Magnetism

V.K. Mehta Basic Electrical Engineering

B.L. Theraja “Electrical Technology Vol. 1”
Machine → Electrical + Magnetism
Eg: generators, motors, television

Poles of a Magnet
(i) The poles of a magnet cannot be separated. If a bar magnet is broken into two
parts, each part will be complete magnet with poles at its ends.
(ii) The two poles of a magnet are of equal strength.
(iii) Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.

Laws of Magnetic Force

(i) Like poles repel each other while unlike poles attract each other.
(ii) The force between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product
of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of distance
between their centres.
Magnetic Field

The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole experiences a

force is called a magnetic field.

Properties of magnetic lines of force.

(i) Each magnetic line of force forms a closed loop i.e. outside
the magnet, the direction of a magnetic line of force is from
north pole to south pole and it continues through the body of the
magnet to form a closed loop
(ii) No two magnetic lines of force intersect each other.
(iii) Where the magnetic lines of force are close together, the
magnetic field is strong and where they are well spaced out, the
field is weak.
(iv) Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and widen
laterally.
(v) Magnetic lines of force are always ready to pass through
magnetic materials like iron in preference to pass through non-
magnetic materials like air.
Magnetic Flux

The total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a magnetic source is

called magnetic flux. It is denoted by Greek letter φ (phi).

Magnetic Flux Density

The magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux passing normally per
unit area
B = φ / A Wb/m2
where φ = flux in Wb
A = area in m2 normal to flux When the plane of
the coil is parallel to
the flux direction,
Maximum flux, φ = B A sin θ Wb
θ = 0° so that no flux
φm = B A Wb
will pass through the
coil
Magnetic Intensity or Magnetising Force (H)

Magnetic intensity (or field strength) at a point in a magnetic field is the force
acting on a unit N-pole (i.e., N-pole of 1 Wb) placed at that point. The unit of
H will be N/Wb.
m P

d
 Magnetic Potential

The magnetic potential at any point in the magnetic field is measured by the work
done in moving a unit N-pole (i.e. 1 Wb strength) from infinity to that point against
the magnetic force.

Consider a magnetic pole of strength m webers placed in a medium of relative permeability μr.
At a point at a distance x metres from it, the force on unit N-pole is

If the unit N–pole is moved towards m through a small distance dx, then work done is

Therefore, the total work done (W) in bringing a unit N-pole from infinity to any point which is
d metres from m is
Absolute and Relative Permeability

Permeability of a material means its conductivity for magnetic flux

The greater the permeability of a material, the greater is its conductivity for
magnetic flux and vice-versa

Air → poorest conductor of magnetic flux

µo = 4pi * 10^-7 H/m

Relation Between B and H

The flux density B produced in a material is directly proportional to the applied

magnetising force H
B∝H
B/H = Constant = µ

Hence relative permeability of a material is equal to the ratio of flux density

produced in that material to the flux density produced in air by the same
magnetising force.
Reluctance: The opposition that the magnetic circuit offers to magnetic flux is called reluctance

Permeance:

P = 1/S
The magnetic flux (f) can be produced by
(i) current-carrying conductor or coil
(ii) a permanent magnet

magnetic flux (f) produced by a current-carrying coil is directly proportional to the product of
number of turns (N) of the coil and electric current (I) which the coil carries
The quantity NI is called magnetomotive force (m.m.f) and is measured in ampere-turns (AT) or
*amperes (A)
m.m.f. = NI Ampere-turns (AT)
m.m.f. = H*L
m.m.f. = φ S

Just as e.m.f. (electromotive force) is required to produce electric current in an electric circuit,
similarly, m.m.f. is required to produce magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.

The greater the m.m.f., the greater is the magnetic flux produced in the magnetic circuit and vice-versa.
The magnetising force (H) produced by an electric current is defined as the m.m.f.
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

Right-hand rule

(i) The greater the current through the conductor, the stronger the magnetic field and vice-versa.
(ii) The magnetic field near the conductor is stronger and becomes weaker and weaker as we move
away from the conductor.
(iii) The magnetic lines of force around the conductor will be either clockwise or anticlockwise,
depending upon the direction of current. One may use right-hand rule to determine the direction of
magnetic field around the conductor.
(iv) The shape of the magnetic field depends upon the shape of the conductor.
Long straight conductor

Parallel conductors
Coil of several turns
Fleming’s Left-hand Rule. Stretch out the First finger, second finger and thumb of your
left hand so that they are at right angles to one another. If the first finger points in the
direction of magnetic field (North to South) and second finger (i.e. middle finger)
points towards the direction of current, then the thumb will point in the direction of
motion of the conductor.

