Ravish R Singh Maths 1

Mathematics-1
Gujarat Technological University 2018

About the Authors
Ravish R Singh is presently Director at Thakur Ramnarayan College

of Arts and Commerce, Mumbai. He obtained a BE degree from
University of Mumbai in 1991, an MTech degree from IIT Bombay
in 2001, and a PhD degree from Faculty of Technology, University
of Mumbai, in 2013. He has published several books with McGraw
Hill Education (India) on varied subjects like Engineering
Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Electrical Networks, Network
Analysis and Synthesis, Electrical Engineering, Basic Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, etc., for all-India curricula as well as regional curricula of
some universities like Gujarat Technological University, Mumbai University, Pune
University, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand
Technical University, and Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University. Dr Singh is a
member of IEEE, ISTE, and IETE, and has published research papers in national and
international journals. His fields of interest include Circuits, Signals and Systems, and
Engineering Mathematics.
Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor at Department of

Mathematics and Statistics, Thakur Ramnarayan College of Arts and
Commerce, Mumbai. She obtained her MSc (Mathematics) degree
from H N B Garhwal University in 1992, and a PhD degree from
Faculty of Science, PAHER University, Udaipur, Rajasthan in 2017.
She has published several books with McGraw Hill Education (India)
Private Limited on Engineering Mathematics and Applied Mathematics
for all-India curricula as well as regional curricula of some universities like Gujarat
Technological University, Mumbai University, Pune University, Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand Technical University, and
Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University. Dr Bhatt has twenty six years of teaching
experience at various levels in engineering colleges and her fields of interest include
Integral Calculus, Complex Analysis, and Operation Research. She is a member of
ISTE.
Mathematics-1
Gujarat Technological University 2018
Ravish R Singh
Director
Thakur Ramnarayan College of Arts & Commerce
Mumbai, Maharashtra
Mukul Bhatt
Assistant Professor
Thakur Ramnarayan College of Arts & Commerce
Mumbai, Maharashtra
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Chennai
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Dedicated
to
Aman and Aditri
Ravish R Singh
Soumya and Siddharth

Mukul Bhatt
Contents
Preface xi
Roadmap to the Syllabus xv
UNIT-1
1. Indeterminate Forms 1.1–1.63
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 L’Hospital’s Rule 1.1
0
1.3 Type 1: Form 1.2
0
•
1.4 Type 2: form 1.16
•
1.5 Type 3: 0 × • Form 1.23
1.6 Type 4: • − • Form 1.30
1.7 Type 5: 1•, • 0, 0 0 Forms 1.38
Points to Remember 1.60
Multiple Choice Questions 1.60
2. Improper Integrals 2.1–2.25
2.2 Improper Integrals 2.1
2.3 Improper Integrals of the First Kind 2.2
2.4 Improper Integrals of the Second Kind 2.9
2.5 Improper Integral of the Third Kind 2.16
2.6 Convergence and Divergence of Improper Integrals 2.17
3. Gamma and Beta Functions 3.1–3.39
3.2 Gamma Function 3.1
3.3 Properties of Gamma Function 3.2
3.4 Beta Function 3.11
3.5 Properties of Beta Functions 3.12
3.6 Beta Function as Improper Integral 3.28
viii Contents

4. Applications of Definite Integrals 4.1–4.67
4.2 Volume Using Cross-sections 4.1
4.3 Length of Plane Curves 4.6
4.4 Area of Surface of Solid of Revolution 4.46
UNIT-2
5. Sequences and Series 5.1–5.121
5.2 Sequence 5.2
5.3 Infinite Series 5.8
5.4 The nth Term Test for Divergence 5.9
5.5 Geometric Series 5.10
5.6 Telescoping Series 5.15
5.7 Combining Series 5.18
5.8 Harmonic Series 5.19
5.9 p-Series 5.20
5.10 Comparison Test 5.20
5.11 D’Alembert’s Ratio Test 5.40
5.12 Raabe’s Test 5.67
5.13 Cauchy’s Root Test 5.73
5.14 Cauchy’s Integral Test 5.82
5.15 Alternating Series 5.87
5.16 Absolute and Conditional Convergent of a Series 5.94
5.17 Power Series 5.101
6. Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series 6.1–6.70
6.2 Taylor’s Series 6.1
6.3 Maclaurin’s Series 6.27
Contents ix
UNIT-3
7. Fourier Series 7.1–7.126
7.2 Periodic Functions 7.1
7.3 Orthogonality of Trigonometric System 7.2
7.4 Dirichlet’s Conditions for Representation by a Fourier Series 7.5
7.5 Trigonometric Fourier Series 7.6
7.6 Fourier Series of Functions of Period 2l 7.7
7.7 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions 7.66
7.8 Half-Range Fourier Series 7.93
UNIT-4
8. Partial Derivatives 8.1–8.184
8.2 Functions of Two or More Variables 8.2
8.3 Limit and Continuity of Functions of Several Variables 8.2
8.4 Partial Derivatives 8.10
8.5 Higher-Order Partial Derivatives 8.11
8.6 Total Derivatives 8.59
8.7 Implicit Differentiation 8.94
8.8 Gradient and Directional Derivative 8.103
8.9 Tangent Plane and Normal Line 8.107
8.10 Local Extreme Values (Maximum and Minimum Values) 8.116
8.11 Extreme Values with Constrained Variables 8.134
8.12 Method of Lagrange Multipliers 8.145
UNIT-5
9. Multiple Integrals 9.1–9.175
9.2 Double Integrals 9.1
9.3 Change of Order of Integration 9.31
9.4 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates 9.66
9.5 Multiple Integrals by Substitution 9.77
9.6 Triple Integrals 9.109
x Contents
9.7 Area by Double Integrals 9.141

UNIT-6
10. Matrices 10.1–10.141
10.2 Matrix 10.2
10.3 Some Definitions Associated with Matrices 10.2
10.4 Elementary Row Operations in Matrix 10.6
10.5 Row Echelon and Reduced Row Echelon Forms of a Matrix 10.7
10.6 Rank of a Matrix 10.13
10.7 Inverse of a Matrix by Gauss–Jordan Method 10.18
10.8 System of Non-Homogeneous Linear Equations 10.22
10.9 System of Homogeneous Linear Equations 10.48
10.10 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 10.64
10.11 Properties of Eigenvalues 10.65
10.12 Linear Dependence and Independence of Eigenvectors 10.76
10.13 Properties of Eigenvectors 10.76
10.14 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem 10.108
10.15 Similarity Transformation 10.119
10.16 Diagonalization of a Matrix 10.119
Multiple-Choice Questions 10.137
Index I.1–I.3
Preface
Mathematics is a key area of study in any engineering course. A sound knowledge
of this subject will help engineering students develop analytical skills, and thus
enable them to solve numerical problems encountered in real life, as well as apply
mathematical principles to physical problems, particularly in the field of engineering.
Users
This book is designed for the first year GTU engineering students pursuing the course
Mathematics-1, SUBJECT CODE: 3110014 in their first year Ist Semester. It covers
the complete GTU syllabus for the course on Mathematics-1, which is common to all
the engineering branches.
Objective
The crisp and complete explanation of topics will help students easily understand the
basic concepts. The tutorial approach (i.e., teach by example) followed in the text will
enable students develop a logical perspective to solving problems.
Features
Each topic has been explained from the examination point of view, wherein the theory
is presented in an easy-to-understand student-friendly style. Full coverage of concepts
is supported by numerous solved examples with varied complexity levels, which is
aligned to the latest GTU syllabus. Fundamental and sequential explanation of topics
are well aided by examples and exercises. The solutions of examples are set following a
‘tutorial’ approach, which will make it easy for students from any background to easily
grasp the concepts. Exercises with answers immediately follow the solved examples
enforcing a practice-based approach. We hope that the students will gain logical
understanding from solved problems and then reiterate it through solving similar
exercise problems themselves. The unique blend of theory and application caters to
the requirements of both the students and the faculty. Solutions of GTU examination
questions are incorporated within the text appropriately.
xii Preface
Highlights
∑ Crisp content strictly as per the latest GTU syllabus of Mathematics-1
(Regulation 2018)
∑ Comprehensive coverage with lucid presentation style
∑ Each section concludes with an exercise to test understanding of topics
∑ Solutions of GTU examination questions included appropriately within the
chapters
∑ Rich exam-oriented pedagogy:
 Solved examples within chapters: 850+
 Unsolved exercises: 500+
 MCQs at the end of chapters: 300+
Chapter Organization
The content spans the following 10 chapters which wholly and sequentially cover each
module of the syllabus.
 Chapter 1 introduces Indeterminate Forms.
 Chapter 2 discusses Improper Integrals.
 Chapter 3 presents Gamma and Beta Functions.
 Chapter 4 covers Applications of Definite Integrals.
 Chapter 5 deals with Sequences and Series.
 Chapter 6 presents Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series.
 Chapter 7 discusses Fourier Series.
 Chapter 8 presents Partial Derivatives.
 Chapter 9 covers Multiple Integrals.
 Chapter 10 deals with Matrices.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following reviewers who reviewed sample chapters of the book
and generously shared their valuable comments:
Prof. Bhavini Pandya SVIT, Vasad
Prof. Som Sahani Babaria Institute of Technology, Baroda
We would also like to thank all the staff at McGraw Hill Education (India), especially
Vibha Mahajan, Shalini Jha, Hemant K Jha, Tushar Mishra, Satinder Singh Baveja,
Taranpreet Kaur and Anuj Shriwastava for coordinating with us during the editorial,
copyediting, and production stages of this book.
Preface xiii
Our acknowledgements would be incomplete without a mention of the contribution of

all our family members. We extend a heartfelt thanks to them for always motivating
and supporting us throughout the project.
Constructive suggestions for the improvement of the book will always be welcome.
Ravish R Singh
Mukul Bhatt
Publisher’s Note
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Roadmap to the Syllabus
Mathematics-1
Subject Code: 3110014
Unit-I
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôspital’s Rule.
Improper Integrals, Convergence and divergence of the integrals, Beta and Gamma
functions and their properties.
Applications of definite integral, Volume using cross-sections, Length of plane
curves, Areas of Surfaces of Revolution.
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions
Go To
CHAPTER 2: Improper Integrals
CHAPTER 3: Gamma and Beta Functions
CHAPTER 4: Applications of Definite Integrals
Unit-2
Convergence and divergence of sequences, The Sandwich Theorem for Sequences,
The Continuous Function Theorem for Sequences, Bounded Monotonic Sequences,
Convergence and divergence of an infinite series, geometric series, telescoping
series, nth term test for divergent series, Combining series, Harmonic Series,
Integral test, The p-series, The Comparison test, The Limit Comparison test, Ratio
test, Raabe’s Test, Root test, Alternating series test, Absolute and Conditional
convergence, Power series, Radius of convergence of a power series, Taylor and
Maclaurin series.
CHAPTER 5: Sequences and Series

Go To
CHAPTER 6: Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series
xvi Roadmap to the Syllabus
Unit-3
Fourier Series of 2l periodic functions, Dirichlet’s conditions for representation
by a Fourier series, Orthogonality of the trigonometric system, Fourier Series
of a function of period 2l, Fourier Series of even and odd functions, Half range
expansions.
Go To CHAPTER 7: Fourier Series
Unit-4
Functions of several variables, Limits and continuity, Test for non existence of a
limit, Partial differentiation, Mixed derivative theorem, differentiability, Chain rule,
Implicit differentiation, Gradient, Directional derivative, tangent plane and normal
line, total differentiation, Local extreme values, Method of Lagrange Multipliers.
Go To CHAPTER 8: Partial Derivatives
Unit-5
Multiple integral, Double integral over Rectangles and general regions, double
integrals as volumes, Change of order of integration, double integration in polar
coordinates, Area by double integration, Triple integrals in rectangular, cylindrical
and spherical coordinates, Jacobian, multiple integral by substitution.
Go To CHAPTER 9: Multiple Integrals
Unit-5
Elementary row operations in Matrix, Row echelon and Reduced row echelon
forms, Rank by echelon forms, Inverse by Gauss-Jordan method, Solution of
system of linear equations by Gauss elimination and Gauss-Jordan methods. Eigen
values and eigen vectors, Cayley-Hamilton theorem, Diagonalization of a matrix.
Go To CHAPTER 10: Matrices

UNIT-1
Chapter 1. Indeterminate Forms

Chapter 2. Improper Integrals
Chapter 3. Gamma and Beta Functions
Chapter 4. Applications of Definite Integrals
CHAPTER
1
Indeterminate
Forms
chapter outline
1.1 Introduction
1.2 L’Hospital’s Rule
1.3 Type 1 : 0 Form
0
1.4 •
Type 2 : Form
•
1.5 Type 3 : 0 × • Form
1.6 Type 4 : • − • Form
1.7 Type 5 : 1•, • 0, 0 0 Forms
1.1 IntroductIon
We have studied certain rules to evaluate the limits. But some limits cannot be evalu-
ated by using these rules. These limits are known as indeterminate forms. There are
seven types of indeterminate forms:
0 ∞
(i) (ii) ∞ (iii) 0 × ∞ (iv) ∞ − ∞
0
(v) 1∞ (vi) 0° (vii) ∞°
These limits can be evaluated by using L’Hospital’s rule.
1.2 L’HospItaL’s ruLe
Statement If f (x) and g (x) are two functions of x which can be expanded by Taylor’s
series in the neighbourhood of x = a and if lim f ( x) = f (a ) = 0, lim g ( x) = g (a ) = 0,
x→a x→a
then
1.2 Chapter 1 Indeterminate Forms
f ( x) f ′ ( x)
lim = lim
x→a g ( x) x → a g ′ ( x)
Proof Let x=a+h
f ( x) f ( a + h)
lim = lim
x → a g ( x) h → 0 g ( a + h)
h2
f (a ) + hf ′ (a ) + f ″ (a ) + .......
= lim 2! [By Taylor’s theorem]
h→ 0 h2
g (a ) + hg ′ (a ) + g ″ (a ) + .......
2!
h2
hf ′ (a ) + f ″ (a ) + .......
= lim 2! [Q f (a ) = 0, g (a ) = 0]
2
h→ 0 h
hg ′ (a ) + g ″ (a ) + .......
2!
h
f ′ (a ) + f ″ (a ) + .......
= lim 2!
h→ 0 h
g ′ (a ) + g ″ (a ) + .......
2!
f ′(a)
=
g ′(a)
f ′ ( x)
= lim , provided g ′ (a ) ≠ 0.
x → a g ′ ( x)
Note
The following standard limits can be used to solve the problems:
sin x tan x ax −1
(i) lim =1 (ii) lim =1 (iii) lim = log a
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x
1
 1
x
ex − 1
(iv) lim =1 (v) lim(1 + x) x = e (vi) lim 1 +  = e
x→0 x x→0 x →∞  x
sin −1 x sin h x tan −1 x

(vii) lim =1 (vii) lim =1 (ix) lim =1
x→0 x→0 x x→0 x
x
0
1.3 type 1 : Form
0
Problems under this type are solved by using L’Hospital’s rule considering the fact
that
0
0
f ( x) f ′ ( x)
lim = lim if lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g ( x) = 0.
x→ a g ( x) x → a g ′ ( x) x→ a x→ a
example 1
(1 + x) n − 1
Prove that lim = n.
x→0 x
Solution
(1 + x) n − 1 0 
Let l = lim  0 form 
x→0 x
n(1 + x) n −1
= lim [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 1
=n
example 2
xe x - log (1 + x )
Evaluate lim .
x Æ0 x2
Solution
xe x − log (1 + x) 0 
x→0 x2
1
e x + xe x −
1+ x 0 
= lim  0 form 
x→0 2x
[Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
1
e x + e x + xe x +
(1 + x) 2
x→0 2
3
=
2
example 3
x log x − ( x − 1)
Evaluate lim .
x →1 ( x − 1) log x
Solution
x log x - ( x - 1) È0 ˘
Let l = lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ1 ( x - 1) log x Î ˚
1
x◊
+ log x - 1
= lim x [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ1 1
log x + ( x - 1) ◊
x
log x È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ1 1 Î ˚
log x + 1 -
x
1
x Æ1 1 1
+
x x2
1
=
2
example 4
e x - e - x - 2 log(1 + x )
Evaluate lim .
x Æ0 x sin x
Solution
e x - e - x - 2 log(1 + x ) È0 ˘
Let l = lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 x sin x Î ˚
1
e x + e- x - 2 ◊
1+ x È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙ [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0 sin x + x cos x Î ˚
2
e x - e- x +
(1 + x )2
= lim [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ 0 cos x + cos x - x sin x
2
=
2
=1
0
0
example 5
e x + e- x - x2 - 2
Evaluate lim . [Winter 2016; Summer 2014]
x Æ0 sin 2 x - x 2
Solution
e x + e- x - x2 - 2 È0 ˘
Let l = lim 2 2 Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 sin x - x Î ˚
e - e- x - 2 x
x
x Æ 0 2 sin x cos x - 2 x
e x + e- x - 2
x Æ0 2( - sin x )sin x + 2 cos2 x - 2
e x + e- x - 2
= lim
x Æ0 -2 sin 2 x + 2 cos2 x - 2
e x + e- x - 2
= lim
x Æ 0 2 cos 2 x - 2
e x - e- x
x Æ 0 ( -2)2 sin 2 x
e x - e- x
= lim
x Æ 0 - 4 sin 2 x
e x + e- x
= lim [Applying L’Hospital’ss rule]
x Æ 0 -8 cos 2 x
2
=
-8
1
=-
4
example 6
2x - 1
Evaluate lim 1
.
x Æ0
(1 + x) 2 -1
Solution
2x - 1 È0 ˘
Let l = lim 1 Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 Î ˚
(1 + x) 2 -1
2 x log 2
= lim 1
[ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0
1 -
(1 + x ) 2
2
= 2 log 2
example 7
Evaluate lim
(
log 1 + kx 2 ).
x→0 1 − cos x
Solution
l = lim
(
log 1 + kx 2 ) 0 
Let
x→0 1 − cos x  0 form 
1
⋅ 2kx
= lim 1 + kx 2 [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 sin x
1
= 2k lim
( )
sin x
x→0
1 + kx 2 ⋅
x
 sin x 
= 2k Q lim = 1
x→0 x 
example 8
log (1 + x 3 )
Evaluate lim .
x Æ0 sin3 x
Solution
log (1 + x 3 ) È0 ˘
x Æ0 sin x Î ˚
1
3
⋅ 3x 2 [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
= lim 1 + x
x → 0 3 sin 2 x cos x
2
Ê x ˆ 1
= lim Á ˜
x Æ 0 Ë sin x ¯ (1 + x 3 ) cos x
È x ˘
=1 Í xlim = 1˙
Î Æ0 sin x ˚
0
0
example 9
x − xx
Evaluate lim
x →1 1 + log x − x
.
Solution
x − xx 0 
x →1 1 + log x − x
x − e x log x
= lim
x →1 1 + log x − x
1 − e x log x (1 + log x)
= lim [Applying
g L’Hospital’s rule]
x →1 1
−1
x
 1
−e x log x (1 + log x) 2 − e x log x  
 x
x →1 1
− 2
x
=2
example 10
xy - yx
Evaluate lim .
xÆ y xx - yy
Solution
xy − yx 0 
x→ y x x − y y
yx y −1 − y x log y
x→ y x x (1 + log x) − 0
y y − y y log y
=
y y (1 + log y )
1 − log y
=
1 + log y
example 11
sin ( x cos x )
Evaluate lim .
xÆ
p cos( x sin x )
2
Solution
sin ( x cos x) 0 
x→
p cos ( x sin x)
2
cos ( x cos x)(cos x − x sin x)

