DSE Biology Chapter 2 - Genetics and Evolution 遺傳與進化

DSE Biology Chapter 2 – Genetics and Evolution 遺傳與進化
Chapter 2 : Genetics and Evolution

遺傳與進化
2a. Basic genetics 基礎遺傳學
i. Mendel’s law of inheritance 孟德爾遺傳定律
(1) Concept 概念
(2) Body characteristics 身體特徵
(3) Pedigree analysis 譜系分析
(4) ABO blood group system ABO 血液系統
(5) Sex determination 性別的決定
(6) Sex linkage 性連鎖
ii. Variation 變異
(1) Continuous vs. discontinuous 連續和不連續
(2) Cause 原因
2b. Molecular genetics 分子遺傳學

i. Chromosomes, genes and nucleic acid
染色體、基因和核酸
ii. Gene expression and protein synthesis
基因表達和蛋白質合成
- transcription and translation 轉錄和轉譯
iii. Mutation 突變
(1) Chromosome mutation (e.g. Down syndrome)
& gene mutation (e.g. Sickle-cell anaemia)
染色體突變 (e.g. 唐氏綜合症) 及
基因突變 (e.g. 鐮狀細胞性貧血)
(2) Spontaneous and induced mutation
自發和誘發突變
(3) Cause of mutation 突變的原因
e.g. radiation & chemical e.g. 輻射和化學物
2c. Biotechnology 生物工程

i. Recombinant DNA technology 重組 DNA 技術
ii. DNA fingerprinting DNA 指紋分析
iii. Human Genome Project (HGP) and its implications
人類基因組計畫及其含意
1 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2d. Biodiversity & Evolution 生物多樣性及進化

i. Classification of organisms 生物的分類
ii. 6 Kingdoms & 3 Domains 六界與三域
iii. Classification of plants 植物的分類
iv. Classification of animals 動物的分類
v. Dichotomous key 二叉式檢索表
vi. Origin of life 生命的起源
vii. Evolution 進化
viii. Speciation 物種形成

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (1) Concept

基礎遺傳學 – 孟德爾遺傳定律 (1) 概念
Review
1eiii. cell cycle & cell division – meiosis 細胞週期及細胞分裂 – 減數分裂
1. Interphase 間期 (Cell growth 細胞生長)
2a. Prophase I 前期 I
2b. Metaphase I 中期 I
- Homologous chromosomes arrange themselves at the equator of the spindle
同源染色體排列在紡錘體的赤道上
[crossing over
- exchange of genetic materials between non-sister chromatids of the
homologous pair of chromosomes
- this is an important source of genetic variation
互換
- 於同源染色體中非姊妹染色單體之間交換遺傳物質
- 這個是遺傳變異中重要的來源]
2c. Anaphase I 後期 I
- The two members of each homologous chromosome pair separate and move to
opposite poles of the cell
每對同源染色體的兩個成員各自分離，並移向細胞的兩極。
[homologous chromosomes assort themselves independently, resulting in different

combinations of chromosomes / alleles in the daughter cells / variation in the
gametes]
[同源染色體獨立分配，導致子細胞有不同的染色體 / 等位基因組合 /
配子有變異]
2d. Telophase I 末期 I
3a. Prophase II 前期 II
3b. Metaphase II 中期 II
3c. Anaphase II 後期 II
3d. Telophase II 末期 II
4. Cytoplasmic division 胞質分裂
- 4 haploid daughter cells are formed
形成 4 個單倍體的子細胞

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (1) Concept

基礎遺傳學 – 孟德爾遺傳定律 (1) 概念
Allele : a pair of genes which controls a certain character / different forms of a gene
等位基因︰一對基因可以控制某一項性狀。
Phenotype : appearance / expression of a character

表現型︰表現出來的性狀。
Genotype : the genetic make-up of an individual

基因型︰個體的基因組合
(e.g. Homozygous dominant 顯性純合型 (AA),
Homozygous recessive 隱性純合型 (aa),
Heterozygous 雜合型 (Aa))
Hybrid : an individual which results from crossing two individuals (homozygous)

which are genetically unlike
雜種︰指由兩個不同基因型的個體交配所產生的個體。
Dominant 顯性 : A, B, R
Recessive 隱性 : a, b, r
Homozygous 純合/同型合子 : AA, aa, BB, bb, RR, rr

Heterozygous 雜合/異型合子 : Aa, Bb, Rr

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (2) Body characteristics

基礎遺傳學 – 孟德爾遺傳定律 (2) 身體特徵
A: Dominant character 顯性 a : recessive character 隱性

Case 1 : AA x AA
Parents 親代 : AA x AA
Gametes 配子 : A A Genetic diagram
Offspring 子代 : AA 遺傳圖
Phenotype 表現型︰All are Normal 所有都是正常

All Homozygous dominant 所有都是純合的顯性
Genotype 基因型︰All are AA 所有都是 AA
Case 2 : AA x Aa
Parents 親代 : AA x Aa
Gametes 配子 : A A a
Offspring 子代 : AA Aa
Homozygous dominant : Heterozygous 純合的顯性 : 雜合 = 1 : 1
Genotypic ratio 基因型比 (AA : Aa) = 1 : 1
Case 3 : AA x aa
Parents 親代 : AA x aa
Gametes 配子 : A a
Offspring 子代 : Aa
All Heterozygous 所有都是雜合
Genotype 基因型︰All are Aa 所有都是 Aa


Case 4 : Aa x Aa
Parents 親代 : Aa x Aa
Gametes 配子 : A a A a
Offspring 子代 : AA Aa Aa aa
Phenotypic ratio 表現型比 (Normal : Abnormal 正常:異常) = 3 : 1
Homozygous dominant : Heterozygous : Homozygous recessive
純合的顯性 : 雜合 : 純合的隱性 = 1 : 2 : 1
Genotypic ratio 基因型比 (AA : Aa : aa) = 1 : 2 : 1
Case 5 : Aa x aa
Parents 親代 : Aa x aa
Gametes 配子 : A a a
Offspring 子代 : Aa aa
Phenotypic ratio 表現型比 (Normal : Abnormal 正常:異常) = 1 : 1
Heterozygous : Homozygous recessive 雜合 : 純合的隱性 = 1 : 1
Genotypic ratio 基因型比 (Aa : aa) = 1 : 1
Case 6 : aa x aa
Parents 親代 : aa x aa
Gametes 配子 : a a
Offspring 子代 : aa
Phenotype 表現型︰All are Abnormal 所有都是異常
All Homozygous recessive 所有都是純合的隱性
Genotype 基因型︰All are aa 所有都是 aa