Ampere law
The work done on or by a unit N-pole in moving
once around any complete path is equal to the
product of current and number of turns enclosed by
that path i.e.

Line integral of magnetic field intensity

around closed loop is equal to total current
enclosed by the loop.
Biot-Savart Law

Biot-Savart law gives us expression for the magnetic field at a point due to a current
element.

Total Magnetic flux because of

the whole conductor
Magnetic circuits
The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit

In a magnetic circuit, the magnetic flux leaves the N-pole, passes

through the entire circuit, and returns to the starting point
magnetomotive force (m.m.f.)
reluctance
Series Magnetic Circuits
 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing

The flux that does not follow the desired path in a

magnetic circuit is called a leakage flux.

Magnetic leakage is undesirable in electrical machines because it increases the weight as

well as cost of the machine. Magnetic leakage can be greatly reduced by placing source
of m.m.f. close to the air gap.

Fringing.
The result of bulging or fringing is to increase the effective area of air gap and thus
decrease the flux density in the gap. The longer the air gap, the greater is the fringing and
vice-versa.
Solenoid

A long coil of wire consisting of closely packed loops is called a

solenoid.
The path of the magnetic flux is made up of two components :
(i) length l1 of the path within the coil
(ii) length l2 of the path outside the coil.

Total m.m.f. = m.m.f. for path l1 + m.m.f. for path l2

But m.m.f. for path l1 >> m.m.f. for path l2
Total m.m.f. = m.m.f. for path l1
B-H Curve

flux density (B) varies with the magnetising force For magnetic materials
(H)

For non-magnetic materials

B = µ0 µr H

B = µ0 H
B∝H
 Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

First Law
When the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in it.
the induced e.m.f. appears in a circuit subjected to a changing magnetic field.

Second Law
The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor or coil is directly proportional
to the rate of change of flux linkages
Direction of Induced E.M.F. and Current

Lenz’s law
The induced current will flow in such a direction so as to oppose the cause that
produces it i.e.
the induced current will set up magnetic flux to oppose the change in flux.
Note that Lenz’s law is reflected mathematically in the minus sign on the R.H.S. of
Faraday’s second law viz. e = − N dφ/dt
Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.

Stretch out the forefinger, middle

finger and thumb of your right
hand so that they are at right
angles to one another. If the
forefinger points in the direction of
magnetic field, thumb in the
direction
of motion of the conductor, then
the middle finger will point in the
direction of induced current.
Comparison Between Magnetic and Electric Circuits
Dissimilarities
Q. The total flux emitted from the pole of a bar magnet is 2 × 10–4 Wb
(i) If the magnet has a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2, determine the flux density
within the magnet.
(ii) If the flux spreads out so that a certain distance from the pole, it is distributed
over an area of 2 cm by 2 cm, find the flux density at that point.

Q. Determine the m.m.f. required to generate a total flux of 100μWb in an

air gap 0.2 cm long. The cross-sectional area of the air gap is 25 cm2.

Q. An iron ring has a cross-sectional area of 400 mm2 and a mean diameter
of 25 cm. It is wound with 500 turns. If the value of relative permeability
is 250, find the total flux set up in the ring. The coil resistance is 474 Ω
and the supply voltage is 240 V.
DC Circuits
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature, the voltage (V) across a conducting material is
directly proportional to the current (I) flowing through the material.

V∝I
V=RI

Limitations of Ohm’s Law:

1. Ohm’s law is not applicable to non-linear elements like
diode, transistor etc.
2. Ohm’s law is not applicable for non-metallic
conductors like silicon carbide.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

a) Active elements (Energy sources): The elements which are capable of

generating or delivering the energy are called active elements.
E.g., Generators, Batteries

b) Passive element (Loads): The elements which are capable of receiving

the energy are called passive elements.
E.g., Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors
RESISTOR
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge. This
physical property, or ability to resist the flow of current, is known as resistance and is
represented by the symbol R. The Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω ). The circuit element used
to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is called the resistor.

The resistance of a resistor depends on the material of which the conductor is made and geometrical
shape of the conductor.
The proportionality constant ρ is called the specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor and
its value depends on the material of which the conductor is made.

The inverse of the resistance is called the conductance and inverse of resistivity is called specific
conductance or conductivity.

The power dissipated in a resistor can be expressed in terms of R as

D.C. Circuit
The closed path followed by direct current (d.c.) is called a d.c.
circuit.

(i) Series circuits

(ii) Parallel circuits
(iii) Series-parallel circuits.
D.C. Series Circuit
The d.c. circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that there is only one path for
current to flow is called a d.c. series circuit.

(i) The current in each resistor is the same.

