 and 10, and so on,
counted in one direction, and the constants K S0, are chosen in such a way that the stator has
3 teeth less than the number of rotor teeth NR; (NS = NR - 3)[119].
12. A stepper motor according to claim 11, wherein every second of the ten poles has one
more tooth in such a way that 5 poles have a number of teeth n0, and their adjacent poles
116
have a number of teeth n1[119],
13. A multi-phase hybrid stepper motor comprising of rotor system with at least one axially
winding; the poles having two or more teeth spaced with said tooth pitches ,
a total number of stator teeth NS corresponding to the relation of NS = 5(n0 + n1) with n0
being the number of teeth of each of 5 poles and n1 the number of teeth of each of remaining
5 poles, each one of the poles in between of the 5 poles with n0 teeth placed in such a way
that opposite of each of the poles n0 teeth is one pole with n1 teeth, a relationship between the
number of rotor teeth Nr and the total number of the stator teeth Ns a 0.8 NR(equal or greater
than) and with a difference between NR and N5 which is defined by the equation NR- NS
=K( S0 - S1) + 10( S1 - 1 + B), where K is any integer varying from 2 to 5, S0 and S1 are
integer as small as possible in such a way that S1 can also be equal to S0 and B has a value
of 0.3, (B = 0.3), and a winding scheme in such a way that the 10 windings can be energized
through a voltage source or current source so that the 10 windings form as many north-and
south-poles necessary to achieve full step angle = electrical angle 90 =a F, a F = 360 /10NR
and half step angle = electrical angle 45 = a H, a H = 360 /20NR, and an electrical shift angle
of 36 will be achieved between poles 1 and 8, between poles 2 and 9, between poles 3 and 10,
and so on, counted in one direction, and the constants K, S0, S1 are chosen in such a way that
the stator has 15 teeth less than the number of rotor teeth NR; (NS = NR - 15) [119].
4.11 Historical background

History of the stepper motor can be traced back to the 19th century. They were then
referred to as electromagnetic engines. Two important inventions pertaining to the variable
reluctance stepper motors, which took place in the 20th century, are worth mentioning. The
first one was the invention of salient tooth structure on both the stator and rotor of the VR
stepper motor, for which walker was awarded a British patent in 1919.The second one was
the invention by Chicken and Thain of the sandwich structure for producing large torques in a
small volume, for which an American patent was granted in 1920[126]. The first stepper
motor, a bidirectional variable reluctance type, was developed for the British Navy in 1933. It
was used as a remote position repeater for a compass and gun pointer direction indicator. The
drive was crude but effective for these slow constant speed applications. The system was later
adopted by the U.S. Navy during World War II. The step motor was used in a limited number
of primitive digital control systems through the 1950s.The modern VR stepper motor was
first described by Thomas and Fleischauer in 1957, whose commercial production
commenced in the USA in the early 60’s. Karl M. Feiertag is an assignor to General Electric
company, a corporation of New York. When working at General Electric company, he
invented the slow-synchronous motor in 1940 that was developed into the principle behind
the hybrid stepper motor [128].
In 1952 the General Electric Company designed a stepping motor to be used with the
Superior Electric (an electric company originated in Bristol Connecticut) variable
transformers and rheostats. General Electric originally sold the motors to Superior, to attach
to the rheostats, and Superior sold a complete system back to GE. General Electric sold the
stepping motor design to Superior Electric and in the 1960s Superior improved the design and
117
introduced the M Series hybrid stepping motors in 1970. These were marketed under the
name Slo-Syn. However, in 1952 Sigma Instruments introduced the Cyclonome Stepping
Motor, which is regarded as the first practical two-wire stepping motor. Unfortunately, it
would be years later before integrated circuit electronics would allow for wide spread
application use. The Series 9
Figure 4.41: Cyclonome 9 Series Figure 4.42: Series AC

Stepping Motors [130] Synchronous Motors [131]
Cyclonome stepping motors were single phase, uni-directional stepping motors with step
angles of 15° (24 steps/revolution) and 18° (20 steps/revolution). Torque ranges were 1 - 12
oz-in. Shortly after, Sigma released the Series 18 AC Synchronous motor. These were two
phase, bi-directional permanent magnet motors with speeds of 360, 450, 600 and 900 rpm at
120 Vac, 60Hz. Torque ranges were 0.6 – 11 oz-in. In 1969 Sigma introduced the 20 Series
stepping motor, which had solid broached rotor segments and is closer to the typical 1.8°
(200 steps/revolution) hybrid stepper motor we know today. The 21 Series motor, with
laminated rotor segments, was introduced shortly afterward. The laminated rotor segments
allowed for cooler, high speed performance and the 21 Series motor became known as the
High-Performance Motor [129].
In 1961, Snowden and Madsen of Superior Electric Co. announced a new rendition of the
synchronous inductor motor which would become famous by another name, the hybrid step
motor. Within two years hybrid stepper motor sales eclipsed that of ac synchronous inductor
motors. One of the first applications for the hybrid step motor came from the factory
automation market. When this step motor was mechanically coupled to a five-pitch lead
screw, the combination provided a step-by-step motion of 0.001 in. This step increment
worked very well with tables on machine tools, laboratory, and business machines. Superior
Electric was the pioneer of the hybrid step motor under the SLOSYN brand name to be joined
by others by the late 1960s [129].
4.12 Mathematical model of hybrid stepper motor

4.12.1 Mathematical model of a rotary hybrid stepper motor
In the case of two-phase motor the back EMF induced in the coil A is given by [48] :
E A =ωP ψ m sin ( pθ ) ( 4.4 )
similarly, the back EMF induced in the coil B is given by:
118
E B=ωP ψ m sin ( pθ− λ ) ( 4.5 )
where p – the rotor teeth number;

ψ m –the maximum flux linkage;
θ – the angular position of the rotor;
λ – the phase angle.
π
In this case of two stator phases λ = and the E Bequation can be modified as follows:
2
E B=ωP ψ m cos ( pθ ) (4.6)
In according to the equations 1-3 the phase currents equations are in form of:
d i A (t)
L =V A ( t )−R i A ( t )+ ωp ψ m sin( pθ) (4.7)
dt
d i (t )
L B =V B ( t ) −R i B ( t )−ωp ψ m cos ( pθ) (4.8)
dt
V , V
where A B - the phase voltages;
R – the resistance of the phase winding;
i A,i B – the phase currents
The equations of the components of electromagnetic torque generated by the separate phases
are as follows:
τ A =i A p ψ m sin (pθ) (4.9)
τ B=i B p ψ m cos ⁡( pθ) (4.10)
If the stator and rotor have teeth the total torque is complemented by reluctance torque
component called the detent torque or cogging torque τ d which formula is:
τ d=τ dm sin(2 pθ) (4.11)
where τ dm– the Maximum detent torque. The instantaneous value of electromagnetic torque of
the stepper motor is the sum of phase torques and detent torque:
τ e =−i A p ψ m sin( pθ)−i B p ψ m cos( pθ)−τ dm (4.12)
The rotor motion is described by equation, which takes into account the sum load torque,
electromagnetic torque friction torque:
dω ( t )
j =τ e ( t )−τ L −Bω ( t ) ( 4.13 )
dt
By substitution the equation (4.12 into (4.13), the following can be obtained:
dω
j =−i A p ψ m sin ( pθ ) −i B p ψ m cos ( pθ )−τ dm sin ( 2 pθ )−τ L Bω ( 4.14 )
dt
119
The detent torque value is negligible compared with phases torques and as usual not even
counted [132].
4.12.2 Mathematical model of a linear hybrid stepper motor

The mathematical model of the hybrid linear stepper motor seems trivial at the
beginning, because the voltage equation of a supplied command coil is very simple. This
equation written for command coil A is [132]:
d ψA
v A =R A i A + (4.15)
dt
where v A is the input voltage, R A is the coil resistance and i A isthe current? The flux linkage
through the same coil is given by:
ψ A =N ϕ A =N ( ϕCA +ϕ pm +ϕ CB ) ( 4.16 )
N being the number of turns of the coil, ϕ CA isthe flux produced by command current i A
(having two components: ϕ C A isthe leakage flux and ϕ C A isthe main magnetizing flux), ϕ pm is
σ m
the flux generated by the permanent magnet and ϕ CB isthe flux produced by the current
flowing through command coil B [133].
This circuit type model works only with the following assumptions [133]:
(i) The flux generated by the permanent magnet is constant.
(ii) The permanent magnet reluctance is so large that no flux produced by a command coil
from the other electromagnet flows through the poles.
With these assumptions Eq. 6.2.1 becomes:
d
v A =R A i A + (N ϕCA )
dt
(4.17)
A typical circuit-type equation is obtained by introducing the main and the leakage
inductances ( L A , respectively L A ):
m σ
diA d
v A =R A i A + L A + ( LA i A) (4.18)
dt dt
σ m
where the leakage and main fluxes are given by:
N ϕC A =L A i A
σ σ
(4.19)
N ϕC A =L A i A
m m
(4.20)
The leakage inductance is considered constant (unaffected by saturation and mover position).
The main inductance is affected by saturation and strongly depends of the mover position. By
neglecting the iron core saturation, the main inductance will depend only on the mover
position [133]:
120
L A =L ( x ) ; x=f ( t ) (4.21)
m
In the circuit-field-mechanical model that will be presented further the iron core saturation
and the permanent magnet operating point changes will be fully taken into account. It is quite
difficult to obtain such a relation as Eq. 4.21 and obviously it is necessary to impose some
simplified assumptions. A possibility to determine the simplified A coil flux linkage ψ CA
function of the mover position, considering the saturation effect, is by using the standstill
current decay test. With the mover
at standstill in a certain position a DC current is applied to coil A (Fig.4.42).
Figure 4.43: The standstill current decay test setup.
The coil is fed with a current i A . The power transistor T is turned off. The current is
continuing to flow through diode D, until it reaches zero. After turning off the transistor the
followings relation can be obtained by time integration [133]:
∞
R A ∫ i A dt+ ψ A ¿∞0 =0 (4.22)
0
The flux linkage through the coil A at the initial moment t  0 is:
ψ A =ψ pm+ψ CA
0 0
(4.23)
and when the current i A reaches zero, it becomes:
ψ A =ψ pm
∞
.(4.24)
Assuming that the permanent magnet flux through the coil A is unchanged, then the
following relation can be considered [133]:
121
∞
ψ CA =R A ∫ i A dt
0
(4.25)
0
The test is performed for different mover positions and DC coil currents. The variation of the
flux linkage through coil A is obtained function of the mover position and for each position
function of the current. Using these curves, the flux linkage value at a certain mover position
and a given current value can be determined. Through these curves the saturation of the iron
core is fully considered, but the permanent magnet flux is taken constant. Another way of
obtaining the coil flux linkages is by solving the field problem at different mover positions
and coil current values. If the main path flux linkages are computed, there is no need to
calculate the magnetizing inductance. It leads to the circuit-field type model. The model
covers accurately the effects of the complex toothed configuration, the
magnetic saturation of iron core parts and the permanent magnet operating point change due
to air-gap variable reluctance and command MMF. The coupled circuit-field model cannot be
solved analytically. The computational process consists of a simultaneous iterative
calculation of the circuit type equations and of the field problem. In the particular case of the
hybrid linear stepper motor a supplementary mechanical model has to be solved
simultaneously to determine the mover position at each time moment. The block diagram of
this model is shown in Fig.4.44, where the three main sub-models with the connections
between them are presented [133].

Figure 4.44: Block diagram of the circuit-field-mechanical model.
The first sub-model consists only of the circuit-type equation (Eq. 4.17). The needed flux
linkages must be computed in another sub-model.
Field Sub model

The field sub-model is based on the equivalent magnetic circuit of the motor. Obviously, the
field problem may be solved via a numerical method, using finite elements or finite
differences models, as it will be presented later. In the case when the motor is moving, it is
necessary to solve the field problem for each considered position. This is possible only by
using the equivalent magnetic circuit method, because of the short computational time. The
field sub-model based on the equivalent magnetic circuit is useful for both dynamic and
steady-state motor regimes [133].
In order to compute the fluxes in a certain mover position the numerical methods are
recommended. They offer better accuracy, but at longer computational time. In building up
the magnetic equivalent circuit two problems arise: the permanent magnet model to be
122
adopted and the calculation of the air-gap magnetic reluctance [133].
The permanent magnet is a source for its field and has a large magnetic reluctance for the
external fields. It means that a magnetic circuit, like that given in Fig.4.45/a, can be
represented by two magnetic equivalent circuits given in Fig. 4.45/b. The permanent magnet,
described by its second quadrant characteristic (can be represented by Norton's equivalent
circuit. The relations that basically conduct to the equivalent circuit are [133]:
ϕ=ϕ 0+ p m + F pm
pm
(4.26)
F pm=Rm ϕ+ F c
pm
(4.27)
Where pm =ϕ0 /|F c| and Rm =1 / pm is the permanent magnet permeance and respectively
pm pm pm
reluctance, Rm is the iron core reluctance and F c is the permanent magnet coercive MMF.
Fe
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.45: a) A simple configuration with iron core, permanent magnet and coil
b) The equivalent magnetic circuits c) The second quadrant characteristic of the
permanent magnet d) Norton's equivalent circuit of the permanent magnet.
In the first case the nonlinearities are taken fully into account by considering the nonlinear
iron core reluctance and computing at each iteration the permanent magnet MMF, from its
second quadrant characteristic (Eq.4.27). In fact, in the second case, when the permanent
magnet is described by a unique equivalent circuit, the computational process is quite the
same, because at any time moment the permanent magnet MMF must be calculated (Eq.
4.27) by using the previously determined value of the flux. The two equivalent magnetic
circuits obtained for the hybrid linear stepper motor are presented in Fig.20[133]:
(a) (b)
123
Figure 4.46: The magnetic equivalent circuit a) without command MMF b) with
command MMF and permanent magnet reluctance
The two corresponding systems of equations are [133]:
ϕ'1 +ϕ'2−ϕ'5=0
{
ϕ '3+ ϕ'4 −ϕ'5 =0
ϕ '1−ϕ'7 =0
ϕ'4−ϕ '8=0
ϕ'2−ϕ'6+ ϕ'7 +ϕ'10 =0
ϕ'1 ( Rm 12+ R mg 1+ R m 13) −ϕ '2 ( Rm 22 + Rmg 2 ) +ϕ '7 Rm 11 =0 . (4.28)
ϕ'2 ( Rm 22 + Rmg 2 ) +ϕ '3 ( R m32 + Rmg 3 ) + ϕ'5 R m 5=F pm
−ϕ'3 ( Rm 32 + Rmg 3 ) +ϕ'4 ( R m42+ Rmg 4 + Rm 43) + ϕ'8 Rm 41=0
ϕ'9=0
ϕ'10 R m =F pm σpm
'
ϕ11 =0
ϕ'1' +ϕ '2' −ϕ'5' =0
{
ϕ'3' +ϕ '4' −ϕ'5' =0
ϕ ' '1−ϕ'7' + ϕ'9' =0
ϕ'4' −ϕ ''8 +ϕ'11' =0
ϕ ' '2−ϕ'6' +ϕ ''7 −ϕ'9' =0
ϕ'1' ( R m 12+ Rmg 1 + Rm 13 )−ϕ'2' ( Rm 22 + Rmg 2 ) +ϕ ''7 R m11=F 1 (4.29)
ϕ'2' ( Rm 22 + Rmg 2 ) +ϕ ' '3 ( R m32 + Rmg 3 ) + ϕ''5 Rm 5 +ϕ'6' R m =0
pm
' '' ''
−ϕ ' ( Rm 32 + Rmg 3 ) +ϕ ( R m 42+ R mg 4 + Rm 43) + ϕ Rm 41=F 2
3 4 8
' ''
ϕ ' 9 Rm +ϕ7 R m =F 1
σ1 11
ϕ ' '10 =0
ϕ ' '8 Rm + ϕ''11 R m =F 2
41 σ2
where the command coils MMFs are [133]:

F A=N A i A (4.30)
F B=N B i B (4.31)
The resulting magnetic fluxes are given by:
ϕ j=ϕ'j +ϕ 'j' , j=1÷11 (4.32)
In the magnetic equivalent circuit built up for the hybrid linear stepper motor (Fig.4.45) only
124
one magnetic reluctance for every pole was considered and, in the platen, only one magnetic
reluctance was taken for each flux path.
These magnetic reluctances are computed as a sum of many elementary reluctances, but in
the equivalent magnetic circuit only the result of the computation is represented. The
nonlinear permeances of the iron core portions must be computed by means of the
corresponding field-dependent single valued permeability  . The dependence of the
permeability  of the flux or induction has to be given, or it has to be computed at each
iteration from the magnetizing characteristic of the iron core material. In order to obtain
analytical results, which can be helpful in elaborating the control strategy two assumptions
must be made [133]:
 The air-gap reluctances are much larger than all other reluctances,
excepting that of the permanent magnet.
 The permanent magnet reluctance is so large that it will separate the
two electromagnets.
Therefore, the equivalent magnetic circuit of the motor in absence of the control
currents is given in Fig.4.46[133]
Figure 4.47: The equivalent magnetic circuit in absence of the command MMFs.
When the command coil B is supplied, the flux produced by its MMF, ϕ CB , quivalent circuit
given in Fig 4.47.
Figure 4.48: Magnetic equivalent circuit of one electromagnet.

