CEAC 104

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Experiment 4
Effect of Concentration and Temperature on Rate of
Reaction (Dissappearing Cross)

Purpose: To observe the effect of concentration and temperature upon the rate of
the reaction of sodium thiosulfate with hydrochloric acid.

APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS:

Sodium thiosulfate solution Thermometer Bunsen burner

Hydrochloric acid Measuring cylinder Piece of paper

Distilled water Conical flask Wire gauze

THEORY:

On the basis of experiments you've performed, you probably have already noticed that reactions
occur at varying speeds. There is an entire spectrum of reaction speeds, ranging from very slow
to extremely fast. For example, the rusting of iron is reasonably slow, whereas the
decomposition of TNT is extremely fast. The branch of chemistry that is concerned with the
rates of reactions is called chemical kinetics.
Experiments show that rates of reactions in solution depend upon:
1. The nature of the reactants
2. The concentration of the reactants
3. The temperature
4. Catalysis.
Before a reaction can occur, the reactants must come into direct contact via collisions of the
reacting particles. However, even then, the reacting particles (ions or molecules) must collide
with sufficient energy to result in a reaction; if they do not, their collisions are ineffective and
analogous to collisions of billiard balls. With these considerations in mind, we can
quantitatively explain how the various factors influence the rates of reactions.
Concentration:
Changing the concentration of a solute in solution alters the number of particles per unit volume.
The more particles present in a given volume, the greater the probability of them colliding.
Hence, increasing the concentration of a solute in solution increases the number of collisions
per unit time and therefore, increases the rate of reaction.
Temperature:
Since temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance, an increase in
temperature increases the kinetic energy of the reactant particles. The results in an
increase in the velocity of the particles and therefore, increases the number of collisions
between them in a given period of time. Thus, the rate of reaction increases. Also, an increase
in kinetic energy results in a greater proportion of the collisions having the required energy for
reaction.
Catalyst:
Catalysts, in some cases, are believed to increase reaction rates by bringing particles into close
just a position in the correct geometrical arrangement for reaction to occur. In other instances,
catalysts offer an alternative route to the reaction, one that requires less energetic collisions
between reactant particles. If less energy is required for a successful collision, a larger
percentage of the collisions will have the required energy, and the reaction will occur faster.
Actually, the catalyst may take an active part in the reaction, but at the end of the reaction, the
catalyst can be recovered chemically unchanged.
Let’s examine now precisely what is meant by the expression rate of reaction.
Order of Reaction Defined
Consider the hypothetical reaction:
A+B→C+D [1]
The rate of reaction is measured by observing the rate of disappearance of the reactants A or B,
or the rate of appearance of the products C or D. The species observed is a matter of
convenience. For example if A, B, and D are colorless and C is colored, you could conveniently
measure the rate of appearance of C by observing an increase in the intensity of the color of
the solution as a function of time. Mathematically, the rate of reaction may be expressed as
follows:
−change in the concentration of A −∆[A]
Rate of disappearance of A = =
time required for change ∆t
change in the concentration of C ∆[C]
Rate of appearance of C= =
time required for change ∆t

In general, the rate of the reaction depends upon the concentration of one or more of the
reactants. Thus, the rate of the reaction above is expressed as
Rate = k[A]x [B]y [2]
where [A] and [B] are the molar concentrations of A and B, x and y are the powers to which
the respective concentrations must be raised, and k is the rate constant. The values of x and y
must be determined experimentally. For example, if x = 2 and y = 1, then the rate law is:
Rate = k[A]2 [B] [3]

This reaction is first order in B, meaning that doubling the concentration of B while keeping A
constant causes the reaction rate to double. Simultaneously, this reaction is second order in A,
meaning that doubling the concentration of A while keeping B constant causes the rate to
increase by a factor of four, since the rate of the reaction is proportional to the square of the
concentration of A. The overall order of the reaction is the sum of the exponents: or third order
in this case. The orders are determined experimentally by noting the effects of changing reagent
concentrations on the rate of the reaction. The rate constant, k, is independent of the
concentration. The rate constant is characteristic for a given reaction and varies only with
temperature. Once the rate is known for a given set of concentrations, the value of k can be
calculated.
Reaction of Sodium thiosulfate and Hydrochloric acid
In this experiment you will measure the rate of the reaction between a sodium thiosulfate
solution and hydrochloric acid:

2HCl(aq) + Na2S2O3(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + SO2(aq) + S(s)↓ + H2O(l)

The precipitate of sulfur formed gradually and makes the solution cloudy. The formation of
cloudy mask a cross marked on paper. The rate of reaction, and consequently the time taken
to obscure the cross, depends on a number of variables such as temperature, concentration and
volume. The rate of reaction can be measured by timing how long it takes for the solution to
become cloudy and the precipitation of sulfur. In other words the time taken for a certain
quantity of sulphur to form and cause the ‘X’ mark to disappear is used to determine the rate
of reaction. The rate of this reaction directly proportional with the inverse of the time taken
for a formation of precipitation of sulfur.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

 Wear your eye protection.

 Do not inhale any fumes.
 Sulfur dioxide is toxic and corrosive. Dispose of the solution immediately after the
experiment following your teacher's instructions.
 Wash your hands when finished.

PROCEDURE:
A.Effect of concentration

1. Using a pencil, draw a cross in the middle of the filter paper.

2. Place 20 mL of the 0,1 M sodium thiosulfate solution into a conical flask.

3. Add 20 mL of 1 M hydrochloric acid to the flask, while starting the stop clock at the
same time.

4. Swirl the flask and place it on a paper marked with a cross.

5. Record the time taken for the cross to disappear.

6. Repeat the experiment using 10,12, 14, 16 and 18 mL of sodium thiosulfate solution
respectively. In each case, add water to make the volume up to 20 mL and mix before
adding HCl.

7. Record the results in data sheet.

B.Effect of temperature

1 . Place 20 mL of 0.05 M sodium thiosulfate solution into a conical flask.

2. Warm or cool the flask gently until the temperature is about 20 0C.

3. Add 20 mL of 1 M HCl, starting a stop clock at the same time, before proceeding.

4. Without delay, swirl the flask, place it on a paper marked with a cross, and record the
exact temperature of the contents of the flask.

5. Record the time taken for the cross to disappear.

6. Repeat the experiment, heating or cooling the thiosulfate solution to temperatures of

approximately 10 0C, 30 0C, 40 0C, 50 0C and 60 0C respectively (before adding the HCl).

7. Record the results in data sheet.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the meaning of directly proportionality of two quantities ?

2. What is the effect of increasing the concentration on the reaction time and reaction
rate?
3. What is the effect of raising the temperature on the reaction time?
4. What is the effect of raising the temperature on the reaction rate? Suggest two factors
responsible for the result observed.
5. Suggest a reason why it is not recommended to carry out the experiment at
temperatures higher than about 60 0C.
6. Which is the limiting reactant in the temperature experiment.
 DATA SHEET
The Effect of Concentration and Temperature on Rate of Reaction
(Dissappearing Cross)

Student’s Name : Date:

Laboratory Section/Group No :
Assistant’s Name and Signature :

A. Effect of Concentration
1.Record your results.

Volume of Volume of Volume of Concentration Reaction time 1/time (s-1)

1 M HCl 0.1 M sodium water of thiosulfate (s)
(mL) thiosulfate (mL) solution (M)
solution (mL)

1
2
3
4
5
6

2. Draw a graph of 1/time against concentration of thiosulfate solution and reaction time
and concentration of thiosulfate solution using excel. Write your comments about the graph.
(Hint: 1/time for this reaction is the measure of reaction rate.)
 B. Effect of Temperature
1. Record your results.

Volume of
0.05 M
Volume of sodium T (˚C) Reaction time 1/time (s-1)
1 M HCl thiosulfate (s)
(mL) solution (mL)

1
2
3
4
5
6

2. Draw a graph of 1/time against temperature and reaction time against temperature
using excel and write your comments about the graph. (Hint: 1/time for this reaction
is the measure of reaction rate.)

.
 CEAC 104
GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Experiment 5
Chemical Equilibrium

Purpose: Given the equation for a chemical equilibrium, predict and explain, the direction of
a shift in the position of an equilibrium caused by a change in the concentration of the species
on the basis of LeChatelier’s principle and finally to find the value of an equilibrium constant,
Keq, experimentally.

APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS:

distilled water test tubes
sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) graduated cylinder
ferric nitrate (Fe(NO3)3) white paper
ruler 250-mL beaker

THEORY:
Most of the chemical reactions occur so as they approach a state of chemical
equilibrium. The equilibbrium state can be characterized by specifying its equilibrium
constant, i.e., by indicating the numerical value of the mass-action expression. In this
experiment you will determine the value of the equilibrium constant fort he reaction
between ferric ion Fe3+ and isothiocyanate ion SCN-,

Fe3+ + SCN- ↔ FeSCN2+

for which the equilibrium condition is
[𝐹𝑒𝑆𝐶𝑁2+ ]
𝐾 = [𝐹𝑒 3+][𝑆𝐶𝑁− ]
To find the value of K, it is necessary to determine the concentration of each of
the species Fe3+ , SCN-, and FeSCN2+ in the system at equilibrium. This will be done
calorimetrically, taking advantage of the fact that FeSCN2+ is the only highly colored
species in the solution. The color intensitty of a solution depends on the concentration
of the colored species and on the depth of solution viewed. Thus, 2 cm of a solution of a
0.1 M colored species appears to have the same color intensity as a 1 cm of a 0.2 M
solution. Consequently, if the depths of two solutions of unequal concentrations are
chosen so that the solutions appear to be equally colored, then the ratio of
concentrations is simply the inverse of the ratio of the two depths. it should be noted
that this procedure permits only a comparison between concentrations. it does not give
an absolute value of either one of the concentrations. To know the absolute values, it is
necessary to compare unknown solutions with a standard of known concentration.
For color determination of FeSCN2+ concentration, you must have astandard
solution in which the concentration of FeSCN2+ is known. Such a solution can
beprepared by starting with a small known concentration of SCN- and adding such a
large excess of Fe3+ that essentially all the SCN- is converted to FeSCN2+ Under these
conditions, you can assume that the final concentration of FeSCN2+ is equal to the initial
concentration of SCN-.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Before beginning this experiment in the laboratory, you should be able to answer the
fol1owing questions:
1. How could temperature changes affect the equilibrium?
2. What is the unit of the equilibrium constant?
3. Which factors affect the equilibrium constant?
PROCEDURE:
1. Clean six 15-cm test tubes with distilled water and let them drain.
2. To each of these test tubes add 5 mL of 0.0020 M NaSCN.
3. To the fırst test tubes add 5 mL of 0.20 M Fe(NO3)3. This tube will serve as the
standard.
4. For the other test tubes proceed as follows:
Add 10 mL of 0.20 M Fe(NO3)3 to a graduated cylinder. Add 15 mL distilled water
so that you have a 25 mL of diluted solution. Stir thoroughly to mix. Take 5 mL from
this solution and pour it into the second test tube.
5. Discard 10 mL of the diluted solution in the graduated cylinder and add 15 mL of
distilled water and again you complete it to 25 mL. Stir thoroughly. Take 5 mL from
this solution and pour it into the third test tube.

Figure 5.1 How to make a comparison of color.

6. Again discard 10 mL of the solution in the graduated cylinder and add 15 mL
distilled water. Continue this procedure until you prepare six of the test tubes.
7. Now the problem is to determine the concentration of FeSCN2+ in each test tube
relative to the standard in test tube 1. Compare the color intensity in test tube 1 with that
in each of the other test tubes (see Figure 5.1). To do it, take two tubes to be compared,
hold them side-by-side and wrap a strip of white paper around both. Look down through
the solutions as shown in Figure. If color intensities appear identical, measure the
heights of the solutions in the two tubes being compared. If not, take test tube 1 and
pour out some of the standard into a clean beaker (you may need to pour some back)
until the color intensities appear identical. Do this comparison for all five tubes.

CALCULATIONS:
In calculating initial concentrations, assume that each of Fe(NO3)3 and NaSCN
are completely dissociated. Remember also that mixing two solutions dilutes both of
them. In ca1culating equilibrium concentrations, assume that all the initial SCN- has
been converted to FeSCN2+ in test tube 1, for the other test tubes; calculate FeSCN2+
from the ratio of heights in the color comparison. Equilibrium concentrations of Fe3+
and SCN- are obtained by subtracting FeSCN2+ formed from initial Fe3+ and SCN-. For
each of test tube 2 to 6 calculate the value of K. Decide which of these values is most
reliable.