(ii) The total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of
individual resistances.
(iii) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the
sum of powers dissipated in individual resistances

Note: A series resistor circuit can be considered to be a voltage divider circuit because the
potential difference across any one resistor is a fraction of the total voltage applied across the series
combination; the fraction being determined by the values of the resistances.
D.C. Parallel Circuit

When one end of each resistance is joined to a common point and the other end of each
resistance is joined to another common point so that there are as many paths for current flow as
the number of resistances, it is called a parallel circuit.

(i) The voltage across each resistor is the same.

(ii) The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its
resistance.
(iii) The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of currents in its
parallel branches.
(iv) The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances.
(v) As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total resistance of the circuit is
decreased.
(vi) The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest of the resistances.
(vii) If n resistors, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel, then total resistance RP =
R/n.
(viii) The conductances are additive.
(ix) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in the
individual resistances.
Two Resistances in Parallel

(i) Total resistance RP.

(ii) Branch Currents.

Advantages of Parallel Circuits

(i) The appliances rated for the same voltage but different powers can be connected in parallel
without disturbing each other’s performance. Thus a 230 V, 230 W TV receiver can be
operated independently in parallel with a 230 V, 40 W lamp.

(ii) If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it will have no effect on other branch
circuits.

Due to above advantages, electrical appliances in homes are connected in parallel. We can
switch on or off any light or appliance without affecting other lights or appliances.
D.C. Series-Parallel Circuit

Applications of Series-Parallel Circuits

(i) In an automobile, the starting, lighting and ignition circuits are all individual circuits joined
to make a series-parallel circuit drawing its power from one battery.
(ii) Radio and television receivers contain a number of separate circuits such as tuning circuits,
r.f. amplifiers, oscillator, detector and picture tube circuits. Individually, they may be
simple series or parallel circuits. However, when the receiver is considered as a whole, the
result is a series-parallel circuit.
(iii) Power supplies are connected in series to get a higher voltage and in parallel to get a higher
current.
Find the equivalent resistance, REQ for the following resistor combination circuit.
The diagram below shows a circuit with one battery and 10 resistors; 5 on the left
and 5 on the right. Determine the current through the circuit.
In the circuit below find currents in all other resistors if current in 10Ω is
10A. Hence find value of E 10
Q. Six resistors are connected as shown in Fig. If a battery having an e.m.f.
of 24 volts and internal resistance of 1 Ω is connected to the terminals A and B, find
(i) the current from the battery,
(ii) p.d. across 8 Ω and 4 Ω resistors
For the network shown in fig, find the current in each resistance and the voltage across (6)
10Ω resistance. Find also the power consumed in each resistances.
INDUCTOR
INDUCTOR

A wire of certain length, when twisted into a coil becomes a basic inductor. If current is
made to pass through an inductor, an electromagnetic field is formed. A change in the
magnitude of the current changes the electromagnetic field. Increase in current expands
the fields, and decrease in current reduces it. Therefore, a change in current produces
change in the electromagnetic field, which induces a voltage across the coil according to
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. i.e., the voltage across the inductor is
directly proportional to the time rate of change of current. The unit of inductance is
Henry (H)
Charging of inductor equation
−𝐿𝑡
𝐸
i(t) = (1-𝑒 𝑅 )
𝑅
1. The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through
it is constant. That means an inductor acts as short circuit to DC.

2. A small change in current within zero time through an inductor gives

an infinite voltage across the inductor, which is physically impossible.
In a fixed inductor the current cannot change abruptly i.e., the inductor
opposes the sudden changes in currents.

3. The inductor can store finite amount of energy. Even if the voltage
across the inductor is zero

4. A pure inductor never dissipates energy, only stores it. That is why it
is also called a non-dissipative passive element. However, physical
inductors dissipate power due to internal resistance.
SERIES INDUCTORS

v
INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL
CAPACITOR
CAPACITOR

Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating medium exhibit the property of a
capacitor. The conducting surfaces are called electrodes, and the insulating medium is called
dielectric. A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established by the
opposite charges on the two electrodes.
the source deposits a positive charge q on one plate and a negative charge - q on the other.
The capacitor is said to store the electric charge. The amount of charge stored, represented
by q, is directly pro-proportional to the applied voltage v so that

q = Cv

The unit of capacitance is the farad (F).

Where A is the surface area of each plate, d is the distance between the plates, and ε is the permittivity of the
dielectric material between the plates.
Charging of capacitor equation
−𝑡
𝑉𝐶 = E (1-𝑒 )𝑅𝐶
1. The current in a capacitor is zero if the voltage across it is constant; that
means, the capacitor acts as an open circuit to DC.

2. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an

infinite current through the capacitor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed
capacitance the voltage cannot change abruptly. i.e., A capacitor will oppose the
sudden changes in voltages.

3. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it
is zero.

4. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy, but only stores it; that is why it is
called non-dissipative passive element. However, physical capacitors dissipate
power due to internal resistance.
SERIES CAPACITORS

For N = 2
PARALLEL CAPACITORS

i
Q. A 1 A current passes through 10 mH inductor coil. What potential difference is induced
across the coil if the current drops to zero in 5.0 μs
Two capacitors 10 μF and 8 μF are in series. If voltage applied is 10V, Find 6
1) Charge in each capacitor
2) Voltage across each capacitor
3) Total energy stored in the circuit.
1) Charge in each capacitor
Q. Find RAB in the circuit shown in Fig.

Rab = 22.5 Ohms

R = 14.28 Ohms

Vab = 620V
R = 73.33 Ohms

E = 40V
Vr2 = 40V
R3 = 26.66 Ohms
Open Circuits

an open is a gap or break or interruption in a circuit path.

breaking of a wire, Component failure
No current can flow through an open
An open has infinite resistance

Open circuit in a series circuit.

(i) The circuit current becomes zero.
(ii) There will be no voltage drop across the resistors that
are normal.
(iii) The entire voltage drop appears across the open.
(iv) Since the circuit current is zero, there is no voltage
drop in the internal resistance of the
source. Therefore, terminal voltage may appear higher
than the normal.
Open circuit in a parallel circuit

(i)Branch current I3 will be zero because R3 is open.

(ii) The total current I will be less than the normal.
(iii) The operation of the branches without opens will be
normal.
(iv) The open device will not operate.
 Short Circuits

A short circuit or short is an unwanted path of low resistance.

When short circuit occurs, The resistance of the circuit becomes
low, As a result current greater then the normal flows, which can
cause damage to circuit components.
due to insulation failure, components get shorted etc.

Partial short in a series circuit Dead short in a series circuit.

Partial short in a parallel circuit Dead short in a parallel circuit
Kirchhoff’s Laws

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in an

electrical circuit is zero.

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW ( KVL )

In any closed electrical circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum

of all the electromotive forces (e.m.fs) and voltage drops
in resistors is equal to zero

Algebraic sum of e.m.fs + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0

Voltage and Current Sources

Voltage sources→ batteries, d.c. generators, alternators etc.

Current source→ collector circuits of transistors

Ideal Voltage Source

Real Voltage Source Constant Voltage Source

Ideal Current Source

An ideal current source or constant current source is one which will supply the same
current to any resistance (load) connected across its terminals.

Real Current Source

Voltage to current source conversion

Thus a real voltage source of constant voltage E and internal resistance Rint is equivalent to a
current source of current IS = E/Rint and Rint in parallel with current source.

Current to voltage source conversion.

Independent Voltage and Current Sources
Dependent Voltage and Current Sources
Reference Point →ground or earth or common

a point in a circuit which was actually

connected to earth either for safety in power
systems or for efficient radio reception and
transmission.

ground is used as the return path for many

circuits
Voltage Divider Circuit

A voltage divider (or potential divider) is a series circuit that is used to provide two or more
reduced voltages from a single input voltage source.

Current Divider Circuit

Sign Convention

I] A rise in potential should be considered positive and fall in potential should be considered negative.

the sign of e.m.f. is independent of the direction of current through the branch under consideration.

II]

sign of voltage drop depends on the direction of current and is independent of the polarity of the
e.m.f. of source in the circuit under consideration.
Movement in the direction of current → Negative
Movement opposite to the direction of current → Positive
Calculator

Go to mode→ press it three times until ‘EQN’ is displayed

Select number of unknowns
Enter coefficients and press enter

Note that the equation must be in the form

ax + by = c

To clear the mode

Shift → CLR → 2 → =
D.C. Network Theorems

• Linear circuit
• Non-linear circuit
• Active element
• Passive element
• Node
• Junction
• Branch
• Loop
• Mesh
• Unilateral circuit
• Bilateral circuit
• Active and passive networks
MESH ANALYSIS

Note:
1. Mark all currents in one direction only
2. All the sources must be voltage source only
(Matrix method)

To convert from current source to voltage

source take the nearest parallel resistor into
consideration
Nodal Analysis
Use nodal analysis to find the voltage across and current through 4 Ω resistor
Delta/Star Transformation

DELTA STAR
Find I
A network of resistors is shown in Fig. Find the resistance between terminals
(i) A and B
(ii) B and C and
(iii) C and A.
Find the current distribution in the network shown in Fig