There are some different possibilities to calculate the air-gap permeance when both
iron cores have teeth and slots in cylindrical or linear machines. For the variable equivalent
air-gap the following expression was obtained [133]:
2Zg '
ge = (4.33)
(2 Z+ λ−1)¿ ¿
125
with the motor constant c:
λ [1+ λ ( 2 Z−1 ) ]
c= (4.34)
2(2 Z + λ−1)
The air-gap permeance computed for a mover pole is:
μ0 S p
pm = ; j=1÷ 4 ( 4.35 )
gj
gej
Where S p is the pole area and μ0=4 π 10−7 H /mis the free space permeability?
Mechanical Sub-model
The electromagnetic forces can be evaluated either from the gradient of the magnetic co-
energy with respect to a virtual displacement or by Maxwell's stress tensor method. The
former method is more reliable for this problem and it was adopted here. The tangential force
under one mover pole j is given by [133];
∂W m
f t =−
j ( ) ∂x
j
ϕ j =ct
; j=1÷4 . (4.36)
which leads to:

− ( N ϕ J )2 d
ft = g ( x ) : j=1 ÷ 4 ( 4.37 )
j
2 μ 0 S p dx [ e ] j
∂ Wm
f n =− j ( ) ∂g
j
ϕ j =ct
; j=1÷4 (4.38)
After some computations the following relation can be obtained:
f
(4.39)
2
( N ϕ J)
n j=¿− j =1 ÷ 4 ¿
2 μ0 S p
The mechanical sub model considered here is a simplified one. In order to obtain this model,
given in Fig.23, two assumptions were made [133]:
The motor is a homogeneous solid, the resulting tangential and normal forces being applied
on its center.
i) The resulting forces are obtained as an algebraic sum of the pole forces.
126
Figure 4.49: Simplified mechanical model
This simplified mechanical model does not take into considerations the torques that exist.
These torques are produced by the normal forces that are not applied in the center of the
mover but in each pole axe. The mechanical sub-model is characterized by the equation:
d2 x
m =f t −( f n+ G ) c f (4.40)
dt2
where c f is the friction coefficient, G is the mover weight and m the mover mass? By solving
the above force equation, the velocity and displacement are computed [133].
4.13 Electrical degrees

When discussing the hybrid stepper motor two different kinds of angles have to be
considered: the rotor position denoted θr , and the phase of the electrical field denoted θe .The
electrical degrees are the position of the current resultant vector between two closest poles
and is vital when considering the hybrid stepper motor in micro stepping control. The
relationship between rotor and electrical position can be described as
[134]:
θe (t) = N r θr (t) (4.41)
4.14 Pros of Hybrid Stepper Motor

A "hybrid" type stepper motor combines the design and advantages from both
permanent magnet type and variable reluctance type stepper motors. Therefore, a hybrid type
stepper motor uses both the permanent magnet rotor as well as a toothed rotor and stator in
their design. With strong permanent magnets, toothed rotor, toothed stator, and a tiny air gap,
a hybrid type stepper motor is able to focus the magnetic flux better than the other two types.
Low loss is achieved by stacking magnetic steel laminations that can easily pass the magnetic
flux. The step angle of a hybrid type stepper motor is in inverse proportion to the number of
small teeth on the rotor and the number of phases. With hybrid type stepper motors, high
torque can be obtained by the rare earth permanent magnets while high resolution obtained by
the small teeth is maintained. Also, the relationship between current and torque is close to
proportional; making it easier to control than a VR type stepper motor. Hybrid type stepper
motors can also achieve higher resolution. The most popular stepper motors in the market are
the hybrid type as it offers the best performance albeit at a higher cost. Hybrid type stepper
motors will work well for most applications while PM type or VR type stepper motors are
limited to certain applications [134=5].
Summary [136]:
 Very small step angles.
 Higher torque per unit volume
 The motor provides high braking torque and has a de-energized winding.
 It can improve performance even at the lowest speed.
 Minimum stepping speed.
127
 The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized).
 Excellent response to starting/ stopping/reversing.
 Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore, the life
of the motor is simply dependent on the life of the bearing.
 Hybrid type stepper motor is able to focus the magnetic flux better than the
other two types.
 Higher resolution.
4.15 Cons of hybrid stepper motor

Cons of Hybrid-Stepper Motors with Four (or less) Phases, are as follows:
 Higher inertia.
 The weight of the motor is more because of the presence of the rotor magnet.
 If the magnetic strength is varied, the performance of the motor is affected.
 The cost of the Hybrid motor is more as compared to the Variable Reluctance
Motor [138].
 Large variation in dynamic torque during switching from step to step and also
in static positions when in half step mode. The variation factor is 1/;/ 2.
 Relatively high detent-torque which can destroy the step angle accuracy as
well as the movement during micro-stepping.
 For micro-stepping mode a sinewave-current carination requires very small
changes at the top of the sinewave. With small motors the rotor may not move
because the torque change is too small.
 These motors develop relatively strong resonances at step frequencies below
1kHz due to the torque variations. Sometimes those motors have speed zones in
which the rotor will not rotate without a certain load or additional damper.
 Start-and stop-stop frequencies are relatively low.
 Due to the limited number of possible rotor teeth, most of the achievable step
angles and the number of steps per revolution are not very practical for many
industrial applications [137].
4.16 Some modern hybrid stepper motor

 NEMA 6 Standard Hybrid Stepper Motors [138]:
Manufacturer: YK
Specification:
 16.00 mm Frame Size
128
 3.46° Step Angle
 33 mm Length
 0.014 Nm Holding Torque
Figure 4.50: Torque curves [138]
Dimensions:
Figure 4.51: Dimension [138]

 0.9 Degree Step Angle Nema 14 Stepper Motor For Cutting Plotter
35HSM
Series [140]
Brand Name: 3X MOTION
129
Figure 4.52: 0.9 Degree Step Angle Nema 14 Stepper Motor For Cutting Plotter
35HSM Series [141]
General specification [140]:
Table 4.2: general specification of 0.9 Degree Step Angle Nema 14 Stepper Motor
for Cutting Plotter 35 HSM Series [140]
Step Angle Accuracy ±5% (full step, no load)
Resistance Accuracy ±10%
Inductance Accuracy ±20%
Temperature Rise 80℃max (rated current, 2
phases on)
Ambient Temperature -20℃~+50℃
Insulation Resistance 100MΩ min,500VDC
Dielectric Strength 500VDC for one minute
Shaft Radial Play 0.02mm max (450g load)
Shaft Axial Play 0.08mm max (450g load)
Max. radial force 28N (20mm from the
flange)
Max. axial force 10N
Rotation CCW
Insulation Class B(130℃)
Description [14]:
3X MOTION Hybrid Stepper Motors are widely used in
laboratory and medical equipment,
printing machines,
pumps vending machines
130
and a multitude of other applications.
Dimensions:
Figure 4.53: Dimension [144]
 1.8 ° 35mm NEMA 14 2 Phase Hybrid Stepper Motor 35mm Small Size
36HM21
Figure 4.54: 1.8 ° 35mm NEMA 14 2Phase Hybrid Stepper Motor.[143]
Model Number: 36HM21
Certification: RoHS
131
MOQ: 1 Unit
Price: $8.00 - $15.00 / Units
Payment Terms: T/T, Western Union, MoneyGram
Supply Ability: 100000Units per month
Delivery Time: 15-30 work days
Packaging Details: Standard export package, or can be customized
Step Angle(degrees) :0.9°
Holding Torque: 1100g.cm
Phase: 2
Type: Hybrid
Weight: 130 g
Current / Phase: 0.5A
Voltage: 6V [62].
This stepper motor series are: 20mm, 28mm, 35mm, 39mm, 42mm, 57mm, 60mm, 86mm,
110mm, 130mm. Two-phase, three-phase and four-phase hybrid stepping motor. The DC
brushless motor range includes 42BLS, 57BL(S), 86BLS, and matching DC brushless
drivers.
Therefore, the products are in line with ROHS requirements. Applications include robotics,
industrial electronic automation equipment, medical equipment, advertising equipment,
printing equipment, textile machinery and so on. Has been exported to the United States,
Germany, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, Mexico, Brazil and other more than 20 countries
[145].
132
Mechanical Dimension: MM
Figure 4.55: Mechanical Dimension of 1.8 ° 35mm NEMA 14 2Phase Hybrid

Stepper Motor [144].
Typical Applications [145]

• 3D Printer
• Monitoring Equipment
• Medical Machinery
• Vending Machine
• Engineering Vehicle
• CNC Engraving Machine
• ATM Machine
Specifications
Standard Operating Conditions [144]
NO. ITEM SPEC. REMARKS
1 Voltage 6 VDC
2 Source 24 VDC Indicates the

Voltage voltage that
the power
supplier
applies to
the driver
133
circuit. It is
same as the
rated
voltage
when motor
is derived
on a
constant
voltage
model
3 Phase 4 Phase
4 Rated 0.5 A Peak value
Current /Phase when micro-
step
5 Exciting Unipolar
mode
6 Step 0.9 deg ±7％
angle
7 Rotation CW/CC
W
Electrical Characteristics [145]

N ITEM SP TEST REM
O EC. COND ARK
. ITION S
1 Resistance 50± At Each
10 20℃ phase
％
Ω
2 Inductanc 30± At Each

e 20 1Hz,0.3 phase
％ Vrms (Ref.
mH
3 Holding ≥50
Torque 0
g.c
m
500
g.c
134
m
min
4 Detent ≤12
Torque 0
g.c
m
120
g.c
m
max
5 Step- ±5 Consta
Angle ％ nt
Accuracy Current
Driver/
12V/T
wo
Phase
on/Rate
d
current/
Speed:1
pps
6 Slew Rate — Source
with no — Voltage
load 24V/
Rated
current/
/Half
step
7 Pull-in — Source
rate with — Voltage
no load 24V/
Rated
current/
/Half
step
8 Dielectric ≤1 600VA
Strength mA C,1
second
1
mA
max
135
.
9 Insulation ≥10 500VD Betw
Resistance 0 C een
MΩ coil
and
100 end
MΩ bells
min
.
1 Insulation Coil
0 class clas
sB
1 Temperatu less
1 re rise than
80
℃
Mechanical Characteristics [145]

NO. ITEM SPEC.
1 Outline Diminutions See technical
drawing
2 Rotor Inertia 10 g.cm2
3 Weight 0.11 kg
4 End play of the shaft 0.08mm@500g.f
5 Radial play of the 0.02mm@500g.f
shaft
Environmental Performance [145]

N ITEM OPERATING
O
.
1 Operation Ambient -20℃～+50℃
environme temperat
nt ure
conditions
136
Ambient 15 ～ 85%RH
Humidit No
y condensation
2 Storage Ambient -30℃～+70℃

environme temperat
nt ure
conditions
Ambient 15 ～ 85%RH
Humidit No
y condensation
[145]
 20H NEMA8 2Phase 1.8° [146]

Manufacturer: YUNGKONG ELECTRONICS
Specification:
Table 4.3: Specification of 20H NEMA8 2Phase 1.8° [146]
Model no. Voltage Current/Pha Resistance/ Inductance/ Holdin

(V) se Phase Phase g
Torque
20H024H- 4.4 0.2 22 6 0.1

0204
20H028H- 4.8 0.2 24 8 0.13

0204
20H033H- 3.6 0.6 6 2.2 0.18

0604
Features of 20H NEMA8 2Phase 1.8° [146]

 Small size,
 high smoothness,
 small inertia
Related Small Names
137
 Sized High Torque Step Motor for Science Instrument
 Optical Instrument Used Two Phase Stepping Motor
 Hybrid Stepper Motor for Medical Scanning Device
Figure 4.56: Nema 8 stepper motor [147]
Application for 20H NEMA8 2Phase 1.8°

Scientific instrument industry: Optical instrument
Medical industry: Scanning equipment
Communication equipment industry: Mobile Satellite TV [146]
 NEMA 23 Power Plus Hybrid Stepper Motors

Manufacturer: MOONS’
Specification [148]:
• Ultra-high torque, High efficiency,
• High accuracy,
• Step Angle: 1.8°
• NEMA23(size, 56.4x 56.4mm)
• Available options for Wire Harness, Damper [148].
138
Figure 4.57: NEMA 23 Power Plus Hybrid Stepper Motors [149]
Typical Applications [148]

Changing existing machines to Power Plus motors can be a quick path to new models with
improved performance. Because the motor, drive and mechanical parts remain the same
benefits include:
Torque Curves
Figure 4.58: Torque Curves [150]
 42HM NEMA17 2Phase 0.9°
139
Manufacturer: YUNGKONG ELECTRONICS
Table 4.4: Specification of 42HM NEMA17 2Phase 0.9°
Model Rated Current/P Resistanc Indu Length Weig

No. Voltage hase e/Phase ctan ht
ce/P
hase
V A Ω mH mm kg
42H033H 3.8 0.5 7.5 18 33 0.22
M-0504
42H033H 2.8 1.33 2.1 4.2 39 0.28