Mendel’s Law / Law of Inheritance 孟德爾定律 / 遺傳定律

According to Mendel’s Law / Law of Inheritance
If a cross between two parents
gives rise to (phenotype 1) and (phenotype 2) in a 3 : 1 ratio
Then both parents must be heterozygous
根據孟德爾定律 / 遺傳定律
若兩個親本交配後，其子裔的 (表現型 1) 和 (表現型 2) 的比例為 3 : 1
則兩個親本必定是異型合子。
To show individual X is homozygous dominant

證明個體 X 是純合顯性
Cross with (recessive phenotype) (aa)
If all the offspring produced are (dominant phenotype), the individual is homozygous
dominant (AA).
If some offspring are (dominant phenotype) but some are (recessive phenotype), the
individual is heterozygous (Aa).
與 (隱性表現型) (aa) 進行交配
如果所有的子裔都是 (顯性表現型)，該個體是同型合子的 (AA)。
如果部分子裔是 (顯性表現型)，部分是 (隱性表現型)，該個體是異型合子的
(Aa)。
Body characteristics by inheritance 通過遺傳的身體特徵

Skin colour, eye colour, blood group, albino, curly or straight hair, colour blindness, …
膚色、眼睛顏色、血型、白化、曲或直髮、色盲、…

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (3) Pedigree analysis

基礎遺傳學 – 孟德爾遺傳定律 (3) 譜系分析
P : 有耳珠、Q︰無耳珠
Case 1a :
Parents 親代 : P x P
Offspring 子代 : P Q
 Since Q appears in the offspring but not in parents

Offspring 2 must have received one recessive allele from each parent
But both parents have P phenotype,
so 1. both parents must be heterozygous.
2. Q is recessive character
因為在交配中出現 Q 的子代，但親代沒有 Q。
子代 2 必由每個親代處得到一個隱性基因。
但兩親代都是 P 的表現型，
所以 1. 兩親代必定是異型合子
2. Q 為隱性特徵
Case 1b :
Parents 親代 : P x P
Offspring 子代 : Q Q
 Since Q appears in the offspring but not in parents

Offspring must have received one recessive allele from each parent
But both parents have P phenotype,
so 1. both parents must be heterozygous.
2. Q is recessive character
因為在交配中出現 Q 的子代，但親代沒有 Q。
子代 2 必由每個親代處得到一個隱性基因。
但兩親代都是 P 的表現型，
所以 1. 兩親代必定是異型合子
2. Q 為隱性特徵

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (3) Pedigree analysis

基礎遺傳學 – 孟德爾遺傳定律 (3) 譜系分析
Case 2 :
Parents 親代 : P x Q
Offspring 子代 : All Q
 Q is dominant character
In the cross, offspring must have received an allele from parent with phenotype
P and an allele from parent with phenotype Q.
However, all daughter plants are with phenotype Q.
Therefore, the allele for P must be masked by the allele for Q.
Q 是顯性特徵
在交配中，子代必定會由表現型 P 的親代收到一等位基因及會由表現型
Q 的親代收到一等位基因。
但所有子代都是 Q 的表現型。
因此，P 的等位基因被 Q 的等位基因所隱藏。
Case 3 :
Parents 親代 : P x Q
Offspring 子代 : P Q
 The parents are of different phenotypes, hence, one of the parents must be
homozygous recessive
To produce offspring with different phenotypes
the other parent must be heterozygous, producing two types of gametes
carrying different alleles
親代擁有不同的顯現型，因此其中一位必定是純合型
要產生不同表現型的後代
另一位必須是雜合型，這樣才會產生兩種攜帶不同等位基因的配子

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (4) ABO blood group system
基礎遺傳學 – 孟德爾遺傳定律 (4) ABO 血液系統
Blood group Antigen Antibody Donate Receive from

血型抗原抗體捐贈接受
A A Antibody B 抗 B 抗體 A, AB O, A
B B Antibody A 抗 A 抗體 B, AB O, B
AB A&B - AB A, B, AB, O
Antibody A & Antibody B
O - A, B, AB, O O
抗 A 抗體及抗 B 抗體
2 blood samples mixed

a. same blood group  no blood agglutination / no clumping of blood
b. different blood group  blood agglutination / clumping of blood
(* blood clump = red blood cells)
兩個血液樣本混合
a. 相同血型  沒有血液凝集 / 沒有血液結塊
b. 不同血型  有血液凝集 / 有血液結塊
(* 血凝塊 = 紅血球)
Q : Why Z (blood group A) cannot receive blood from Y (blood group AB)?
A : Antibodies B in Z’s blood will act against the antigens of Y’s red blood cells and
cause blood cells clumping / hemolysis of blood cells if Z receive blood
transfusion from Y.
Q: 為何 Z (A 型血) 不能接受 Y (AB 型血) 的輸血？
A: Z 血中的抗 B 抗體會對抗 Y 紅血細胞的抗原
若 Z 接受 Y 的輸血，會引致血細胞凝集/溶血

Allele 等位基因︰ IA, IB, i (recessive 隱性)

Pair of alleles 一對等位基因︰ IAIA, IBIB, ii, IAIB, IAi, IBi
Blood group 血型︰ A (IAIA, IAi), B (IBIB, IBi), AB (IAIB), O (ii)
Genetic diagram 遺傳圖

Parents 親代 : IAi x IBi
Gametes 配子 : IA i IB i
Offspring 子代 : IAIB IAi IBi ii
(AB) (A) (B) (O)

