Understanding the Self

Basic Concepts of the Self

Self
In psychology, the notion of the self refers to a person’s experience as a single, unitary, autonomous being that is
separate from others, experienced with continuity through time and place. The experience of the self includes
consciousness of one’s physicality as well as one’s inner character and emotional life.

Nature of Self
The self is a key construct in several schools of psychology, referring to either the cognitive and affective
representation of one's identity or the subject of experience. The earliest formulation of the self in modern psychology
from the distinction between the self as I, the subjective knower, and the self as Me, the object that is known. Current
views of the self in psychology position the self as playing an integral part in human motivation, cognition, affect, and
social identity. Self-following from John Locke has been seen as a product of episodic memory but research upon
those with amnesia find they have a coherent sense of self based upon preserved conceptual autobiographical
knowledge. It may be the case that we can now usefully attempt to ground experience of self in a neural process with
cognitive consequences, which will give us insight into the elements of which the complex multiply situated selves of
modern identity are composed.

Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect a person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth.
Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am competent" or "I am incompetent") and emotions such as
triumph, despair, pride and shame. Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (for example, "I believe
I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular") or have global extent (for example, "I believe I am a good
person, and feel proud of myself in general").
Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic ("trait" self-esteem), though normal,
short-term variations ("state" self-esteem) also exist.
Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include: self-worth, self-regard, self-respect, self-love (which can express
overtones of self-promotion),and self-integrity. Self-esteem is distinct from self-confidence and self-efficacy, which
involve beliefs about ability and future performance.

Definitions
Given its long and varied history, the term has had no fewer than three major types of definition, each of which
has generated its own tradition of research, findings, and practical applications:
The original definition presents self-esteem as a ratio found by dividing one’s successes in areas of life of importance
to a given individual by the failures in them or one’s “success / pretensions”. Problems with this approach come from
making self-esteem contingent upon success: this implies inherent instability because failure can occur at any moment.
In the mid 1960s Morris Rosenberg and social-learning theorists defined self-esteem in terms of a stable sense of
personal worth or worthiness, (see Rosenberg self-esteem scale). This became the most frequently used definition for
research, but involves problems of boundary-definition, making self-esteem indistinguishable from such things as
narcissism or simple bragging.
Nathaniel Branden in 1969 briefly defined self-esteem as "...the experience of being competent to cope with the basic
challenges of life and being worthy of happiness". This two-factor approach, as some have also called it, provides a
balanced definition that seems to be capable of dealing with limits of defining self-esteem primarily in terms of
competence or worth alone.
Branden’s (1969) description of self-esteem includes the following primary properties:
 Self-esteem as a basic human need, i.e., "...it makes an essential contribution to the life process", "...is
indispensable to normal and healthy self-development, and has a value for survival."
 Self-esteem as an automatic and inevitable consequence of the sum of individuals' choices in using their
consciousness
 Something experienced as a part of, or background to, all of the individuals thoughts, feelings and actions.
 Self-esteem is a concept of personality, for it to grow, we need to have self-worth, and this self-worth will be
sought from embracing challenges that result in the showing of success.
Compare the usage of terms such as self-love or self-confidence.
 Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate them positively or negatively in a spontaneous,
automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and
reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem are subtypes of self-esteem proper.
 Implicit self-esteem is assessed using indirect measures of cognitive processing. These include the Name
Letter Task and the Implicit Association Test. Such indirect measures are designed to reduce awareness of, or
control of, the process of assessment. When used to assess implicit self-esteem, they feature stimuli designed
to represent the self, such as personal pronouns (e.g., "I") or letters in one's name.