M-1334
42H039H 6.8 0.5 13.6 34 47 0.35

M-0504
42H039H 2.8 1.68 1.65 4.2 39 0.28

M-1684
Features of 42HM NEMA17 2Phase 0.9° [151]

 High output torque
 high resolution
 high-precision positioning
 small vibration
Figure 4.59: 42HM NEMA17 2Phase 0.9° [152]
140
Application for 42HM NEMA17 2Phase 0.9° [151]
Advertising industry: Marking machine
Medical industry: Biochemical analyzer, blood cell analyzer
 Stepper motor P010 104 series

Manufacturer: Portescap S.A., Switzerland
DESCRIPTION: [153]
Portescap disc magnet motors provide exceptional dynamic performance unparalleled by any
other small diameter stepper in the market. The unique thin disc magnet enables finer step
resolutions in a given envelope, significantly higher acceleration and greater top speed than
conventional steppers. These high-speed stepper motors excel in applications that require the
precision of a stepper and the speed and acceleration of a brushless DC motor. Closing the
loop provides a competitive advantage against a servo solution [70]
Motor Highlights
•Precise - well-suited for micro stepping
•Fast - disc magnet enables fastest acceleration and highest top speed of any step motor while
maintaining accurate positioning
•Unique - low detent torque and highly customizable
•Adaptable - higher steps per revolution than similar diameter steppers Customization
Available
•Sintered or ball bearings
•Various windings
•Shaft modifications - increase/decrease length, knurling
•Longer leads, connectors •Gearheads for increased torque
•Encoders for position verification
•Lead screw shafts Applications
•Clinical Diagnostics
•Motors for Medical Pipettes
•Barcode scanners
•Flap actuation
•Optical attenuators [153].
Figure 4.60: Stepper motor P010 104 series [154]
141
 36 series Planetary Gearbox
Manufacturer: YUNGKONG ELECTRONICS [155]
 low speed,
 high torque
Table 4.5: Specification of 36 series Planetary Gearbox
Motor phase VDC ohm A rpm mm KG Nm Nm

Type s
42BY 2 4 4.2 0.95 -- 33 0.22 -- 0.155
A336
BL42 3 24 1.5 -- 4000 41 0.3 0.06 0.075
26244 25
000
Figure 4.61: 36 series Planetary Gearbox [155]
142
CHAPTER 5
Commercial and industrial application of hybrid stepper motor and Control
5.1 Applications
Hybrid stepper motor (HSM) drives exhibit advantages like open loop position and speed
control capabilities, high torque density and lower cost with respect to other brushless servo
alternatives. They are used in several industrial applications, mainly for positioning
applications. However, the typical performance of conventional open loop stepper motor
drives is limited, making them unsuitable where high speeds, fast dynamics and smooth
motion is required. In facts due to its inertia, the rotor oscillates around the final position
before stabilizing. In addition, they are also easily prone to stall (i.e. the motor can lose steps
if the variation of the load torque is fast) and usually produce strong audible noise. Due to the
availability of lower step resolutions 0.9°, 1.8° or 3.6°, the standard being 1.8°, hybrid
stepper motor exhibit high static and dynamic torque characteristics (response for starting,
stopping, and reversing) [5]. Hence, hybrid stepper motors are used in various industrial and
domestic applications like,
• Floppy disk drive
• Automatic Sun-Tracking System
• Electro hydraulic valve with the hybrid motor
• Smart Dish
• CNC Machines
• Motorized Moving Stage
• Delta 3D Printer
• Inkjet Printer [163]
5.1.1 Floppy disk drive

A floppy disk drive (FDD), or floppy drive, is a hardware device that reads data
storage information. The stepper motor used for running the disk in the floppy disk drive are
generally hybrid stepper motor. It is used for rotating the disk in clock-wise and
anticlockwise [163]. When the floppy disk drive is first powered up, the rotary actuator and
the index sensor both work together to place the read/write heads over track 0 (starting track
on a floppy disk). Once the sensor has reached this starting track, the computer is now ready
to retrieve or write files onto the floppy disk. As the drive begins to receive information from
the computer, or from the disk when retrieving files, the rotary actuator moves the suspension
arm out track by track depending on the number of step signals it receives from the computer
system. It is very interesting to note that the motor that moves the heads is an open loop
system – contrary to hard disk drives, which use a closed loop system's, i.e., it doesn’t know
143
if it positioned the heads on the right location! When the floppy disk drive is first accessed,
the heads are retracted down to track zero, so the controller (located on the motherboard, not
the one inside the drive) knows that the heads are in the correct place. Floppy disk drives
have two motors, one for moving the heads which is a hybrid stepper motor and another for
rotating the disk at a fixed speed. [165].
Figure 5.1: Position of read head relative Figure 5.2: Read write
element used to disk track. [166] read a floppy disk. [167]
5.1.2 Automatic Sun-Tracking System

Microprocessor controlled sun-tracking units use mathematical formula to predict the
sun location and need not sense the sunlight. To determine position, they use hybrid stepper
motors. The principle involved in the design of the automatic tracking system is to sense the
sun light with two LDRs. The differential signal representing the angular error of the panel is
used to rotate the panel in such a way that the angular error is minimized.
Figure 5.3: Sun pointing actuator principles. Figure 5.4: Circuit diagram of the
[168] LDR. [168]
Figure 5.3 shows the schematic diagram of the differential light sensor mechanism which is
used to detect the direction of the sun. Four LDRs are used as the light sensor unit and they
are fixed on a four sides pyramid structure and connected to the microcontroller. As shown in
Figure 5.4, when both LDRs are equally illuminated, their respective resistances are the same
and hence the voltage applied across them is equal. When any of the LDRs falls in shadow,
the voltage applied across them is not the same and hence the microcontroller activates the
motor in such direction to bring both LDRs under even illumination. Orientation drive units
in dynamic sun tracker are responsible for positioning the solar array normal to the sun for
extracting maximum power. These mechanisms consist of a one-axis or two-axis gimbals,
and a motor/controller drive system. The drive motors are configured to provide sufficient
torque to autonomously track the sun during the arrays life as well as to reach a faster slew
rate when desired. The gimbals mechanism must provide the required strength and stiffness
to accommodate all array loads. Drive motors for these devices have evolved throughout the
years. The positioning systems have been traditionally implemented using DC motors due to
144
the relative ease in controlling them. This ease of control is due to the fact that the system
equations describing a (separately excited) DC motor are linear. However, there are still
disadvantages in using such motors for positioning systems. In particular, for high speeds
repetitive motion, the brushes are subject to excessive mechanical wear and consequently
lead to a decrease in performance. Also, due to the repetitive motion there is a problem of
armature winding overheating. Since the winding are on the rotor, the heat does not have a
direct path to the outside environment, but instead must be dissipated through the stator.
Finally, the torque to inertia ratio is relatively low, again due to having the armature winding
on the rotor. For the reasons just enumerated, the positioning system is implemented using
hybrid stepper motors. Hybrid stepper motors are the ideal choice for those applications
where power is small and position control is required to be sharp and fast. Due to the lack of
rotor windings, the rotor weight, and inertia are highly reduced. Moreover, reliability, lack of
contact aging, mechanical ruggedness, and availability of torque at zero speed are attractive
features for aerospace and servo applications. The microcontroller in this system is used to
detect quickly the location of the sun at any time by comparing the voltage drop on each
LDR, drive the system to the correct position in shortest way and smallest time control the
rotation of each motor and verify at each sample time that the system is at correct position
[168].
5.1.3 Electro hydraulic valve with the hybrid motor

Electrohydraulic valves are commonly used in many branches of industries, such as
mining or plastic processing. They can be controlled by the low value power electrical signals
and produce high forces. For this reason, they represent a serious alternative to electric and
pneumatic drives. Hydraulic drives are controlled by valves with many types of valves in the
control stages, most of the currently used servo drives based on the proportional valves and
servo valves. Because of the specific design and precision of the prefabricated elements used
in the construction of the servo valves, they are characterized by a high price. For this reason,
they are designed for the most demanding applications, such as, for example, the aero-control
systems in airplanes. In less demanding applications requiring the use of hydraulic systems
with less dynamics, proportional valves are typically used. Sliders in this type of valves are
most often positioned by the cooperation between electromagnets and springs. The use of a
hybrid stepper motor as an alternative to electromagnets.
Figure 5.5: Structure of the valve [169]
The stepper motor was connected to the spool by the flexible coupling bellows (Figure 5.5).
This ensures the rotation and axial translation of spool placed in the casing. The window
145
opening is relative to angular motor position and pitch of thread. The rotation determines
direction of spool translation and opening of valve gaps. Motor working in open loop control
system. The resolution was scaled to 1000 pulses/rev. The motor is equipped with additional
incremental encoder, to protect the system against loss of step and to determination of the
base position in the event of emergency power off. The picture below (Figure 5.6) presents a
picture of the assembled valve. The use of the bellows coupling marked in the drawing
ensures the concentricity of the motor shaft and the valve slide. In addition, it is not
susceptible in the rotary axis, precisely transferring the entire beveling torque [170].
Figure 5.6: View of valve with hybrid stepping motor [169]
MODEL OF THE VALVE WITH STEPPER MOTOR

In order to understand the valve's operation, its mathematical model was built. The model is
divided into two parts: hydraulic and stepper motor. The mathematical model of the stepper
motor is built based on following formula:
e A =−k m ω sin ( N r . θ ) (5.1)
e B =k m ω cos ( N r .θ ) (5.2)
v A −Ri A −e A )
i A=∫ (( L )
dt (5.3)
( v B−Ri B −e B )
i B =∫ ( L ) dt (5.4)
dω
J + Bω=T e (5.5)
dt
eA eB
(
T e =−k m i A −
Rm ) (
sin ( N r . θ ) +k m i B −
Rm )
cos ( N r .θ )−T d sin ( 4 N r .θ ) (5.6)
dθ
=ω (5.7)
dt
where: e A and e B - the back electric and magnetic fields induced in the A and B phase
windings, i Aandi B - the A and B phase winding currents, v A and v B - the A and B phase
winding voltages, k m- the motor torque constant, N r - the number of teeth on each of the two
rotor poles, R - the winding resistance, L - the winding inductance, Rm- the magnetizing
146
resistance, B - the rotational damping, J - the inertia, ω - the rotor speed, θ - the rotor angle,
T e - the generated torque,T d - the detent torque. The hydraulic part of the model includes the
square root characteristics of the flow through the gap, displacement of the slider and flow
coefficient which is dependent on the density of the used oil and the Reynolds number. The
flows through the valve can be described by the following formula:
x>0,
Q a= K q √( P −P (t ) ) . x ( t ) (5.8)
0i a
Q b= K q √( P ( t ) ) . x ( t ) (5.9)
b
X<0,
Q a= K q √( P ( t ) ) . x ( t ) (5.10)
a
Q b= K q √( P −P (t ) ) . x ( t ) (5.11)
0i b
where: x – displacement of the slider,Q a – flow through the A gap,Q b– flow through the B
gap, K q – flow factor, Pa , Pb– pressure in A and B gap, P0 – supply pressure on valve input
i
port Taking into account the inertia and pressure drop the supply pressure is equal to:
P0
P0 =¿ (5.12)
i
Ts+1
where: T – time constant, P_0– supply pressure in output of the hydraulic power supply.
The MATLAB Simulink model was divided on the hydraulic and electrical part. Electrical
part consists hybrid stepper motor and the controller. Elements marked as: Stepper motor
controller and Stepper motor are Subsystems described by means of equations [5.1.-7]. The
digital input pulses get on step and direction inputs provides open-loop control. If a stepper
motor with an encoder is used, it is possible to use a closed feedback loop. However, due to
the limited speed of the motor motion and the selection of it in such a way that the torque
exceeds the torque required for the displacement and displacement of the slider, the risk of
losing steps is minimized. The motor was powered by 24VDC [169].
Figure 5.7: MATLAB Simulink simulation model of the valve. [169]
147
Smart Dish Controller Hybrid stepper
Software(Java Dish
(Arduino Nano) motors
program)
5.1.4 Smart Dish

Smart Dish is a Dish which connected with two hybrid stepper motors, Arduino and
stepper motor drivers. It adjusts its position according to the satellite’s position to receive the
signal, the Arduino takes the data from the software then processes it and applies it on the
hardware (steppers); which makes the steppers moves to reach the desired point. The Smart
Dish plays the role of the human in adjusting the Dish’s position or angle, which gives the
best signal from the satellite without making an effort. The steppers are in two axes (x, y) so
the Dish moves Vertically and Horizontally - the steppers are connected with drivers that’s
form a link between the steppers and the controller.
Figure 5.8: represent the system block diagram [170]
In this block data comes from the software as input to the controller, the controllers receive
the data and processes it then applies it on the steppers (hardware), according to this the
steppers operates and moves the Dish to the desired location that user had defined it and this
preform the output of this block diagram [170].
Smart Dish Software

It’s a software written by java program language. It consists of two main parts:
- Graphical User Interface (GUI)
- Back End
Graphical User Interface (GUI)

It’s the part of the software that appears on the screen to the user, it forms the shape of the
software. It is also consisted of three parts:
Work space
- Buttons
- Signal columns
Work space
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Figure 5.9: represent graphical user interface [170]
It’s the display screen for the software that shows the actual position of the Dish and the
desired position. For example, our actual position in the point (10, 20) in figure (5.9) where
10 is the position of the first stepper an x-axis and 20 is the position of the second stepper in
y-axis and our desired position on the point (20,20), so we need to move our first stepper in
x-axis to the point 20, to make our Dish reach the desired position in the point (20,20) [170].
Buttons
In (GUI) we have 6 buttons (U→ Up, D→ Down, L→ Left, R→ Right, A→ Auto,
M→ Manual) theses are control buttons which control in the position of the
hardware (steppers).
Figure 5.10: represent buttons in smart dish software [170]
A→ Auto
When enabling this button’s, the rest of the buttons are disabled and our steppers moves
automatically to our desired position when locating the point in the work space.
M→ Manual
Signal columns
When enabling this button all the buttons are enabled except the (A) button, and moving to
our desired position becomes manually.
There is two columns for the signal of the Dish – one represents the strength of the signal and
the other represents the quality of the signal.
Figure 5.11: represent signal columns [170]
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Back End
Second part of the software is back end – the code that operates all the function in (GUI) –
and without it the program won’t function. In most of the software of the programs the (GUI)
and the back end are written in different language, here both of them are written in java
language .
5.1.5 CNC Machines

Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) Machines have been historically and primarily
developed to achieve accurate and precise positioning of tool and work-piece in relation to
each other. This whole positioning system is simply based on the coordinates of the machine
work space or envelop. In order to achieve these coordinates for the positioning or movement
of the tool and / or machine table (or work-piece), a CNC machine provide commands to the
various electrical drives through various CNC codes and data supplied by the operator in the
form a part-program. Thus, the accuracy and precision of these CNC machines and hence the
performance of the CNC machines is primarily dependent on the accurate and precise
movement of the tool and/or machine table (or work-piece) generated by these electrical
drives and associated mechanisms. These movements of tool or work-piece takes place along
some axis of the CNC machine and thus the various electrical drives affecting these
movements are referred as axes drives. For axes drives, the CNC machines mainly use two
types of motors viz. Stepper Motors and Servo Motors. Each of these classes of motors has
several variants and each have their advantages and disadvantages. Servomotors are not a
specific class of motor although the term servomotor is often used to refer to a motor suitable
for use in closed-loop control systems that require feedback mechanisms. A stepper motor is
a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in steps and is widely used
in low cost, open loop position control systems that require no feedback mechanisms. In CNC
system a dedicated computer is used to perform all the essential functions as per the
executive program stored in the computer memory. The system directs commands to servo
drives to drive the servo motor & other output devices like relays, solenoids, etc. to initiate
the operations such as motor starting & stopping, coolant on & off, tool changing, pallet
changing, etc. and other miscellaneous functions. Once the system gives, it becomes
necessary to ensure that the particular function has been completed. This is done by “Feed
Back Devices.” Continuous feedback device like linear scale, encoder, resolver, etc. are used
as position feedback of the motor. Some sensors like proximity switch, limit switch, pressure
switch, flow switch, and float switch, etc. are used as feedback devices to monitor the
different operations. This is all operations of the CNC machine are monitored continuously
with appropriate feedback devices. So that CNC system is called as “Closed Loop” system. In
case of failure in any failure feedback, the system generates a “Fault Message”. In its most
simplified explanation, CNC takes a series of numbers, sorts them out, and converts them
into electrical signals that move motors. The series of numbers comes from a program.
Humans are able to read a program because it is made up of letters, numbers, and symbols
that we are familiar with. Machines are able to read a program because it is stored digitally
in binary form. That is, each of the letters, numbers, and symbols are made up of ones and
zeros. When the machine “sees” a series of ones and zeros that fit a particular pattern, it
initiates a pre-determined sequence of actions [171] [172].
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Figure 5.12: Basic CNC Schematic [171]
5.1.6 Motorized Moving Stage

A motorized moving stage with submicron precision is needed to support cellular
manipulation e.g., in vitro fertilization in cattle breeding industry. an automatic moving stage
prototype which has two degrees of freedom using hybrid stepper motor connected
mechanically with rails of the microscope moving stage. Microscope stage movement is fully
controlled using main software which connected logically to ATMEGA 8 through serial
communication chip proxy FT232RL. Cellular manipulation in assisted reproduction requires
supporting equipment to help livestock industry researcher and practitioner performs gamete
cells micromanipulation with less error. The presence of submicron precision automatic
moving stage in livestock breeding industry which can be fully controlled automatically using
software is expected to reduce gamete fusion failure probability in assisted fertilization.
THEORETICAL BASIS
Hybrid Linear Actuator (HLA)
HLA is a linear actuator consisting of hybrid stepper motor with extended rotator shaft paired
with screw cap to convert rotational movement into linear movement. Figure 5.13 shows the
physical appearance of HLA external type.
Figure 5.13: Physical appearance of Figure 5.14: Converting

Mechanism of HLA external type [174] Rotary Movement
into Translation
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. Movement in HLA. [174]
Figure 5.14 shows converting mechanism from rotational movement into translational
movement in HLA threaded shaft. Assuming all of rotational steps can be perfectly
transformed into linear steps, amount of the linear displacement can be calculated using
ι=(D/N) n_r
(5.13)
ι is amount of linear displacement came from rotational movement, D is distance between

corresponding screw “teeth” (see Figure 5.14), is number of full turning steps are needed by
system to make one full rotation (360^∘) and is number of steps generated from stepper
motor. Amount of can be calculated using
N=360^∘/u (5.14)
Equation (5.14) shows that depends on u value which represents smallest full step resolution
which can be generated by stepper motor without has a slip and without micro-step driving
emulation [174].
ATMEGA 8 Microcontroller
Microcontroller is electronic devices which can be programmed to execute specific
application routine. Physically, microcontroller is an integrated circuit consisting of main
processor, Random Access Memory (RAM), permanent memory (ROM) and input/output pin
which can be utilized to make communication with external devices. ATMEGA 8 is an 8-bit
microcontroller produced by ATMEL Corp. and come with 8 Kbyte Flash PEROM
(Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory) used to store main code. ATMEGA 8
processor can work up to 16 MHz clock frequencies and designed using RISC (Reduced
Instruction-Set of Computing) processor architecture named ATMEL AVR^® [174].
CONSTRUCTION OF MICROSTEP DRIVING MECHANISM

The single axis model of micro-step driver consists of four main parts: displacement-to-pulse
accumulation converter to translate set point displacement into its associative pulse amount,
pulse generator, micro-step movement controller and hybrid linear actuator which driven by
hybrid stepper motor to handle micro-step’s movement on each stage axis. Movement control
mechanism is designed without feedbacks assuming HLA is loaded under its holding torque
limit to avoid any slips step. Figure 5.15 shows micro-step movement control algorithm.
Motorized moving stage consists of software and hardware parts which can be communicated
each other through USB (Universal Serial Bus) as shown in Figure 5.16. Main software is
used to make set point input for control system, set HLA’s motion speed and calculate
associative amount of pulse needed to make precision movement using constants calibration
which has been recorded in software code. Hardware is used to generate real pulse signal as
ordered from software and realize it into physical movement steps with submicron precision.
An anti-backlash mechanism is attached on HLA to minimize translational hysteresis
emerging at movement conversion process as shown in Figure 5.17.
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Anti-backlash mechanism using spring elasticity properties to give initial force on a pair of
linear actuator nut to reduce spatial clearances area which occurs in mechanical contact area
between threaded shaft’s surface and nut inner surface. This anti-backlash mechanism has
been built to increase HLA’s precision movement. HLA is driven by two phases-hybrid
stepper motor with dimension code: NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)
11 as shown in Fig.41. Stepper motor has working voltage 4.0V/0.95A per phase and has full
turning step resolution 1.8°±5%. Movement converter attached on HLA’s shaft with
theoretical value ∂ι/(∂nr ) 3.175 µm per full step (〖1.8° )[174].
Figure 5.15: Control Algorithm of Single Figure 5.16: Block Diagram of

Axis Motorized Moving Stage. Motorized Moving Stage Control.
[174] [174]
Figure 5.17: Anti-Backlash Principle [174]
Figure 5.18: HLA Installation on Microscope Moving Stage (X-Axis and Y-Axis)
[174]
Each step movement of HLA’s motor is controlled using micro-step driver which pre-
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programmed using de-numerator constant value as listed in Table 5.1. Theoretically, micro-
step driver can handle stepper motor current up to 1.5 A per phase at maximum working
frequencies (20 Kilohertz). Figure 5.19 shows HLA installation in XZS HLA-107BN
biological light-microscope.
Table 5.1. Implications of De-numerator Constant Setting upon Linear Resolution
Movement
De-numerator Constant ∂ι
(Sub-Division) Theoretical Value:
∂ nr
(µm/ pulse)
1 3.1750
2 1.5875
4 0.7938
8 0.3969
16 0.1984
32 0.0992
64 0.0496
Figure 5.19: HLA Assembled in XZS Figure 5.20: HLA’s Limit

-107BN Stage [174] Switch [174]
Red circle in Figure 5.20 shows a limit switch providing emergency stop for XY movement.
It used to make emergency stop and set zero points reference for each axis. Movement
restriction procedure is necessary to protect HLA from overdriving which potentially
damaging mechanical structures. To get near-integer value of step movement but still
provides sufficient torque, stepper motor driver is programmed at 16 sub-division setting
value with maximum operating frequency 18,519 Kilohertz (pulse period 54 µs). According
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to Table I, 16 sub-division setting value will produce 3,675 µm/sec with 0.198 micro/step
resolution on each axis. Its driver setting allows HLA to make 1 micro (approx.)
displacement using 5 pulses [174].
5.1.7 Delta 3D Printer

The next phase of industrialization in the world is the use of 3D printers. A 3D printer is
unlike the common paper printers that are used to print graphics on a flat surface (2D
printing). On a 3D printer, the object is printed in three dimensions (x, y, z). The object
printed is built up layer by layer and hence has a volume. The whole process is called 3D
printing. 3D printing is an additive manufacturing technique and often used in the
development of product prototypes and custom parts. The three dimensions (x, y, z), useful at
the beginning and the end of a production line are equally employed in 3D printers. 3D
printers are used for rapid prototyping, bio-printing of prosthetic limbs, and the printing of
apparels in the automotive, construction, and robot industry. These 3D printers give some
flexibility to designers and promote the Do-It-Yourself (DIY) culture in the maker
community. However, most of the locally made 3D printers are Cartesian 3D printers.
Cartesian 3D printers are robust and accurate; however, they are characterized by a slower
print rate and often highly restricted in terms of print height or volume. Cartesian 3D printers
are by design not meant for tall prints as it becomes unstable leaving discontinuous gradients
on tall printouts. The Delta 3D printer uses the Cartesian coordinates; however, linear motion
is employed indirectly in the deposition of print filament. In addition, the three arms move to
a coordinate by changing the angle (∅) each parallelogram makes with the vertical axes. This
angle is shown in Figure 5.21. The Delta 3D printer is faster, has a steady bed, and can
produce tall print dimensions due to its design. This 3D printer was designed using locally
salvaged photocopier machine parts and 3D printed components for the assembly. Figure
5.21 shows the Delta 3D printer motion structure. Figure 5.22 shows a universal block
diagram of the Delta 3D printer. The printing process begins with a power supply to the
control board which in turn distributes it amongst the system components, and the print
commands are also sent to the control board. The control board instructs the heating elements
to melt the filament (printing material). With the help of the extruder motor assembly, a
controlled amount of filament is deposited in a semiliquid form onto the build platform. This
also controls the angle (∅) of each arm parallelogram to realize the shape of the 3D object.
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Figure 5.21: DELTA printer motion structure [176]
Figure 5.22: Block diagram of the delta 3D printer. [177]
Figure 5.23: 3D model of the Delta 3D printer. [178]
All these mechanisms work together to aid the printer in the following x, y, and z coordinates
to form the 3D object. The display helps the user to see the progress made for an issued print
as well as for menu selection. The cooling fans assist in keeping the control board cool as
well as some parts of the extrusion mechanism. It also cools the printout as the printing is
ongoing. Figure 5.23 displays a 3D model of the Delta printer with the various parts labelled
[175].
System Operation
The Delta 3D printer has three similar towers or axes. The three coordinate axes are denoted
A, B, and C. Each tower is made up of a square tube and a carriage that runs up and down the
column. Each carriage has two parallel arms of the same length that connect to the effector
platform (extruder holder). to ensure that the arms are parallel, the connection points on each
carriage and the effector platform should be at the same distance apart. The parallel arms of
the carriages connect to the effector platform to force the plane of the effector to be parallel
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to the plane of the bed. Unlike the Cartesian, the axes X, Y, and Z cannot be easily identified.
However, the origin of these Cartesian coordinates is the center of the Delta printer. The view
from the top in Figure 5.24 shows the X and Y axes on the bed. Each tower is situated at
equal distance from the origin and 120° apart. The coordinates X and Y are obtained from the
synchronized movement of the three pairs of arms for the nozzle to get to a specific point.
The Z coordinate, on the other hand, is achieved when all carriages move up or down. Its
origin is achieved when the nozzle touches the bed. All this is achieved through commands
that the controller uses in controlling the position of each of the carriages. Figure 5.24 shows
the top view of the design. The movement of the carriage is achieved with the help of a
NEMA 17 hybrid stepper motor, a pulley, a belt, and an idler. All parts assembled produce a
tower and this is depicted in Figure 5.25 [175].
Figure 5.24: Top view of the proposed design. [179]
Figure 5.25: Tower assembly [180]

Extrusion Mechanism: The 3D printing technology used is Fusion Deposition Modelling
(FDM). The extrusion mechanism also uses a NEMA 17 motor to pull the filament in a
controlled manner. In order to reduce the weight on the hub and arms, the Bowden extrusion
mechanism is adopted. With this type of extruder, the heavy motor assembly sits on the top
plate and only the hot end and cooling fans sit on the hub. The Bowden extruder motor
assembly is shown in Figure 5.26. Part of the extrusion mechanism is relocated by moving
the motor and motor mount away from the hot end. This reduces the weight of the moving
parts, leaving only the hot end to be on the hub. Accurate printouts and higher print speeds
are achieved since less momentum needs to be subsumed when changing directions. A Teflon
tube is connected from the Bowden extruder motor assembly to the hot end to direct the
filament flow. Figure 5.27 shows the extruder head assembly [180].
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Figure 5.26: Bowden extruder motor assembly [181]
Figure 5.27: Extruder head assembly. [182]
Printing Algorithms: The flowchart depicted in Figure 5.28 is the algorithm used for the 3D
printer’s functionality. When a print command is initiated, the printer initiates heating of the
extruder. As the printer heats up the extruder by applying 12 V to the heating cartridge, it
loads up the coordinates for the first layer of the print into its volatile memory. When the
optimum extruder temperature is reached, that is, 185 to 200°C for poly-lactic acid (PLA)
and 220 to 240°C for acryl butadiene styrene (ABS), the printer then homes the extruder
nozzle. The home position corresponds to x = 0.00, y = 0.00, and z = MAX coordinates.
Mechanical end-stops are employed to energize hybrid stepper motors once the limit is
attained. After homing the extruder nozzle, the printer moves the various motors to the
corresponding coordinates whilst depositing the filament. After the first layer, the printer
prints the next layer using the coordinates available in its memory from the G code file.
When the last layer is printed, the control board shuts off the extruder, that is, 0 V is applied
to the extruder. It then moves the extruder nozzle to the z-axis maximum position with the
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help of the end-stops and the printing process is terminated. For printing of ABS, heat bed is
used to prevent the warping of the printout. In this case, the heat bed is also heated during the
start of the print to optimum temperature (90°C to 110°C) and shut off after printing the last
layer. The heated bed has a spring spacer that allows for bed levelling and prevents the
transfer of heat from the heated bed to the plywood base plate. Figure 5.28 shows the
flowchart of the printing Algorithm. Programming of the Control Board: The Delta printer is
programmed with Marlin firmware. The Marlin firmware is an open-source firmware based
on Sprinter and grbl. The firmware is calibrated to suit the purpose of any Delta printer. The
Marlin firmware makes it possible to choose between various electronics used in making 3D
printers to enable good communication between software and hardware [175].
Figure 5.28: Flowchart of the printing algorithm. [184]
5.1.8 Inkjet Printer