QUESTIONS:
1. In this experiment you examine the equilibrium
Fe3++ SCN- ↔ FeSCN2+
The following equilibria are somewhat competing with the above equilibrium
Fe3++ SCN- ↔ Fe(SCN)2+ and Fe(SCN) 2+ + 2SCN- ↔ Fe(SCN)3
a. To allow you to ignore these equilibria, how must their equi1ibrium constants be in
comparison with that of the equilibrium being studied ?
b. Given that all ions are color1ess except for FeSCN2+, what effect should competing
equilibria have on the value of K determined in this experiment? Explain.
2. How reasonable was your assumption that all the SCN- in test tube 1 was
converted to FeSCN2+? (Calculate the percent of SCN- converted to FeSCN2+ using
your best K value.)
3. Why are the values of K determined for test tubes 3, 4 and 5 probably more
reliable than those determined for tubes 2 or 6?
4. In your own words, give the rational behind the procedure and methodology in
this experiment.
 DATA SHEET
Chemical Equilibrium
Student’s Name : Date:
Laboratory Section/Group No :
Assistan’s Name and Signiture :

Test tube Height of liquid in cm Comparison of height in cm of standard

1 ………………………. ………………………………
2 ………………………. ………………………………
3 ………………………. ………………………………
4 ………………………. ………………………………
5 ………………………. ………………………………
6 ………………………. ………………………………

RESULTS:

Test Initial Concentrations Equilibrium Concentrations

tube
[Fe3+] [SCN-] [FeSCN2+] [Fe3+] [SCN-] [FeSCN-2] Keq
1
2
3
4
5
6
 CEAC 104
GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Experiment 6
Electrochemical Cells and Thermodynamics

Purpose: To examine the correlation between the reactions of metals and their ions (half cells), and
to measure the voltages produced at various concentrations when two half cells are combined to form
electrochemical (voltaic) cells. The voltage of the redox reactions will be calculated theoretically via
Nernst equation.

Apparatus and Chemicals:

Copper strips or wire Cotton Ring stand, iron ring and wire
KNO3 Agar-agar Zinc strips or wire
ZnSO4 solution Wires CuSO4 solution

DC voltmeter or potentiometer 250-mL beaker HCl solution

Glass U-tubes Emery cloth 2 sets clips
Thermometer Clamps

THEORY:
Electrochemistry is that area of chemistry that deals with the relations between
chemical changes and electrical energy. It is primarily concerned with oxidation-
reduction phenomena. Chemical reactions can be used to produce electrical energy in
cells that are referred to as voltaic, or galvanic, cells. Electrical energy, on teh other
hand, can be used to bring about chemical changes in what are termed electrolytic cells.
In this experiment you will investigate some of the properties of voltaic cells.

Oxidation-reduction reactions are those that involve the transfer of electrons from
one substance to another. The substance that loses electrons is said to be oxidized, while
the one gaining electrons is reduced. Thus if a piece of zinc metal were immersed into a
solution containing copper (II) ions, zinc would be oxidized by copper (II) ions. Zinc
loses electrons and is oxidized, and the copper (II) ions gain electrons anda re reduced.
We can conveniently Express these processes by the following two half-reactions,
which add to give the overall reaction:

Oxidation: 𝑍𝑛(𝑠) → 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 −

Reduction: 𝐶𝑢2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 − → 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)

______________________________________ [1]

Net reaction: 𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢2+ (𝑎𝑞) → 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)

In principle, any spontaneous redox reaction can be used to produce electrical

energy- that is, the reaction can be used as the basis of a voltaic cell. The trick is to
seperate the two half reactions so that electrons will flow through an external circuit. A
voltaic cell that is based upon the reaction in Equation [1] and that uses a salt bridge is
shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1 Complete and functioning voltaic cell using a salt bridge to complete the
electrical circuit.