= limp [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→ − sin ( x sin x)(sin x + x cos x)
2
p
=
2
example 12
cos 2 π x
Evaluate lim 2 x . [Winter 2015]
x→
1 e − 2 xe
2
Solution
cos 2 p x 0 
Let l = lim1  0 form 
x→
2
e 2 x − 2 xe
2 cos p x ( −p sin p x)
x→
1 2e 2 x − 2 e
2
−p sin 2p x 0 
= lim1  0 form 
x→ 2( e 2 x − e )
2
−2p 2 cos 2p x
x→
1 2 ⋅ 2e 2 x
2
p2
=
2e
example 13
1 − cos (θ − α ) 1 2
Prove that θlim = sec α .
→α (sin θ − sin α ) 2 2
Solution
1 - cos(q - a ) È0 ˘
q Æa (sin q - sin a ) Î ˚
0
0
sin (q − a ) [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]

= lim
q →a 2 (sin q − sin a ) cos q
sin (q − a ) 0 
= lim  0 form 
q →a (sin 2q − 2 sin a cos q )
cos (q − a ) [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
= lim
q →a 2 cos 2q + 2 sin a sin q
cos 0
=
2 cos 2a + 2 sin a sin a
1
=
2(1 − 2 sin 2 a ) + 2 sin 2 a
1
=
2 − 2 sin 2 a
1
=
2 cos 2 a
1
= sec 2 a
2
example 14
5 sin x − 7 sin 2 x + 3 sin 3 x
Evaluate lim .
x→0 tan x − x
Solution
5 sin x − 7 sin 2 x + 3 sin 3 x 0 
x→0 tan x − x
5 cos x − 14 cos 2 x + 9 cos 3 x
x→0 sec 2 x − 1
−5 sin x + 28 sin 2 x − 27 sin 3 x 0 
= lim  0 form  [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 2 sec 2 x tan x
sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x
−5 + 56 ⋅ − 81
= lim x 2 x 3x
x→0 tan x
2 sec 2 x ⋅
x
−5 + 56 − 81  sin nx tan x 
= Q lim = 1 and lim = 1
2 x→0 nx x → 0 x 
= −15
example 15
3
2
2 x 2 − 2e x + 2 cos ( x 2 ) + sin 3 x
Evaluate lim .
x→0 x2
Solution
3
2
2 x 2 − 2e x + 2 cos x 2 + sin 3 x 0 
x→0 x2
2
3
3 1
4 x − 2e x (2 x) − 2 sin x 2  x 2  + 3 sin 2 x cos x
2  0 
= lim  0 form 
x→0 2x
2 2  3
3 1 1 3

4 − 4 (e x + xe x ⋅ 2 x) − 3  x cos x 2 ⋅ x 2 + sin x 2  + 6 sin x cos 2 x − 3 sin 3 x
 2 2 x 
= lim
x→0 2
3
2
sin x x
4 − 4 − lim ⋅
=
x→0 2 x x
2
3
1 1 sin x 2  3

= − ⋅ lim ⋅x 2
2 2 x→0 3
2
Qlim sin x = 1
x  x→0 3 
=0  x2 
example 16
A  sin kx k 
Evaluate lim
x→0 x2  sin lx − l  .
Solution
A  sin kx k 
Let l = lim −
x→0 x 2  sin lx l 
l sin kx − k sin lx 0 
= A lim  0 form 
x→0 lx 2 sin lx
A l sin kx − k sin lx
= lim
l x→0 sin lx
x2 ⋅ lx
lx
0
1.3 Type 1: Form 1.11
0
A l sin kx − k sin lx 0   sin lx 

= lim
2 x→0  0 form  Q lim = 1
l x3 x→0 lx 
A lk cos kx − kl cos lx 0 
= lim  0 form  [Appling L’Hospital’s rule]
l 2 x→0 3x 2
A −lk 2 sin kx + kl 2 sin lx
l 2 x→0 6x
A  sin kx sin lx 
= 2 lim  −lk 2 ⋅ ⋅ k + kl 2 ⋅ ⋅l
6l x → 0  kx lx 
 sin lx 
=
A
6l 2
(
−lk 3 + kl 3 ) Q lim
x→0
sin kx
kx
= 1 = lim
x → 0 lx 
=
Ak 2
6l
(
l − k2 )
example 17
1
2
x tan x
Evaluate lim 3
.
x→0
x 2
(e − 1)
Solution
x tan x È0 ˘
x Æ0 Î ˚
(e x - 1) 2
x x tan x
= lim 3
⋅
x→0 x
(e x − 1) 2
x x  tan x 
= lim ⋅ lim  
x→0 3 x→0  x 
(e x − 1) 2
3
 x 2  tan x 
= lim  x  Q lim = 1
x → 0  e − 1 x→0 x 
x 1
Now, lim x
= lim x [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 e −1 x → 0 e
=1
3
3
 x 2
\ lim  x  = (1) 2 = 1
x → 0  e − 1
Hence, l=1
example 18
x
log sec x cos
Evaluate lim 2.
x →0 log
x cos x
sec
2
Solution
x
log sec x cos
Let l = lim 2
x → 0 log cos x
x
sec
2
x x
log cos log sec
= lim 2 ⋅ 2
x → 0 log sec x log cos x
x  − log cos x 
log cos  
= lim 2 ⋅ 2
x → 0 ( − log cos x ) log cos x
2
 x
log cos

= lim  2 0 
x→0 log cos x   0 form 
 
1  1 x
⋅ − sin 
x x  2 2 
log cos cos
lim 2 = lim 2
Now, x → 0 log cos x x→0 1 [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
( − sin x)
cos x
x
tan
= lim 2
x → 0 2 tan x
 x
tan
1 2  x 
= lim  ⋅
x→0 4 x   tan x 
 
2 
1
=
4
0
1.3 Type 1: Form 1.13
0
2
 x
log cos 2
 2   1 1  tan x 
∴ lim  =   = Q lim = 1
x→0 log cos x  4 16 x→0 x 
 
1
Hence, l=
16
example 19
1
(1 + x) x − e e
Prove that lim =− .
x→0 x 2
Solution
1
(1 + x) x − e 0 
x→0 x
1
log(1+ x )
ex −e
x→0 x
1
log(1+ x )  1 1 
ex  − x 2 log (1 + x) + x (1 + x) 
  0 
= lim  0 form 
x→0 1
= lim (1 + x) x lim
1
[ − log (1 + x) ⋅ (1 + x) + x ] 0 
x→0 x→0 x (1 + x)
2  0 form 
 − log (1 + x) − 1 + 1 0  [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]

= e lim    0 form 
x→0
 2 x + 3x 2
 1 
  − 1 + x  
= e lim  
x→0
 2 + 6x 
 
e
=−
2
example 20
2n
Prove that lim

( 1− x −1 ) = 2− n .
n
x→0
(1 − cos x )
Solution
2n 2n
Let l = lim
( 1− x −1) ⋅( 1− x +1 )
n 2n
x→0
(1 − cos x ) ( 1 − x + 1)
(1 − x − 1) 2 n
= lim
 x
( )
x→0 n
2n
 2 sin
2
 1− x +1
2
( − x) 2 n 2n
= lim 2n
⋅
 x
( )
x→0 2n 2n
2n  sin  1− x +1
 2
2n
 x 
 
= lim  2 
2n
{
Q ( − x) 2 n = ( − x) 2 } = x2n 
n
( )  
x→0 2n
x 1− x +1
 sin 
2
1
=
2n
example 21
x 2 + 2 cos x − 2
Evaluate lim .
x→0 x sin x
Solution
x 2 + 2 cos x − 2 0 
x→0 x sin x
2 x − 2 sin x 0 
x→0 sin x + x cos x
2 − 2 cos x
x → 0 cos x + cos x − x sin x
=0
0
1.3 Type 1: Form 1.15
0
example 22
e x sin x − x − x 2
Evaluate lim .
x→0 x 2 + x log(1 − x)
Solution
e x sin x − x − x 2 0 
x → 0 x 2 + x log(1 − x )
e x sin x + e x cos x − 1 − 2 x 0 
= lim  0 form  [Applyying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 x
2 x + log(1 − x) −
1− x
e (sin x + cos x) + e x (cos x − sin x) − 2
x
x→0 1 1 x
2− − −
1 − x 1 − x (1 − x) 2
2(e x cos x − 1) 0 
= lim  0 form 
x→0  1  x
2 1 − −
 1 − x  (1 − x) 2
2(e x cos x − e x sin x)
x→0  1  1 2x
2 − 2− −
 (1 − x)  (1 − x) (1 − x)3
2
2
=−
3
exercIse 1.1
x 2 log a − a 2 log x 1
1. Prove that lim 2 2
= log a − .
x →a x −a 2
log(1 − x 2 )
2. Prove that lim = 2.
x → 0 log cos x
1 − tan x
3. Prove that limπ = 2.
x→
4
1 − 2 sin x
e x − 1 + 2x
x → 0 log(1 + x 2 )
a + x tan−1 a 2 − x 2
5. Evaluate lim .
x →a
a−x
 tan−1 a 2 − x 2 
Hint : lim(x + a) as x → a, a − x → 0 
 x →a
a2 − x 2 
[ans.: 2a]
1− x
e x + loge
6. Evaluate lim e .
x →0 tan x − x  1
 Ans.: − 2 
 
1 − x + log x
7. Evaluate lim .
x →1
1 − 2x − x 2
[ans.: –1]
x
xe − log(1 + x) 3
8. Prove that lim = .
x →0 x2 2
e x − 1 + 2x
x → 0 log(1 + x 2 )
1 − tan x
x→
π
4
1 − 2 sin x
3x − 12 − x 8
x →3
2 x − 3 19 − 5x 69
alog x − x a
12. Prove that lim = log .
x →1 log x e
x − a + x −a 1
2 2
x →a
x −a 2a
tan x − x 1
x →0 x3 3
1.4 type 2: Form
Problems under this type are also solved by using L’Hospital’s rule considering the
fact that
f ( x) f ′ ( x)
lim = lim if lim f ( x) = ∞ and lim g ( x) = ∞.
x →a g ( x) x →a g ′ ( x) x →a x →a
•
1.4 Type 2: Form 1.17
•
example 1
log x
Prove that lim = 0, (n > 0).
x →∞ x n
Solution
log x ∞ 
Let l = lim  ∞ form 
x →∞ xn
1
= lim xn −1 [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x →∞ nx
1 1
= lim n
n x →∞ x
=0
example 2
log sin x
Evaluate lim .
x →0 cot x
Solution
log sin x ∞ 
x→0 cot x
1
⋅ cos x
= lim sin x [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x → 0 − cosec 2 x
= lim − ( cos x sin x )

x→0
=0
example 3
 π
log  x − 
 2
Prove that lim = 0.
π tan x
x→
2
Solution
Ê pˆ
log Á x - ˜
Ë 2¯ È• ˘
Let l = lim Í • form ˙
xÆ
p tan x Î ˚
2
Ê 1 ˆ
Á p˜
ÁË x - ˜¯
2
xÆ
p sec 2 x
2
cos2 x È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
xÆ
p
x-
p Î ˚
2
2
2 cos x ( - sin x )
xÆ
p 1
2
=0
example 4
log ( x – a )
Prove that lim = 1.
x → a log ( a x – a a )
Solution
log ( x - a ) È• ˘
Let l = lim Í • form ˙
x a
xÆa log (a - a ) Î ˚
1
( x - a)
xÆa 1 . x
a log a
a x - aa
 x 
. lim a − a 0 
a
1
= lim x  0 form 
x → a a log a x→a  x − a 
 
x
1 . lim a log a
= [Applying L’Hospital’s rule to second term]
a a log a x → a 1
1
= a ⋅ a a log a
a log a
=1
example 5
Prove that lim log x tan x = 1.
x→0
Solution
Let l = lim log x tan x

x→0
log tan x ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
[Change of base property]
x→0 log x
•
1.4 Type 2: Form 1.19
•
1 . 2
sec x
= lim tan x [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 1
x
x .
limsec 2 x  tan x 
= lim
Q lim = 1
x → 0 tan x x → 0 x→0 x 
=1
example 6
Evaluate lim log tan x tan 2 x .
x →0
Solution
Let l = lim log tan x tan 2 x

x→0
log tan 2 x ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0
log tan x
1
⋅ 2 sec 2 2 x
= lim tan 2 x [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 1
⋅ sec 2 x
tan x
tan x
⋅ sec 2 2 x
= lim x
x → 0 tan 2 x
⋅ sec 2 x
2x
 tan x 
=1 Q lim = 1
x→0 x 
example 7
sin h−1 x
Prove that lim = 1.
x →∞ cos h −1 x
Solution
sin h −1 x
Let l = lim
x →∞ cos h −1 x
= lim
(
log x + x 2 + 1 ) ∞ 
 ∞ form 
x →∞
log ( x + x 2
− 1)
1  1 
⋅ 1 + ⋅ 2 x
= lim
( x + x +1  2 x +1
2 2
) 
x →∞
1  1 
⋅ 1 + ⋅ 2 x
(x + x2 − 1 )  2 x2 − 1 
x2 + 1 + x
= lim
(x + x2 + 1 ) x2 + 1
x →∞
x2 − 1 + x
(x + x2 − 1 ) x2 − 1
x2 − 1
= lim
x →∞
x2 + 1
1
1−
x2
= lim
x →∞
1
1+ 2
x
=1
example 8
1 2 3 x
e x + e x + e x + ... + e x
Prove that lim = e − 1.
x →∞ x
Solution
1 2 3 x
e x + e x + e x + ... + e x
Let l = lim
x →∞ x
1 
 1 
x
e x 1 −  e x  
    1
= lim 
[Sum of GP]
1
⋅
x →∞ x
1− e x
1
e x (e − 1) 1
= lim 1 ⋅
x →∞ x
e −1
x
Putting 1
= y, when x → ∞, y → 0
x
(e − 1)e y y 0 
l = lim  0 form 
y→0 ey −1
•
1.4 Type 2: Form 1.21
•
(e − 1) ( ye y + e y )
y →0 ey
= e −1
example 9
xn
Prove that lim = 0.
x →∞ e kx
Solution
xn ∞ 
x →∞ e kx
nx n −1 ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form  [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x →∞ ke kx
n (n − 1) x n − 2 ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form  [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x →∞ k 2 e kx
Applying L’Hospital’s rule (n – 2) times in the above expression,
n (n − 1) (n − 2)...2 ⋅1
l = lim
x →∞ k n e kx
n!
= lim n kx
x →∞ k e
=0 [Q lim e kx = ∞]
x →∞
example 10
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + x 2 1
Prove that lim = .
x →∞ x3 3
Solution
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + x 2
Let l = lim
x →∞ x3
x ( x + 1) (2 x + 1)  n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 
= lim Q∑ n =
2

x →∞ 6 x3 6
2 x3 + 3x 2 + x
= lim
x →∞ 6 x3
3 1
2+ + 2
= lim x x
x →∞ 6
2
=
6
1
=
3
example 11
1
ex
Prove that lim = e2 .
x →∞ x
 1  x 
1 +  
 x 
Solution
ex È• ˘
Let l = lim x Í • form ˙
x Æ•
ÈÊ 1ˆ ˘
x Î ˚
ÍÁ 1 + ˜ ˙
ÍÎË x¯ ˙
˚
ex
= lim
x Æ• x2
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + x ˜¯
Taking logarithm on both sides,
È x2 ˘
Ê 1ˆ
log l = lim Í log e x - log Á 1 + ˜ ˙
x Æ• Í Ë x¯ ˙
Î ˚
È Ê 1ˆ˘
= lim Í x - x 2 log Á 1 + ˜ ˙
x Æ• Î Ë x¯˚
È1 Ê 1ˆ˘
= lim x 2 Í - log Á 1 + ˜ ˙
x Æ• Î x Ë x¯˚
1 Ê 1ˆ
- log Á 1 + ˜
x Ë x¯ È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ• 1 Î ˚
x2
1 1 Ê 1ˆ
- 2 - -
1 ÁË x 2 ˜¯
x 1+
x Æ• 2
- 3
x
1.5 Type 3 : 0 × ∞ Form 1.23
1
1−
1
1+
= lim x
x →∞ 2
x
1 1
= lim
2 x →∞ 1
1+
x
1
=
2
1
Hence, l = e2
exercIse 1.2
log x
cot x
x →0
log(1 − x)
x →1 cot π x
logsin x cos x
x →0 x
log x cos
sin
2
2
4. Prove that limlogsin x sin 2 x = 1.
x →0
log(1 + e 3 x )
x →∞ x
log x 2
6. Prove that lim = 0. [Hint: Put x 2 = y ]
x → 0 cot x 2
xm
7. Prove that lim x = 0 (m > 0) .
x →∞ e
2 3 n
 1  1  1  1
  +   +   + LL +  
8. Prove that lim e e e e = 0.
n →∞ n
1
9. Prove that limlog x sin 2 x = .
x →0 2
1.5 type 3 : 0 × ∞ Form