10 different combinations 10 個不同的組合

Case 1 : A x A (a) IAIA x IAIA (b) IAIA x IAi (c) IAi x IAi
Case 2 : B x B (a) IBIB x IBIB (b) IBIB x IBi (c) IBi x IBi
Case 3 : AB x AB (a) IAIB x IAIB
Case 4 : O x O (a) ii x ii
Case 5 : A x B (a) IAIA x IBIB (b) IAIA x IBi (c) IAi x IBIB (d) IAi x IBi
Case 6 : A x AB (a) IAIA x IAIB (b) IAi x IAIB
Case 7 : A x O (a) IAIA x ii (b) IAi x ii
Case 8 : B x AB (a) IBIB x IAIB (b) IBi x IAIB
Case 9 : B x O (a) IBIB x ii (b) IBi x ii
Case 10 : AB x O (a) IAIB x ii
1(a) : IAIA : A 4
1(b) : IAIA : A, IAi :A 2:2
1(c) : IAIA : A, IAi : A, ii : O 1:2:1
2(a) : IBIB : B 4
2(b) : IBIB : B, IBi : B 2:2
2(c) : IBIB : B, IBi : B, ii : O 1:2:1
3(a) : IAIA : A, I I : AB, IBIB : B
A B 1:2:1
4(a) : ii : O 4
5(a) : IAIB : AB 4
5(b) : IAIB : AB, IAi : A 2:2
5(c) : IAIB : AB, IBi : B 2:2
5(d) : IAIB : AB, IAi : A, IBi : B, ii : O 1:1:1:1
6(a) : IAIA : A, IAIB : AB 2:2
6(b) : IAIA : A, IAIB : AB, IAi : A, IBi : B 1:1:1:1
7(a) : IAi : A, IAi : A 2:2
7(b) : IAi : A, ii : O 2:2
8(a) : IAIB : AB, IBIB : B 2:2
8(b) : IAIB : AB, IBIB : B, IAi : A, IBi : B 1:1:1:1
9(a) : IBi : B, IBi : B 2:2
9(b) : IBi : B, ii : O 2:2
10(a) : IAi : A, IBi : B 2:2

Summary 總結
Parent 親代 Offspring 子代
AxA A O
BxB B O
AB x AB AB A B
OxO O
AxB AB A B O
A x AB AB A B
AxO A O
B x AB AB A B
BxO B O
AB x O A B
2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (5) Sex determination

基礎遺傳學 – 孟德爾遺傳定律 (5) 性別的決定
Sex chromosomes : X chromosome (長), Y chromosome (短)

性染色體 : X 染色體 (長)、Y 染色體 (短)
XX (Mother 母親) x XY (Father 父親)
Parents 親代 : XX x XY
Gametes 配子 : X X Y
Offspring 子代 : XX XY
G B
Boy : Girl 男:女 = 1 : 1

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (6) Sex linkage

基礎遺傳學 – 孟德爾遺傳定律 (6) 性連鎖
Law of independent assortment

The separation of allele is independent, exceptional case : sex-linked allele
獨立分配定律
不同等位基因的分離各自獨立，例外︰性連鎖
Case 1a : mother (phenotype dominant) x father (phenotype dominant)

母親 (顯性表現型) x 父親 (顯性表現型)
Parents 親代 : XA X A x XAY
Gametes 配子 : XA XA Y
Offspring 子代 : XA XA XA Y
G B
Case 1b : mother (phenotype dominant) x father (phenotype recessive)

母親 (顯性表現型) x 父親 (隱性表現型)
Parents 親代 : XA X A x XaY
Gametes 配子 : XA Xa Y
Offspring 子代 : XXA a A
XY
G B

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (6) Sex linkage

基礎遺傳學 – 孟德爾遺傳定律 (6) 性連鎖
Case 2a : mother (phenotype dominant) x father (phenotype dominant)

母親 (顯性表現型) x 父親 (顯性表現型)
Parents 親代 : XA X a x XAY
Gametes 配子 : XA Xa XA Y
Offspring 子代 : A
XX A a
XX A A
XY XaY
G B
Case 2b : mother (phenotype dominant) x father (phenotype recessive)

母親 (顯性表現型) x 父親 (隱性表現型)
Parents 親代 : XA X a x XaY
Gametes 配子 : XA Xa Xa Y
Offspring 子代 : XA Xa XaXa XA Y XaY
G B
Case 2c : mother (phenotype recessive) x father (phenotype dominant)

母親 (隱性表現型) x 父親 (顯性表現型)
Parents 親代 : XaXa x XAY
Gametes 配子 : Xa XA Y
Offspring 子代 : XXa A a
XY
G B
Case 3 : mother (phenotype recessive) x father (phenotype dominant)

母親 (隱性表現型) x 父親 (顯性表現型)
Parents 親代 : XX x XYA
Gametes 配子 : X X YA
Offspring 子代 : XX XYA
G B
Phenotype dominant 顯性表現型 : AA, Aa

Phenotype recessive 隱性表現型 : aa, a

2aii. Basic genetics – Variation (1) Continuous vs. discontinuous

基礎遺傳學 – 變異 (1) 連續和不連續
Continuous 連續
1. Characteristics show gradation from one extreme to the other
特徵會由一個極端慢慢變成另一極端
2. e.g. heartbeat rate, height, weight, intelligence quotient (IQ), skin colour,
hair colour
心跳速率、高度、重量、智商(IQ)、膚色、頭髮顏色
Discontinuous 不連續
1. There are distinctive categories with no intermediate categories
有清楚獨特的類型而沒有中間類型
2. e.g. blood group, eye/iris colour, tongue-rolling ability, shape of ear lobe,
gender
血型、眼睛/虹膜顏色、捲舌能力、耳垂的形狀、性別
[根據網上資料 eye colour 係 continuous 連續]