Inkjet printers are most popular printers for home and small scales offices as they have
a reasonable cost and a good quality Inkjet printer of printing as well. A typical inkjet printer
can print with a resolution of more than 300 dpi and some good quality inkjet printers are
able to produce full colored hard copies at 600 dpi. An inkjet printer is made of the following
parts:
Print-head – It is the heart of the printer which holds a series a nozzle which sprays the ink
drops over the paper.
Ink cartridge – It is the part that contains the ink for printing. Generally monochrome (black
& white) printers contain a black colored ink cartridges and a color printer contains two
cartridges – one with black ink and other with primary colors (cyan, magenta and yellow).
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Hybrid stepper motor – It is housed in the printer to move the printer-head and ink cartridges
back and forth across the paper.
Stabilizer bar – A stabilizer bar is used in printer to ensure the movement of print-head is
précised and controlled over the paper.
Belt – A belt is used to attach the print-head with the hybrid stepper motor.
Paper Tray – It is the place where papers are placed to be printed.
Rollers – Printers have a set of rollers that helps to pull paper from the tray for printing
purpose.
Paper tray stepper motor- another stepper motor is used to rotate the rollers in order to pull
the paper in the printer.
Control Circuitry – The control circuit takes the input from the computer and by decoding the
input controls all mechanical operation of the printer.
Figure 5.29: Inkjet Printer inner parts [184]
Similar to other printers, inkjet printers have a ‘print-head’ as a key element. The print-head
has many tiny nozzles also called as jets. When the printer receives the command to print
something, the print-head starts spraying ink over the paper to form the characters and images
[184]. There are mainly two technologies that are used to spray the ink by nozzles. These
are:
Thermal Bubble – This technology is also known as bubble jet is used by various
manufacturers like Canon and Hewlett Packard. When printer receives commands to print
something, the current flows through a set of tiny resistors and they produce heat. This heat in
turn vaporizes the ink to create a bubble. As the bubble expands, some of the ink moves out
of the nozzle and gets deposited over the paper. Then the bubble collapses and due to the
vacuum, it pulls more ink from ink cartridge. There are generally 300 to 600 nozzles in a
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thermal printer head which can spray the ink simultaneously [184].
Piezoelectric – In the piezoelectric technology, a piezo crystal is situated at the end of the ink
reservoir of a nozzle. When printer receives the command to print, an electric charge is
applied to the crystal which in turn starts vibrating and a small amount of ink is pushed out of
the nozzle. When the vibration stops the nozzle pulls some more ink from the cartridge to
replace the ink sprayed out. This technology is patented by Seiko Epson Corporation [184].
5.2 Hybrid stepper motor control

Different types of the control techniques have been widely used both in open and closed
loop for the hybrid stepper motor. HSM is mostly operated in open loop due to its unique
structure. In the open loop structure, the HSM often uses about 50% of its nominal torque
since a large torque reserve is required to overcome any load variation. In this classical old
control technique, no feedback is used, however the motor must respond to each excitation
change that produces large overshoot and resonance which effects the performance. The
closed-loop method was first given in 1970’s in order to achieve positioning accuracy and
decrease their sensitivity to load disturbances. To this date hybrid stepper motors are used
with closed loop control techniques to achieve high-precision in operation despite of the
mechanical changes it went through. The microprocessors are employed for the control of
hybrid stepper motors which are generally used as position actuators. Some other hybrid
stepper Motor Applications are to drive floppy discs, numerical control of machine tools, X-
Y plotters etc. The ease with which these can be controlled using microprocessor has made
them very popular in the applications cited above. The speed and position control using the
hybrid stepper motor can be achieved without expensive feedbacks. A typical hybrid stepper
motor has several stator phases. The rotor is a toothed structure. Energizing the phases in a
sequence by direct current imparts the rotor a discrete step motion. The resolution of a typical
motor is good if only it has large number of teeth on stator and rotor. The phases of a hybrid
stepper motor are excited by pulses, each pulse being capable of providing rotor motion in
smaller angles. The angular rotation depends on the steps of the motor per revolution. If a
motor has 400 steps/rev, the angle by which it moves in a step is 0.9°. Electronic circuits are
used to excite the stator phases from dc supply. Now a days, semiconductor devices such as
thyristors and transistors are slowly replacing the mechanical and electronic controls using
vacuum tubes. The necessary logic which was expensive even with the introduction of
semiconductor devices and electronic circuits has become easy and economical using
microprocessors and digital circuits. The microprocessor has actually made a hybrid stepper
motor and its control economically feasible.
5.2.1 Open loop control

Open loop control of hybrid stepper Motor Applications is the simplest method
accomplished by means of step command pulses obtained from an external source. The motor
is excited by these pulses and is expected to follow every pulse. This kind of control of
hybrid stepper motor is very attractive and has wide acceptance in applications of speed and
position control. The method has economic advantages. However, it has its own limitations.
The response of the motor to a given input command may become oscillatory or even
unstable in some speed ranges. The control of the motor is not very fast due to this behavior.
To make the motor widely applicable it is necessary to improve the performance. A Stepper
Motor Applications may fail to follow the pulse when the frequency of the pulses is high or
the load inertia is very large, Because of these reasons the open loop operation is only
limited. The open loop control of the motor is depicted in Figure 5.30. For most of the
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application open loop control is suitable.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.30: Open loop control of a hybrid stepper motor(a)From logic sequences
to motor (b) input controller [184]
5.2.2 Closed loop control

A closed loop control of hybrid stepper Motor Applications is also possible where the
switching of the motor takes place by means of the input pulse train using the position or
speed feedback from the rotor. The closed loop control improves the performance of the
hybrid stepper Motor Applications. The disadvantages of open loop control are not present.
No step failure occurs, the response is quicker and the motion is smoother. The control is free
from instability and capable of quick acceleration. A position sensor senses the rotor position
and provides the information necessary for the control of the motor. A mechanical rotor
position sensor with an optical encoder coupled to the shaft is used. The rotor position may
also be determined. using the machine voltages and currents. The motor position is monitored
and a step completed. The closed loop control is employed when the maximum torque is
required of a given motor and also when absolute step integrity is required. The cost of the
system depends on the type of position sensor used. A closed loop control of the motor is
shown in Figure 5.31 [185].
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.31: Close loop control of hybrid stepper motor. (a)Simple close loop
system(b) uses of microprocessor. (c)with current control [185]
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5.2.3 Open-Loop Control Using Voltage to Frequency Converter
Over the years there have been a number of systems designed for command and control
in wired logic. Today, these systems are partially or fully replaced by microprocessors. The
system control implemented in MATLAB-Simulink is illustrated in Figure 5.32. The
simulated control system is composed of controller driver, hybrid stepper motor and load
torque (Mr.). The controller driver generates pulses for driver command wave drive mode.
The driver powers motor phases. Motor phases are energized bipolar voltages pulses. In this
case the voltage pulses frequency for steady state also illustrates the property of the operation
motor in stepping mode. The simulated controller driver is composed of V/F converter and
pulses generator for wave drive mode [185].
Figure 5.32: System control implemented in MATLAB-Simulink [185]
A. Voltage to Frequency Converter

V/F Converter is intended to convert the voltage into a digital pulse train with frequency
equal to that of voltage input. This can be done using timer 555, operational amplifiers and
circuits specialization. For example, one V/F converter commonly is used LM331. Control
voltage may come from resistive divider (potentiometer) or a controller. If the simulated
converter has a variation input voltage of 1V then after it will have to get a variation of digital
pulse frequency of 1Hz. Pulse train at the output converter is shown in Figure 5.33.
Figure 5.33: Pulse train at the output converter. [185]

B. Pulse train at the output converter
The motor is powered using one phase only. Supply phase sequence is: B1, A2, B2, A1,
B1…. For microcontroller, the command pulses for the driver are generated according to the
power phase sequency. Determination drivers command pulses was achieved using
combinational logic [185].
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TABLE 5.2
Truth Table
A B C Phase
1 1 1 B1
0 1 1
1 0 1 A2
0 0 1
1 1 0 B2
0 1 0
1 0 0 A1
0 0 0
They are comprised of basic logic gates whose operation is described by Boolean algebra.
Through combinational logic circuits, the problem can be solved by implementing logic
functions with a minimum logic gates Truth table of minimized logical functions shown in
TABLE 5.2. Where: A-is the output signal from the converter, B and C are signal A divided
by 2 and 4. This is illustrated in Figure. 5.34.
Figure 5.34: Output signals A, B and C. [185]

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Minimization function was accomplished using the diagram Karnaugh. Simulink
Implementation of the minimized functions for the driver command pulses are illustrated in
Figure 5.35 and also in Figure 5.36 illustrates control signals for the driver full step sequence
[185].
Figure 5.35: Functions to minimize the driver command pulses. [185]
Figure 5.36: Control signals for the driver full step sequence. [185]
Driver of the system

The HSM motor phases are supplied with alternating voltages. Bipolar voltage is obtained
using two H-Bridge inverters. As switching elements H-bridge inverters using bipolar, MOS-
FET and IGBT transistors. These switching elements are controlled by pulses from the
controller driver. Each H-Bridge has one bridge of four diodes, connected in reverse parallel
with the switching transistors, provides the path for freewheeling currents. The freewheeling
path includes the dc supply and therefore some of the energy stored in the phase winding
inductance at turn-off is returned to the supply voltage of phases is shown in Figure 5.37
[185].
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Figure 5.37: Supply voltage of phases. [185]
5.2.4 PID Controller

At open loop control, the speed response of the stepper motor suffers from large
overshoot, oscillatory response and long settling time. Therefore, a closed loop control
system essentially required for a good precise operation performance. However, due to the
non-linear characteristics and the resonance problem of the hybrid stepper motor, it is
difficult to settle the classical control systems with this type of motor. Moreover, the use of
discrete pulses to drive the hybrid steppe r motor in half stepping mode leads to jerky and
noisy movements at high and low stepping rate respectively. PID control system enhance the
performance of the open loop control system to control the speed of the hybrid stepper motor
for a given reference input. Also, a micro-stepping technique, which consists of sine and
cosine waveforms, is also used to drive the hybrid stepper motor instead of discrete pulses. In
open loop control, the speed response of the HSM suffers from large overshoot, oscillatory
response and long settling time. Additionally, the motor must respond to each excitation
change. If the excitation changes are made too quickly, the stepper motor may lose some
steps and therefore it will be unable to move the rotor to the new demanded position.
Therefore, a permanent error can be introduced between the load position and that expected
by the controller. Due to these limitations, the stepper motor cannot be used without feedback
sensor and closed loop control system with high performance applications where the exact
position or rotor speed is required. Much work is reported in this field by many researchers,
but the majority is concentrated on using simple closed loop algorithms. These types of
controllers are weak because these algorithms are not insensitive enough when confronted by
mechanical configuration changes. This problem can be solved by using PID control system
or advanced closed loop control techniques such as fuzzy control system [186]
STEPPER MOTOR MICROSTEPPING DRIVE

Normally, the stepper motor is driven in a full step or half step mode. This means that the
motor currents are switched on and off according to a specified pattern. At each switching on
event, the motor shaft moves a small step. But at high speeds, both the full and half step drive
tend to make abrupt mechanical displacements. This is because the time from one position to
the next can be much less than the step period. This stepping action contributes to a jerky
movement and much mechanical noise in the system. In the HSM, the rotor stable positions
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are in synchronization with the stator flux. When the windings are energized, each winding
will produce a flux in the air gap proportional to the current in that winding. This flux is
directly proportional to the vector sum of the winding currents, in the resultant vector
direction. In full and half step modes, the rated currents I a and I b are supplied to the
p p
windings. The resultant flux in the air gap rotates the rotor with large step angles (45^°or
90^° electrical). In micro-stepping mode, the current changes in the windings with small
fractions of the rated current. Therefore, the resultant direction of flux changes in smaller
increments of electrical degrees as shown in Figure 5.38. The most important characteristics
of micro-stepping technique are; the smooth movement at low speeds, increased step
positioning resolution of a smaller step angle and maximum torque at both low and high step
rates. However, it requires more processing power but can be easily implemented using a
low-cost micro-controller [186].
Figure 5.38: The two coils are driven by sine and cosine waveforms. [186]
In order to examine the feasibility of using PID controller with HSM, it is necessary to
understand the methodology of designing this controller; this is briefly explained in the
following section. Figure 5.39 shows a block diagram of the digital PID control system with
HSM. The output control signal from the PID controller U(k) at time step k is given by.
k
1 e ( k )−e ( k−1 )
(
U(k)=k p e ( k )+ ∑
T i j=1
e ( j ) T +T d
T ) (5.15)
Where, Kp is the PID proportional gain, T iis the integral time constant (sec), e(k) is the speed
error at time step k (rad/s), Td is the derivative time constant (sec), and T is the sampling
period (sec).
Figure 5.39: Block diagram of the PID controller with HSM [186]
167
Finding the optimum adjustments of a controller for a given process is not trivial. In practice,
the PID controller gains are usually tuned through human expertise, based on some of trial
and error. There are several tuning rules for PID controller such as Ziegler and Nichols,
Chien and Kitamori. Ziegler and Nichols tuning method is the most proven and popular
method [186].
5.2.5 THE MODIFIED PID CONTROL TECHNIQUE

Due to the non-linear characteristics and the resonance problem of the HSM, the
classical PID control system did not give consistent results as shown in the next section. To
solve the instability problem of the PID control system, a positional form of PID equation
could be used instead of equation 5.15. This equation is given as,
U(k)=u0 + k p ¿ ) ( 5.16)
Where, u0 is the constant offset of the system. Since the reference speed is constant with time,
the open loop control system can be concurrently used with the PID control system as shown
in Figure 5.40. Therefore, the output control signal from the PID controller will be used only
as an increment to enhance the properties of the open loop control system. By using equation
(5.16) the overall control signal U(k) will be,
k
1 e ( k )−e ( k −1 )
U(k)=k P open (
ω ref + k p e ( k ) + ∑ e ( j ) T +T d
T i j=1 T ) ( 5.17)
Where,k P is the open loop gain factor and ω ref is the reference speed (rad/sec) [185].
open
Figure 5.40: The modified PID control system [186]
5.2.6 Fuzzy Logic Controller

A. Fuzzy Control Concept
The fuzzy logic controller provides an algorithm, which converts the linguistic control, based
on expert knowledge into an automatic control strategy. Therefore, the fuzzy logic algorithm
is much closer in spirit to human thinking than traditional logical systems. When controlling
a process, a human operator compares the actual output with the desired output and observes
the evolution of this difference. This is why most of the single-input single-output fuzzy
controller inputs are the error and the change of error. The human operator generally does not
reason in terms of quantitative values, but in terms of qualitative values (big, small). In fuzzy
controllers, this operation is called “fuzzification.” Using his experience about the process
and his intuition, the operator elaborates a qualitative action with qualitative inputs. In fuzzy
168
controllers, this operation is called “decision making.” Finally, the operator expresses this
qualitative action in a quantitative action and applies it. This last operation is called
“defuzzification.” The main problem with fuzzy logic controller generation is related to the
choice of the regulator parameters. Indeed, there is no systematic procedure for the design of
a fuzzy controller [187].
B. Topology of the Fuzzy Logic Controller

To adjust the output of the drive unit, both the error signal e ibetween the set point f iand the
measured shaft speed Ω i and the change of error Δ ei are used at the sampling period number i
e i=f i−Ωi , Δe i=ei −ei −1 (5.18)
The output of the fuzzy controller is not the control variable itself, but its increment. Indeed,
the closed-loop frequency of the step is given by adding the fuzzy controller output with the
open-loop frequency. In this way, the proposed controller can be also considered as an
incremental fuzzy controller (Figure 5.41), and to define its optimum topology (scaling
factors, number of fuzzy sets, shape of the fuzzy sets, decision making), the simulated
stepping motor responses are used.
Figure 5.41: Fuzzy controller structure. [187]
(1) Scaling Factors Determination: The scaling factors K 1 and K 2 are given by the open-
loop trajectories in the (e,Δe )space. They are chosen in such a way that the normalized
inputs e nand Δe n are well adapted to the universe of discourse [-4,4] for any working point
(Figure 5.42). The output-scaling factor K 3 is given by the maximum acceleration of the
motor between two steps.