To solve the problems of the type
lim [ f ( x) ⋅ g ( x)], when lim f ( x) = 0, lim g ( x) = ∞ (i.e. 0 × ∞ form)
x→ a x→ a x→ a
f ( x) g ( x)
We write lim [ f ( x) ⋅ g ( x) ] = lim or lim ⋅
x→a x→a 1 x→a 1
g ( x) f ( x)
0 ∞
These new forms are of the type or respectively, which can be solved using
0 ∞
L’Hospital’s rule.
example 1
Prove that lim x log x = 0.
x→0
Solution
Let l = lim x log x [0 × ∞ form]
x→0
log x ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 1
x
1
l = lim x [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 1
− 2
x
= lim( − x)
x→0
=0
example 2
Prove that lim sin x log x = 0 .
x→0
Solution
Let l = lim sin x log x [0 × ∞ form]
x→0
log x ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 cosec x
1
x → 0 − cosec x cot x
tan x
= − lim sin x ⋅
x→0 x
tan x
= − lim sin x ⋅ lim
x→0 x→0 x  tan x 
Qlim = 1
=0
x→0 x 
1.5 Type 3 : 0 × ∞ Form 1.25
example 3
 a
Prove that lim 2 x ⋅ sin  x  = a.
x →∞ 2 
Solution
 a
Let l = lim 2 x ⋅ sin  x 
x →∞ 2 
1 1
Putting 2x = , t = x ,
t 2
When x → ∞, 2 x → ∞, t→0
sin at
l = lim
t →0 t
a sin at
= lim
t →0 at
 sin x 
= a ⋅1 Q lim = 1
x→0 x 
=a
example 4
 x
Evaluate lim log  2 −  cot( x − a ).
x→ a  a
Solution
 x
Let l = lim log  2 −  cot( x − a ) [0 × ∞ form]
x→a  a
Ê xˆ
log Á 2 - ˜
Ë a¯ È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ a tan( x - a ) Î ˚
1 Ê 1ˆ
-
Ê x ˆ ÁË a ˜¯
ÁË 2 -
a ˜¯
xÆa sec 2 ( x - a )
1
=-
a
example 5
 1x 
Prove that lim  a − 1 x = log a . [Winter 2013]
x →∞  
Solution
Let l = lim(a − 1) ⋅ x
x →∞
1
x [0 × ∞ form]
= lim
(a − 1)
1
x 0 
x →∞ 1  0 form 
x
1
Putting = t , when x → ∞, t → 0
x
at − 1 0 
l = lim  0 form 
t →0 t
a t log a [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
= lim
t →0 1
= log a
example 6
Ê p xˆ
Prove that lim tan 2 Á ˜ (1 + sec p x ) = - 2.
x Æ1 Ë 2 ¯
Solution
Ê pxˆ
Let l = lim tan 2 Á ˜ ( 1 + sec p x ) [• ¥ 0 form ]
x Æ1 Ë 2 ¯
1 + sec p x È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ1 Ê pxˆ Î ˚
cot 2 Á ˜
Ë 2 ¯
p sec p x tan p x
x Æ1 Ê pxˆ Ê pxˆ p
2 cot Á ˜ Á - cosec 2
Ë 2 ¯Ë 2 ˜¯ 2
Ê ˆÊ ˆ
Á sec p x ˜ Á tan p x ˜
= - Á lim ˜ Á lim
x Æ1 2 px x Æ1 px ˜
Á cosec ˜Á cot ˜
Ë 2 ¯Ë 2 ¯
Ê ˆ
Á sec p ˜ tan p x È0 ˘
= -Á ˜ lim Í 0 form ˙
p
Á cosec 2 ˜
x Æ1
cot
px Î ˚
Ë 2 ¯ 2
1.5 Type 3 : 0 × ∞ Form 1.27
π sec 2 π x
= −( −1) lim [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
2 π x π
x →1 
 −cosec 
22
sec 2 π
= −2
π
cosec 2
2
= −2
example 7
a+ x
Evaluate lim ⋅ tan −1 a 2 − x 2 .
x→ a a−x
Solution
a+ x
Let l = lim ◊ tan -1 a 2 - x 2 [• ¥ 0 form ]
xÆa a-x
a+ x a+ x
= lim ◊ tan -1 a 2 - x 2
xÆa a-x a+ x
-1
tan a2 - x2
= lim(a + x )
xÆa
a2 - x2
tan -1 a 2 - x 2
= lim(a + x ) ◊ lim
xÆa xÆa
a2 - x2
tan -1 a 2 - x 2
= 2 a lim
xÆa
a2 - x2
Let a2 − x2 = α
When x → a, α → 0
tan -1 a
\ l = 2 a ◊ lim
a Æ0 a
È tan -1 a ˘
= 2a ÍQ lim = 1˙
ÍÎ a Æ0 a ˙˚
example 8
a−x 1
Evaluate lim sin −1 cosec a 2 − x 2 = .
x→ a a+ x 2a
Solution
a−x
Let l = lim sin −1 cosec a 2 − x 2 [0 × ∞ form]
x→a a+ x
a−x
sin −1
= lim a+ x
x→ a
sin a − x 2
2
Here, applying L’Hospital’s rule will make the expression complicated, so we

rearrange the terms to apply the limits directly.
a−x
Let = α , a2 − x2 = β
a+ x
When x → a, α → 0 and β → 0
1
\ l = lim sin −1 α ⋅ lim
α →0 β → 0 sin β
  sin −1 α     β  1 
=  lim   ⋅ α  lim
β →0  ⋅ 
  α     sin β  β 
α →0
  sin −1 α  
Q αlim 
→0 
 = 1 
1  α 
= lim α ⋅ lim
α →0 β →0 β   sin β  
and lim  = 1
β →0  β  
 
a−x 1
= lim ⋅ [Resubstituting a and b ]
x→ a a + x a2 − x2
a−x 1
= lim ⋅
x→a a+ x a+ x a−x
1
= lim
x→a a + x
1
=
2a
example 9
m n
Evaluate lim x (log x) , where m and n are positive integers.
x →0
Solution
Let l = lim x m (log x) n [0 × • form]
x→0
(log x) n ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 1
xm
1.5 Type 3 : 0 × ∞ Form 1.29
1
n (log x) n −1
x→0 − m ( x) − m −1
( −1)1 n (log x) n −1 ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 m ( x) − m
1
( − 1)1 n (n − 1) (log x) n − 2 ⋅
x→0 m ( − m)1 ( x) − m −1
( −1) 2 n (n − 1) (log x) n − 2 ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 m 2 ( x) − m
Applying L’Hospital’s rule (n – 2) times in the above expression,
( −1) n n !(log x)0
l = lim
x→0 m n ( x) − m
( −1) n n ! m
= lim ⋅x
x→0 mn
=0
exercIse 1.3
1. Prove that lim x log x = 0.

x →0
2. Prove that lim x 2 e − x = 0.

x →∞
(
3. Prove that lim x 2 1 − e
x →∞
−
2 gy
x2 ) = 2gy.
4. Prove that limtan x log x = 0.
x →0
 πx 4
5. Prove that lim(x − 1)tan   = − .
2
x →1  2  π
πx
6. Prove that lim(1 + sec π x)tan = 0.
x →1 2
 πx
7. Prove that limlog(1 − x) cot   = 0.
x →1  2 
 1+ x 
8. Prove that limlog
x →0
 1 − x  cot x = 2.
2+x
9. Prove that lim tan−1 4 − x 2 = 4.
x →2 2−x
1.6 type 4 : ∞ − ∞ Form

To evaluate the limits of the type lim[ f ( x) − g ( x)] , when lim f ( x) = ∞ and,
x→a x→a
0 ∞
lim g ( x) = ∞ [i.e., (• – •) form], we reduce the expression in the form of or by
x→a 0 ∞
taking LCM or by rearranging the terms and then apply L’Hospital’s rule.
example 1
Prove that lim (cosh −1 x − log x) = log 2 .
x →∞
Solution
Let l = lim (cosh −1 x − log x) [∞ − ∞ form]
x →∞
( )
= lim log x + x 2 − 1 − log x 
x →∞  
 x + x2 − 1 
= lim log  
x →∞
 x 
 1
= lim log  1 + 1 − 2 
x→∞
 x 
= log 2
example 2
1 1 
Evaluate lim  − 2 log(1 + x)  .
x→0  x x 
Solution
1 1 
Let l = lim  − 2 log(1 + x)  [∞ − ∞ form]

x→0 x x 
 x − log(1 + x)  0 
= lim    0 form 
x→0
 x2
 1 
1− 0 
= lim  1 + x   0 form  [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0  
 2x 
1.6 Type 4 : ∞ − ∞ Form 1.31
 1  2 
= lim   1 + x   [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0  
 2 
1
=
2
example 3
Ê x 1 ˆ
Evaluate lim Á - . [Winter 2016]
x Æ1 Ë x - 1 log x ˜¯
Solution
Ê x 1 ˆ
Let l = lim Á - [• – • form]
x Æ1 Ë x - 1 log x ˜¯
È x log x - x + 1 ˘ È0 ˘
= lim Í ˙ Í 0 form ˙
x Æ1 Î log x ( x - 1) ˚ Î ˚
È ˘
Í 1 + log x - 1 ˙
= lim Í ˙ [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ1 x - 1
Í + log x ˙
ÍÎ x ˙˚
log x È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
x -1
x Æ1 Î ˚
+ log x
x
1
= lim x
x Æ1 1 1
+
x2 x
1
=
2
example 4
 1 1 
Evaluate lim  − .
x→ 2 x − 2
 log( x − 1) 
Solution
 1 1 
Let l = lim  − [∞ − ∞ form]
x→2 x − 2
 log( x − 1) 
log( x − 1) − ( x − 2) 0 
= lim  0 form 
( x − 2) log( x − 1)
x→ 2
1
−1
= lim x −1 [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→ 2 x − 2
+ log( x − 1)
x −1
1 − ( x − 1) 0 
= lim  0 form 
( x − 2) + ( x − 1) log( x − 1)
x→2
−1
x→2 1
1 + ( x − 1) ⋅ + log( x − 1)
( x − 1)
1
=−
2
example 5
a x
Prove that lim  − cot  = 0 .
x→0  x a
Solution
a x
Let l = lim  − cot  [∞ − ∞ form]
x→0  x a
x
Putting = y, when x → 0, y → 0
a
1 
l = lim  − cot y 
y→0  y 
1 1 
= lim  − [∞ − ∞ form]
y→0  y tan y 
 tan y − y  0 
= lim   0 form 
y → 0  y tan y  
 tan y − y  1
= lim  ⋅ lim
y→0  y 2  y → 0  tan y 
 y 
tan y − y 0   tan y 
= lim ⋅1  0 form  Q lim = 1
y→0 y2  y→0 y 
sec 2 y − 1 0 
= lim  0 form 
y→0 2y
1.6 Type 4 : ∞ − ∞ Form 1.33
2 sec y ⋅ sec y tan y

y→0 2
=0
example 6
Èp p ˘ p
Prove that lim Í - ˙= .
x Æ0 Î 4 x 2 x(e + 1) ˚ 4
p x
Solution
p È 1 1 ˘
Let l= lim Í - x ˙ [• - • form ]
2 x Æ0 Î 2 x x(e + 1) ˚
p
p ep x + 1 - 2 È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
2 x Æ0 2 x(ep x + 1) Î ˚
p p ep x
2 x Æ0 2 È(ep x + 1) + x(p ep x )˘
Î ˚
p2 e0
= ◊ 0
4 (e + 1)
p2
=
8
example 7
 1   1  1
Prove that lim  x +  log  x +  − log x  = .
x →∞  2   2  2
Solution
 1   1 
Let l = lim  x +  log  x +  − log x 
x →∞  2   2
[∞ − ∞ form ]

 1
 1 x+
= lim  x +  log  2
x →∞  2  
x 
  1 1  1 
= lim  x log  1 +  + log 1 +  
x →∞
  2x  2  2x  
2x
1  1 1  1
= lim log 1 +  + lim log 1 + 
x →∞ 2  2x  2 x →∞  2x 
1 1   1
ax

= log e + log1 Q lim  1 +  = e
x →∞  
2 2  ax 
1
=
2
example 8
Ê 1 1 ˆ
Evaluate lim Á 2 - 2 ˜ . [Winter 2014; Summer 2015]
x Æ0 Ë x sin x ¯
Solution
Ê 1 1 ˆ
Let l = lim Á 2 - 2 ˜ [• - • form ]
x Æ0 Ë x sin x¯
Ê sin 2 x - x 2 ˆ È0 ˘
= lim Á 2 2 ˜ Í 0 form ˙
x Æ 0 Ë x sin x ¯ Î ˚
Ê sin 2 x - x 2 ˆ È sin 2 x ˘
= lim Á ˜ ÍQ lim = 1˙
x Æ0 Ë x4 ¯ ÍÎ x Æ0 x
2
˙˚
Ê 2 sin x cos x - 2 x ˆ
= lim Á ˜¯ [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0 Ë 4 x3
Ê sin 2 x - 2 x ˆ
= lim Á ˜¯
x Æ0 Ë 4 x3
Ê 2 cos 2 x - 2 ˆ
= lim Á ˜¯ [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0 Ë 12 x 2
Ê - 4 sin 2 x ˆ
= lim Á [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0 Ë 24 x ˜¯
Ê -8 cos 2 x ˆ
= lim Á [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0 Ë 24 ˜¯
-8
=
24
1
=-
3
example 9
 1 2 
Evaluate lim  − cot x .
x→0  x 2
Solution
Ê 1 ˆ
Let l = lim Á 2 - cot 2 x ˜ [• - • form ]
x Æ0 Ë x ¯
1.6 Type 4 : ∞ − ∞ Form 1.35
Ê 1 1 ˆ
= lim Á 2 - ˜
x Æ0 Ë x tan 2 x ¯
tan 2 x - x 2 È0 ˘
= lim 2 2 Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 x tan x Î ˚
tan 2 x - x 2
= lim
x Æ0 tan 2 x
x4 ◊
x2
Ê tan 2 x - x 2 ˆ Ê x2 ˆ
= lim Á 4 ˜ ◊ lim Á 2 ˜
x Æ0 Ë x ¯ x Æ0 Ë tan x¯
Ê tan 2 x - x 2 ˆ È tan x ˘
= lim Á ˜ ◊1 ÍQ xlim = 1˙
x Æ0 Ë x4 ¯ Î Æ0 x ˚
tan 2 x - x 2 È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 x4 Î ˚
2 tan x ◊ sec 2 x - 2 x
x Æ0 4 x3
= lim
(
2 tan x 1 + tan 2 x - 2 x)
x Æ0 3
4x
1 tan x + tan 3 x - x
= lim
2 x Æ0 x3
1 Ê tan x - x ˆ 1 tan 3 x
= lim Á + lim
2 x Æ0 Ë x 3 ˜¯ 2 x Æ0 x 3
1 Ê tan x - x ˆ 1 È tan x ˘
= lim + ÍQ xlim = 1˙
2 x Æ0 ÁË x 3 ˜¯ 2 Î Æ 0 x ˚
1 1 Ê sec 2 x - 1ˆ È0 ˘
= + lim Á Í 0 form ˙ [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
2 2 x Æ0 Ë 3 x 2 ˜¯ Î ˚
1 1 2 sec 2 x ◊ tan x
= + lim [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
2 2 x Æ0 6x
1 1 tan x
= + lim sec 2 x ◊ lim
2 6 x Æ0 x Æ0 x
1 1
= +
2 6
2
=
3
example 10
 a cot x b  1
If lim  + 2  = , find a and b.
x→0  x x  3
Solution
1  a cot x b 
= lim  + 2
3 x→0  x x 
 a b
= lim  + 2
x → 0  x tan x x 
 ax + b tan x  0 
= lim  2   0 form 
x→0  x tan x 
(ax + b tan x)
= lim
x→0  tan x 
( x 2 ⋅ x) 
 x 
ax + b tan x  x 
= lim ⋅ lim  
x→0 x3 x → 0  tan x 
ax + b tan x 0   x 
= lim ⋅1  0 forrm  Q lim = 1
x→0 x3 x → 0 tan x

 a + b sec 2 x 
= lim   [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0  3x 2
a + b sec 0
=
0
a+b
=
0
a + b = 0, a = –b ... (1)
1 −b + b sec x 2
0 
Thus, = lim  0 form 
3 x→0 3x 2
b ⋅ 2 sec x sec x tan x
x→0 6x
 b   tan x 
=  lim sec 2 x  lim 
 x→0 3  x→0 x 
b  tan x 
= Q xlim = 1
3 →0 x 
b =1
From Eq. (1), a = –1
Hence, a = –1, b = 1
1.6 Type 4 : ∞ − ∞ Form 1.37
example 11
 f ′ ( x) 1 
Evaluate lim  − .
x→ a
 f ( x) − f (a) x − a 
Solution
 f ′ ( x) 1 
Let l = lim  −  [∞ − ∞ form]
x→a
 f ( x) − f (a) x − a 
( x − a) f ′ ( x) − [ f ( x) − f (a) ] 0 
= lim  0 form 
x→a [ f ( x) − f (a) ] ( x − a)
f ′ ( x) + ( x − a ) f ′′ ( x) − f ′ ( x) 0 
x→a [ f ( x) − f (a ) ] + ( x − a) f ′ ( x)
f ′′ ( x) + ( x − a ) f ′′′ ( x)
x→a f ′ ( x) + f ′ ( x) + ( x − a ) f ′′ ( x)
f ′′ (a )
=
2 f ′ (a)
exercIse 1.4
 1
1. Prove that lim  cot x −  = 0.
x →0  x
 1 
2. Prove that lim  − cot(x − a) = 0 .
x →a x − a
 
3. Prove that lim (sec x − tan x) = 0.

π
x→
2
 2 x sec x  2
4. Prove that lim  tan x −  = π .
π π
x→
2
 1 1  1
5. Prove that lim  −  =− .
x →0 x − a log(x + 1 − a)  2