2aii. Basic genetics – Variation (2) Cause

基礎遺傳學 – 變異 (2) 原因
(1) genetic factor 基因因素
(a) Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes in meiosis
- leading to the formation of gametes with different alleles
減數分裂中同源染色體的獨立分配
- 導致產生的配子含有不同的等位基因
(b) Random fertilization
- results in random combination of alleles in the zygote
隨機受精
- 導致形成合子時等位基因隨機組合
Aa x Aa
Parents 親代 : Aa x Aa
Gametes 配子 : A a A a  (a)
Offspring 子代 : AA Aa Aa aa  (b)
(c) Mutation 突變
- is a sudden and inheritable change of genetic material (gene /
chromosome)
是遺傳物質 (基因/染色體) 出現突然及可遺傳的改變
- change in metabolic activities of the cells 細胞內代謝活動出現變化
- A mutation may lead to the synthesis of new protein / failure to
synthesis a certain protein.
Since proteins may be enzymes or may have other function in the
cell, absence / change of the original protein will result in a
change in the metabolic activities of cells.
突變會導致產生新的蛋白質 / 身體不能產生某種蛋白質
由於蛋白質可能是酶或在細胞有其他功能
缺乏原有的蛋白質會導致細胞內代謝活動出現變化
(2) environmental effect 環境因素影響

(a) Diet 膳食
(b) Light supply 日光的供應
(c) Carbon dioxide supply 二氧化碳供應
(d) Water supply 水份的供應
(e) Nutrients supply 營養的供應

2bi. Molecular genetics - Chromosomes, genes and nucleic acid

分子遺傳學 - 染色體、基因和核酸
Chromosomes 染色體
- made up of DNA and proteins
- locate in the nucleus of a cell
- 由 DNA 和蛋白質組成
- 於細胞中的細胞核出現
DNA:
- a double helix structure
- made up of nucleotides, sugar and phosphate
- capable of replication
- controls protein synthesis
- 一個雙螺旋結構
- 由核苷酸、糖、磷酸鹽組成
- 可以複製
- 控制蛋白質的合成
Gene 基因:
- a portion of DNA molecule
- codes for a particular protein
- DNA 的一部分
- 用作編碼一特定蛋白質
RNA
- directs the protein synthesis through translation
- 經轉譯作用指令蛋白合成
Nucleic acid 核酸
- the main information-carrying molecules of the cell
主要負責生物體遺傳信息的攜帶的細胞
- directing the process of protein synthesis
指導蛋白質製作的過程
- determine the inherited characteristics
決定遺傳的特徵
- 2 main classes : deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
兩個主要類別︰去氧核糖核苷酸 (DNA) 及核糖核酸 (RNA)

Nucleotides 核苷酸 : A,T,G,C,U

- is the basic building block of nucleic acids
- RNA and DNA are polymers made of long chains of nucleotides
- 4 types of DNA nucleotides :
a. adenine 腺嘌呤(A), thymine 胸腺嘧啶(T) ,
cytosine 胞嘧啶(C), guanine 鳥嘌呤(G)
b. C = G, T = A
c. difference in base 差異在於鹼基
[Phosphate-deoxyribose backbone = 磷酸脫氧核糖骨架]

Source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA
- 4 types of RNA nucleotides :

uracil 尿嘧啶(U), adenine 腺嘌呤(A),
guanine 鳥嘌呤(G), cytosine 胞嘧啶(C)
- DNA  RNA
A  U
T  A
C  G
G  C

2bii. Molecular genetics - Gene expression and protein synthesis

分子遺傳學 - 基因表達和蛋白質合成
Non-template DNA
(coding DNA) DNA template
mRNA tRNA
非模板 DNA DNA 模板
(編碼 DNA)
A T A U
C G C G
G C G C
T A U A
Non-template DNA
(coding DNA) DNA template mRNA codon tRNA anticodon
非模板 DNA DNA 模板 mRNA 密碼子 tRNA 反密碼子
(編碼 DNA)
AAG TTC AAG UUC
CCT GGA CCU GGA
CAT GTA CAU GUA
GAT CTA GAU CUA


Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA 轉錄是指由 DNA 生成 RNA︰

- allele is transcribed to form mRNA by complementary base pairing
- 透過鹼基互補，等位基因被轉錄，形成 mRNA
Translation is the synthesis of a protein from an mRNA template

轉譯是指由 mRNA 模板生成蛋白質︰
- mRNA moves out of the nucleus to attach to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
- tRNA carrying specific amino acids with anticodons matching the codons of
mRNA will attach to ribosomes in sequence
- a peptide bond will be formed between adjacent amino acids, thus forming
the polypeptide / protein which subsequently forms the enzyme
- mRNA 移離細胞核，附在細胞質的核糖體上
- 攜帶著某種氨基酸的 tRNA 的反密碼子與 mRNA 的密碼子配對，tRNA 順
序附在核糖體上
- 相鄰的氨基酸形成肽鍵，因此形成的多肽/蛋白質最終形成酶
mRNA codon 密碼子: A, C, U ,G

UUU UCU UAU UGU
Phe Tyr Cys
UUC UCC UAC UGC
Ser
UUA UCA UAA UGA STOP
STOP
UUG UCG UAG UGG Trp
CUU CCU CAU CGU
Leu His
CUC CCC CAC CGC
Pro Arg
CUA CCA CAA CGA
Gln
CUG CCG CAG CGG
AUU ACU AAU AGU
Asn Ser
AUC lle ACC AAC AGC
Thr
AUA ACA AAA AGA
Lys Arg
AUG Met ACG AAG AGG
GUU GCU GAU GGU
Asp
GUC GCC GAC GGC
Val Ala Gly
GUA GCA GAA GGA
Glu
GUG GCG GAG GGG


Factors determining the different conformations of protein molecules (S)

amino acid sequence:
1. proteins are built from 20 different amino acids
2. amino acids are joined together to form a polypeptide
3. the amino acids sequence of the polypeptide determines the final conformation
of protein molecule
4. this amino acid sequence is encoded by the base sequence of a gene / code /
nucleotide on DNA
folding of the polypeptide
1. the polypeptide chains then coil / fold up
2. while some polypeptide chains bind together to form a molecule with specific
conformation
The unique shape of each protein allows different proteins to perform different
functional roles in our body
1. enzymes with unique active sites / substrate binding sites that fit with specific
substrates for controlling cellular metabolism
2. receptors with binding sites for neurotransmitters that allows transmission of
nerve impulses across synapse
3. antibodies which allow recognition of antigens / pathogens for body defence
4. haemoglobin with binding site for carrying oxygen