Figure 5.42: Phase plane trajectory. [187]
(2) Fuzzy Sets Determination: For simplicity, it has chosen triangular and trapezoidal
169
shapes with a zero symmetry and a 50% overlapping rate for fuzzy linguistic sets. Figure
5.43(a) represents the fuzzy set shapes of the controller. The number of sets for the fuzzy
controller has been determined using simulation and the stepping motor responses which
have been compared for different numbers of fuzzy sets. Figure 5.43(b)-(f) represent,
respectively, the open-loop response and the closed-loop responses for three, five, seven, and
nine fuzzy sets. By comparing the different configurations, the use of more than seven
linguistic sets [Figure 5.43(f)] does not improve the accuracy, but increases the computation
time. Therefore, seven linguistics sets (large positive, medium positive, small positive, zero,
small negative, medium negative, and large negative) have been chosen for the error, the
error change, and the output of the fuzzy controller
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 5.43: Effects of the fuzzy set numbers on the controller performance. (a)
Chosen fuzzy sets. (b) Open-loop response. (c) Response with three fuzzy sets. (d)
170
Response with five fuzzy sets. (e) Response with seven fuzzy sets. (f) Response with
nine fuzzy sets. [187]
(3) Decision Making: The linguistic control rules (Table 5.3) are established considering
the dynamic behavior of the stepping motor drive and analyzing the error and its variation.
These control rules, which are very closely related to Mac Vivar Whelan rules, are expressed
as
if is LP and is LP then is LP or
if is LP and is MP then is MP or …..
The “if” part of the rules is called the premise, while the “then” part is the consequence. The
“and” operator is used to link the premises and the “or” operator to link the rules. To obtain
the control decision, the max-min inference method is used. It is based on the minimum
function to describe the “and” operator present in each control rule and the maximum
function to describe the “or” operator.
TABLE 5.3
FUZZY MATRIX
e\Δe LN MN SN ZE SP MP LP
LP ZE SP MP LP LP LP LP
MP SN ZE SP MP LP LP LP
SP MN SN ZE SP MP LP LP
ZE LN MN SN ZE SP MP LP
SN LN LN MN SN ZE SP MP
MN LN LN LN MN SN ZE SP
LN LN LN LN LN MN SE ZE
(4) Defuzzification: To express the qualitative action in a quantitative action, the “center-of-
gravity” method is used. For discrete membership functions, the output u can be expressed as
(equation 5.19) using the “center-of-gravity” method.
i=n
∑ ui . μ ( ui )
i=1
u= i=n
(5.19)
∑ μ ( ui )
i=1
171
where n is the number of fuzzy sets of the output, ui is the center of the ith fuzzy set, and
μ(ui ) is the associate membership value. This algorithm, which considers all the membership
values of the fuzzy output, gives a more reliable decision table compared with other methods.
Figure 5.44 represents the normalized output of Δ f nthe fuzzy controller as a function of the
normalized error e n and the normalize change of error Δ en . Looking at Figure 5.44, it is clear
that, with the topology presented in this section, the characteristic of the fuzzy controller is
nonlinear [186].
Figure 5.44: Fuzzy controller output [187]
C. Fuzzy Logic Controller Implementation

A low-cost microcontroller (Intel 80C196kc) has been chosen to implement the fuzzy logic
controller. This type of microcontroller has been chosen rather than a digital signal processor
(DSP) because the microcontroller is cheaper than a DSP and because it is mainly designed
for the control of electrical motors with adapted peripherals (analog-to-digital converters,
pulse width modulation outputs, high-speed input/output lines, and other conventional
input/output ports) [186]
(1) Speed Computation: The speed of the stepping motor is sensed using the shaft encoder.
The two outputs of the encoder (phase A and phase B) are used together to determine the
motor speed as well as the revolution direction. The velocity of the stepping motor is
obtained using a high-speed input and timer 2 programmed in fast increment mode (8 MHz).
Using the t2 capture register, the value of timer 2 is captured for every positive edge of the
encoder phase. Then, the difference between the present and the previous values of is a
function of the speed.
1 stepping motor resolution

f(steps/s)= ×timer 2 frequency ( 8.10 6 ) × (5.20)
N i−N i−1 encoder resolution
(2) Control Computation: Regardless of the fuzzy controller topology two possible
implementation procedures for the fuzzy controller. The first one uses online inference to
obtain the controller output, while the second method uses a lookup table computed offline.
Using a conventional computation structure, the online approach is not conceivable because it
is time consuming. For the second method, the table is obtained by computing offline the
output of the fuzzy controller for all the couples of quantified inputs. This output is stored in
172
the memory of the microcontroller and the only effort of the control program is limited to
consulting the table at each iteration. Therefore, the control system program is shorter and
runs faster than a program that interprets the rules at each control cycle [187].
(3) Pulse Train Generation: The pulse train is generated using the high-speed output unit
and timer 1 (1 MHz). This output unit consisting of a pulse generator provides the trigger for
external events at present times. Also, the pulse train is obtained by programming
successively 0 and 1 in the dedicated register and programming the time of the pulse and the
time of the step in another register [187].
5.2.7 Sensor-less Control of Hybrid Stepper Motor

Mechanical sensors such as encoder increase cost and size of the motor. These position
sensors are temperature sensitive and show lower reliability. To use these sensors, a
mechanical arrangement must be done. Due to these limitations, sensor-less control is more
attractive to drive the HSM. With today’s low cost and high-performance DSP’s Kalman
filtering (KF), becomes an efficient candidate to avoid mechanical sensors in motor control,
manufactures of HSM are very interested to implement the advanced control algorithms. The
most known methods are based on the detection of the position of the rotor starting from the
electromotive force of the motor e.m.f. These methods are implemented and compared. The
major inconvenient of these methods is that they are not functional at low speeds where the
e.m.f is very weak. Another method uses a variation of motor inductance according to the
rotor position. In this case, the shape of the current gives us information on inductance, the
phase inductance is calculated from voltage and phase current during different segments of
electrical cycle. The calculated value is then used to estimate the rotor position with a lookup
table. The rotor position can be estimated from the flux linkage, which is calculated form
stator voltage and phase current. Kalman filtering (KF) was used by many scientists to
estimate the speed and rotor position. The difficult step in KF design is the choice of its
covariance matrices, because there is no exact rule in literature to do that. The most
disadvantage of KF technique is the large computational cost. In order to overcome this
problem a reduced order extended KF (EKF) was proposed [188].
The hybrid step motor (HSM) studied here is a synchronous motor with two phases.
di a −R K v
i a+ m ω sin ( Nθ )+ a
{
=
dt L L L
di b −R K v
= i b+ m ω cos ( Nθ ) + b
dt L L L (5.21)
dω − K m K K T
= i a sin ( Nθ ) + m i b cos ( Nθ )− v ω− L
dt j j j j
dθ
=ω
dt
where i a and i b :Currents of phases A and B [ A]

v a and v b : Phase voltages [ V]
R : Phase resistance [Ω]
L : Phase inductance [ H ]
173
K m: Torque constant [ V.s/rad]
K v : Coefficient of viscous friction [ N.m.s/rad]
J : Rotor inertia [kg.m2]
ω : Angular velocity [rad/s]
θ : Mechanical rotor position [rad]
T L : Load torque [N.m]
N : rotor number teeth
For field-oriented control, the model in d-q frame is used. The voltages and currents are
transformed by Park transformation using the following equations.
vd cos ( Nθ ) sin ( Nθ ) v a ¿
[ ][= ][ ]
v q −sin ( Nθ ) cos ( Nθ ) v b
5.22)
id cos ( Nθ ) sin ( Nθ ) i a ¿
[ ][=
i q −sin ( Nθ ) cos ( Nθ) i b][ ]5.23)
The electrical and mechanical equations of a hybrid stepper motor in d-q frame are given
below.
di d −R +v
id + Nωi q d
{
=
dt L L
di q −R −K m v
= i q −Nωi d ω+ q
dt L L L ¿5.24)
dω K m K T
= i q − v ω− L
dt j j j
dθ
=ω
dt
The model (5.24) is represented by the following general form:

ẋ=f ( x , u)
{y=h( x )
t
(5.25)
t
here: x=[ i d i q ω θ ] is a vector of state variables and y=[ i d i q ] is a vector of systemoutputs .
Extended Kalman Filter

The Kalman filter is an algorithm which is carried out in parallel with the system by using its
state model form. It makes it possible to rebuild or estimate all the state variables if the
system is observable by using the system inputs and outputs. The comparison between the
system outputs and that of the Kalman filter are multiplied by a gain matrix in order to
correct the estimated state variable. The extended Kalman filter (EKF) is a solution proposed
for nonlinear system. This EKF algorithm is used to compute the gain matrix by simulation
and then one introduces the obtained result in steady state case directly into the real time
algorithm. To carry out this procedure, it is necessary to have the discrete model of the motor
in discrete state space vector form. By using the first order Euler approximation, we obtain
the discrete equivalent model of (5.25):
174
x k+1=x k +Tf ( x k , uk ) + wk
{ y k =h( x k )+v k
(5.26)
Where the terms w k and v k are added to consider noises on respectively the modeling structure
and measurement. The sampling period T must be small in front of the electrical time
constant of the motor in order to achieve a suitable performant control. One of the advantages
of the Kalman filter is the possibility to extend the estimation to several parameters of the
system. But it should not be forgotten that when the order of the system increases, the
computing time increases too. In this work, the order of the system is extended to 5 in order
to estimate the load torque. This fifth order model is used only during simulation to find the
gain matrix of the Kalman filter. If we suppose that the load torque does not change during
one sampling period time, its equation is given by:
T L(k+1) =T Lk (5.27)
The EKF algorithm contains five equations and can be divided into two phases: the prediction
phase and correction phase.
Prediction phase (Time Update): The state vector is initially estimated at the moment (k+1)
according to the state and of the measurements taken at the moment (k)
^x k+1 /k =^x k/ k +T . f ^x k ,u k ¿ 5.28)

( k
)
The covariance matrix is also computed in this phase by the following equation:
Pk +1/ k =F d k . P k/ k . F d tk + Q k (5.29)
With F d k the Jacobian matrix.

Correction phase (Measurement Update): The gain matrix of Kalman filter is computed by:
K k +1=Pk+1 / k . H tk .( H k . Pk +1/ k . H tk + Rk )−1 ¿5.30)
With Hd k the Jacobian matrix.

The correction of the estimated state vector is done by the following equation:
^x k+1 /k +1=¿ ^x k+1 /k + K k +1.( y k +1−H k . x^ k+ 1 ¿(5.31)
k
Note that the difference between the system outputs and that of the EKF is multiplied by the
gain matrix, obtained by equation (5.30). The result is added to the state vector obtained by
equation (5.28). Finally, the last equation of the correction phase consists in an update of the
covariance matrix:
Pk +1/ k+1=Pk +1/ k −K k+1. H k . Pk +1/ k (5.32)
The Jacobian matrices F d k and Hd k are the partial derivative matrices, defined by:
∂( x k +Tf ( x k ,u k )) ∂(h ( x k ) )
F dk =
∂x |
x k =^x k/k
; H k= |
∂ x x = ^xk k /k
175
(5.33)
In our case, F d k and Hd k are given by:
R
1−TTN ω k TN i qk 0 0
[ ]
L
R K
F dk = L (
−TN ω k 1−T −T N i dk + m 0 0
L
;
)
Km Kv T
0T 1−T 0−
J J J
00T 10
00001
H k = 10 0 0 0 ¿ 5.34)
[ ]
0 10 0 0
The EKF tuning is done by the choice of the initial covariance matrices (Q and R), the initial
state vector x 0 and its covariance matrix p0. In our knowledge, there is no exact method for
the choice of the covariance matrices but only some indications and remarks in some papers.
The covariance matrices used in this algorithm are:
0.1 00 0 0
[ ]
0 0.10 0 0
Q= 0 0 0.000010 0
0 0 0 0.000010
0 0 0 0 0.00001
R= [ 0.1 0
0 0.1 ]
;
P0=0.01. I ¿5.35)
where I is the identity matrix

In the equations (5.29), (5.30) and (5.32), note that the covariance matrix and the Kalman
filter gain matrix are independent from the input signals. In the steady state, these matrices
become constant; therefore, they can be computed off line. This can be done by solving the
equation of Riccati using Mat-lab tool, for example. This gain matrix K is obtained by
simulation on Mat-lab/Simulink. This simulation lets us check that the algorithm is correct.
Firstly, one carried out a simulation of the speed control of the motor (discrete model) with
sensor. The parameters of motor model used are:
R = 0.37Ω; L = 0.9 mH; K m = 0.153 Vs/rad;
K v = 0.00047 Nms/rad; J = 15.62 e-5 K gm2 ; N = 50.
When good results were obtained by simulation, we added the EKF algorithm in parallel.
176
And, in order to approach reality, we have added a noise to the EKF input signals and using
the same sampling period as the one in the real system case. The EKF gain matrix remains
almost constant in steady state case and it is given by:
0.6385−0.0011
[
−0.0011 0.6432
K= 0.1133−0.4276
0.0006−0.0030
−0.0011 0.0057
]
The laboratory experimental setup (Figure 5.46) consists of a DS1103 board from dSPACE,
electronic interface, hybrid stepper motor coupled with a DC motor and an incremental
encoder of 2000 increments per revolution (used for comparison only!). The powerful
DS1103 card is a complete real-time control system based on the Motorola PowerPC 604e
processor running at 933MHz. The Mat-lab / Simulink models can be implemented and tested
in real-time. The Real-Time Interface (RTI) contains a library of Blocks which connects the
Simulink model to the physical world. The Real-Time Workshop (RTW) converts the model
to C code. The C code is then automatically compiled to the assembly language of the target
processors, assembled, link-edited and downloaded to the DS1103 card. Finally, Control-
Desk, an experimentation tool, is used to control, tune and monitor the running process. We
carried out an electronic power card which contains a double H-bridge based on MOSFET
transistors, an interface for the amplification and the adaptation of the control signals
generated by DS1103 card and the measures of currents and voltages. The phase currents are
measured with shunt resistors attached to each H-bridge. In order to minimize the noises due
to commutation, the analog-to-digital converters inputs are synchronized with the low state of
PWM signals. The HSM used is characterized by a power about 10 W, a voltage supply of
24-60 V and a rated current of 3 A. This HSM is coupled with a DC motor controlled in
current in order to vary the load torque [188].
Figure 5.45: Experimental setup [188]
Figure 5.46 shows a full digital implementation of current and speed control loops using the
estimated values of the speed and rotor position. The HSM control is carried out in a
reference frame (d, q) related to the rotor. In the frame (d, q), the current regulation is done as
177
in the case of a traditional DC. The field-oriented control (FOC) is used to control the flux
and the torque of the motor independently. The d-axis is chosen on the flux axis, so all the
flux is aligned with this axis. The torque is controlled by the current in the q-axis. In this case
the d-q frame is rotating synchronously with the magnetic field. So, the HSM becomes a
high-dynamic ac servo drive and can lose its stepper behavior. The control sampling period is
100µs and it is equal to the sampling period of EKF. The PWM frequency is 10 KHz. The
total execution time is only 90µs [187].
Figure 5.46: Sensor less drive implementation [188]
5.3 DRIVER SYSTEM