Measurement
For the purposes of empirical research, psychologists typically assess self-esteem by a self-report inventory
yielding a quantitative result. They establish the validity and reliability of the questionnaire prior to its use. Researchers
are becoming more interested in measures of implicit self-esteem.
Whereas popular lore recognizes just "high" self-esteem and "low" self-esteem, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale (1965) and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (1967/1981) both quantify it in more detail, and feature
among the most widely used systems for measuring self-esteem. The Rosenberg test usually uses a ten-question
battery scored on a four-point response system that requires participants to indicate their level of agreement with a
series of statements about themselves. The Coopersmith Inventory uses a 50-question battery over a variety of topics
and asks subjects whether they rate someone as similar or dissimilar to themselves.
Theories
Many early theories suggested that self-esteem is a basic human need or motivation. American psychologist
Abraham Maslow, for example, included self-esteem in his hierarchy of needs. He described two different forms of
esteem: the need for respect from others and the need for self-respect, or inner self-esteem. Respect from others
entails recognition, acceptance, status, and appreciation, and was believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner
self-esteem. According to Maslow, without the fulfillment of the self-esteem need, individuals will be driven to seek it
and unable to grow and obtain self-actualization.
Modern theories of self-esteem explore the reasons humans are motivated to maintain a high regard for
themselves. Sociometer theory maintains that self-esteem evolved to check one's level of status and acceptance in
ones' social group. According to terror management theory, self-esteem serves a protective function and reduces
anxiety about life and death.

Quality and level of self-esteem

Level and quality of self-esteem, though correlated, remain distinct. Level-wise, one can exhibit low levels of high-
quality self-esteem and/or high levels of low-quality self-esteem, resulting in 'fragile' self-esteem (as in narcissism) or
low but stable self-esteem (as in humility). However, investigators can indirectly assess the quality of self-esteem in
several ways:
 in terms of its constancy over time (stability)
 in terms of its independence of meeting particular conditions (non-contingency)
 in terms of its ingrained nature at a basic psychological level (implicitness or automatized)

Interventions
A number of interventions that attempt to improve self-esteem have been developed, implemented, and
studied. These interventions have been tailored to address the unique characteristics of specific groups including
adolescents, adults, and special populations. Some examples of these interventions include:
 FRIENDS Emotional Health Program - This intervention consists of 10 sessions that focus on teaching 9-10
year old children to replace unhelpful and anxiety producing thoughts with helpful thoughts. The intervention
was developed to teach children to face and overcome challenges and problems. In order to do this children
are introduced to a 7-step process: F-feeling worried? R- relax and feel good, I- inner thoughts, E- explore
thoughts, N- nice work so reward yourself, D- don't forget to practice, S- stay calm, you know how to cope.
Studies of the intervention performed in the US, UK, and Hong Kong have all shown significant increase in
measures of self-esteem in children who participated in the program.
 Self-Esteem Enhancement Program (SEEP) Dalgas-Pelish (2006) reported that many decreases in self-esteem
have been observed during the transition from elementary to middle school and therefore found that it is very
important to provide preventative self-esteem interventions at a young age. The intervention included 4 lessons
consisting of definitions of self-esteem, awareness of how the media and peers influence self-esteem, and
activities related to the improvement of self-esteem. Factors affecting self-esteem that were taken into account
include: gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, genetic size, health, home environment, relationships
with parents, parenting style, and relationships with friends. Increases in measures of self-esteem were
displayed among the children who participated. Increase was related to gender of the child, socioeconomic
status, and the presence of friends. The largest increases were seen in girls, individuals with low socio-
economic status, and children with friends.
 Social Cognitive Training Intervention Barrett, Webster, Wallis (1999) developed an intervention that consisted
of self-talk and modification of negative thinking, use of positive thinking, communication, problem solving and
perception, processes of instruction, coaching, modeling, rehearsal, self-observation, group trainer and peer
feedback, and praise. These techniques were intended to shape and reinforce new and improved skills.
Participants also completed weekly homework assignments. Fifty-one students ages 13–16 participated in the
intervention and showed significant increase in measures of self-esteem.
 I Am Super Self-Esteem Module - This intervention was developed in Québec, Canada by Tania Lacomte et al.
(1990) in an effort to increase the self-esteem of those suffering from psychosis, specifically individuals
diagnosed with Schizophrenia. This 24 session, group therapy module is divided into 5 key building blocks that
assist individuals in developing their senses of: security, identity, belonging, purpose, and competence. One
study conducted by Borras, et al. (2009) found that intervention participants displayed increases in self-esteem,
self-assertion, and coping strategies as well as decreased negative automatic thoughts, and psychotic
symptoms.
 Uniquely ME! - The Girl Scout/Dove Self-Esteem Program is targeted at young girls ages 8–17, and aims to
educate healthy self-esteem. It provides the skills necessary for young girls to face life's challenges.