決定蛋白分子不同構象的要素
氨基酸序列︰
1. 蛋白質由 20 個不同氨基酸組成
2. 氨基酸連結合多肽鏈
3. 多肽鏈上的氨基酸序列組合決定該蛋白分子的最終構象
4. 這氨基酸序列組合是由 DNA 上基因 / 密碼的鹼基序列所編碼的
多肽的折疊︰
1. 多肽鏈會捲起 / 折疊起來
2. 有些多肽鏈會結合以形成具特別構象的分子
每個蛋白的獨有形狀，令不同的蛋白可以擔起身體內不同的功能角色︰
1. 不同的酶，各有獨特的活性部位 / 受質結合部位，與專有的受質結合﹐以
控制不同的細胞代謝
2. 受體具有與神經遞質結合部位，讓神經脈衝越過突觸來傳遞
3. 抗體以辨認抗原 / 病原體，對抗疾病
4. 血紅蛋白具結合部位以運載氧

2biii.Molecular genetics - Mutation 分子遺傳學 - 突變

(1) Chromosome mutation (e.g. Down syndrome) 染色體突變 (e.g. 唐氏綜合症)
- The 21st pair of chromosomes  3 chromosomes
第 21 對染色體變成 3 條
During genetic formation / meiosis, members of the 21st homologous
chromosomes fail to separate (not inherited).
After the gamete bearing the extra chromosome fuses with a normal
gamete, the foetus formed will have Down syndrome.
配子形成時/減數分裂時，第 21 對同源染色體的成員未能分離
(不是遺傳)。
這個含有多一枚染色體的配子，與一個正常的配子結合後，所產生的
胎兒就會有唐氏綜合症。
(2) Gene mutation (e.g. Sickle-cell anaemia) 基因突變 (e.g. 鐮狀細胞性貧血)
(3) Spontaneous and induced mutation 自發和誘發突變

(4) Cause of mutation 突變的原因
e.g. radiation & chemical 輻射和化學物

2ci. Biotechnology – Recombinant DNA technology 生物工程 – 重組 DNA 技術
Steps of genetic engineering 遺傳工程的步驟

(1) cut out the desired gene
(2) insert the desired gene into the vector
(3) introduce the vector into the host cell
(4) screen for host cells with the desired gene
(5) multiply copies of the gene by the host cell
(1) 將所選取基因剪出
(2) 將所選取基因插入載體中
(3) 將載體轉介入宿主細胞內
(4) 篩選出載有所選取基因的宿主細胞
(5) 宿主細胞將基因倍增
Advantage 好處:
1. increase the production 增加產量
2. lower the cost 降低成本
- on medicine 於藥物上
3. less side effect 較少副作用
4. more effective in action 治療較有效
- in agriculture 於農業上
5. more resistance to pests 更能抵抗害蟲
6. increase the nutritional value 增加營養價值
Potential risk 潛在風險

1. may cause allergic reactions in susceptible humans
可能使某些易敏感的人產生過敏反應

2cii. Biotechnology – DNA fingerprinting 生物工程 – DNA 指紋分析
DNA fingerprinting is a method to distinguish different sample by comparing DNA

fragment.
遺傳指紋分析是一種使用通過比較 DNA 片段來區別不同個體的方法。
Source : https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/DNA-Fingerprinting
Applications of DNA fingerprinting

1. Forensic science
2. Screening for genetic disease
3. Identification of Chinese medicines
DNA 指紋法的應用
1. 法證科學
2. 遺傳病的篩選
3. 鑑認中藥

2ciii. Biotechnology – Human Genome Project (HGP) 生物工程 – 人類基因組計劃

Recognize the contributions and limitations of the data obtained from the HGP.
Appreciate the joint effort of scientists in international genomics projects.
明白從人類基因組計畫所取得的數據的貢獻和局限
體會國際基因組計畫有賴科學家的共同努力。
1. International scientific research project (1990 – 2003)
國際科學研究計劃 (1990 – 2003)
2. goal :
determining the base of pairs that make up human DNA
Identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from
both a physical and functional standpoint
目的︰測定組成人類染色體中所包含的 60 億對組成的核苷酸序列，
達到破譯人類遺傳信息的最終目的。
3. limitation: ethical, social and legal problems
局限︰道德、社會及法律上的問題
e.g. 保險公司能否得到你的基因資料?
下一代出生前，父母能否知道或揀選下一代的基因？
Website: https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project

2di. Biodiversity & Evolution – Classification of organisms

生物多樣性及進化 – 生物的分類
1. Modern classification system is based on the phylogenetic relationship of

organisms
現代分類學是建基於種系發生的關係上。
2. Hierarchical system 分類的層次
(smallest group) (largest group)
Species  Genus  Family  Order  Class  Phylum  Kingdom
種  屬  科  目  綱  門  界
(The breeding between species produces fertilized offspring)
(「種」之間可以配種生出受精後代)
Human 人類
Kingdom : Animalia 界︰動物界
Phylum : Chordata 門︰脊索動物門
Class : Mammalia 綱︰哺乳類
Order : Primates 目︰靈長目
Family : Hominidae 科︰人科
Genus : Homo 屬︰人屬
Species Homo sapiens 種︰人
3. Binomial nomenclature 雙名法

e.g. Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens
(Genus 屬) (Species 種)
4. Classification system of organisms keeps changing over time:

生物的分類系統會隨著時間而不斷改變
a. as new evidence arises (e.g. new knowledge developed / new species
found), the existing classification systems will be modified if they cannot
accommodate the new evidence
當有新證據出現時 (例如新知識的發展 / 找到新物種)
若現時的分類系統未能把新證據融入，便要把現時的分類系統修訂
b. different scientists place emphases on different classification criteria, so
giving rise to different classification systems
不同的科學家所重視的分類準則不同，所以產生了不同的分類系統