 1 1  1
6. Prove that lim  − =− .
x →3 x − 3 log(x − 2)  2

  1 
7. Evaluate lim  x − x 2 log  1 +  
x →∞
  x
 1
Hint : Put x = y 
 
 1 
 Ans.: 2 
1 1  1
8. Prove that lim  − x  = .
x →0  x e − 1 2
1.7 type 5 : 1∞, ∞ 0, 0 0 Forms
To evaluate the limits of the type lim[ f ( x)]g ( x ) , which takes any one of the form
x →a
1•, •0, 00 for f (x) > 0, we proceed as follows:
Let l = lim [ f ( x)]g ( x ) where f (x) > 0
x →a
log l = lim [ g ( x) ⋅ log f ( x)]

x→a
which takes the form • × 0, i.e., type 3 form.
example 1
1
Prove that lim (a x + x) x = ae. [Summer 2014]

x→0
Solution
1
Let l = lim (a x + x ) x [1• form]
x Æ0
1
log l = lim ◊ log (a x + x ) [• × 0 form ]
x Æ0 x
log (a x + x ) È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 x Î ˚
1
x
(a x log a + 1)
= lim a + x [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0 1
a 0 log a + 1
=
a0 + 0
loge a + loge e
=
1
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.39
= log ae
Hence, l = ae
example 2
1
Prove that lim(e − 5 x) = e −2 .
3x x
x→0
Solution
1
Let l = lim(e3 x − 5 x) x [1• form]
x→0
1
log l = lim log(e3 x − 5 x)
x→0 x
log(e3 x − 5 x) 0 
= lim  0 form 
x→0 x
1
⋅ (3e3 x − 5)
(e 3 x − 5 x )
x→0 1
0
3e − 5
=
e0
= −2
Hence, l = e -2
example 3
1
1 − log x
Evaluate lim(log x) .
x→e
Solution
1
Let l = lim(log x)1− log x [1• form]
x→e
1 0 
log l = lim ⋅ log(log x)  0 form 
1 − log x
x→e
1 1
⋅
log x x
x→e 1
−
x
= −1
1
Hence, l = e −1 =
e
example 4
1
1
Ê a x + bx + c x ˆ 3x
Prove that lim Á ˜ = ( abc ) 9. [Summer 2015]
x Æ0 Ë 3 ¯
Solution
1
Ê a x + bx + c x ˆ 3x
Let l = lim Á ˜ [1• form]
x Æ0 Ë 3 ¯
1 Ê ax + bx + cx ˆ
log l = lim log Á ˜
x Æ0 3 x Ë 3 ¯
Ê ax + bx + cx ˆ
log Á ˜
Ë 3 ¯ È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 3xx Î ˚
Ê 3 ˆ (a x log a + b x log b + c x log c)
ÁË x x˜
◊
a +b +c ¯
x 3
= lim
x Æ0 3
Ê 1 ˆ (a 0 log a + b0 log b + c 0 log c)
=Á 0
Ë a + b0 + c 0 ˜¯ 3
1
= log abc
9
1
= log (abc) 9
1
Hence, l= (abc) 9
example 5
1
Ê1 + 2 +
x x
3 xˆx
Evaluate lim Á ˜ [Summer 2017]
x Æ 0Ë 3 ¯
Solution 1
Ê 1x + 2 x + 3 x ˆ x
Let l = lim Á ˜ [1• form]
xÆ0 Ë 3 ¯
1 Ê 1x + 2 x + 3 x ˆ
log l = lim log Á ˜
xÆ 0 x Ë 3 ¯
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.41
Ê 1x + 2 x + 3 x ˆ
log Á ˜
Ë 3 ¯ È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
xÆ0 x Î ˚
3 (1x log 1 + 2 x log 2 + 3 x log 3)
= lim ◊
xÆ 0 1x + 2 x + 3 x 3
1
= (log 2 + log 3)
3
1
= log(6)
3
1
= log(6) 3
1
Hence, l = (6) 3
example 6
x
 1x 1 1 1
 1
Prove that lim  a + b x
+ c x
+ d x
 = ( abcd ) 4 .
x →∞
 4 
Solution
x
 1 1 1 1

Let l = lim  a x + b x + c x + d x 
x →∞
 4 
1
Putting = y, when x Æ •, y Æ 0
x
1
Ê ay + by + cy + d y ˆ y
l = lim Á ˜ [1• form]
yÆ0 Ë 4 ¯
1  ay + by + cy + d y 
log l = lim log  
y→0 y  4
 ay + by + cy + d y 
log  
 4 0 
= lim  0 form 
y→0 y
  a log a + b log b + c log c + d log d 
y y y y
 4
= lim  y 
y→0  a + b y + c y + d y  
 4 

log a + log b + log c + log d

=
4
1
= log (abcd )
4
1
= log(abcd ) 4
1
Hence, l = (abcd ) 4
example 7
 ax + 1
x 2
Prove that lim   =e .
a
x →∞  ax − 1
Solution
x
 ax + 1
Let l = lim  
x →∞  ax − 1
 1
x
1+
 ax 
= lim  [1∞ form]
x →∞ 1
1− 
 ax 
 1 
 1 + ax 
log l = lim x log  
 1− 1 
x →∞
 ax 
ax   1   1 
= lim log 1 +  − log 1 −  
x →∞ a
  ax   ax  
− ax
1  1  1 
ax
= lim log 1 +  + log 1 −  

x →∞ a
  ax   ax  
1   1
ax

= (log e + log e)  x →∞ 
Q lim 1 +  = e
a   ax  
1
= (1 + 1)
a
2
=
a
2
a
Hence, l=e
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.43
example 8
1
1  a x x−a
Evaluate lim   +  .
  x
x→ a 2 a  
Solution
1
1  a x   x−a
Let l = lim   +  [1∞ form]
  x
x→ a 2 a  
1 È1 Ê a x ˆ˘
log l = lim log Í Á + ˙
xÆa x-a ÍÎ 2 Ë x a ˜¯ ˙˚
a+x
log
2 ax
= lim
xÆa x-a
log(a + x) − log 2 ax
= lim
x→a x−a
1
log(a + x) − log 2 a − log x
2 0 
= lim  0 form 
x→a x−a
1 1
−
= lim a + x 2 x [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→a 1
1 1
= -
2a 2a
=0
Hence, l = e0
=1
example 9
 3
 2
Prove that lim(cos 2 x) x  = e −6 .
x→0
Solution
 3
 2 
Let l = lim(cos 2 x) x [1• form]
x→0
3
log l = lim ◊ log(cos 2 x )
x Æ0 x2
3 log(cos 2 x ) È0 ˘
= lim 2 Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 x Î ˚
3 ( -2 sin 2 x )
= lim ◊ [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0cos 2 x 2x
Ê tan 2 x ˆ
= lim - 6 Á
x Æ0 Ë 2 x ˜¯
= -6
Hence, l = e -6
example 10
1
1
Ê tan x ˆ x 2
˜ =e .
Prove that lim Á 3
x Æ0 Ë x ¯
Solution
1
 tan x  x2  tan x 
Let l = lim   [1∞ form] Q lim = 1
x→0  x  x→0 x 
1  tan x 
log l = lim log 
x→0 x 2
 x 
 tan x 
log 
 x  0 
= lim  0 form 
x→0 x2
x  x sec 2 x − tan x  1
= lim  ⋅ [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x → 0 tan x
 x2  2x
x sec 2 x − tan x 0   x 
= lim  0 form  Q lim = 1
x→0 2 x3 x → 0 tan x

sec 2 x + x ⋅ 2 sec 2 x tan x − sec 2 x
= lim
x→0 6x2
2
sec x tan x
= lim ⋅ [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 3 x
1
=
3
1
Hence, l = e3
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.45
example 11
px
tan 2
Ê xˆ 2a
Prove that lim Á 2 - ˜ = e p .
xÆa Ë a¯
Solution
px
tan
Ê xˆ 2a
Let l = lim Á 2 - ˜ [1• form]
xÆa Ë a¯
Ê p xˆ Ê xˆ
log l = lim tan Á ˜ log Á 2 - ˜
xÆa Ë 2a ¯ Ë a¯
Ê xˆ
log Á 2 - ˜
Ë a¯ È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
xÆa Ê p xˆ Î ˚
cot Á ˜
Ë 2a ¯
1 Ê 1ˆ 1
= lim Á - ˜ [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
xÆa Ê xˆ Ë ¯
a Ê 2 p xˆ Ê p ˆ
ÁË 2 - - cosec
a ˜¯ ÁË 2 a ˜¯ ÁË 2 a ˜¯
2
=
p
2
Hence, l = ep
example 12
Evaluate lim(cos x )cot x . [Winter 2013]
x Æ0
Solution
Let l = lim(cos x )cot x [1• form]
x Æ0
log l = lim cot x ◊ log(cos x )
x Æ0
log(cos x ) È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 tan x Î ˚
1
( - sin x )
= lim cos x [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0 sec 2 x
=0
Hence, l = e0 = 1
example 13
2
Evaluate lim(cosec x) tan x .
π
x→
2
Solution
2
Let l = lim (cosec x )tan x
[1• form]
p
xÆ
2
log l = lim tan 2 x ◊ log(cosec x )

p
xÆ
2
log(cosec x ) È0 ˘
= lim Í 0 form
m˙
xÆ
p cot 2 x Î ˚
2
1
( -cosec x cot x )
cosec x
xÆ
p 2 cot x( -cosec 2 x )
2
sin 2 x
= lim
xÆ
p 2
2
1
=
2
1
Hence, l= e 2
example 14
1
1
Ê sin h x ˆ x 2
˜ =e .
Prove that lim Á 6
x Æ0 Ë x ¯
Solution
1
 sinh x  x2  sinh x 
Let l = lim  [1• form] Q lim = 1
x→0 
 x→0

x  x
1 Ê sinh x ˆ
log l = lim log Á
x Æ0 x2 Ë x ˜¯
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.47
Ê sinh x ˆ
log Á
Ë x ˜¯ È0 ˘
= lim 2 Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 x Î ˚
x Ê x cosh x - sinh x ˆ 1
= lim Á ˜¯ ◊ 2 x [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ 0 sinh x Ë x2
x cosh x - sinh x È0 ˘È x ˘
= lim 3 Í 0 form ˙ ÍQ xlim = 1˙
x Æ0 2x Î ˚Î Æ 0 sinh x ˚
x sinh x + cosh x - cosh x
x Æ0 6 x2
1 sinh x
= lim ◊
x Æ0 6 x
1 È sinh x ˘
= ÍQ xlim = 1˙
6 Î Æ 0 x ˚
1
Hence, l = e6
example 15
p
sec2
Ê p ˆ 2 - bx
Evaluate lim Á sin 2 ˜ .
x Æ0 Ë 2 - ax ¯
Solution
p
sec2
Ê p ˆ 2 - bx
Let l = lim Á sin 2 [1• form]
x Æ0 Ë 2 - ax ˜¯
p Ê p ˆ
log l = lim sec 2 ◊ log Á sin 2
x Æ0 2 - bx Ë 2 - ax ˜¯
Ê p ˆ
log Á sin 2
Ë 2 - ax ˜¯
= lim
x Æ0 p
cos2
2 - bx
1 Ê p ˆ Ê p ˆ È p ˘
◊ 2 sin Á ˜¯ ◊ cos ÁË ˜¯ ◊ Í - ( - a )˙
p Ë 2 - ax 2 - ax Î (2 - ax ) 2
˚
sin 2
= lim 2 - ax
x Æ0 Ê p ˆÈ Ê p ˆ˘È p ˘
- sin Á - ( - b)˙
Ë 2 - bx ˜¯ ˙˚ ÍÎ (2 - bx )2
2 cos Á
Ë 2 - bx ˜¯ ÍÎ ˚
[ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
Ê p ˆ
cot Á
Ë 2 - ax ˜¯ 2 a(2 - bx )2 È0 ˘
= lim ◊ lim Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 Ê 2p ˆ x Æ0 b(2 - ax )2 Î ˚
- sin Á
Ë 2 - bx ˜¯
Ê p ˆ È p ˘
-cosec 2 Á ˜ ◊ Í- ( - a )˙
2a Ë 2 - ax ¯ Î (2 - ax ) 2
˚
=- lim [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
b x Æ0 Ê 2p ˆ È 2p ˘
◊ - ( - b)˙
Ë 2 - bx ˜¯ ÍÎ (2 - bx )2
cos Á
˚
Ê pa ˆ
-
2a Á 4 ˜
=- ◊Á
b -2p b˜
Á ˜
Ë 4 ¯
a2
=-
b2
a2
−
b2
Hence, l = e
example 16
n2
Ê qˆ
Evaluate lim Á cos ˜ .
nÆ• Ë n¯
Solution
n2
Ê qˆ
Let l = lim Á cos ˜ [1• form]
n Æ• Ë n¯
Ê qˆ
log l = lim n2 log Á cos ˜
n Æ• Ë n¯
1
Putting = x,
n
when n Æ •, x Æ 0
log(cos q x ) È0 ˘
log l = lim 2 Í 0 form ˙
x Æ0 x Î ˚
1
( -q sin q x )
= lim cos q x [ Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ0 2x
q 1 q sin q x
= - lim ◊
2 x Æ0 cos q x qx
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.49
q2 È sin q x ˘
=- ÍQ xlim = 1˙
2 Î Æ0 q x ˚
q2
-
Hence, l=e 2
example 17
x2
Ê 1ˆ
Evaluate lim Á x sin ˜ .
x Æ• Ë x¯
Solution
x2
Ê 1ˆ
Let l = lim Á x sin ˜ [1• form]
x Æ• Ë x¯
 1
log l = lim x 2 log  x sin 
x →∞  x
 1
log  x sin 
 x
= lim
x →∞ 1
x2
1
Let = y,
x
when x → ∞, y → 0
1 
log  sin y
y  0 
log l = lim 2  0 form 
y→0 y
y  cos y sin y 
− 2 
sin y  y y 
y→0 2y
y cot y − 1
= lim
y→0 2 y2
y − tan y 0 
= lim  0 form 
y→0 2 y 2 tan y
1 − sec 2 y
y → 0 4 y tan y + 2 y 2 sec 2 y
− tan 2 y
= lim
y → 0 4 y tan y + 2 y 2 sec 2 y
tan 2 y
1 y2
= − lim
2 y → 0 2 tan y
+ sec 2 y
y
1 1  tan y 
=− ⋅ Q lim = 1
2 2 +1  y→0 y 
1
=−
6
example 18
Evaluate lim(cot x)sin x .
x →0
Solution
Let l = lim(cot x)sin x [∞ 0 form]

x→0
log l = lim sin x ⋅ log(cot x) [0 × ∞ form]

x→0
log(cot x) ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 cosec x
1
( −cosec 2 x)
= lim cot x [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
cosec x
= lim
x→0 cot 2 x
1 sin 2 x
= lim ⋅
x → 0 sin x cos 2 x
sin x
= lim
x → 0 cos 2 x
=0
Hence, l = e0 = 1
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.51
example 19
tan x
Ê 1ˆ
Evaluate: lim Á ˜ . [Summer 2016]
x Æ0 Ë x ¯
Solution
tan x
Ê 1ˆ
Let l = lim Á ˜
xÆ0 Ë x¯
[•∞ form ]
Ê 1ˆ
log l = lim tan x log Á ˜
xÆ0 Ë x¯
log x È• ˘
= lim - Í • form ˙
xÆ0 cot x Î ˚
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË - x ˜¯
= lim [Applying L’Hospital’s rule ]
xÆ0 - cosec 2 x
1
= lim x
xÆ0 1
sin 2 x
sin 2 x
= lim
xÆ0 x
sin 2 x
= lim ◊x
xÆ0 x2
2
Ê sin x ˆ
= lim Á
xÆ0 Ë x ¯
˜ ◊ xlim
Æ0
x
= 1.0
=0
Hence, l = e0 = 1
example 20
1− cos x
 1
Prove that lim   = 1.
x→0  x 
Solution
1− cos x
 1
Let l = lim   [∞ 0 form]
x→0  x 
 1
log l = lim(1 − cos x) log  
x→0  x
 x
= lim  2 sin 2  ( − log x)
x→0  2
2 2
 x  x
2  sin   
 2  2
= lim 2
( − log x)
x→0
 x
 
2
  x 
 sin
= lim
x 2 ( − log x)  2 = 1

x→0
Q lim
x→0   
2  x 
 
 2 
1 ( − log x) ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 2  1
 2 
x
 1
−
1  
= lim  x  [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
2 x→0 2
− 3
 x 
1  x2 
= lim  
2 x→0  2 
=0
Hence, l = e0 = 1
example 21
sinh −1 x
−1
Prove that lim e cosh x
= e.
x →∞
Solution
sinh −1 x
−1
Let l = lim e cosh x
x →∞
= lim e
x →∞
( )
sinh −1 x cosh −1 x
[∞ 0 form]
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.53
sinh −1 x
log l = lim ⋅ log e
x →∞ cosh −1 x
log ( x + x 2 + 1) ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x →∞
log ( x + x − 1)) 2
1   1
1 +
⋅ 2 x

x + x +1 2
2 x +1 2
= lim [Appplying L’Hospital’s rule]
x →∞
1  1 
1 + ⋅ 2 x

x + x −1
2
2 x −1
2
x2 − 1
= lim
x →∞
x2 + 1
1
1− 2
= lim x
x →∞ 1
1+ 2
x
=1
Hence, l = e1 = e
example 22
ex
Prove that lim = 1.
x→0 x
 1  x 
1 +  
 x 
Solution
x
 1  x 
Let l = lim 1 +  
x→0  x  

x2
 1
= lim 1 +  [∞ 0 form]
x→0  x
 1
log l = lim x 2 log 1 + 
x→0  x
 1
log 1 + 
 x ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 1
x2
1  1
−
1  x 2 
1+
x→0 2
− 3
x
x
= lim
x→0  1
2 1 + 
 x
x2
= lim
x → 0 2 ( x + 1)
=0
\ l = e0
=1
ex e0
Hence, lim = =1
x Æ0 x 1
ÈÊ 1ˆ ˘
x
ÍÁ 1 + ˜ ˙
ÍÎË x¯ ˙
˚
example 23
1
Ê 1ˆ x
Prove that lim Á ˜ = 1 .
x Æ• Ë x ¯
Solution
1
 1 x [00 form]
Let l = lim  
x →∞  x 
1  1
log l = lim log  
x →∞ x  x
− log x ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x →∞ x
1
= − lim x [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x →∞ 1
=0
Hence, l = e0 = 1
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.55
example 24
1
2 log(1- x )
Prove that lim(1 - x ) = e. [Winter 2013]
x Æ1
Solution 1
2 log(1- x )
Let l = lim(1 - x ) [00 form]
x Æ1
1 È• ˘
log l = lim log (1 - x 2 ) Í • form ˙
x Æ1 log(1 - x ) Î ˚
2x
-
(1 - x 2 )
x Æ1 1
( -1)
(1 - x )
2 x(1 − x)
= lim
x →1(1 − x)(1 + x)
2x
= lim
x →1 1 + x
=1
Hence, l=e
example 25
p
-x
Evaluate lim (cos x ) 2 . [Summer 2016]
p
xÆ
2
Solution
p
-x
Let l = lim (cos x ) 2 [0∞ form]
p
xÆ
2
Êp ˆ
log l = lim Á - x ˜ log cos x [0 ¥ • form]
p Ë 2 ¯
xÆ
2
log cos x È• ˘
= lim Í • form ˙
xÆ
p 1 Î ˚
2
Êp ˆ
ÁË 2 - x ˜¯
sin x
-
= lim cos x
p
xÆ -
1
2 2
(-1)
Êp ˆ
ÁË 2 - x ˜¯
- tan x
= lim
xÆ
p 1
2 2
Êp ˆ
ÁË 2 - x ˜¯
2
Êp ˆ
= lim - Á - x ˜ tan x
xÆ
p Ë 2 ¯
2
2
Êp ˆ
ÁË 2 - x ˜¯
= lim -
xÆ
p cot x
2
Êp ˆ
-2 Á - x ˜ (-1)
Ë2 ¯
= lim
xÆ
p -cosec 2 x
2
Êp ˆ
= lim 2 Á - x˜ sin 2 x
p Ë 2 ¯
xÆ
2
=0
Hence, l = e0 = 1
example 26
1 − xx
Evaluate lim .
x→0 x log x
Solution
1 − xx
Let l = lim
x→0 x log x
1 − e x log x 0 
= lim  0 form 
x → 0 x log x
 1 
−e x log x  x ⋅ + log x
 x 
x→0 1
x ⋅ + log x
x
= lim ( −e x log x
)
x→0
= lim( − x x )
x→0
= − lim x x
x→0
Let L = lim x x 00 form 