The cell voltage, or electromotive force (abbreviated emf), is indicated on the

voltmeter in units of volts. The cell emf is also called the cell potential. The magnitude
of teh emf is a quantitative measure of the driving force or thermodynamic tendency fort
the reaction to occur. In general, the emf of a voltaic cell depends upon the substances
that make up the cell as well as on their concentrations. Hence, it is common practice to
compare Standard cell potentials, symbolized by E0cell. These potentials correspond to
cell voltages under Standard state conditions-gases at 1 atm pressure, solutions at 1 M
concentration and temperature at 250C.
Just as the overall cell reaction may be regarded as the sum of two half-reactions the
overall cell emf can be thought of as the sum of two half-cell potentials, that is, the sum
of the voltage of the oxidation half-reaction (Eox) and the voltage of the reduction half-
reaction (Ered):
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑜𝑥 + 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑
Because it is impossible to measure directly the potential of an isolated half-cell, the
Standard hydrogen half-reaction has been selected as a reference and has been assigned
a standar reduction potential of exactly 0.000 V:
0
2𝐻 + (1𝑀) + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 (1𝑎𝑡𝑚) 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.000𝑉
To demonstrate the consequence of this, let us consider a voltaic cell that utilizes the
following reaction:
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 2𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) → 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)
 The corresponding half-cell reactions are as follows:
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) → 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 − 0
𝐸𝑜𝑥 = 0.76 𝑉
0
2𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 (𝑔) 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.000 𝑉
The Standard cell emf of this cell is 0.76 V (that is, E0cell = 0.76 V). Because the
Standard reduction potential of H+ is 0.000 V, it is possible to calculate the Standard
oxidation potential, E0ox, of Zn:
0 0 0
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 𝐸𝑜𝑥
0
0.76 𝑉 = 0.000 + 𝐸𝑜𝑥 [2]
Thus the Standard oxidation potential of 0.76 V can be assigned to Zn. By
measuring other Standard-cell emf values, we can establish a series of Standard
potentials for other half-reactions.
It is important to note that the half cell potential for any oxidation is equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign to that of the reverse reduction. Hence,

0
𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 − → 𝑍𝑛(𝑠) 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = −0.76 𝑉
It is customary today to tabulate half-cell potentials as Standard reduction potentials
and also to refer to them as Standard electrode potentials.

EXAMPLE 1:
The cell in Figure 5.1 may be represented by the following notation:
|𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛2+ ||𝐶𝑢2+ |𝐶𝑢
The double bar represents the salt bridge. Given that E0cell for this cell is 1.10 V and that
Eox is 0.76 V for zinc (see Equation [2]), find the Standard electrode potential, E0red, for
the reduction of copper (𝐶𝑢2+ + 2𝑒 − → 𝐶𝑢).

Solution :
0 0 0
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 𝐸𝑜𝑥
0
1.10 𝑉 = 0.76 𝑉 + 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑
0 0
𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 1.10 𝑉 − 0.76 𝑉 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.34 𝑉

The free-energy change, 𝛥G, associated with a chemical reaction is a measure of the
driving force or spontaneity of the process. If the free-energy change of a process is
negative, the reaction will ocur spontaneously in the direction indicated by the chemical
equation.
The cell potential of a redox process is related to the free-energy change as follows:
∆𝐺 = −𝑛𝐹𝐸
In this equation, F; is Faraday's constant, the electrical charge on 1 mol of electrons:
1F = 96.500 C/mol e− = 96500 J/V mol e−
and n represents the number of moles of electrons transferred in the reaction. For the case
when both reactants and products are in their standard states, Equation [3] takes the
following form:
wmax = ΔG = −nFE 0 [4]
The maximum amount of work that can be obtained from a galvanic cell is equal to the
free energy change, ΔG, for the process.
The standard free-energy change of a chemical reaction is also related to the equilibrium
constant for the reaction as follows:
∆G° = −RT In K [5]
where R is the gas-law constant (8.314 J/K mol) and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
Consequently, E° is also related to the equilibrium constant. From Equations [4] and [5]
it follows that
−nFE° = −RTlnK
RT
E° = InK [6]
nF
When T = 298 K, In K is converted to log K, and the appropriate values of R and 9; are
substituted, Equation [6] becomes
0.0591
𝐸0 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾 [7]
𝑛
We can see from this relation that the larger K is, the larger the standard-cell potential
will be.
In practice, most voltaic cells are not likely to be operating under standard-state
conditions. It is possible, however, to calculate the cell emf, E, under non-standard-state
conditions from a knowledge of E°, temperature, and concentrations of reactants and
products:

0.0591
E = E0 − logQ [8]
n
Q is called the reaction quotient; it has the form of an equilibrium-constant expression,
but the concentrations used to calculate Q are not necessarily equilibrium concentrations.
The relationship given in Equation [8] is referred to as the Nernst equation).
Let us consider the operation of the cell shown in Figure 1 in more detail. Earlier we saw
that the reaction
Cu2+ + Zn → Zn2+ + Cu
is spontaneous. Consequently, it has a positive electrochemical potential (E° = 1.10 V)
and a negative free energy (ΔG° = - nFE°). As this reaction occurs, Cu2+ will be reduced
and deposited as copper metal onto the copper electrode. The electrode at which
reduction occurs is called the cathode. Simultaneously, zinc metal from the zinc
electrode will be oxidized and go into solution as Zn2+. The electrode at which
oxidation occurs is called the anode. Effectively, then, electrons will flow in the
external wire from the zinc electrode through the voltmeter to the copper electrode and be
given up to copper ions in solution. These copper ions will be reduced to copper metal
and plate out on the copper electrode. Concurrently, zinc metal will give up electrons to
become Zn2+ ions in solution. These Zn2+ ions will diffuse through the salt bridge into the
copper solution and replace the Cu2+ ions that are being removed.

EXAMPLE 2:
Calculate the cell potential for the following cell:
Zn | Zn2+ (0.6 M) || Cu2+ (0.2 M) Cu
given the following:
Cu2+ + Zn → Cu + Zn2+ E°=1.10V
(HINT: Recall that Q includes expressions for species in solution but not for pure
solids.)
SOLUTION:
0.059 [𝑍𝑛2+ ]
𝐸 = 𝐸0 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑛 [𝐶𝑢2+ ]
0.059 [0.6]
= 1.10 𝑉 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔
2 [0.2]
= 1.10 − 0.014
= 1.086
= 1.09 𝑉
You can see that small changes in concentrations have small effects on the cell emf.
A list of the properties of electrochemical cells and some definitions of related terms are
given in Table 6.1.

TABLE 6.1 Summary of Properties of Electrochemical Cells and Some

Definitions
Voltaic cells: E > 0 , ΔG < 0: reaction spontaneous, K large (greater than 1)
Electrolytic cells: E < 0, ΔG > 0; reaction nonspontaneous, K small (less than 1)
Anode electrode at which oxidation occurs
Cathode electrode at which reduction occurs
Oxidizing agent-species accepting electrons to become reduced
Reducing agent-species donating electrons to become oxidized

Chemists have developed a shorthand notation for electrochemical cells, as seen in

Example 1. The notation for the Cu-Zn cell that explicitly shows concentrations is as
follows:
Zn | Zn2+(xM) || Cu2+(yM) | Cu
Anode Cathode
(oxidation) (reduction)
In this notation, the anode (oxidation half-cell) is written on the left and the cathode
(reduction half-cell) is written on the right.
Your objective in this experiment is to construct a set of three electrochemical cells and to
measure their cell potentials. With a knowledge of two half-cell potentials and the cell
potentials obtained from your measurements, you will calculate the other half-cell
potentials and the equilibrium constants for the reactions. By measuring the cell potential
as a function of temperature, you may also determine the thermodynamic constants, ΔG,
ΔH, and ΔS, for the reactions. This can be done with the aid of Equation [9]:
∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆 [9]
ΔG may be obtained directly from measurements of the cell potential using the
relationship
𝛥𝐺 = −𝑛𝐹𝐸
A plot of ΔG versus temperature in degrees Kelvin will give -ΔS as the slope and AH as
the intercept. A more accurate measure of ΔH can be obtained, however, by substituting
ΔG and ΔS back into Equation [9] and calculating ΔH.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Before beginning this experiment in the laboratory, you should be able to answer the
following questions:
1. Define the following: faraday, salt bridge, anode, cathode, voltaic cell, electrolytic
cell.
2. Write a chemical equation for the reaction that occurs in the following cell:
Ag | Ag+ || Cu2+| Cu.
3. Given the following E°'s, calculate the standard-cell potential for the cell in
question 2.
𝐶𝑢2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s) E° = +0.34 V
𝐴𝑔+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑒 − → 𝐴𝑔(𝑠) E° = +0.80 V
4. Calculate the voltage of the following cell:
Zn | Zn2+ (0.10 M) || Cu2+ (0.40 M) | Cu
5. Calculate the cell potential, the equilibrium constant, and the free energy for the
following cell:
Ba(s) + Mn2+(aq)(l M) → Ba2+(aq)(l M) + Mn(s)
given the following E° values:
𝐵𝑎2+ (aq) + 2e− → Ba(s) E° = -2.90 V
𝑀𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 − → 𝑀𝑛(𝑠) E° = -1.18 V
6. Would you normally expect ΔH0 to be positive or negative for a voltaic cell?
Justify your answer.
7. Predict whether the following reactions are spontaneous or not.
Pd2++ H2 → Pd + 2H+ Pd2+ + 2𝑒 − → Pd E° = 0.987 V
Sn4++ H2 → Sn2++ 2H+ Sn4+ + 2𝑒 − → Sn2+ E° = 0.154 V
Ni2+ + H2 → Ni + 2H+ Ni2+ + 2𝑒 − → Ni E° =-0.250 V
Cd2+ + H2 → Cd + 2H+ Cd2+ + 2𝑒 − → Cd E° = -0.403 V
From your answers decide which of the above metals could be reduced by hydrogen.
8. Identify the oxidizing agents and reducing agents in the reactions in question 7.
PROCEDURE:
Construct the apparatus shown in the Figure 6.1 with great care when installing the U-
tube salt bridge.