Self-Awareness – Who Am I?
Self-awareness is about learning to better understand why you feel what you feel and why you behave in a particular
way. Once you begin to understand this concept you then have the opportunity and freedom to change things about
yourself enabling you to create a life that you want. It’s almost impossible to change and become self-accepting if you
are unsure as to who you are. Having clarity about who you are and what you want can be empowering, giving you the
confidence to make changes.

Is self-awareness important?
Self-awareness is important because when we have a better understanding of ourselves, we are able to experience
ourselves as unique and separate individuals. We are then empowered to make changes and to build on our areas of
strength as well as identify areas where we would like to make improvements. Self-awareness is often a first step to
goal setting. Self-awareness is being conscious of what you're good at while acknowledging what you still have yet to
learn. This includes admitting when you don't have the answer and owning up to mistakes.
The Johari Window
The Johari Window can be looked at from many angles and provides four basic forms of the Self (the Known, Hidden,
Blind, and Unknown Self).
The Known Self is what you and others see in you. This is the part that you are able to discuss freely with others. Most
of the time you agree with this view you have and others have of you.
The Hidden Self is what you see in yourself but others don’t. In this part you hide things that are very private about
yourself. You do not want this information to be disclosed for the reason of protection. It could also be that you may be
ashamed of these areas and feel a vulnerability to having your faults and weaknesses exposed. This area equally
applies to your good qualities that you don’t want to advertise to the world due to modesty.
The Blind Self is what you don’t see in yourself but others see in you. You might see yourself as an open-minded
person when, in reality, people around you don’t agree. This area also works the other way. You might see yourself as
a “dumb” person while others might consider you incredibly bright. Sometimes those around you might not tell you what
they see because they fear offending you. It is in this area that people sometimes detect that what you say and what
you do don’t match and sometimes body-language shows this mismatch.
The Unknown Self is the self that you cannot see, others can’t see it either. In this category there might be good and
bad things that are out of the awareness of others and you. This might refer to untapped potential talents and skills that
have yet to be explored by you, your friends, colleagues or managers.

You may find the Johari Window quite useful as you discover who you are.
Known Self Hidden Self
Things we know about ourselves and others Things we know about ourselves that others
know about us. do not know.

Blind Self Unknown Self

Things others know about us that we do not Things neither we nor others know about us.
know.

Defining Self-Concept
Social psychologist Roy Baumeister says that self-concept should be understood as a knowledge structure. People pay
attention to themselves, noticing both their internal states and responses and their external behavior. Through such
self-awareness, people collect information about themselves. Self-concept is built from this information and continues
to develop as people expand their ideas about who they are.
Early research on self-concept suffered from the idea that self-concept is a single, stable, unitary conception of the self.
More recently, however, scholars have recognized it as a dynamic, active structure that is impacted by both the
individual’s motivations and the social situation.  

Carl Rogers’ Components of Self-Concept

Carl Rogers, one of the founders of humanistic psychology, suggested that self-concept includes three components:
Self-Image
Self-image is the way we see ourselves. Self-image includes what we know about ourselves physically (e.g. brown
hair, blue eyes, tall), our social roles (e.g. wife, brother, gardener), and our personality traits (e.g. outgoing, serious,
kind).
Self-image doesn’t always match reality. Some individuals hold an inflated perception of one or more of their
characteristics. These inflated perceptions may be positive or negative, and an individual may have a more positive
view of certain aspects of the self and a more negative view of others.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is the value we place upon ourselves. Individual levels of self-esteem are dependent on the way we
evaluate ourselves. Those evaluations incorporate our personal comparisons to others as well as others’ responses to
us.
When we compare ourselves to others and find that we are better at something than others and/or that people respond
favorably to what we do, our self-esteem in that area grows. On the other hand, when we compare ourselves to others
and find we’re not as successful in a given area and/or people respond negatively to what we do, our self-esteem
decreases. We can have high self-esteem in some areas ("I am a good student") while simultaneously having negative
self-esteem in others ("I am not well-liked").
Ideal Self
The ideal self is the self we would like to be. There’s often a difference between one’s self-image and one's ideal self.
This incongruity can negatively impact one’s self-esteem.
According to Carl Rogers, self-image and ideal self can be congruent or incongruent. Congruence between the self-
image and ideal self means that there is a fair amount of overlap between the two. While it is difficult, if not impossible,
to achieve perfect congruence, greater congruence will enable self-actualization. Incongruence between the self-image
and ideal self means there’s a discrepancy between one’s self and one’s experiences, leading to internal confusion
(or cognitive dissonance) that prevents self-actualization.