The stepper motor is a digital device that needs binary (digital) signals for its operation.
Depending on the stator construction two or more phases have to be sequentially switched
using a master clock pulse input. The clock frequency determines the stepping rate, and hence
the speed of the motor. The control circuit generating the sequence is called a translator or
logic sequencer. The block diagram of a typical control circuit consists of a logic sequencer,
power driver and essential protective circuits for current and voltage limiting. This control
circuit enables the stepper motor to be run at a desired speed in either direction. The power
driver is essentially a current amplifier, since the sequence generator can supply only logic
but not any power [189].
178
Figure 5.47: Block diagram of a typical hybrid stepper motor control [190]
LOGIC SEQUENCER
The logic sequencer is a logic circuit which control the excitation of the winding sequentially,
responding to step command pulses. A logic sequencer is usually composed of a shifter
register and logic gates such as NANDs, NORs etc. But one can assemble a logic sequencer
for a particular purpose by a proper combination of JK flip flop, IC chips and logic gate
chips. Two simple types of sequencers build with only two JK-FFs are shown in figure 5.48
for unidirectional case [188].
Figure 5.48: A unidirectional logic sequencer for two phases on operation of a two-
phase hybrid motor. [191]
The corresponding between the output terminals of the sequencer and the phase
windings to be controlled is as follows.
Q1------- Ph A
(Q1) ̅-------Ph A ̅
Q2------- Ph B
(Q2) ̅-------Ph B ̅
If Q1 is on the H level the winding Ph A is excited and if Q1is on L level, Ph A is
not excited [188].
179
Driver
There are different stepper motor drivers available on the market, which showcase different
features for specific applications [197]. The most important characteristics include the input
interface. The most common options are:
 Step/Direction – By sending a pulse on the Step pin, the driver changes its
output such that the motor will perform a step, the direction of which is
determined by the level on the Direction pin.
 Phase/Enable – For each stator winding phase, Phase determines the current
direction and triggers Enable if the phase is energized.
 PWM – Directly controls the gate signals of the low-side and high-side
FETs.
Another important feature of a stepper motor driver is if it is only able to control the voltage
across the winding, or also the current flowing through it:
 With voltage control, the driver only regulates the voltage across the winding.
The torque developed and the speed with which the steps are executed only
depend on motor and load characteristics.
 Current control drivers are more advanced, as they regulate the current flowing
through the active coil in order to have better control over the torque produced,
and thus the dynamic behavior of the whole system.
Another feature of the motor that also affects control is the arrangement of the stator coils
that determine how the current direction is changed. To achieve the motion of the rotor, it is
necessary not only to energize the coils, but also to control the direction of the current, which
determines the direction of the magnetic field generated by the coil itself (see Figure 5.49).
In stepper motors, the issue of controlling the current direction is solved with two different
approaches. In unipolar stepper motors, one of the leads is connected to the central point of
the coil (see Figure 5.50). This allows to control the direction of the current using relatively
simple circuit and components. The central lead (AM) is connected to the input voltage VIN
(see Figure 5.49). If MOSFET 1 is active, the current flows from AM to A+. If MOSFET 2 is
active, current flows from AM to A-, generating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. As
pointed out above, this approach allows a simpler driving circuit (only two semiconductors
needed), but the drawback is that only half of the copper used in the motor is used at a time,
this means that for the same current flowing in the coil, the magnetic field has half the
intensity compared if all the copper were used. In addition, these motors are more difficult to
construct since more leads have to be available as motor inputs [197].
180
Figure 5.49: Direction of the Magnetic Field based on the Direction of the
Coil Current [192]
Figure 5.50: Unipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit [193]

In bipolar stepper motors, each coil has only two leads available, and to control the direction
it is necessary to use an H-bridge (see Figure 5.51). As shown in Figure 5.49, if MOSFETs 1
and 4 are active, the current flows from A+ to A-, while if MOSFETs 2 and 3 are active,
current flows from A- to A+, generating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. This
solution requires a more complex driving circuit, but allows the motor to achieve the
maximum torque for the amount of copper that is used.
With technology progress, the advantages of unipolar are becoming less relevant, and bipolar
steppers are currently the most popular [198].
Figure 5.51: Bipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit [194]
In general, there are two types of drivers. The constant voltage drivers (L/R drivers) and
constant current drivers (chopper drivers).
constant voltage drivers (L/R drivers):
 they are cheaper than constant current drivers
 use voltage to produce torque
 usually not efficient
 worse performance than chopper drivers
181
constant current drivers (chopper drivers):
 more expensive
 more complex circuits
 use constant current to produce torque
 much better performance than the L/R drivers
Defining the L/R Type Drive

An L/R type drive is a voltage source drive, where the L refers to electrical inductance and R
stands for electrical resistance. Inductance is an electrical parameter relating mainly to
inductors that are coils of wire wrapped around a core material that can be metallic, non-
metallic, solid, liquid, or even air. Typical inductors are transformers, chokes, and motor coils
(including the windings in stepper motors and stepper motor linear actuators). A related
parameter called inductive reactance in an electrical circuit impedes the flow of current
relative to the voltage frequency. It can be thought of as a “dynamic resistance,” increasing
and impeding more of the current flow as the frequency increases. An analogy for inductance
in the mechanical field would be the principle of inertia. Resistance also impedes the flow of
current in an electrical circuit but is a constant value and is not affected by the frequency
value of the voltage or current. The stepper motor coil resistance remains essentially the same
from standstill through maximum step frequency with only minor fluctuations due to
temperature. A mechanical equivalent of electrical resistance would be the friction in a
system. Stepper motor manufacturers offer a variety of coil voltage ratings. With an L/R type
of drive, you set the output voltage of the drive (measured at the motor leads) equal to the
voltage rating of the stepper motor. The voltage level of the drive power supply will be set
slightly higher due to voltage drops across the power transistors. The ratio of inductance to
resistance (L/R) determines the current flow through the windings at a given step rate (or
frequency) in steps per second. L/R = 1 time constant, which is equal to approximately 63%
of the final steady-state current. At standstill, the maximum current flow into the windings is
determined by the coil resistance alone. The impedance effect due to inductance is zero when
the frequency is zero. This is the condition where the motor has maximum torque (holding
torque) due to maximum ampere-turns, defined by:
TH α N x I
Where:
TH = the holding torque
N = the number of turns in the motor coil
I = the electrical current
As the step rate increases, the coil inductive reactance (XL) also increases according to
the formula:
XL = 2πfL
Where:
XL = the inductive reactance
f = the frequency (step rate)
L = the inductance of the motor coil
With a constant voltage source L/R type driver, the motor current decreases as the total
182
impedance (XL + R) increases. Because torque, both static and dynamic, depends on ampere-
turns, the output performance of the stepper motor or stepper motor linear actuator drops off
as the speed increases. Another factor affecting motor performance is the back-EMF (electro-
motive force) produced by the rotor rotating in a magnetic field. Motors also behave as
generators. High step rates may produce peak back-EMF levels approaching or exceeding the
L/R drive output voltage level. One method used to partially compensate for these effects is
to improve the inductance to resistance (L/R) ratio by adding external series resistors and
increasing the power supply voltage. Some common configurations are the L/2R and the
L/4R drivers. Because the respective voltage sources would have to be doubled or
quadrupled, the efficiency drops significantly and much more of the power is wasted as heat
in the external resistors [198].
Categories of L/R Drives: Unipolar and Bipolar

Unipolar drives have simple output configurations and are used infrequently due to the
relatively low torque output and low efficiency. A unipolar drive contributes to a torque
reduction of approximately 30% as compared to a bipolar drive at the same electrical power.
In a unipolar drive, only half the phase winding is energized at one time, whereas in a bipolar
drive, the entire phase winding is energized. Bipolar drives have more complex output stages.
Many of the new specialized integrated circuits have come down in cost, making bipolar
drives more affordable. The output configuration is an “H-Bridge” which allows the reversal
of the phase currents. Instead of the phase currents being switched on and off in just half of
the windings like in a unipolar configuration, the currents flowing through the entire motor
windings are reversed in bipolar drives. At equal electrical power into a given frame size
stepper motor, the bipolar driver/
Figure 5.52: A unipolar drive configuration. [195]
motor configuration can produce greater static and dynamic torque than that of a unipolar
driver/motor combination [198].
Notice that the motor phase winding is center-tapped, thus allowing current to flow through
only half the phase winding at a time.
183
Figure 5.53: A bipolar drive configuration. [196]
Chopper Drives
The term chopper refers to the method of rapidly switching a relatively high voltage to the
windings on and off. This technique of switching the output voltage on and off controls the
average current per phase. There are several steps involved in selecting a chopper drive. First,
choose a power supply that has a high output voltage relative to the voltage rating of the
stepper motor to be driven. The high available voltage compensates for the increasing coil
impedance due to rising inductive reactance as the motor speed increases. A power supply to
motor coil voltage ratio of 8:1 or higher will provide the best performance at the higher motor
speeds. Second, low-voltage steppers, with correspondingly lower inductance coils, are
recommended.
Linear type motor power supplies work well with these drives. Third, virtually all chopper-
type drivers are a bipolar configuration, making use of the entire motor windings, which
yields improved torque. Even unipolar stepper motors can be driven with these bipolar
choppers as long as their rated coil voltage is not too high. Six-lead unipolar motors would be
connected as a four-lead type by leaving the center-tap leads unconnected. With eight-lead
steppers, you can connect the two coils of each phase in series (especially low-voltage coils)
or in parallel. Because inductance changes as the square of the number of turns, putting two
coils in series yields four times the inductance. Stepper motor performance improves at the
higher speeds, as
Figure 5.54: Bipolar chopper drive circuit [197]
compared to an L/R type drive, due to the chopper drive’s method of monitoring and
controlling motor current throughout the usable speed range. To control the average current
through the phase windings, this type of drive technology “chops” the high output voltage on
and off. Most choppers use a fixed chopping frequency of approximately 20 kHz or higher.
This helps keep system noise low, since the chopping frequency is above audible range.
Based on this constant fixed chopping frequency, the average output current is controlled by
varying the pulse width of these repetitive output pulses, a technique known as pulse width
184
modulation (PWM). The output current is monitored by comparing the voltage level across a
small ohmic value series sense resistor with a set voltage that represents the rated motor
current. During each cycle of the typical 20-kHz waveform, the voltage across the sense
resistor begins to rise as the current increases through the motor winding. An electronic
comparator continuously monitors this voltage level; when it equals the set reference voltage
it turns off the output voltage until the start of the next 20-kHz cycle. The current in each
motor winding builds and decays as the voltage source switches on and off during each cycle,
yielding the proper average current per phase. As the motor step rate, or speed, increases or
decreases, so does the corresponding winding impedance and the chopper drive electronics
help to compensate for this effect. At slow speeds (lower winding impedance) the on time of
the voltage source is relatively short per cycle (small pulse width). At higher speeds (higher
winding impedance) the on time is longer per cycle to allow the current to increase to the
proper level (large pulse width); thus the term pulse width modulation [198].
Advances in Chopper Drives

Chopper drives are now selected for most new stepper motor linear actuator applications and
there has been ongoing progress in this drive technology. For instance, the use of low on-
resistance Field Effect Transistors (FETs) in the output power stage increases system
efficiency and reduces power dissipation within the drive, which also reduces the required
heatsink area and physical size of the drive package. Also, new power stage circuitry can
provide the higher phase currents required from low-voltage, low-inductance motors, which
can yield improved performance over a wider speed range. Enhanced phase current control
increases motor performance such as automatically providing boosted current levels during
acceleration and deceleration ramping, or shaping to reduce overall resonance of the system
[198].
5.4. Some Modern Hybrid Stepper Motors with Specification and Description
 Motec 2 Phase Hybrid Stepper Controller
Figure 5.55: Motec 2 Phase Hybrid Stepper Controller [199]
Manufacturer: Square Automation [200]

Product Specification
Brand Motec
185
Motor Voltage 24 V
Phase 2 Phase
Speed 1000 RPM
Model Number/Name Nema 23
IP Rating IP68
Voltage 230 V AC
Rated Current 0.3-2.2 Amp
Product Description
General Introduction
• An integration of Stepper Drive
• Motion Controller and PLC
• Support RS232 RS485 and CAN Bus netw2ork
• All suitable for multi-points motion control
Application.
• RS232: Max 8 units RS485: Max 32 units CAN Bus: Max 110 units
• Support MODBUS and CANOPEN protocol’s
• 8 optoelectronic isolated DI, 3 optoelectronic isolated DO, 1 analog input
• Standalone Mode (without any external controller)
Users program motion control application using

• Motion Painter software and download into SB266B
• User applications’ can be triggered by external I/O and SB266B can also
output necessary signal so that it can work with other equipment’s in
coordination.
• Internal PLC.
• Program using Ladder Diagram.
• Motion-Lib libraries and Instruction Set are available for host controller
programing.
Four control modes

186
• Pulse/Direction and CW/CCW Mode
• Analog Control Mode
• Network Mode and Standalone Mode.
• Pulse/Direction and CW/CWW Control ModeSD266B can be used as a
traditional stepper motor working with Pulse/Direction and CW/CWW control
signals.
• Analog Control Mode
 DM2207 Three Phase Hybrid Stepper Driver
Figure 5.56: DM2207 Three Phase Hybrid Stepper Driver [201]
Product Specification
No Of Phase 3
Model Name/Number SM3MD2207
Brand Spark Motors
Voltage 230V
Input Phase Three Phase
Power Supply Input Frequency 50Hz
Power Source Electric

Regulated Phase Current 7.0A
Highest response frequency 200Kpps
Manufacturer Spark Motors Private Limited
Product Description
187
The SM3MD2207 is fully digital 3 phase stepper driver based on DSP control. As a new
generation of digital stepper motor drives, it is combined with the advanced DSP control chip
with the three-phase inverter driver module. The drive voltage of which is from 160V to
230VAC. It is designed for use with the 3-phase hybrid stepper motor of all kinds with
0.57mm to 130mm outside diameter, regulated phase current from 1.3A to 7.0A. The circuit
that it adopts is similar to the circuit of servo control which enables the motor to run
smoothly without noise and vibration. Moreover, its torque is far greater than 2 and 5 phase
hybrid stepping motors. Furthermore, the highest micro-step is 60000ppr. Due to these
obvious advantages, it is widely used in middle and big size numerical control devices such
as curving machine, CNC machine, computer, embroider machine, packing machine, etc.
[202].
Features:
• 16 channels constant angle, constant torque micro-steps, highest micro-step: 60000ppr
• The current of winding will be reduced by approximately 50% when no step pulse
command is received for 1.5second
• Opto-isolated signal I/O
• Drive current is adjustable in 16 channels from 1.2A/phase to 5.8A/phase (for
DVS3722: 1.3A/phase to 7.0A/phase)
• Single power supply from 110V to 230VAC
• Phase terminal memory function (motor phase terminal is memorized after input pulse
train stopping 3s and it is recovered when stepper driver power on or signal MF
changes from low level to high level)
• Highest response frequency: 200kpps.
 High quality 2-phase hybrid stepper motor driver Q2HB613M
Figure 5.57: 2-phase hybrid stepper motor driver Q2HB613M [203]
Product Details:
Place of Origin: Guangdong, China
Brand Name: Jingbo
Certification: CE
188
Model Number: Q2HB613M
Q2HB613M Constant angle, constant torque micro step driver, the drive voltage of which is
from 40V to 130VDC. It is designed for use with the 2-phase hybrid stepper motor of all
kinds with 86mm to 110mm outside diameter, regulated phase current from 0.5A to 8A (0.4A
to 6.4A). It is widely used in numerical devices such as curving machine, medium-sized
numerical control machine, packing machine [204].
Features
• High performance, low price
• Two group 32 channels constant angle and constant torque micro step,
highest micro step: 480
• Current of winding will be reduced to set current value when no step pulse
command is received for 0.1 second
• Bipolar constant current chopping circuit
• Opto-isolated input/output
• Drive current is continuously adjustable from 0.5A/phase to 8A/phase
(0.4A/phase to 6.4A/phase)
• Single power supply voltage from 24V to 80VDC (40V to130VDC)
• Highest response frequency: 200Kpps
• Overvoltage protection, overheat protection, overcurrent protection
Terminal function
Symbol Signal Specification