x→0
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.57
log L = lim log( x x )

x→0
= lim x log x
x→0
log x ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 1
x
1
x→0 1
− 2
x
= lim( − x)
x→0
=0
L = e0 = 1
Hence, l = −1
example 27
1 − x sin x
Prove that lim = −1 .
x → 0 x log x
Solution
Let l1 = lim x sin x [00 form]
x→0
log l1 = lim sin x ⋅ log x

x→0
log x ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 cosec x
1
 sin 2 x 
= lim  − 
x→0 
x cos x 
2
 sin x  x
= − lim   ⋅
x→0  x  cos x
 sin x 
=0 Q lxi→m0 x = 1
log l1 = 0
l1 = e0 = 1
∴ lim x sin x = 1 ...(1)
x→0
Let l2 = lim x log x [0 × ∞ form]

x→0
log x ∞ 
= lim  ∞ form 
x→0 1
x
1
= lim x [Applying L’Hospital’ss rule]
x→0 1
− 2
x
= lim( − x)
x→0
=0 ...(2)
1 − x sin x 0 
Let l = lim
x → 0 x log x  0 form  [Using Eqs (1) and (2)]
1 - esin x log x 0 
= lim  0 form 
x Æ0 x log x
Ê sin x ˆ
- esin x log x Á + cos x ◊ log x ˜
1 - x sin x Ë x ¯
lim = lim [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x Æ 0 x log x x Æ0 1 + log x
 sin x  1 
− x sin x   ⋅ + cos x 
  x log x 
= lim ...(3)
x→0 1
+1
log x
[Dividing numerator and denominator by log x]
 1 
1 + cos 0
 −∞   sin x 
=−  Using Eq. (1) and lim = 1
1  x →0 x 
+1
−∞
= −1
exercIse 1.5
1
 a x + a2x + ... + anx  x 1
1. Prove that lim  1  = (a a
1 2 ...a ) n
.
x →0  
n
n
4x
 x1 1 1 1

1 + 2 x
+ 3 x
+ 4 x
2. Prove that lim   = 24 .
x →∞  4 
 
1.7 Type 5: 1•, •0, 00 Forms 1.59
1 1
3. Prove that lim(1 + sin x) 2 x = e 2 .
x →0
1
1
4. Prove that lim(x)1− x = .
x →1 e
2  1 
5. Prove that lim(sin x)tan x
= .
x→
π  e 
2
1
1
 sin x  x 2 −
6. Prove that lim   = e 6.
x →0  x 
x
 a
7. Prove that lim  1 +  = e .
a
x →∞  x
x
 x + 1
 =e.
2
8. Prove that lim 
x →∞  x − 1
x
 2 x + 1
9. Prove that lim   = e.
x →∞  2 x − 1
10. Prove that lim(1 + sin x)cosec x = e.

x →0
11. Prove that lim(1 + sin x)cot x = e.

x →0
12. Prove that lim(1 + tan x)cot x = e.

x →0
1
1
13. Prove that lim(1 − tan x) x = .
x →0 e
1
2 1
14. Prove that lim(cos x) x = .
x →0
e
1
 sin x  x
15. Prove that lim  x  = 0 .
x →0 
a2
−
cosec2 bx 2 b2
16. Prove that lim(cos ax) =e .
x →0
2 1
17. Prove that lim(cos x)cot x
= .
x →0
e
18. Prove that lim(cosec x)sin x = 1.
x →0
x
 2
19. Prove that lim  1 +  = e .
2
x →∞  x
cot( x − a )
 x −
1
20. Prove that lim  2 −  = e a.
x →a  a
21. Prove that lim(tan x)cos 2 x = 1 .
π
x→
4
22. Prove that lim(sec x)cot x = 1 .

π
x→
2
2 sin x
 1
23. Prove that lim   = 1.
x →0  x 
24. Prove that lim(sin x)tan x = 1.

x →0
1
25. Prove that lim(1 − x n )log(1− x ) = e .

x →1
 πx
tan  
 2 
26. Prove that lim x = e.
x →0
1
27. Prove that lim(e 3 x − 5x) x = e −2.
x →0
 3
 2 
28. Prove that lim(cos 2 x) x = e −6.
x →0
2
29. Prove that lim(cos x)cos x
= 1.
π
x→
2
points to remember
L’Hospital’s Rule
f ( x) f ¢( x )
If lim f (x) = 0, lim g (x) = 0, then lim = lim
xÆa xÆa xÆa g( x ) x Æ a g ¢( x )
multiple choice Questions

Select the most appropriate response out of the various alternatives given in each
of the following questions:
log x
1. The value of lim , n > 0 is
x Æ• xn
(a) • (b) –• (c) 1 (d) 0
tan x
2. The value of lim is
x Æ0 x
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) p (d) •
(1 - a )e x
3. If lim exists and is finite then it is equal to
x Æ0 x
1
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) –1 (d)
2
px + sin x
4. The integer p for which lim is finite is
x Æ0 x2
(a) 0 (b) –1 (c) 1 (d) 2
5. The value of lim(cosh -1 x - log x ) is
x Æ0
(a) log 1 (b) log 2 (c) log 3 (d) 0
2 -x
6. The value of lim x e is
x Æ•
1
(a) 1 (b) e (c) e2 (d) 0
cos x
7. The value of lim (cos x ) is
p
xÆ
2
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) 2
8. The value of lim log tan x tan 2 x is
x Æ0
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) 2

x
9. The value of lim(1 - x ) is
x Æ0
1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d)
2
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + x
x Æ• x2
1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d)
2
1
Ê 1ˆ x
11. The value of lim Á ˜ is
x Æ• Ë x ¯
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3

12. The value of lim sin x log x is
x Æ0
(a) –1 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) 5
cot x
13. The value of lim(cos x ) is [Summer 2016]
x Æ0
(a) 0 (b) –1 (c) 1 (d) 2
1
14. The value of lim(e3 x - 5 x ) x is
x Æ0
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) e–2 (d) e2
sin 2 x + p sin x
15. If lim is finite then value of p is
x Æ0 x3
(a) –2 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) 2
tan x
16. The value of lim is [Winter 2013]
x Æ0 x
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) p (d) •
x
x Æ0 x
(a) 0 (b) ±1 (c) p (d) •
x2 - x - 2
x Æ0 x2 - 4
3 3
(a) 4 (b) (c) 0 (d) –
4 4
19. The value of lim x x is [Winter 2015]

x Æ0
1
(a) 1 (b) –1 (c) e (d)
e
1 - n2
20. The value of lim is [Summer 2014]
n Æ• Sn
(a) –2 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 0

1
21. The value of lim x x is [Summer 2015]
x Æ•
(a) • (b) – • (c) 1 (d) 0

n
Ê 1ˆ
22. The value of lim Á 1 + ˜ is [Winter 2015]
n Æ• Ë n¯
1
(a) 1 (b) –1 (c) e (d)
e
sin x
x Æ• x
(a) 1 (b) –1 (c) 0 (d) none of these
sin( x - 6)
x Æ6 x-6
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) 0.5
sin 2 x
x Æ0 x
1
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d)
2
cos x
xÆ
p p
2 x-
2
p
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d)
2
answers
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a)
10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (b)
19. (a) 20. (a) 21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (a) 26. (c)
CHAPTER
Improper
2
Integrals
chapter outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Improper integrals
2.3 Improper Integrals of the First Kind
2.4 Improper Integrals of the Second Kind
2.5 Improper Integral of the Third Kind
2.6 Convergence and Divergence of Improper Integrals
2.1 IntroductIon
b
The definition of a definite integral Ú f ( x) dx requires the interval [a, b] be finite. The
a
fundamental theorem of calculus requires that f (x) be continuous on [a, b] or at least
bounded. In this chapter, we will study a method of evaluating integrals that fail these
requirements either because their limits of integration are infinite, or because a finite
number of discontinuities exist on the interval [a, b]. Integrals that fail either of these
requirements are known as improper integrals. Improper integrals cannot be computed
using a normal Riemann integral.
2.2 Improper Integrals

b
The integral Ú f ( x) dx is called an improper integral if
a
(i) one or both limits of integration are infinite
(ii) function f (x) becomes infinite at a point within or at the end points of the
interval of integration.
Improper integrals are classified into three kinds.
2.2 Chapter 2 Improper Integrals
2.3 Improper Integrals of the fIrst KInd
It is a definite
•
integral in which one or both limits of integration are infinite, for
-x
example, Úe dx is an improper integral of the first kind since the upper limit of
0
integration is infinite. These integrals are evaluated as follows:
(i) If f (x) is continuous on [ a, •) then
• b
Ú f ( x ) dx = lim Ú f ( x ) dx
b Æ•
… (1)
a a
(ii) If f (x) is continuous on ( -•, b] then

b b
Ú f ( x ) dx = lim
a Æ-•
Ú f ( x) dx … (2)
-• a
(iii) If f (x) is continuous on ( -•, •) then

• b
Ú f ( x ) dx = lim
a Æ-•
Ú f ( x) dx
-• b Æ• a
0 b
= lim
a Æ-•
Ú f ( x ) dx + lim Ú f ( x ) dx
b Æ•
… (3)
a 0
The improper integral is said to converge (or exist) when the limit in RHS of (1), (2)
and (3) exist (or finite). Otherwise, it is said to diverge.
example 1
•
1
Evaluate Ú dx .
1 x
Solution
• b
1 1
Ú x
dx = lim Ú
b Æ• x
dx
1 1
b
= lim 2 x
b Æ• 1
= lim (2 b - 2)
b Æ•
=•
example 2
•
1
Evaluate Ú dx .
1 x2
Solution
∞ b
1 1
∫
1
x 2
dx = lim ∫ 2 dx
b →∞
1
x
b
1
= lim −
b →∞ x1
 1 
= lim  − + 1
b →∞  b 
=1
example 3
•
dx
Evaluate Ú . [Winter 2014]
0 x2 + 1
Solution
• b
dx dx
Ú x2 + 1 = lim Ú
b Æ• x2 + 1
0 0
b
= lim tan -1 x
b Æ• 0
= lim ÈÎ tan (b) - tann -1 0 ˘˚

-1
b Æ•
= lim tan -1 (b)

b Æ•
= tan -1 (•)
p
=
2
example 4
0
Evaluate Ú x sin x dx .
-•
Solution
0 0
Ú x sin x dx = lim
a Æ-•
Ú x sin x dx
-• a
0
= lim - x cos x + sin x a
a Æ-•
= lim (a cos a - sin a )

a Æ-•
= -• [Q sin a and cos a oscillate between ± 1]

example 5
0
∫e
2x
Evaluate dx.
−∞
Solution
0 0
Úe Úe
2x 2x
dx = lim dx
a Æ-•
-• a
0
e2 x
= lim
a Æ-• 2
a
Ê1 1 ˆ
= lim Á - e2 a ˜
a Æ-• Ë 2 2 ¯
1
= -0
2
1
=
2
example 6
•
1
Evaluate Ú dx .
-• 1 + x2
Solution
• 0 b
1 1 1
Ú 2
dx = lim Ú
a Æ-• 1 + x 2
dx + lim Ú
x2
dx
-• 1 + 0 1+
x b Æ•
a
0 b
= lim tan -1 x + lim tan -1 x
a Æ-• a b Æ• 0
-1 -1
= lim (0 - tan a ) + lim (tan b - 0)
a Æ-• b Æ•
p p
= +
2 2
=p
example 7
•
Evaluate Ú e x dx .
-•
Solution
• 0 b
Ú e x dx = lim Ú e dx + lim Ú e dx
x x
a Æ-• b Æ•
-• a 0
0 b
= lim e x + lim e x
a Æ-• a b Æ• 0
= lim (1 - e ) + lim (eb - 1)

a
a Æ-• b Æ•
b
= (1 - 0) + lim (e - 1)
b Æ•
=•
example 8
•
1
Evaluate Ú dx .
-• e + e- x
x
Solution
∞ ∞
1 ex
∫ e x + e− x
−∞
d x = ∫ e2 x + 1 dx
−∞
0 b
ex ex
a →− ∞ ∫ e 2 x + 1 b →∞ ∫ e 2 x + 1
= lim dx + lim dx
a 0
Putting u = e x , du = e x dx ,
ex du -1
Ú e2 x + 1 dx = Ú u2 + 1 = tan u = tan -1 e x
•
1 0 b
Ú x -x
dx = lim tann -1 e x + lim tan -1 e x
-• e +e a Æ-• a b Æ• 0
Êp ˆ Ê pˆ
= lim Á - tan -1 e a ˜ + lim Á tan -1 eb - ˜
a Æ-• Ë 4 ¯ bÆ• Ë 4¯
Êp ˆ Êp pˆ
= Á - 0˜ + Á - ˜
Ë4 ¯ Ë 2 4¯
p
=
2
example 9
•
x
Evaluate Ú 2 2
dx .
-• (1 + x )
Solution
• 0 b
x x x
Ú 2 2
dx = lim Ú (1 + x 2 )2 dx + lim Ú 2 2
dx
-• (1 + x ) 0 (1 + x )
a Æ-• b Æ•
a
0 b
2 -2 2x 2x
= lim Ú (1 + x ) dx + lim Ú (1 + x 2 )-2 dx
a Æ-• 2 b Æ• 2
a 0
0 b
1 1
= lim - + lim -
a Æ-• 2(1 + x 2 ) a b Æ• 2(1 + x 2 ) 0
È n [ f ( x)]n +1 ˘˙
ÍQ Ú ÈÎ f ( x )˘˚ f ¢( x ) dx =
Î n +1 ˚
È 1 1 ˘ È 1 1˘
= lim Í - + 2 ˙ + lim Í - 2
+ ˙
a Æ-•
Î 2 2(1 + a ) ˚ bÆ• Î 2(1 + b ) 2 ˚
1 1
=- +
2 2
=0
example 10
•
dv
Evaluate Ú 2 -1
. [Winter 2016]
0 (1 + v )(1 + tan v)
Solution
1
• b
dv 1 + v 2 dv
Ú (1 + v2 )(1 + tan -1 v) = blim Ú
Æ• 1 + tan -1 v
0 0
b È f ¢( v ) ˘
= lim log (1 + tan -1 v) ÍQ Ú dv = log | f (v) |˙
b Æ• 0 Î f (v) ˚
= lim È log 1 + tan -1 b - log 1˘
b Æ• Î ˚
= log(1 + tan -1 •) - 0
Ê pˆ
= log Á 1 + ˜
Ë 2¯
example 11
•
x+3
Evaluate Ú 2
dx .
2 ( x - 1)( x + 1)
Solution
• b
x+3 È 2 ( -2 x - 1) ˘
Ú ( x - 1)( x 2 + 1) dx = blim Ú Í
Æ• Î x - 1
+ 2 ˙ dx [ Using partial fraction expansion ]
2 2 x +1 ˚
Èb 2 b
2x
b
1 ˘
= lim Í Ú dx - Ú 2 dx - Ú 2 dx ˙
b Æ• Í x - 1
Î2 2 x +1 2 x +1 ˙˚
È b˘
= lim Í 2 log( x - 1) - log( x 2 + 1) - tan -1 x ˙
b Æ• Î 2˚
È f ¢( x ) ˘
ÍQ Ú dx = log f ( x ) ˙
Î f ( x) ˚
È b˘
Í ( x - 1)2
= lim log 2 - tan x ˙
-1
b Æ• Í x +1 ˙
Î 2˚
È (b - 1)2 1 ˘
= lim Í log 2 - tan -1 b - log + tan -1 2 ˙
b Æ• Í
Î b +1 5 ˚˙
È Ê 1ˆ
2 ˘
Í ÁË 1 - b ˜¯ ˙
= lim Í log - tan -1 b + log 5 + tan -1 2 ˙
b Æ• Í 1 ˙
Í 1+ 2 ˙
ÍÎ b
˚˙
= log 1 - tan -1 • + log 5 + tan -1 2
p
= 0- + log 5 + tan -1 2
2
p
=- + log 5 + tan -1 2
2
example 12
•
1
Prove that p-integral Ú dx converges when p > 1 and diverges when
p £ 1. 1 xp
Solution
• b
1 1
Ú xp dx = lim Ú
b Æ• xp
dx
1 1
b
x - p +1
= lim , p π1
b Æ• - p + 1
1
È b - ( p -1) - 1 ˘
= - lim Í ˙, p π 1
Î p - 1 ˙˚
b Æ• Í
Case (I) When p > 1

È 1 ˘
•
1 Í b p -1 - 1 ˙
Ú xp
dx = - lim Í
b Æ• Í p - 1 ˙
˙
1
ÍÎ ˙˚
È1 ˘
Í • - 1˙
= -Í ˙
Í p -1 ˙
ÍÎ ˚˙
1
= [finite]
p -1
Case (II) When p < 1
•
1 È b1- p - 1 ˘
Ú xp
d x = - lim Í
b Æ• Í p - 1 ˙
˙
1 Î ˚
È • - 1˘
= -Í ˙
Î p -1˚
= -•
Case (III) When p = 1
•
1 •
Ú x dx = log x 1 = •
1
•
1
Hence, p integral Ú xp dx converges when p > 1 and diverges when p £ 1.
1
exercIse 2.1
Evaluate the following improper integrals:
∞
1
1. ∫ x dx
1
[ans.: •]
∞
1  π
2. ∫0 1 + x 2 dx  Ans.: 2 
 