Development of Self-Concept
Self-concept begins to develop in early childhood. This process continues throughout the lifespan. However, it is
between early childhood and adolescence that self-concept experiences the most growth.
By age 2, children begin to differentiate themselves from others. By the ages of 3 and 4, children understand that they
are separate and unique selves. At this stage, a child's self-image is largely descriptive, based mostly on physical
characteristics or concrete details. Yet, children increasingly pay attention to their capabilities, and by about 6 years
old, children can communicate what they want and need. They are also starting to define themselves in terms of social
groups. 
Between the ages of 7 and 11, children begin to make social comparisons and consider how they’re perceived by
others. At this stage, children’s descriptions of themselves become more abstract. They begin to describe themselves
in terms of abilities and not just concrete details, and they realize that their characteristics exist on a continuum. For
example, a child at this stage will begin to see himself as more athletic than some and less athletic than others, rather
than simply athletic or not athletic. At this point, the ideal self and self-image start to develop.
Adolescence is a key period for self-concept. The self-concept established during adolescence is usually the basis for
the self-concept for the remainder of one’s life. During the adolescent years, people experiment with different roles,
personas, and selves. For adolescents, self-concept is influenced by success in areas they value and the responses of
others valued to them. Success and approval can contribute to greater self-esteem and a stronger self-concept into
adulthood.

The Diverse Self-Concept

We all hold numerous, varied ideas about ourselves. Some of those ideas may only be loosely related, and some may
even be contradictory. These contradictions don't create a problem for us, however, because we’re conscious of only
some of our self-knowledge at any given point in time. 
Self-concept is made up of multiple self-schemas: individual concepts of a particular aspect of the self. The idea of self-
schema is useful when considering self-concept because it explains how we can have a specific, well-rounded self-
schema about one aspect of the self while lacking an idea about another aspect. For example, one person may see
herself as organized and conscientious, a second person may see himself as disorganized and scatter-brained, and a
third person may have no opinion about whether she is organized or disorganized. 

Cognitive and Motivational Roots

The development of self-schema and the larger self-concept has cognitive and motivational roots. We tend to process
information about the self-more thoroughly than information about other things. At the same time, according to self-
perception theory, self-knowledge is acquired in much the same way as we acquire knowledge about others: we
observe our behaviors and draw conclusions about who we are from what we notice.
While people are motivated to seek out this self-knowledge, they are selective in the information to which they pay
attention. Social psychologists have found three motivations for seeking self-knowledge:
 To discover the truth about the self, regardless of what is found.
 To discern favorable, self-enhancing information about the self.
 To confirm whatever one already believes about the self.

Malleable Self-Concept
Our ability to call up certain self-schemas while ignoring others makes our self-concepts malleable. In a given moment,
our self-concept is dependent on the social situations in which we find ourselves and the feedback we receive from the
environment. In some cases, this malleability means that certain parts of the self will be especially salient. For example,
a 14-year-old may become especially aware of her youth when she is with a group of elderly people. If the same 14-
year-old was in a group of other young people, she would be much less likely to think about her age.
Self-concept can be manipulated by asking people to recall times when they behaved in a certain way. If asked to
recall times when they worked hard, individuals are generally able to do so; if asked to recall times when they were
lazy, individuals are also generally able to do so. Many people can remember instances of both of these opposing
characteristics, but individuals will generally perceive herself as one or the other (and act in accordance with that
perception) depending on which one is brought to mind. In this way, self-concept can be altered and adjusted.