+ Positive of Connected to +5V
opto- power supply. Drive
isolated voltage ranges from
+5V to +24V. Current-
limiting resistance is
needed when it is over
5V.
MF Motor free The motor current will
signal be cut off and the
driver stops working
when it is effective.
189
5V.
SM Subdivision Subdivision (micro
choosing step) is set by DP1 and
signal SK1 when high voltage
and by DP2 and SK2
when low voltage.
Input resistance is
430Ω.
5V.
DR DP3=ON, Change motor’s
DR is direction of rotation.
direction Input resistance is
signal 220Ω. Low voltage 0-
0.5V, high voltage 4-
DP3=OFF, 5V, pulse width>200μS
DR is
negative
step pulse
signal
5V.
PUS DP3=ON, With the falling edge of
PU is step the signal PU, the
pulse signal motor executes an
angular step. The input
DP3=OFF, resistance is 220Ω. Low
PU is voltage 0-0.5V, high
positive voltage 4-5V, pulse
step pulse width>2.5μS.
signal
190
+ Positive of The motor current is
opto- cut off automatically
isolated and signal FL is
overheat / effective (low voltage)
low voltage when the temperature
protection of the driver is over
70℃
. The driver starts to
work and the FL is
cleared when the
temperature falls to
50℃.
FAL Negative of Connect + to current
opto- limiting resistance of
isolated output signal and
overheat / connect FAL to
low voltage ground. The maximum
protection drive current is 50mA,
the highest drive
voltage is 50V.
+ Positive of When the motor
opto- current is on, the
isolated motor is at the origin
origin position. (B, -A is on
output current); opto-isolated
signal outputs (high voltage).
TIM Negative of Connect + to the
opto- current limiting
isolated resistance of output
origin signal, and connect TM
output to ground. Maximum
signal drive current is 50mA
and highest drive
voltage is 50V.
+V Positive of 24-80VDC(40-
power 130VDC)
supply
-V Negative of
power
supply
+A、-A Connection
191
+B、-B
CHAPTER 6
Discussion
Advantages Disadvantages
1. It needs minimal power to operate. 1. The torque produced is limited.
2. It is a compact and small size. 2. Permanent magnet health is limited.
3. Direct control. 3. It cannot be used for high power system.
4. Due to the lack of outside interest, the loss is 4. The magnetic field of this motor is present at
minimal. all time.
5. The sensor can be used to detect rotor 5. Extra ampere turns cannot be added to reduce
windings. the armature reaction.
6. Due to the lack of outdoor entertainment, 6. It reduce ratio of torque to inertia.
maintenance is limited.
7. It can be connected to an external circuit, to 7. It shows the very gradual dynamic response.
control the speed of the car.
8. High torque is produced. 8. Work efficiently when the step angles are in
the range of 30° to 90° .
In this thesis micro-stepping stepper motor and hybrid stepper motor is discussed in detail
with their industrial or commercial application and their different types of control
mechanism.
Conventional electric motors rotate continuously, but stepper motors rotate or step in fixed
angular increments [205]. Step motors have several qualities that make them particularly
suited for control systems. They are stiff when stopped, produce high torque for their physical
size, and are brushless making them virtually maintenance free. Step motors have a serious
drawback, however, when used for precise positioning [206].
6.1 Advantages & disadvantages of some types of stepper motor in tabular form:
Permanent magnet stepper motor:
Variable Reluctance Motor:
1. Enhanced acceleration rates. 1. Speed control is not possible for this
machine, as it rotates in steps.
2. Easily operated. 2. For a particular operation, the step size
192
is fixed.
3. Cost-effective. 3. Due to its step rotation, it has less
number of applications
4. Quickly dynamic response. 4. The electronic devices cause some
losses such as switching losses.
5. The proportion of torque to inertia is 5. Capacity is minimal when there are
more. huge inertial loads.
6. It can run with both AC and DC 6. There will be a limitation on output
supply. power.
7. Its rotation is in stepped form.
8. It is very useful for a particular
operation where we don’t need
continuous motion.
9. High torque to inertia ratio.
10. High rates of acceleration.
11. First dynamic response.
12. Step angle range 5 to 15 degree.
Half Step Stepper motor:
1. Higher resolution (without use of a more 1. However a disadvantage with half-step
expensive motor with higher number of drive is a significant torque variation. The
steps). reason is the torque in one phase-on
positions is about 70% of the two-phase-on
positions’ torque. This variation can cause
vibrations and/or
mechanical noise, though less than in full-
step drive mode.
2. Less problems with resonance 2. A second advantage to half-stepping is
phenomena. Resonances appear as a that it often has less problems with
sudden loss of torque at one or more resonance at high step frequencies.
stepping rates.
3. It provides approximately 30% less

torque’s; half-step mode produces a
smoother motion than full-step mode.
Full Step Stepper Motor:
1.The advantage of the full-step drive is 1. The current vector driven by the full-
that the hardware or software is relatively step divides a circle into four equal parts,
193
simple in design so that the drive and the current waveform is rough.
manufacturing cost is easily controlled.
2. It requires the least amount of power 2. With this driving method, the motor
from the driver of any of the excitation will shake at low speed and the noise will
modes. be large.
3. It provides improved torque and speed
performance.
Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor:
1. Better resolution. 1. Low efficiency.
2. Smooth motion. 2. No feedback is used to indicate potential
missed steps.
3. Reduced mechanical noise. 3. Low torque to inertia ratio.
4. Reduced Vibration problem. 4. It can be very noisy.
5. Simple installation. 5. Holding torque has to be overcome.
6. Easy to use.
7. Stability
8. It can degrade the motor accuracy.
9. Gentle mechanical actuation.
Hybrid Stepper Motor:
1. The length of the step is smaller. 1. Higher inertia.
2. It has greater torque. 2. The weight of the motor is more because
of the presence of the rotor magnet.
3. It provides Detent Torque with the de- 3. If the magnetic strength is varied, the
energized windings. performance of the motor is affected.
4. Higher efficiency at a lower speed. 4. The cost of the Hybrid motor is more as
compared to the Variable Reluctance Motor.
5. Lower stepping rate. 5. Construction is complex compared to
other stepper motors.
6. Excitation required to achieve given 6. Due to the presents of permanent magnet,
torque is less compared to other stepper rotor has greater inertia.
motors.
7. Precise position control. 7. Not easy to operate at extremely high
speeds
8. The shaft is held at a position even after 8. Resonances can occur if not properly
the supply is disconnected. controlled.
The most popular type of stepper motor is the hybrid stepper motor because it gives a good
performance as compared with a permanent magnet rotor in terms of speed, step resolution,
and holding torque. But, this type of stepper motor is expensive as compared with permanent
magnet stepper motors [207]. hybrid steppers have the advantage of rugged, simple
194
construction; reliability with little maintenance; high torque at low speeds; and no need for
position or velocity feedback devices. Day by day the development in different fields like
computer technology, semiconductor, and permanent magnet materials is increased.
Similarly, the usage of hybrid stepper motors is also increased in different fields like robotics,
industrial automation, medical, sun tracking system etc. [208]. But standard hybrid step
motors have a relatively large step size, usually 1/200 of a revolution or 1.8°. Such large step
size can also cause motor-shaft oscillations at resonance points that occur at low speeds. But
there is a widely used technique that retains the advantages of step motors and overcomes
low speed roughness and low resolution. The technique is called micro-stepping. Micro-
stepping increases the position resolution and smoothness of conventional hybrid step motors.
This is done with electronic control in the drive circuits. The drive subdivides each full step
electronically into a large number of smaller steps. The biggest advantage of micro-stepping
is smooth operation and the elimination of resonance over its entire speed range. Smooth
operation permits full torque utilization and freedom from rattling and mechanical wear. The
true accuracy of a micro-stepping system is usually less than its resolution. System accuracy
is a complex function of motor accuracy, electronic tolerances, and errors in the mechanical
transmission. But the combination of micro-positioning and smooth operation has enabled
micro-stepping systems to become standard in X-Y positioning systems, and precision
grinding, turning, and surface-finishing machines. Other precision motion-control
applications include optical scanning and inspection, disk memory media manufacturing, and
fiber-optics manufacturing [206].
In this thesis work comparative feasibility of hybrid stepper motor and micro-stepping
stepper motor are analyzed Between these two motors which motor is useful for which
application are also upholder in this paper.
195
CHAPTER 7
Conclusion
7.1 Contribution
Based on the previous work this thesis presented Comparative feasibility analysis of
hybrid stepper motor and micro-stepping for precision stepping. In this paper, stepper motor
identity, it’s classification and history are narrated. Stepper motor all types of operating
modes along with micro-stepping are explained conceivably. Then reason for micro-stepping
stepper motor is also depicted alternately. Another most popular type of stepper motor which
is named as hybrid stepper motor is also explain in detail in this thesis paper Stepper motor
gradual improvement from the very beginning to hybrid stepper motor are also upfolded in
this thesis paper. For precision stepping, between hybrid stepper motor and micro-stepping
stepper motor, analyses which one provides greater performance is the main motive of this
thesis work.
 Some method of micro-stepping for precision stepping are studied here in detail.
 Analyzed the advantage and the disadvantage of micro-stepping.
 Some industrial and commercial application of hybrid stepper motor along with
micro-stepping are explained here.
 Learnt various controlling method micro-stepping and their corresponding curve.
7.2 Upcoming Technology
The affordability and reliability of step motors – “steppers” – has made this technology
highly popular among many industries today, ranging from electronic printers and disk drives
to aircraft controls and many CNC applications. One of the major reasons for this is the
application of micro-stepping drives, which have improved the smoothness and accuracy of
the step motors. Yet, for many users, such as manufacturers using CNC equipment, the micro
stepping technology still has some conspicuous drawbacks. Despite micro-stepping
technology already on the market, step motors are still subject to vibration, noise and
harmonic resonance issues because of the way they are driven. Even today’s micro stepping
motors can break tooling such as bits when operating at higher speeds, and often have chatter
problems that create flaws when cutting arcs or circular shapes. Now those drawbacks have
largely been overcome with the development of “Soft Step” micro stepping, a technology that
can virtually eliminate noise and vibration that have been problematic in the past. “Through
the Soft Step advancement to micro stepping, a step motor drive is approaching the level of
smooth performance of continuous rotation motors while still being a lower price option for
machine builders,” said Thomas Hart, president of Testra Corporation. Hart explained Soft
Step technology essentially converts driver data into ultra-fine micro stepping (256 micro
196
steps per motor step), ramping speeds up and down between steps to create a very smooth
motion without the traditional stepper clicking, buzzing or whining noises – even at high
speeds. Available as standard or customized solutions, a variety of Soft Step drive systems
deliver the benefits of ultra-smooth micro stepping regardless of selected step size, with on-
board processors that treat input steps as small vector moves and smoothly chains them
together [209].
7.3 Recommendation:
There are many points that this study didn’t provide detailed information about them.
and they must be studied as soon as possible. These points are: -
 How to eliminate step position error.
 Mechanical parameters, load, friction, inertia and their effects on the motion of the
stepper motor.
 The relationship between the torque produced by stepper motor and the different
drive modes in terms of the step rate and the drive current in the windings. After all
these detailed studies, it will be so easy to apply them in fact by choosing any of
stepper motor applications and start to design and implement them so that to be sure
that hybrid stepper motor and micro stepping stepper motor provide more precise
motion than any other types of motors [170].
197
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216

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Comparative Feasibility Analysis of the Micro- Stepping and

Hybrid Stepper Motors for Precision Stepping

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Signature of the students

Md. Tanvir Shikder

Thesis Title Page no

Chapter 1 Introduction 1-3

Chapter 2 Comparative Feasibility Analysis of the Micro-Stepping 4-46

2.1 Introduction to Stepper Motor 4

Chapter 3 Micro-Stepping for Industrial/Commercial Application 47-81

Chapter 4 Hybrid Stepper Motor for Precision Stepping 82-137

Chapter 5 Hybrid Stepper Motor for Commercial/ 138-184

Chapter 6 Discussion 185-188

6.1 Advantages & disadvantages of some types of stepper motor in 185

Chapter 7 Conclusion 189-190

7.1 Contribution 189

Figure no. Figure Name Page no.

1.1 Hybrid Stepper motor 1

2.1 Stepper motor 4

3.1 3D printer (The Prusa i3 MK3S+) 49

4.1 Types of Stepper Motor. 82

Table No. Table Name Page No.

2.1 Incremental torque per micro-step 19

5.1 Implications of De-numerator Constant Setting upon 148

Figure 1.1: Hybrid Stepper motor [4]

1.1 Motivation of this thesis

1.2 Objective of the thesis

1.3 Possible outcomes

1.4 Organization of the thesis

 Introduction of thesis work is presented in chapter 1.

2.1 Introduction to Stepper Motor

Figure 2.1: Stepper motor [9]

2.2 Construction & Working Principle of Stepper Motor

The stepper motor working principle is Electro-Magnetism. It includes a rotor which is

In this motor, there is a soft iron that is

2.3 Step Angle

Resolution = Numbers of Steps /Number of Revolution of the Rotor

Steps for Each Revolution

Steps for Each Second

Revolution per Minute

2.4 Historical Background of Stepper Motor

Figure 2.4: Pawl drive [14]

2.5 Operating Modes of Stepper Motor

2.5.1 Full Stepping

2.5.2 Half Stepping

[20] stepping) [20]

2.6 Classification of Micro-Stepping

2.6.1 Micro- Stepping Square Path

2.6.2 Micro-Stepping Circular Path

2.6.3 Micro- Stepping Arbitrary Path

theta = tan−1( I b/ I a ) (2.1)

2.7 Reason for Micro-Stepping Stepper Motor

2.8 Introduction to Micro-Stepping

2.9 Historical Background of Micro-Stepping

2.10 Construction of Stepper Motor While Micro-Stepping

Figure 2.21: Stepper motor micro-stepping mode [29]

Figure 2.22: Construction of stepper motor Figure 2.23: Resolution

2.11 Micro-stepping Operation