2
−1  1
3. ∫ dx  Ans.: − 2 
−∞
x 5
 
∞
1  1 
4. ∫ x log
2
2
x
 Ans.: log 2 
 
∞
 1
∫e
−x
5. sin xdx  Ans.: 2 
0  
∞
∫x e
2 −x
6. dx [ans.: 2]
0
∫ | x |e
− x2
7. dx [ans.: 1]
−∞
∞
1  π
8. ∫x 1 x −12
dx  Ans.: 2 
 
∞
1  π
9.
−∞
x∫2
+ 2 x +5
dx  Ans.: 2 
 
∞
e− x
 2
10. ∫1 x
dx  Ans.: e 
 
2.4 Improper Integrals of the second KInd

It is a definite integral in which integrand become infinite (or unbounded or
discontinuous) at one or more points within or at the end points of the interval of
integration, for example,
1
1 1
(i) Ú x dx is an improper integral of the second kind as
x
is not continuous at x = 0.
0
2
1 1
(ii) Ú x -1 2
dx is an improper integral of the second kind because 2
x -1
is not
-2
continuous at x = –1 and x = 1.
These integrals are evaluated as follows:
(i) If f (x) is unbounded at x = a then
b b
Ú f ( x)dx = clim
Æa
Ú f ( x)dx … (1)
a c
(ii) If f (x) is unbounded at x = b then

b c
Ú f ( x )dx = lim Ú f ( x )dx

cÆb
… (2)
a a
(iii) If f (x) is unbounded at x = a and x = b then

b 0 c2
Ú f ( x) dx = clim
1 Æa
Ú f ( x)dx + clim
2 Æb
Ú f ( x )dx … (3)
a c1 0
The improper integral is said to converge (or exist) when the limit in RHS of (1), (2)
and (3) exist (or finite). Otherwise, it is said to diverge.
example 1
3
1
Evaluate Ú dx . [Summer 2014, 2017]
0 3- x
Solution
1
The integrand is unbounded at x = 3.
3- x
3 c
1 1
Ú 3- x
dx = lim Ú
c Æ3 3- x
dx
0 0
c
= lim -2 3 - x
c Æ3 0
= lim( -2 3 - c + 2 3 )
c Æ3
=2 3
example 2
5
1
Check the convergence of Ú x 2 dx. [Summer 2016]
0
Solution
1
x2
5 5
1 1
Ú x 2 dx = clim Ú dx
Æ0 x 2
0 c
5
1
= lim -
cÆ0 x c
È 1 Ê 1ˆ ˘
= lim Í- - Á - ˜ ˙
cÆ0 Î 5 Ë c ¯ ˚
=•
Hence, the integrand is divergent.
example 3
1 dx
Check the convergence of Ú0 1 - x . If convergent, then evaluate the
same. [Winter 2016]
Solution
1
1- x
1 dx c 1
Ú0 1 - x = clim Ú
Æ1 0 1 - x
dx
c
= lim - log(1 - x ) 0
c Æ1
= lim [ - log(1 - c) + log1]

c Æ1
= –log (1 – 1)
=•
Hence, the integrand is divergent.
example 4
3
dx
Check the convergence of Ú 2
. [Summer 2015]
0 9- x
Solution
1
9 - x2
3 c
dx dx
Ú 2
= lim Ú
c Æ3
0 9- x 0 9 - x2
c
Ê xˆ
= lim sin -1 Á ˜
c Æ3 Ë 3¯ 0
È Ê cˆ ˘
= lim Ísin -1 Á ˜ - sin -1 0 ˙
c Æ3 Î Ë 3¯ ˚
= sin -1 (1) - 0
p
= [finite]
2
Hence, the integrand is convergent.
example 5
p
2
Evaluate Ú sec xdx .
0
Solution
p
The integrand sec x is not continuous at x = .
2
p
2 c
Ú sec x dx = clim
Æ
p Ú
sec x dx
0 0
2
c
= lim log sec x + tan x
p 0
cÆ
2
= lim log sec c + tan c
p
cÆ
2
p p
= log sec - tan
2 2
=•
example 6
3
dx
Evaluate Ú 2
. [Summer 2015]
0
(x - 1) 3
Solution
1
The integrand 2
is unbounded at x = 1.
(x - 1) 3
3 c1 3
dx dx dx
Ú 2
= lim
c1 Æ1
Ú 2
+ lim
c2 Æ1
Ú 2
0 0
- 1) 3 - 1) 3 ( x - 1) 3
c2
(x (x
c1 3
1 1
(x - 1) 3 (x - 1) 3
= lim + lim
c1 Æ1 1 c2 Æ1 1
3 0 3 c2
È 1 1˘
È 1 1˘
= lim 3 Í(c1 - 1) 3 - ( -1) 3 ˙ +
lim 3 Í(3 - 1) - (c2 - 1) 3 ˙
3
c1 Æ1 Í ˙ c2 Æ1 Í ˙˚
Î ˚ Î
È 1˘ È 1 ˘
= 3 Í0 - ( -1) 3 ˙ + 3 Í 2 3 - 0 ˙
ÎÍ ˙˚ ÍÎ ˚˙
È 1 ˘
= 3 Í2 3 + 1˙
ÍÎ ˙˚
example 7
1
1
Evaluate Ú 2
dx .
-1
x3
Solution
1
The integrand 2 is unbounded at x = 0.
x3
1 c1 1
1 1 1
Ú 2
dx = lim
c1 Æ 0
Ú 2
dx + lim
c2 Æ 0
Ú 2
dx
-1 3 -1 3 c2
x x x3
c 1
1 1 1
= lim 3x 3 + lim 3x 3
c1 Æ 0 c2 Æ 0
-1 c2
È 1 1˘ È 1˘
= lim Í3c13 - 3( -1) 3 ˙ + lim Í3 - 3c23 ˙
c1 Æ 0 Í ˙˚ c2 Æ0 ÍÎ ˙˚
Î
1
= [0 - 3( -1) 3 ] + [3 - 0]
=6
example 8
5
1
Evaluate ∫ ( x − 2)
0
2
dx .
Solution
1
( x − 2) 2
5 c1 5
1 1 1
Ú ( x - 2 )2 dx = lim
c1 Æ 2
Ú ( x - 2 )2 dx + lim
c2 Æ 2
Ú ( x - 2 ) 2 dx
0 0 c2
c 5
1 1 1
= lim - + lim -
c1 Æ 2 x-2 0 c2 Æ 2 x-2 c2
Ê 1 1ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ
= lim Á - - ˜ + lim Á - +
c1 Æ 2 Ë c1 - 2 2 ¯ c2 Æ2 Ë 3 c2 - 2 ˜¯
= -• + •, indeterminate form
Hence, no conclusion can be made about the value of the integral.
example 9
a
1
Evaluate ∫
−a a − x2
2
dx .
Solution
1
The integrand is unbounded at x = ± a .
a - x2
2
a 0 c2
1 1 1
Ú dx = lim
c1 Æ- a
Ú dx + lim
c2 Æ a
Ú dx
-a a2 - x2 c1 a2 - x2 0 a2 - x2
0 c2
= lim sin -1 + lim sin -1
x x
c1 Æ- a a c2 Æ a a
c1 0
È c ˘ È c ˘
= lim Ísin -1 0 - sin -1 1 ˙ + lim Ísin -1 2 - sin -1 0 ˙
c1 Æ- a Î a ˚ c2 Æ a Î a ˚
Ê aˆ Ê aˆ
= - sin -1 Á - ˜ + sin -1 Á ˜
Ë a¯ Ë a¯
= sin -1 1 + sin -1 1
= 2 sin -1 1
p
= 2◊
2
=p
example 10
π
2
sin x
Evaluate ∫
0 1 − cos x
dx.
Solution
p p
2 2
sin x sin x
Ú 1 - cos x
dx = lim Ú
cÆ0 1 - cos x
dx
0 c
p
2 1
-
= lim Ú (1 - cos x ) 2 sin x dx
cÆ0
c
p
1 2
ÈQ Ú[ f ( x )]n f ¢( x )dx ˘
(1 - cos x ) 2 Í ˙
= lim Í [ f ( x )]n +1 ˙
cÆ0 1
Í = n +1 ˙
2 c
Î ˚
p
1 2
= lim 2(1 - cos x ) 2
cÆ0
c
È 1˘
= lim 2 Í1 - (1 - cos c) 2 ˙
cÆ0 Í ˙˚
Î
=2
2.5 Improper Integral of the thIrd KInd
It is a definite integral in which one or both limits of integration are infinite, and the
integrand become infinite at one or more points within or at the end points of the
interval of integration. Thus, it is a combination of the first kind and the second kind.
•
1
For example, Ú x 2 dx is an improper integral of the third kind as the upper limit of
0
1
integration is infinite and integrand is infinite at x = 0.
x2
example 1
•
1
Evaluate the improper integral Ú dx.
0 x2
Solution
• 1 c2
1 1 1
Ú x 2 dx = clim
1 Æ0
Ú x 2 dx + clim
2 Æ•
Ú x 2 dx
0 c1 1
1 c
1 1 2
= lim - + liim -
c1 Æ 0 x c2 Æ• x1
c1
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
= lim Á -1 + ˜ + lim Á - + 1˜
c1 Æ 0 Ë c1 ¯ c2 Æ• Ë c2 ¯
= • +1
=•
exercIse 2.2
Evaluate the following improper integrals:
1
1
1. ∫ x dx
0
[ans.: •]
1
1
2. ∫
0 x
dx
[ans.: 2]
1
1
3. ∫x
0
2
dx
[ans.: •]
1
4. ∫ log xdx
0
[ans.: –1]
9
1
5. ∫ 2
dx
0
(x − 1) 3
[ans.: 9]
1
1
6. ∫ 1− x
0
4
dx
[ans.: •]
2
1
7. ∫
0 x(2 − x)
dx
[ans.: p ]
2.6 convergence and dIvergence of

Improper Integrals
(i) Direct Comparison Test

(a) If f (x) and g(x) are two continuous functions for x ≥ a such that 0 £ f ( x ) £ g( x ),
then
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
∫ f ( x)dx converges, if ∫ g ( x)dx converges and ∫

a
f ( x)dx ≤ ∫ g ( x)dx .
a
a a
(b) If f (x) and g(x) are two continuous functions for x ≥ a such that f ( x) ≥ g ( x),
∞ ∞
then ∫
a
f ( x)dx diverges, if ∫ g ( x)dx
a
diverges.
(ii) Limit Comparison Test

If f (x) and g (x) are two continuous functions for x ≥ a such that f ( x) > 0, g ( x) > 0
∞ ∞
f ( x)
and lim
x →∞ g ( x )
= l , 0 < l < ∞ then ∫
a
f ( x) dx and ∫ g ( x) dx
a
both converge or diverge
simultaneously.
Note: Convergence of improper integral of second kind can be tested by direct
comparison test and limit comparison test similarly.
example 1
•
cos x
Test the convergence of the improper integral Ú dx .
1 x2
Solution
cos x 1
f ( x) = 2
and let g ( x) = 2
x x
cos x 1
≤ 2 for x ≥1 [ Q cos x ≤ 1]
x2 x
∞ ∞ b
1 1
∫ g ( x) dx = ∫
1 1
x 2
dx = lim ∫ 2 dx
b →∞
1
x
b
1
= lim −
b →∞ x1
 1 
= lim  − + 1
b →∞  b 
=1
∞
1
Thus, ∫x
1
2
dx is convergent.
∞
cos x
By direct comparison test, ∫
1
x2
is convergent.
example 2
•
- x2
Test the convergence of the improper integral Úe dx .
1
Solution
2
f ( x) = e − x and let g ( x) = e − x
2 Q x 2 ≥ x 
e− x ≤ e− x for x ≥1  2 
− x ≤ − x
• •
-x
Ú g( x) dx = Ú e dx
1 1
b
= lim Ú e - x dx
b Æ•
1
= lim (e -1 - e - b )
b Æ•
= e -1
1
=
•
e
-x
Thus, Úe dx is convergent.
1
•
- x2
By direct comparison text, Úe dx is convergent.
1
example 3
•
3x + 5
Test the convergence of the improper integral Ú dx .
4 x4 + 7
Solution
3x + 5 1
f ( x) = 4
and let g ( x) = 3
x +7 x
3x + 5
4
= lim x + 7
f ( x)
lim
x Æ• g( x ) x Æ• 1
x3
3x 4 + 5x3
= lim
x Æ•x4 + 7
5
3+
= lim x
x Æ• 7
1+ 4
x
=3
• •
1
Ú g ( x ) dx = Ú x 3 dx
4 4
b
1
= lim Ú dx
b Æ•
4 x3
b
1
= lim -
b Æ• 2 x2 4
1
= 0+
2( 4 2 )
1
=
∞
32
1
Thus, ∫x
4
3
dx is convergent.
∞
3x + 5
By limit comparison test, ∫x
4
4
+7
is convergent.
example 4
1
1
Test the convergence of the improper integral Ú 2
dx.
0 x + x
Solution
1 1
f ( x) = and let g ( x) =
x2 + x x
1 1
2
< 0 < x ≤1 [Q x 2
+ x > x]
x + x x
1 1 1
1 1
∫ g ( x) dx = ∫
0 0 x
dx = lim ∫
c→0
c x
dx
1
= lim 2 x c
c→0
= lim ( 2 − 2 c )
c→0
=2
1
1
Thus, ∫
0 x
dx is convergent.
1
1
By direct comparison test, ∫x 0
2
+ x
dx is convergent.
example 5
1 − e− x
1
Test the convergence of the improper integral ∫ dx.

0
x3
Solution
1 − e− x 1
f ( x) = and let g ( x) = 3
x3 x
1 − e− x
f ( x) 3
lim = lim x = lim (1 − e − x ) = 1
x →∞ g ( x ) x →∞ 1 x →∞
3
x
1 1
1
∫0 g ( x) dx = ∫0 x3 dx
1
1
= lim ∫ dx
c→0
c
x3
1
1
= lim −
c→0 2x2 c
 1 1 
= lim  − + 2 
c→0  2 2c 
=∞
1
1
Thus ∫x 0
3
dx is divergent.
1 − e− x
1
By limit comparison test, ∫0 x3 dx is divergent.
exercIse 2.3
Test the convergence of the following improper integrals.
∞
sin2 x
1. ∫1 x 2 dx
[ans.: convergent]
 1
∞ sin2  
2.  x
∫ dx
1 x [ans.: convergent]
∞
x −12
3. ∫ x 6 + 16
dx
2 [ans.: divergent]
∞
x
4. ∫ 3x
1
4
+ 5x 2 + 1
dx
[ans.: convergent]
∞
log x dx
5. ∫ −x
1 x +e [ans.: divergent]
∞
2 + sin x
6. ∫
−∞ x + 1
2
dx
[ans.: convergent]
1
1
7. ∫ ( x + 1)
0 1− x2
dx
[ans.: convergent]
π
2
8. ∫ log sin x dx
0 [ans.: convergent]
π
2
e − x cos x
9. ∫ x
dx
0 [ans.: divergent]
π
2
tan x
10. ∫
1
3
dx
2
x [ans.: divergent]
points to remember
Improper Integrals of the First Kind
It is a definite integral in which one or both limits of integration are infinite.
Improper Integrals of the Second Kind
It is a definite integral in which integrand become infinite (or unbounded or
discontinuous) at one or more points within or at the end points of the interval of
integration.
Improper Integral of the Third Kind
It is a definite integral in which one or both limits of integration are infinite, and the
integrand become infinite at one or more points within or at the end points of the
interval of integration.
Convergence and Divergence of Improper Integrals

(i) Direct Comparison Test
(a) If f (x) and g(x) are two continuous functions for x ≥ a such that 0 £ f ( x ) £ g( x ),
then
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
∫ f ( x)dx converges, if ∫ g ( x)dx converges and ∫

a
f ( x)dx ≤ ∫ g ( x)dx .
a
a a
(b) If f (x) and g(x) are two continuous functions for x ≥ a such that f ( x) ≥ g ( x),
∞ ∞
then ∫ f ( x)dx
a
diverges, if ∫ g ( x)dx
a
diverges.
(ii) Limit Comparison Test

If f (x) and g (x) are two continuous functions for x ≥ a such that f ( x) > 0, g ( x) > 0
∞ ∞
f ( x)
and lim
x →∞ g ( x )
= l , 0 < l < ∞ then ∫a
f ( x) dx and ∫ g ( x) dx
a
both converge or diverge
simultaneously.