2dii. Biodiversity & Evolution – 6 Kingdoms & 3 Domains

生物多樣性及進化 – 六界與三域
Prokaryota Eukaryota
- No distinct nucleus / nuclear - Distinct nucleus / nuclear
membrane membrane
- Single circular DNA lying free in the - Multiple copies of linear DNA
cytoplasm present in the nucleus
- No membranous organelles such as - Membranous organelles present
mitochondrion or chloroplast
- Eubacteria, Archaebacteria - Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
原核生物真核生物
- 沒有明顯的細胞核/核膜 - 有明顯的細胞核/核膜
- 在細胞質內有一條環狀的 DNA - 在細胞核內有多條線狀的 DNA
- 沒有具有膜的細胞器，例如線粒 - 有具有膜的細胞器
體和葉綠體
- 真細菌界、古細菌界 - 原生生物界、真菌界、植物界、
動物界


Domain 域 Kingdom 界
Bacteria 細菌 Eubacteria 真細菌界
Archaea 古細菌 Archaebacteria 古細菌界
Protista 原生生物界 –
(e.g. Algae 藻)
Fungi 真菌界
Flowering plants 有花植物
Mosses 蘚類植物
Ferns 蕨類植物
Plantae 植物界 Non-flowering plants
Gymnosperm
無花植物
Eukarya 真核 (Conifers/pine)
裸子植物 (松柏/松)
invertebrates 無脊椎動物
Fishes 魚
Amphibians 兩棲動物
Animalia 動物界
vertebrates 脊椎動物 Reptiles 爬蟲動物
Birds 鳥
Mammals 哺乳動物


Six kingdoms 六界︰

True nucleus Membrane- Cell wall Single-celled? Nutrition
真正的細胞 bound 細胞壁單細胞? 營養方式
核 organelles
e.g.
mitochondria
有膜包圍的
細胞器
例︰線粒體
Eubacteria Absence Absence Presence Yes Autotrophic /
真細菌界沒有沒有 (Peptidoglycan) Heterotrophic
有 (由肽聚糖自養營養/
組成) 異養營養
Archaebacteria Absence Absence Presence (Non- Yes Autotrophic /
古細菌界沒有沒有 peptidoglycan) Heterotrophic
有 (非由肽聚自養營養/
糖組成) 異養營養
Protista / Presence Presence Presence / Mostly Yes Autotrophic /
Protocista / 有有 absence 大多是 Heterotrophic
Protoctists 有/沒有自養營養/
原生生物界異養營養
Fungi Presence Presence Presence (non- Mostly No Heterotrophic
真菌界有有 cellulose) 大多不是異養營養
有 (非由纖維
素組成)
Plantae Presence Presence Presence No Autotrophic
植物界有有 (cellulose) 自養營養
有 (由纖維素
組成)
Animalia Presence Presence Absence No Heterotrophic
動物界有有沒有異養營養


1. Eubacteria 真細菌界︰ nitrifying bacteria 硝化細菌

2. Archaebacteria 古細菌界︰ archaea 古細菌
3. Protista 原生生物界︰ amoeba 變形蟲
4. Fungi 真菌界︰ yeast 酵母菌
- decomposes organic matter in the soil 分解泥土內的有機物
5. Plantae 植物界︰ pine 松樹
6. Animalia 動物界︰ mouse 小鼠
(Autotrophic : e.g. have chlorophyll / 自養營養 : e.g. 有葉綠體)


Fungi – Bread mould 真菌界 – 麵包徽


Virus 病毒
1. non-cellular 不是由細胞組成
2. cannot grow or reproduce outside host cells 不能在宿主細胞外生長或繁殖
3. size is very small 非常細小 : 20 – 400 nm
4. consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA), protein coat and in some cases an
outside envelope of lipids.
包含遺傳物質 (DNA 或 RNA)、蛋白質外層
及一些情況會有脂質包膜環繞在外
5. not an organisms :
because it is non-cellular / has no cytoplasm / cannot replicate by itself / has no
metabolism unless it is within a host cell
不是生物體︰
因它屬非細胞體/沒有細胞質/不可自行複雜/除在寄主細胞內，
它並沒有代謝作用


Photograph 相片
P = Prokaryotes 原核生物界
Q = Protoctists 原生生物界
Fungi 真菌界

2diii.Biodiversity & Evolution – Classification of plants

生物多樣性及進化 – 植物的分類
Flowering plants 有花植物

Mosses 蘚類植物
Plantae 植物界 Non-flowering plants Ferns 蕨類植物
無花植物 Gymnosperm (Conifers/pine)
裸子植物 (松柏/松)
Cell wall, Stems & True Vascular Flowers and

Seeds
Chlorophyll leaves roots tissues fruit
種子
細胞壁、葉綠素莖和葉真根維管組織花和果實
Protista - Algae
Y N N N N N
原生生物 - 藻
Mosses
Y Y N N N N
蘚類植物
Ferns
Y Y Y Y N N
蕨類植物
Gymnosperm
(Conifers/pine)
Y Y Y Y Y N
裸子植物
(松柏/松)
Flowering plants
Y Y Y Y Y Y
有花植物


1. Mosses (Non-flowering plants)

- spores for reproduction
- can only survive in a moist and shady environment
2. Ferns (Non-flowering plants)
- spores for reproduction
3. Gymnosperm (Conifers/pine) (Non-flowering plants)
- have cones for carrying naked seeds
- have needle-shaped leave
4. Flowering plants
- can be further divided into 2 subgroups
- monocotyledons (with parallel veins)
- dicotyledons (with network veins)
e.g. grass 草
1. 蘚類植物 (無花植物)
- 孢子作繁殖
- 只能在潮濕的陰暗的環境中生存
2. 蕨類植物 (無花植物)
- 孢子作繁殖
3. 裸子植物 (松柏/松) (無花植物)
- 種子藏於毬果內，但裸露於空氣中
- 有針狀葉
4. 有花植物
- 可再分為兩類︰
- 單子葉植物 (具平行葉脈)
- 雙子葉植物 (具網狀葉脈)
e.g. 草