A. Cell Voltage
1. Pour about 150 mL of 0.5 M CuSO4 into a beaker. Bend a sand papered Cu strip
and hang over the side of the beaker so that it is partly immersed in the solution.
2. Clean a Zn strip by briefly immersing it in about 75 mL diluted HC1 in a beaker.
Do not let the strip remain for very long in the, HCl solution. Otherwise, it will
react liberating H2. (HCl cleans Zn by dissolving the surface layer exposing the
fresh metal.) Immediately rinse the Zn strip thoroughly in distilled water.
3. Bend the Zn strip and hang it over the side of the beaker containing 150 mL of
0.5 M ZnSO4.
4. Use the crocodile clips to connect the terminals of the multimeter to the metal
electrodes.
5. Construct the salt bridge as described above and immediately read the initial cell
voltage. Be certain that the clips make good contact with the metal strips. Record
this voltage and the temperature of the cells on your data sheet. If your measured
potential is negative, reverse the wire connection.
Record the voltage and temperature of each cell on your data sheet.
DO NOT MOVE any part of the cell, because the voltage will fluctuate if you do.

B. Concentration Effects on Cell Voltage

In order to observe the concentration effects on cell voltage, vary the concentration of the
salt solution in one of the compartments by adding successive amounts of salt or by
dilution of solutions. For example, double the concentration of CuSO4 solution in the
corresponding compartment or dilute ZnSO4 solution by some factor. So the experiments
that will reveal the effects varying solution concentrations will be designed.
The following points should be considered for the design of the experiment:
1. The effect may be investigated for only the cathode compartment solution instead
of both solutions.
2. Vary the concentration of reactants from 0.5 M to 0.25 M and 0.05 M to
determine the effects of concentration changes. Before coming to the laboratory,
make the necessary calculations for the design of the experiment in order to
observe significant changes in the cell potential.
3. Try to determine if the cell voltage varies in some regular way with concentration.
Is variation linear or exponential or whatever?

CALCULATIONS:
1. For each cell write the anode half reaction and the cathode half reaction.
2. For each cell measure the initial cell potential. Calculate the cell potential using
the Nernst equation and compare it with the measured value. What is the percent
error in your measurement?
3. Calculate the maximum work in Joule for the galvanic cell you constructed.

QUESTIONS:
1. Write the chemical equations that occur in the following cells;
Pb | Pb(NO3)2 || AgNO3 | Ag
Zn | ZnCI2 | Pb(NO3)2 | Pb
Pb | Pb(NO3)2 || NiCl2 | Ni
2. Which of the following reactions should have the larger ernf under standard
conditions? Why?
CuSO4(aq) + Pb(s) → PbSO4(s) + Cu(s)
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Pb(s) → Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s).
3. Calculate ΔG for the reaction in Example 2.
4. Voltages listed in textbooks and handbooks are given as standard-cell potentials
(voltages). What does a standard cell mean? Were the cells constructed in this
experiment standard cell? Why or why not?
5. As a standard voltaic cell runs, it "discharges" and the cell potential decreases with
time. Explain.
6. Using standard potentials given in the appendices, calculate the equilibrium
constants for the following reactions:
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Zn(s) + Fe2+ (aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Fe(s)
 DATASHEET
Electrochemical cells and Thermodynamics
Student's Name : Date:
Laboratory Section/Group No :
Assistant's Name and Signature :
Calculations:
Cathode half reaction:

Anode half reaction:

T (°C):

Cu2+ Zn2+ Ecell Ecell

% error Wmax (J)
(mol/L) (mol/L) (Nernst Eqn) (exp)
0.50 0.50