0
1
1. The value of Ú 3- x
dx is
-•
(a) 0 (b) • (c) 3 (d) 1
•
1
2. The value of Ú x 2 dx is
0
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) • (d) 2
•
-x
3. The value of Ú (1 + 2 x)e dx is
0
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 3 (d) •
1
1
4. The value of Ú 10 + 2 z dz is
-5
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 3 (d) •
1
5. The value of Ú 6 - y dy is
-•
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) •
•
9
6. The value of Ú (1 - 3z)4 dz is
2
3 1
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d) •
125 125
•
6 x3
7. The value of Ú ( x 4 + 1)2
dx is
-•
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 6 (d) •

•
1
8. The value of Ú x 2 + x - 6 dx is
1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 6 (d) •
1
0
ex
9. The value of Ú x2
dx is
-•
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) •

p
10. The value of Ú sec 2 x dx is
1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) p (d) •

•
dx
11. The value of Ú x2 + 4 is
0
p p
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) (d)
2 4
3
dx
12. The value of Ú is
0 9 - x2
p
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) (d) •
2
•
2 -x
13. The value of Úx e dx is
0
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) –2 (d) •

0
Ú2
14. The value of 5x
dx is
-•
1 1 2
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d)
5 log 2 log 2 5 log 2
•
dx
15. The value of Ú 25 + 4 x 2
is
-•
p p p
(a) (b) (c) (d) p
10 5 2
•
1
16. The value of Ú x 2 dx is [Winter 2015]
1
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) –1 (d) does not exist
• 1
17. The value of Ú0 1 + x 2 dx is [Winter 2016]
p
(a) p (b) (c) 0 (d) 1
2
• -x
18. The value of Ú0 e cos 2 x dx is [Summer 2017]
1 1 2
(a) 0 (b) - (c) (d)
5 5 5
answers
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b)
10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (c)
CHAPTER
Gamma and
3
Beta Functions
chapter outline
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Gamma Function
3.3 Properties of Gamma Function
3.4 Beta Function
3.5 Properties of Beta Functions
3.6 Beta Function as Improper Integral
3.1 IntroductIon
There are some special functions which have importance in mathematical analysis, func-
tional analysis, physics or other applications. In this chapter, we will study two special
functions, gamma and beta functions. The beta function is also called the Euler integral
of the first kind. The gamma function is an extension of the factorial function to real
and complex numbers and is also known as Euler integral of the second kind. Gamma
function is a component in various probability distribution functions. It also appears in
various areas such as asymptotic series, definite integration, number theory, etc.
3.2 Gamma functIon

∞
Gamma function is defined by the improper integral ∫0
e - x x n -1dx, n > 0 and is denoted
by n .
∞
Hence, n = ∫ e - x x n -1dx, n > 0
0
Alternate form of gamma function

∞
n = 2 ∫ e - x x 2 n -1dx
2
0
3.2 Chapter 3 Gamma and Beta Functions
Proof: By definition,
∞
n = ∫ e - x x n -1dx
0
Let x = t2, dx = 2t dt ∞
n = ∫ e - t . t 2 n - 2 . 2t dt
2
0
∞
= 2 ∫ e - t ⋅ t 2 n -1 dt
2
Changing the variable t to x,

∞
n = 2 ∫ e - x . x 2 n -1dx
2
3.3 ProPertIes of Gamma functIon
Property 1: n +1 = n n
∞
Proof: n + 1 = ∫ e - x x n dx
0
Integrating by parts,
∞ ∞
n + 1 = -e - x x n 0 - ∫ (-e - x ) nx n -1dx
0
∞
= n ∫ e - x x n-1dx
0
=n n
Hence, n +1 = n n
This is known as recurrence or reduction formula for Gamma function.
Note:
(i) n + 1 = n ! if n is a positive integer
(ii) n +1 = n n if n is a positive real number
n +1
(iii) n= if n is a negative fraction
n
π
(iv) n 1- n =
sin nπ
Property 2: 1 = π
2
Proof: By alternate form of Gamma function,
 1
1 ∞ 2.  - 1 ∞
= 2 ∫ e - x x  2  dx = 2 ∫
2
e - x dx
2
2 0 0
1. 1 ∞ ∞
= 2 ∫ e - x dx . 2 ∫ e - y dy
2 2
2 2 0 0
∞ ∞
= 4∫ ∫
2
+ y2 )
e-( x dx dy
0 0
Changing to polar coordinates, x = r cosq, y = r sinq

dx dy = r dr dq
Limits of x x=0 to x→∞

Limits of y y=0 to y→∞
This shows that the region of integration is the first quadrant.
Draw an elementary radius vector in the region
which starts from the pole and extends up to ∞. q=p
2
Limits of r r=0 to r→∞
π r
q=0 θ=
ä ∞
Limits of q to
2
π
1 1 2 ∞
⋅ = 4 ∫ ∫ e − r . r d r dθ
2
2 2 0
0
π
∞
 1 2
= 4 ∫ dθ . ∫  −  e− r (− 2r ) d r
2
O r=0 q =0
0 0
 2 Fig. 3.1
π
∞
4 2
= θ 2
e− r ∵ e f ( r ) . f ′ (r )dr = e f ( r ) 
−2  ∫
0 0

π
= −2 . ( 0 − 1)
2
=π
1
= π
2
Example 1
5
Find the value of − .
2
Solution
n +1
n=
n
5
− +1 2 3
5 2
− = =− −
2 5 5 2
−
2
3
− +1
2 2 4 1
=− . = −
5 3 15 2
−
2
1
− +1
4 . 2 8 1 8 π
= =− =−
15 1 15 2 15
−
2
example 2
8 12
Given = 0.8935 , find the value of - .
5 5
Solution:
n +1
n=
n
12 7 2
- +1 - +1 - +1
12 5 5 . 5
25 . 5
- = =- =
5 12 12 7 84 2
- - -
5 5 5
3
+1
125 . 5 625 8 625
=- =- =- (0.8935) = -1.108
168 3 504 5 504
5
example 3
∞ - x3
Evaluate ∫0 e dx .
Solution
1
1 -2
Let x3 = t, x = t 3 , dx = t 3 dt
3
when x = 0, t=0
when x → ∞, t→∞
2 1
∞ ∞ 1 - 1 ∞ -1 1 1
∫ e - x dx = ∫ e - t . t 3 dt = ∫ e - t t 3 dt =
3
0 0 3 3 0 3 3
example 4
1
∞ - x
Evaluate ∫0 e x4 dx .
Solution
Let x = t , x = t2, dx = 2t dt
when x = 0, t=0
1 1
∞ ∞
∫ e - x x 4 dx = ∫ e - t ( t 2 ) 4 2t dt
0 0
3
∞ 5 3 1 1 3
= 2 ∫ e - t t 2 dt = 2 =2. . = p
0 2 2 2 2 2
example 5
∞
∫0 ( x 2 + 4)e -2 x dx .
2
Evaluate
Solution
1
1 -
2x = t, x =   2 , dx =
t 1 1 - 12 t 2
Let 2
⋅ t dt = dt
 2 2 2 2 2
when x = 0, t=0
1
-
∞ ∞ t  -t t 2
∫ dx = ∫
-2 x 2
( x + 4) e
2
 + 4 e . dt
0 0 2 2 2
∞ 1 ∞ 1
1 2 -
=
4 2
∫ 0
e - t t 2 dt +
2
∫
0
e-t t 2
dt
1
3 2 1 1 .1 1 2 1
= + = +
4 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 17 π
= π+ π =
8 2 2 8 2
example 6
∞
Evaluate ∫0 x ne - ax
dx .
Solution
t2 2t
Let ax = t , x = , dx = dt
a a
when x = 0, t=0
n
∞ ∞  t2  2t
∫ xn e- dx = ∫   e - t ⋅ dt
ax
0 0  a a
2 ∞
=
a n +1 ∫
0
e - t t 2 n +1dt
2
= 2n + 2
a n +1
example 7
e- x
2
∞ ∞
- x2
Evaluate ∫0 x e dx . ∫
0 x
dx .
Solution
1
1 - 12
Let x2 = t, x = t 2 , dx = t dt
2
when x = 0, t=0
2
∞ ∞ e- x 1 -1 ∞
1
∞ e-t 1 -1
∫ x e - x dx . ∫ dx = ∫ t e . t 2 dt . ∫ 1 . t 2 dt
2
4 -t
0 0 x 0 2 0 2
t4
1 ∞ - t - 14 . ∞ - t - 34
4 ∫0
= e t dt ∫ e t d t
0
1 3. 1 1 1 1
= = 1-
4 4 4 4 4 4
1 π 1 π
= ⋅ = .π 2 =
4 sin π 4 2 2
4
example 8
e- x
3
∞ ∞
∫0 dx . ∫ x 4 e - x dx .
6
Evaluate 0
x
Solution
1
1 -2
Let x3 = t, x = t 3 , dx = t 3 dt
3
when x = 0, t=0
3
∞ e- x ∞ ∞ e - t . 1 - 32 . ∞ 34 - t 2 . 1 - 32
∫ dx . ∫ x 4 e - x dx = ∫ t dt ∫ t e
6
1
t dt
0 x 0 0
6
3 0 3
t
1 ∞ - t - 56 . ∞ - t 2 32
9 ∫0
= e t dt ∫ e t d t
0
 5
1 1 1 ∞ 2 2   -1
= ⋅ ⋅ 2 ∫ e - t t  6  dt
9 6 2 0
1 1 1 5 Q 2 ∞ e - x2 x 2 n -1dx = n 
= ⋅
9 6 2 6  ∫0 
1 1 1 1 p π
= 1- = ⋅ =
18 6 6 18 p 9
sin
6
example 9
1
∫0 (log x)
5
Evaluate dx .
Solution
Let log x = - t, x = e-t, dx = - e-t dt
when x = 0, t→∞
when x = 1, t=0
1 0
∫
0
(log x)5 dx = ∫ ( -t )5 ( -e - t ) dt
∞
∞
= - ∫ e - t t 5 dt
0
= - 6 = -120
example 10
4
 1
1
Evaluate ∫0 x log   dx .
3
x
Solution
4
1
1 1
1
∫0 x log  x  dx = ∫0 x . 4 log  x  dx
3 3
1
1
= 4 ∫ x 3 log   dx
0 x
1 1
Let log   = t , = et , x = e - t , dx = -e - t dt
x x
when x = 0, t→∞
when x = 1, t=0
4
1
 1 0
∫ 0
x 3 log   dx = 4∫ e -3t t ( -e - t ) dt
 x ∞
∞
= 4 ∫ e -4t t 2 -1dt
0
2  ∞ - kx n -1 n
= 4⋅ Q ∫0 e x dx = n 
( 4) 2  k 
1
=
4
example 11
1 dx
Evaluate ∫0  1
.
x log  
 x
Solution
1
-
1
dx 1 -
1
  1  2
∫0
1
=∫ x
0
2
log  x  
 
dx … (1)
x log  
 x
1 1
Let log   = t , = et , x = e-t, dx = -e-t dt
x x
when x = 0, t→∞
when x = 1, t=0
1 1 1
1 - -
dx = ∫ ( e - t ) 2 . t ( - e - t ) dt
0
∫
0
1 ∞
2
x log  
x
t 1
∞ - -1
=∫ e 2
t 2 dt
0
1
= 2  ∞ - kx n -1 n
1 Q ∫0 e x dx = n 
 1 2  k 
 
2
= 2π
example 12
∞ xa
Evaluate ∫0 ax
dx .
Solution 1
Let ax = et, x log a = t, dx = dt
log a
when x = 0, t=0
a
∞ xa ∞ t  . 1 . 1
∫0 a x d x = ∫0  log a  et log a dt
1 ∞
=
(log a ) a +1 ∫
0
e - t t a dt
1
= a +1
(log a ) a +1
a +1
=
(log a ) a +1
example 13
∞
-4 x 2
Evaluate ∫0 3 dx .
Solution
2
Let 3-4 x = e - t , - 4 x 2 log 3 = -t log e, 4 x 2 log 3 = t
t 1
. 1 dt
x= , dx =
2 log 3 2 log 3 2 t
when x = 0, t=0
∞ ∞ 1. 1 dt
∫ 3-4 x dx = ∫ e - t .
2
0 0 4 log 3 t
∞ 1
1 -
=
4 log 3
∫ 0
e-t t 2
dt
1 1 π
= =
4 log 3 2 4 log 3
example 14
∞ 2ab
Prove that ∫0 xe - ax sinbx dx = .
( a + b2 )2
2
Solution ∞ ∞
∫0
xe - ax sin bx dx = ∫ xe - ax [Imaginary part of eibx]dx
0
∞
= Im. part ∫ 0
xe - ax . eibx dx
∞
= Im. part ∫ 0
e - ( a -ib ) x . x dx
2  ∞ n
= Im. part
(a - ib) 2
Q ∫
0
e - kx x n -1 dx = 
kn 

= Im. part 1
(a 2 - b 2 ) - 2iab
= Im. part  (a - b ) + 2iab  = 2

2 2 2ab
 2 2 2 
 ( a - b ) + 4a b  ( a + b )
2 2 2 2
exercIse 3.1
1. Evaluate the following integrals:
x2 ∞ e- x
(i) ∫
∞
xe -3 x
dx (ii)
∫
∞
e
-
4
dx (iii) ∫ 0
7
dx
0 0 x 4
1 1 1 1 dx
(iv) ∫0
(x log x )4 dx (v) ∫
0
log
x
dx (vi) ∫ 0 - log x
3
4  1 1
1 1
∞
∫0 x  log x  dx ∫ x log dx
∫
2
(vii) (viii) 3
(ix) 5-4 x dx.
0 x 0
 315 
 ans. : (i) 16 p (ii) p 
 
 8 4! 
(iii) p (iv)
 3 55 
 
 (v)
p
(vi) p 
 2 
 4 
 6  3 3 4
 (vii) (viiii)   
 625  4 3
 p 
 (ix) 
 4 log 5 
2. Prove that
∞ 1 m +1
∫
n
x m e - ax dx = ( m + 1)
.
0 n
na n
3. Prove that
∞ ∞ π
∫0 x e dx . ∫0 e dx = 8 2 .
2 -x4 -x4
4. Prove that
2
∞ ∞ e-x π
∫ x e - x dx . ∫
2
dx = .
0 0 x 2 2
5. Prove that
∞ ∞ π
∫ xe - x dx . ∫ x 2 e - x dx =
8 4
.
0 0 16 2
3.4 Beta Function 3.11
6. Prove that
1
x m (log x )n dx = (-1) n + 1.
n
∫0
(m + 1)n +1
7. Prove that
n
1
 1 n +1
∫0 x  log x  dx = (m + 1)n +1 .
m
8. Prove that
∞ m  mπ 
∫0
x m -1 cos ax dx =
a m
cos 
 2 
.
9. Prove that
∞ n  b
∫ x n -1e - ax sin bx dx = sin  n tan-1  .
n  a
0
(a 2 + b ) 2 2
3.4 Beta functIon

Beta function B(m, n) is defined by
1
B (m, n) = ∫ x m -1 (1 - x) n -1 dx, m > 0, n > 0.
0
B(m, n) is also known as Euler’s integral of first kind.
3.4.1 trigonometric form of Beta function

π
B(m, n) = 2 ∫ 2 sin 2 m -1 x cos 2 n -1 x dx

0
1
Proof: B(m, n) = ∫ 0
x m -1 (1 - x) n -1 dx
Let x = sin2q, dx = 2sinq cosq dq
when x = 0, q =0
π
when x = 1, q =
2
π
B(m, n) = ∫ (sin 2 θ ) m -1 (1 - sin 2 θ ) n -1 ⋅ 2 sin θ cos θ dθ

2
0
π
= 2 ∫ 2 sin 2 m -1θ cos 2 n -1θ dθ

0
Changing the variable q to x,

π
B(m, n) = 2 ∫ sin
2 m -1
2
x cos 2 n -1 x dx
0
Corollary: Putting 2m -1 = p, 2n -1 = q
p +1 q +1
m= , n=
2 2
π
 p +1 q +1
 = 2 ∫0 sin x cos x dx
2 p q
B ,
 2 2 
3.5 ProPerties of Beta functions

1. Symmetry
B(m, n) = B(n, m)
1
Proof: B(m, n) = ∫ 0
x m -1 (1 - x) n -1 dx
Let 1 - x = t, - dx = dt
when x = 0, t=1
when x = 1, t=0
0 1
B (m, n) = ∫ (1 - t ) m -1 t n -1 (-dt ) = ∫t
n -1
(1 - t ) m -1 dt
1 0
= B (n, m).
2. Relation between Beta and Gamma functions
q=p
m n 2
B(m, n) =
m+n
Proof: By alternate form of Gamma function, r ä ∞
∞ ∞
m n = 2∫ e - x2
x 2 m -1
dx . 2 ∫ e - y2
y 2 n -1
dy
0 0
∞ ∞
= 4∫ ∫
2
+ y2 )
e-( x x 2 m -1 y 2 n -1dx dy
0 0
Changing to polar coordinates x = r cosq, y = r sinq

dx dy = r dr dq O r=0 q =0
Limits of x x=0 to x→∞ fig. 3.2
Limits of y y=0 to y→∞
This shows that the region of integration is the first quadrant.
Draw an elementary radius vector in the region which starts
from pole and extends up to ∞.
Limits of r r=0 to r→∞
π
Limits of q q=0 to q=
2
π
∞
m n=4∫ ∫
2
e - r (r cos θ ) 2 m -1 (r sin θ ) 2 n -1 r dr dθ
2
0 0
π π
= 4 ∫ 2 (cos θ ) 2 m -1 (sin θ ) 2 n -1 dθ . ∫ e - r r 2 ( m + n ) -1dr

2 2
0 0
1 1
=4. B(m, n) . m + n
2 2
m n
B(m, n) =
m+n
3. Duplication formula
1 o 2m
m m+ = 2 m -1
2 2
π
B(m, n) = 2 ∫ sin 2 m -1θ cos 2 n -1θ dθ

2
Proof:
0
Putting n = m,
π
B(m, m) = 2 ∫ (sin θ cos θ ) 2 m -1 dθ

2
0
π
m m 2
∫ (sin 2θ ) 2 m -1 dθ
2
=
2m 22 m -1 0
1
Let 2q = t, dθ = dt
2
when q = 0, t=0
π
when q= , t=p
2
m⋅ m 2 π 1
= 2 m-1 ∫ (sin t ) 2 m-1 ⋅ dt
2m 2 0 2
Q 2 a f ( x)dx = 2 a f ( x)dx 
 ∫0 ∫0
π
1 
= ⋅ 2 ∫ (sin t )
2 2 m -1 0
(cos t ) dt
22 m -1 0  if f (2a - x) = f ( x) 
 