Flowering plants 有花植物 Gymnosperm 祼子植物
Ferns 蕨類植物 Algae 藻
Mosses 蘚類植物

2div. Biodiversity & Evolution – Classification of animals

生物多樣性及進化 – 動物的分類
invertebrates 無脊椎動物
Fishes 魚
Amphibians 兩棲動物
Animalia 動物界
vertebrates 脊椎動物 Reptiles 爬蟲動物
Birds 鳥
Mammals 哺乳動物
Invertebrates are animals without backbones,

e.g. earthworms, grasshoppers, mosquito, jellyfish, shrimp, starfish and tapeworms,
etc.
無脊椎動物沒有脊柱，例如︰蚯蚓、草蜢、蚊、水母、蝦、海星及絛蟲等。
1. Fishes (Vertebrates)
a. Possession of fins
b. Possession of lateral lines
c. slimy scales
d. breathing with gills
e. external fertilization
e.g. goldfish, sea horses
2. Amphibians (Vertebrates)
a. moist skin
b. naked skin
c. larvae (in water) breathing with gills
while adults (on land) breathing with lungs and skins.
d. external fertilization
e.g. frog, newts, toad, turtle
3. Reptiles (Vertebrates)
a. Possession of dry scales
b. breathing with lungs
c. internal fertilization
d. lays eggs with a hard shell
e.g. crocodile, snake, lizard, tortoise


4. Birds (Vertebrates)
a. Skin covered with features
b. Possession of feathers, beaks and wings
c. have scales on the legs
d. breathing with lungs
e. internal fertilization
f. warm-blooded
e.g. sparrow, penguin, crow, pigeon, duck
5. Mammals (Vertebrates)
a. Presence of mammary glands
b. Body covered with hair
(dolphin, whale without, since it is not suitable for swimming)
c. breathing with lungs
d. internal fertilization
e. warm-blooded
e.g. dolphin, whale, bat, rabbit, dog, cat


1. 魚 (脊椎動物)
a. 擁有鰭
b. 擁有側線
c. 黏滑的鱗片
d. 用鰓呼吸
e. 體外受精
e.g. 金魚、海馬
2. 兩棲動物 (脊椎動物)
a. 濕潤的皮膚
b. 祼露的皮膚
c. 幼體於水中︰用鰓呼吸
成年後於乾燥陸地︰用肺及皮膚呼吸
d. 體外受精
e.g. 青蛙、蠑螈、蟾蜍、海龜
3. 爬蟲動物 (脊椎動物)
a. 擁有乾的鱗片
b. 用肺呼吸
c. 體內受精
d. 產下具有硬殼的卵
e.g. 鱷魚、蛇、蜥蝪、陸龜
4. 鳥 (脊椎動物)
a. 皮膚上蓋有羽毛
b. 有羽毛、喙和翅膀
c. 足部有鱗片
d. 用肺呼吸
e. 體內受精
f. 熱血
e.g. 麻雀、企鵝、烏鴉、鴿子、鴨


5. 哺乳動物 (脊椎動物)
a. 有乳腺
b. 身體蓋有毛髮 (海豚、鯨魚沒有，因為阻住游水)
c. 用肺呼吸
d. 體內受精
e. 熱血
e.g. 海豚、鯨魚、蝙蝠、白免、狗、貓

2dv. Biodiversity & Evolution – Dichotomous key

生物多樣性及進化 – 二叉式檢索表
Sample 1 (Organisms 生物)

1a Without true nucleus … Go to 2
沒有真正細胞核
1b With true nucleus … Go to 3
有真正細胞核
2a With peptidoglycan cell wall … Eubacteria 真細菌界
細胞壁有肽聚糖
2b Without peptidoglycan cell wall … Archaebacteria 古細菌界
細胞壁沒有肽聚糖
3a Unicellular / Simple in structure … Protista 原生生物界
單細胞/結構簡單
3b Multicellular / Complex in structure … Go to 4
多細胞/結構複雜
4a. Autotrophic … Plantae 植物界
進行自養營養
4b. Heterotrophic … Go to 5
進行異養營養
5a. Immotile … Fungi 真菌界
不能移動
5b. Motile … Animalia 動物界
可以移動
Sample 2 (Plantae 植物界)

1a with flowers 有花 …………………. Flowering plants 有花植物
1b without flowers 沒有花 …………. 2
2a with seeds 有種子 …………………. Gymnosperm 祼子植物

2b without seeds 沒有種子 …………. 3
3a with true roots 有真根 …….……………. Ferns 蕨類植物

3b without true roots 沒有真根 ………….. 4
4a with stems & leaves 有莖和葉 ……... Mosses 蘚類植物

4b without stems & leaves 沒有莖和葉.. Algae 藻

2dv. Biodiversity & Evolution – Dichotomous key

生物多樣性及進化 – 二叉式檢索表
Sample 3 (Animalia 動物界)

1a With hair Mammals 有毛髮哺乳動物
1b Without hair go to 2 沒有毛髮去2
2a With fins Fishes 有鰭魚
2b Without fins go to 3 沒有鯺去3
3a With wings Birds 有翅膀鳥
3b Without wings go to 4 沒有翅膀去4
4a With dry scales Reptiles 有乾的鱗片爬蟲動物
4b Without dry scales Amphibians 沒有乾的鱗片兩棲動物
2dvi. Biodiversity & Evolution – Origin of life

生物多樣性及進化 – 生命的起源
1. Inorganic substances  simple organic molecules  first simple organisms

無機物質  簡單有機分子  第一個簡單生物
2. from other planets 來自其他星球
3. created by God 神創造

2dvii. Biodiversity & Evolution – Evolution

生物多樣性及進化 – 進化
1. Evidence of evolution – fossil records 進化的證據 – 化石紀錄︰

- are valuable in the study of evolution because they provide information
about the time of existence of organisms.
對研究演化很有價值，因為它們提供關於生物生存年代的資料
- show that different life forms once existed on Earth
可展現在地球曾出現的不同生命形態
Layer 1 compare with layer 3 第 1 層相對於第 3 層

- appeared later on Earth - 較遲在地球出現
- more complex in structure - 在構造上更為複雜
- The limitations of using fossils as evidence for evolution:

使用化石紀錄作進化證據的局限性︰
a. Fossils are damaged and incomplete
化石損壞了，並且不完整。
b. Some organisms (soft bodies) may not form fossils.
有些生物 (軟體生物) 可能沒有形成化石。
c. Fossils present in inaccessible areas are not available to us for study.
化石存在於難以到達的地區，無法取得用作研究。
d. There are missing links in the fossil records.
化石紀綠存在缺失環節


2. Comparative Biochemistry 比較生物化學

- Further study of the phylogenetic relationship 進一步研究種糸關係
a. Compare the amino acid sequences of the functional proteins
DNA sequencing determines the nucleotide sequence of the DNA of
different organisms so that the scientists can work out the
phylogenetic relationship, giving rise to the basis of the three domains
system
比較功能性蛋白的氨基酸序列
DNA 序列測定確定不同生物 DNA 的核苷酸序列
使科學家們能夠找出系統發生關係，
為所提出的三域系統奠定基礎
b. Compare the internal body structure
microscopy allows the observation of cellular structures
this distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells, giving rise to
the basis of the two empire system proposed
比較內部構造
顯微鏡檢術有助觀察細胞構造
辨別原核細胞與真核細胞，為所提出的兩大類系統奠定基礎


3. Evolutionary tree 進化樹
Number of nucleotide differences 核苷酸差異的數目

Species 物種 A B C D E
A – 2 8 8 17
B – 8 9 18
C – 2 18
D – 17
E –
Number of nucleotide differences 核苷酸差異的數目

Species 物種 V W X Y Z
V – 3 8 17 24
W – 2 9 18
X – 3 8
Y – 2
Z –


4. The mechanism of evolution 進化的機制

Charles Darwin : “Natural selection & the survival of the fittest”
達爾文︰“物競天擇、適者生存”
a. Variations exist among different individuals of the same species.

變異見於同一物種的不同個體中。
b. Environmental changes give stress to organisms.
環境的變化對生物構成壓力。
c. Organisms compete for resources to survive.
生物為求生存而競爭資源。
d. Variations are inheritable.
變異可遺傳的。
Sample 答題框架
There are genetic variations among the (mosquitoes/fungi) in their resistance against
(insecticide/fungicide)
Those that are resistant have a higher chance of survival in the presence of the
(insecticide/fungicide)
They have a greater chance of reproduction / producing more offspring
Thus, the proportion of the (insecticide-resistant mosquitoes/fungicide-resistant
fungi) increases in the subsequent generations
Hence, the (insecticide/fungicide) becomes less effective in killing the
(mosquitoes/fungi)
就對(殺蟲劑/殺真菌劑)的抗性而言，
(蚊子/真菌) 種群內存有遺傳變異具抗性的 (蚊子/真菌) 在噴了 (殺蟲劑/殺真
菌劑) 的環境下生存機會較高
牠們有較大機會繁殖 / 產生較多後代
因此，具抗性 (蚊子/真菌) 的比例在往後的世代中增加
所以 (殺蟲劑/殺真菌劑) 逐漸失效


5. Smaller risk of extinction 較低絕種危機

a. higher ability to find food 尋找食物的能力較高
b. better chance of finding mates 找到配偶的機會較大
c. higher ability to escape from predators 逃避捕獵者的能力較高
d. longer life span and early maturity 較長壽命及較早成熟
6. Response to environmental changes more rapidly 對環境的改變更快速演化

a. shorter life cycle 較短生命周期
b. more readily to mutate 更容易突變

2dviii. Biodiversity & Evolution – Speciation

生物多樣性及進化 – 物種形成
1. different populations of a species being isolated for a long time

一個物種的不同種群被長期隔離
2. each isolated group was subjected to a different set of conditions
隔離的每組始祖面對不同環境情況
3. as a result, they evolved differently from each other due to natural selection
結果，由於自然選擇，牠們具有不同的進化/不同適應該獨特環境的特徵，
在自然選擇下被選擇保留下來
4. until their genetic compositions were so different that they could not interbreed
again
直至牠們的基因組差異過大而不能品種間雜交
 new species are formed 新物種形成

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DSE Biology Chapter 2 – Genetics and Evolution 遺傳與進化

Chapter 2 : Genetics and Evolution

2b. Molecular genetics 分子遺傳學

2c. Biotechnology 生物工程

1 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2d. Biodiversity & Evolution 生物多樣性 及 進化

2 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (1) Concept

[homologous chromosomes assort themselves independently, resulting in different

3 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (1) Concept

Phenotype : appearance / expression of a character

Genotype : the genetic make-up of an individual

Hybrid : an individual which results from crossing two individuals (homozygous)

Homozygous 純合/同型合子 : AA, aa, BB, bb, RR, rr

4 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (2) Body characteristics

A: Dominant character 顯性 a : recessive character 隱性

Phenotype 表現型︰All are Normal 所有都是正常

5 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (2) Body characteristics

6 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (2) Body characteristics

Mendel’s Law / Law of Inheritance 孟德爾定律 / 遺傳定律

To show individual X is homozygous dominant

Body characteristics by inheritance 通過遺傳的身體特徵

7 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (3) Pedigree analysis

 Since Q appears in the offspring but not in parents

 Since Q appears in the offspring but not in parents

8 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (3) Pedigree analysis

9 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

Blood group Antigen Antibody Donate Receive from

2 blood samples mixed

10 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

Allele 等位基因︰ IA, IB, i (recessive 隱性)

Genetic diagram 遺傳圖

11 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

10 different combinations 10 個不同的組合

12 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (5) Sex determination

Sex chromosomes : X chromosome (長), Y chromosome (短)

13 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (6) Sex linkage

Law of independent assortment

Case 1a : mother (phenotype dominant) x father (phenotype dominant)

Case 1b : mother (phenotype dominant) x father (phenotype recessive)

14 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2ai. Basic genetics – Mendel’s law of inheritance (6) Sex linkage

Case 2a : mother (phenotype dominant) x father (phenotype dominant)

Case 2b : mother (phenotype dominant) x father (phenotype recessive)

Case 2c : mother (phenotype recessive) x father (phenotype dominant)

Case 3 : mother (phenotype recessive) x father (phenotype dominant)

Phenotype dominant 顯性表現型 : AA, Aa

15 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2aii. Basic genetics – Variation (1) Continuous vs. discontinuous

16 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

2aii. Basic genetics – Variation (2) Cause

2d. Biodiversity & Evolution 生物多樣性及進化