π 1
2 2   -1
= ∫ (sin t ) 2 m-1 (cos t )
2 2
2 m -1
dt
2 0
1  1
= 2 m -1
B  m, 
2  2
1
m
1 2
=
22 m -1 1
m+
2
m m 1 m π
=
2m 22 m -1 1
m+
2
1 π 2m
m m+ = .
2 22 m -1
example 1
Find the value of
 3 1  4 5
(i) B  ,  (ii) B  , 
2 2 3 3
Solution
3 1
3 1 2 2
(i) B ,  =
2 2 2
1 1 1
1
= 2 2 2 = π. π
1 2
π
=
2
4 5
 4 5
(ii) B ,  = 3 3
 3 3 3
1 1 2 1 1 1.2 2
= +1 . +1 = .
2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 π  π 
=
9 3
1- = .
3 9 π Q n 1- n = sin nπ 
sin
3
1 . 2π 2π
= =
9 3 9 3
example 2
1
If B(n, 3) = and n is a positive integer, find the value of n.
60
Solution
1
B(n, 3) =
60
n 3 1
=
n + 3 60
n.2 1
=
(n + 2) (n + 1) n n 60
n3 + 3n2 + 2n = 120
n + 3n2 + 2n - 120 = 0
3
n = 4, -3.5
But n is a positive integer.
Hence, n = 4.
example 3
π . n
Prove that B(n, n) = 2 n -1
.
2 1
n+
Solution 2
1
n n+
n n n .
B(n, n) = = 2
2n 2n 1
n+
2
n . 1 . π 2n
= [By Duplication formula]
2n 1 22 n -1
n+
2
π . n
= 2 n -1
2 1
n+
2
example 4
 1 1  π 1-4 n
Prove that B(n, n). B  n + , n +  = 2 .
2 2 n
Solution
1 1
n+ n+
n) B  n + , n +  =
1 1 n n. 2 2
B(n,
 2 2 2n 2n + 1
2
 1  1
2
 n n +  n n+ 
1 
2 2
= = 
. 2 n  2n 
2n 2n 2n  
2
1  π  π
=   = 21- 4 n
2n  22 n -1  n
example 5
n
π
Prove that n 1 - n = 2 .
2 nπ
21- p cos
2
Solution
we know that
π
n 1- n =
sin nπ
n +1
Replacing n by ,
2
n +1 n +1 π
1- =
2 2  n +1
sin  π
 2 
n +1 1- n π
=
2 2  π nπ 
sin  + 
2 2 
n
π
n n 1 1- n 2
+ =
2 2 2 2 nπ
cos
2
n
π
π n 1- n 2
=
2n -1 2 cos
nπ
2
n
π
1- n 2
n =
2 1- n nπ
2 cos
2
exercIse 3.2
1. Find the value of
 5 3  1 2
(i) B ,  (ii) B  , 
 2 2  2 3
 π 2π 
 Ans. : (i) 16 (ii) 
 3
1
2. If B(n, 2) = and n is a positive integer, find the value of n.
42
[Ans.: n = 6]
3. Prove that
1
n+
 1 1 1 . 2
Bn + , n +  = π.
 2 2  22 n n + 1
4. Prove that
B(m, n) = B(m, n + 1) + B(m + 1, n).
3 3
5. Prove that -n +n
2 2
1 
=  - n 2  p sec np, (-1 < 2n < 1).
4 
Problems Based on Definition of Beta Function
example 1
∫0 x (1- x ) dx .
1 5
3
Evaluate
Solution
Let x = t , x = t2, dx = 2t dt
when x = 0, t=0
when x = 1, t=1
∫ x (1 - x ) dx = ∫ t 6 (1 - t ) 2t dt
1 5 1 5
3
0 0
1
= 2 ∫ t 7 (1 - t ) dt = 2B(8, 6)
5
8 6 7 ! 5! 1
=2 =2 =
14 13! 5148
example 2
1 x2 1 dx
Evaluate ∫0 1 - x4
dx . ∫0 1 - x4
.
Solution 1
1 - 34
Let x4 = t, x = t 4 , dx = t dt
4
when x = 0, t=0
when x = 1, t=1
1
3
1 x2 1 dx 1 t 2
. 1 t 4 dt .
- 1 1 . 1 - 34
∫0
1 - x4
dx . ∫
0
1 - x4
=∫
0 1- t 4
∫0 1 - t 4 t dt
1 1 - 14 -
1 1 -3 -
1
16 ∫0 ∫0
= t (1 - t ) 2
d t . t 4 (1 - t ) 2 dt
1 3 1 . 1 1
= B ,  B , 
16  4 2  4 2
3 1 1 1
1 4 2 . 4 2 1 π . 1 p
= = π =
16 5 3 16 1 1 4 4
4 4 4 4
example 3
1
Evaluate ∫0 1 - y 4 dy .
Solution
1
1 - 34
Let y4 = t, y = t 4 , dy = t dt
4
when y = 0, t=0
when y = 1, t=1
1
1 1 1 -3
∫
0
1 - y 4 dy = ∫ (1 - t ) 2 . t 4 dt
0 4
3 1
1 3 1 1 2 4
= B ,  =
4 2 4 4 7
4
2
1 1 1  1
 
1 2 2 4 1 4
= = p
4 3 3 6 3 1
4 4 4 4
2 2
 1  1
   
p 4 p  4
= =
6 1 1 6 p
1- p
4 4 sin
4
2
 1
  2
p  4 1  1
= =  
6 p 2 6 2π  4 
example 4 1
∫0 y (8 - )
3 -3
2
4
Evaluate y dy .
Solution
1
1 -2
Let y3 = 8t, y = 2t 3 , dy = 2 . t 3 dt
3
when y = 0, t=0
when y = 2, t=1
∫
2 -
1
y 4 ( 8 - y 3 ) 3 dy = ∫ 2t 3
1
( ) (8 - 8t )
1 4
-
1
3
2 - 32
t dt
0 0 3
16 1 32 -
1
16  5 2 
= ∫ t (1 - t ) 3 dt = B , 
3 0 3 3 3
2
5 2 2 2 2  2
16 3 3 16  
= = 3 3 3 3
=8
3 7 3 4. 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3
example 5
2a
Evaluate ∫0 x 2 2ax - x 2 dx .
Solution
2a 2a 5
∫ 0
x 2 2ax - x 2 dx = ∫ x 2 2a - x dx
0
Let x = 2at, dx = 2a dt
when x = 0, t=0
when x = 2a, t=1
2a 1 5
∫0
x 2 2ax - x 2 dx = ∫ (2at )
0
2
2a - 2at . 2a dt
1 5 1
7 3
= 16a 4 ∫ t 2 (1 - t ) 2 dt = 16a B  , 
4
0 2 2
7 3
16a 4 . 5 . 3 . 1 1 . 1 1
= 16a 2 2 = 4
5 24 2 2 2 2 2 2
15 π a 4
=
24
example 6
3
3 x2 1 dx
Evaluate
∫0 3- x
dx . ∫
0 1
.
1- x4
Solution
3
3 x2
I1 = ∫ dx
0 3- x
Let x = 3t, dx = 3 dt
when x = 0, t=0
when x = 3, t=1
3
1 (3t ) 2
I1 = ∫ ⋅ 3 dt
0 3 - 3t
1 3 -
1
5 1
= 9 ∫ t 2 (1 - t ) 2
dt = 9 B  , 
0 2 2
5 1
9 3 1 1 1 27π
=9 2 2 = . . =
3 2 2 2 2 2 8
1 dx
I2 = ∫
0 1
1
1- x4
Let x 4 = t , x = t 4, dx = 4t 3 dt
when x = 0, t=0
when x = 1, t=1
1 4t 3
I2 = ∫ dt
0 1- t
1 -
1
 1
= 4 ∫ t 3 (1 - t ) 2
dt = 4 B  4, 
0  2
1 1
4 3! 128
=4 2 =4 2 =
9 7 . 5 . 3 . 1 1 35
2 2 2 2 2 2
3
3 x2 1 dx 27π . 128 432 p
Hence, ∫ 0 3- x
dx . ∫
0 1
=
8 35
=
35
1- x 4
example 7
a dx π π
Prove that ∫0 1
=
n
cosec   .
 n
( an - xn )n
Solution
1
a 1n -1
Let xn = an t, x = at n , dx = t dt
n
when x = 0, t=0
when x = a, t=1
1
a dx 1 1 . a t n dt
-1
∫ 0
1
=∫
0
1
n
(a n - x n ) n (a n - a n t ) n
1 1
1 1 - -1 1  1 1
= ∫
n 0
(1 - t ) t dt = B  - + 1, 
n n
n  n n
1 1
1-
1 n n =1. π  π 
= . Q 1- n n = sin nπ 
n 1 n sin π
n
π π 
= cosec  
n n
example 8
b
m+ n+1
Prove that ∫ ( x - a) (b - x ) dx = (b - a)
m n
B( m + 1, n + 1) and hence,
a
2
 1
2 
9  4
deduce that ∫5 4 ( x - 5)(9 - x) dx = 3 π
.
Solution
Let (x - a) = (b - a) t, dx = (b - a) dt
when x = a, t=0
when x = b, t=1
b 1
∫ ( x - a ) m (b - x) n dx = ∫ [ (b - a )t ] [b - {a + (b - a )t}] (b - a )dt
m n
a 0
1
= (b - a ) m + n +1 ∫ t m (1 - t ) n dt
0
= (b - a ) m + n +1 B(m + 1, n + 1)
1 1
Putting a = 5, b = 9, m = , n = in the above integral,
4 4
1 1 1 1
9 + +1 1 1 
∫5 ( x - 5) 4
(9 - x ) 4
d x = (9 - 5) 4 4
B  + 1, + 1
4 4 
2 2
5 5 1 1  1
  2 
 4
= 23 4 4 = 8  4 4  =
5 3.1 1 3 π
2 2 2 2
example 9
1 x m -1 (1 - x ) n-1 B( m, n)
Prove that ∫0 ( a + bx ) m+ n
dx =
( a + b) m a n
and hence, evaluate
1 x2 - 2 x3 + x 4
∫0 (1 + x )6
dx.
Solution
at a (a + b - bt ) - at (-b) a ( a + b)
Let x= , dx = dt = dt
a + b - bt (a + b - bt ) 2 (a + b - bt ) 2
when x = 0, t=0
when x = 1, t=1
at (a + b)(1 - t )
Also, 1- x = 1- =
a + b - bt a + b - bt
bat a ( a + b)
a + bx = a + =
a + b - bt a + b - bt
m -1 n -1
 at   (a + b)(1 - t ) 
1  
1 x m -1 (1 - x ) n -1
 a + b - bt   a + b - bt  . a ( a + b ) dt
∫0 (a + bx)m + n dx = ∫0  a ( a + b) 
m+n
(a + b - bt ) 2
 a + b - bt 
1 1
1
∫t
m -1
= (1 - t ) n -1 dt = B(m, n)
( a + b) m a n 0 ( a + b) m a n
Putting a = 1, b = 1, m = 3, n = 3 in the above integral
1 x 2 (1 - x ) 2 1
∫0 (1 + x)6 dx = (1 + 1)3 .13 B(3, 3)
1 x 2 - 2 x3 + x 4 1 3 3 1. 4 1
∫0 (1 + x)6
dx =
8 6
= =
8 120 240
example 10
3
1 (1 - 4 4
x ) 1 1  1 7
Prove that
∫0 (1 + x 4 )2 dx = 4 . 1
B  , .
 4 4
24
Solution
1
1 - 34
Let x4 = t, x = t 4 , dx = t dt
4
when x = 0, t=0
when x = 1, t=1
3 3 3 3
-
1 (1 - x 4 ) 4 1 (1 - t ) 4 1 -3 1 1 t 4 (1 - t ) 4
∫0 (1 + x 4 )2 dx =∫0 (1 + t )2 . 4 t 4 dt = 4 ∫0 (1 + t )2 dt
u (2 - u ) - u ( -1) 2
Let t = , dt = du = du
2-u (2 - u ) 2 (2 - u ) 2
when t = 0, u=0
when t = 1, u=1
3 3
-
 u  4 u 4
3
  1 - 
1 (1 - x ) 4
4
1 1  2 - u  2 - u . 2
∫0 (1 + x 4 )2 d x = ∫
4 0  u 
2
(2 - u ) 2
du
1 + 
2 - u
3 3
-
2 1 u 4 ( 2 - 2u ) 4 1 1 1 -
3 3
= ∫ du = . 1 ∫ u 4 (1 - u ) 4 du
2
4 0 2 4 4 0
2
1 1 1 7
= . 1 B , 
4 4 4 4
2
exercIse 3.3
2
1
dx  1 
1 3
∫ (iii) ∫  1 - x 4  dx
1
(i) 1 - x m dx (ii)
0 ∫
0
1- x6
0 
2 1 a 1
-
(iv) ∫ 0
x 2 (2 - x ) 2 dx (v) ∫ 0
x 4 a 2 - x 2 dx (vi) ∫ 2
0
x 3 1 - 4 x 2 dx
 ans. : 
 
 (i) 1  1 3  1  1 1 
B  ,  (ii) B , 
 m  m 2 8  8 2 
 
(iii) 128 (iv)
64 2 
 1155 15 
 
 (v) π a
6
1 
(vi)
 32 120 
2. Prove that
2
 1
2 
7  4 6 5! 6 !
(i) ∫3 4 (x - 3)(7 - x) dx = 3 π (ii) ∫ 5
(x - 5)5 (6 - x )6 dx =
12!
3. Prove that
1 2
- -
1 x (1 - x )
3 3
π
∫ 0 (1 + 2x )
dx = 7
.
36
4. Prove that
1 x m -1(1 - x )n -1 B(m, n) x 3 - 2x 2 + x
1
∫0 (1 + x)m + n dx = 2m and hence, evaluate ∫

0 (1 + x )5
dx.
 1
 ans. : 48 
5 Prove that
1 x n -1
∫0 (1 + cx)(1 - x)n dx
1 . π
= , 0 < n < 1.
(1 + c)n sin nπ
Problems Based on trigonometric form of Beta function
example 1
π
Evaluate ∫
0
2 cotθ dθ .
π π 1 1
-
Solution ∫ cot θ dθ = ∫ 2 (cos θ ) 2 (sin θ ) 2 dθ
2
0 0
1 1 
+1 - +1
1 2
= B , 2 
2  2 2 
3 1
1 3 1 1 4 4
= B ,  =
2 4 4 2 1
1 1 1 1 π p
= 1- = ⋅ =
2 4 4 2 sin π 2
4
example 2
π
Evaluate ∫
0
4 cos3 2θsin 4 4θ dθ .
Solution
π π
∫ cos3 2θ sin 4 4θ dθ = ∫ 4 cos3 2θ (2 sin 2θ cos 2θ ) 4 dθ

4
0 0
= 16 ∫ cos 7 2θ sin 4 2θ dθ
4
0
1
Let 2q = t, dθ = d t
2
when q = 0, t=0
when q= π , t=
π
4 2
π π
1
∫ cos 2θ sin 4θ dθ = 16 ∫ sin 4 t . cos 7 t ⋅ dt
4 3 4 2
0 0 2
5
4
1  5 
= 8. B  , 4  = 4 2
2 2  13
2
3 .1 1 .
3! 128
= 4⋅ 2 2 2 =
11 9 7 5 3 1 1 1155
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
example 3
2π
Evaluate ∫0 sin 2θ (1 + cosθ ) 4 dθ .
Solution 2π
I = ∫ sin 2 θ (1 + cos θ ) 4 dθ
0
2 4
2π
 θ θ  θ
= ∫  2 sin cos   2 cos 2  dθ
0  2 2  2
2π θ θ
= 26 ∫ sin 2 cos10 dθ
0 2 2
Let θ = t , dθ = 2dt
2
when q = 0, t=0
when q = 2p, t=p
π
I = 26 ∫ sin 2 t cos10 t . 2dt
0
π
Q f ( x ) dx = 2 ∫ f ( x ) d x 
2a a
= 27 . 2 ∫ 2 sin 2 t cos10 t dt
0
 ∫0 0 
 if f (2a - x) = f ( x) 
 
3 11
1  3 11  7 2 2
= 28 . B  ,  =2
2 2 2  7
27 . 1 1 9 . 7 . 5 . 3 . 1 1 21p
= . =
6! 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8
example 4
π 1
Evaluate ∫ -
4 ( cosθ
π + sinθ ) 3 dθ .
4
Solution
1
π 1 π
  1 1  3
∫ -
4
π
4
(cos θ + sin θ ) dθ = 3
∫ -
4
π  2 
 2
cos θ +
2
sin θ   dθ

4
1 1
π 1
 π π 3
π 1
 π  3
= ∫ -
4
π 2  sin cos θ + cos sin θ  dθ =

6
4 4  ∫ -
4
π
4
2 sin  + θ   dθ
6
 4 
4
π
Let + θ = t, dq = dt
4
π
when q = - , t=0
4
π π
when q= , t=
4 2
π 1 1 π 1
∫ -
4
π
4
(cos θ + sin θ )3 dθ = 2 6 ∫ 2 (sin t ) 3 dt
0
1
1 π 1
26  4 1 
= 2 6
∫ 0
2
(sin t ) (cos t )0 dt =
3
B , 
2 6 2
2 1 2 2
π
1 3 2 1 3 6 π 3
= 5 ⋅ = 5 = 5
7 1 1 1
26 26 26
6 6 6 6
example 5
π
π  nπ 
Prove that ∫ 0
2 tan n x dx =
2
sec 
 2 
.
Solution
π π
∫0
2 tan n x dx = ∫ 0
2
(sin x) n (cos x) - n dx
n + 1 -n + 1
1  n + 1 -n + 1  1 2 2
= B ,  =
2  2 2  2 1
1 n +1 n +1
= 1-
2 2 2
π  π 
= 1⋅ Q n 1- n = 
2  n +1  sin nπ 
sin  π
 2 
π 1 π 1 π  nπ 
= ⋅ = ⋅ = sec  .
2  π nπ  2 cos n π 2  2 
sin  +
 2 2  2
example 6
π
∫0 x sin
7
Evaluate x cos 4 x dx .
Solution
π π
∫0
x sin 7 x cos 4 x dx = ∫0
(π - x) sin 7 (π - x) cos 4 (π - x)dx
Q a f ( x)dx = a f (a - x)dx 
 ∫0 ∫0 
π π
= π ∫ sin 7 x cos 4 x dx - ∫ x sin 7 x cos 4 x dx
0 0
π π
2 ∫ x sin 7 x cos 4 x dx = π ∫ sin 7 x cos 4 x dx
0 0
 π π

= π  ∫ 2 sin 7 x cos 4 x dx + ∫ 2 sin 7 (π - x) cos 4 (π - x)dx 
 
0 0
Q 2 a f ( x)dx = a f ( x)dx + a f (2a - x)dx 

 ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 
π 1  5
= 2π 2 sin 7 x cos 4 x dx = 2π ⋅
∫ 0
B  4,
2 

2
5 5
4 3!
2=π 2
=π
13 11 9 7 5 5
⋅ ⋅ ⋅
2 2 2 2 2 2
π 16π
∫ 0
x sin 7 x cos 4 x dx =
1155
exercIse 3.4
π π
(i) ∫0
2
tan θ dθ (ii) ∫ 0
6
cos6 3θ sin2 6θ dθ
π 1 π
(iii) ∫ -
3
π
6
( 3 sin θ + cos θ ) 4
dθ (iv) ∫ -
2
π cos3 θ (1 + sin θ )2 dθ
2
2π π
(v)
∫ 0
sin2 θ (1 + cos θ )4 dθ (vi) ∫ 0
x sin5 x cos6 x dx
 π 7π 
 ans. : (i) (ii)
384 
 2 
 5 
 -
3
8 
 (iii) 2 4 π 8 (iv ) 
 9 5 
 8 
 
 21π 8π 
 (v ) (iv )
8 693 
2. Prove that
π
1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 L (2n - 1) π
∫ 0
2
(sin x )2n dx =
2n (n !)
⋅ .
2
3.6 Beta functIon as ImProPer InteGral

∞ x m -1
B(m, n) = ∫ 0 (1 + x) m + n
dx
Proof: Let x = tan2q, dx = 2 tanq sec2q dq

when x = 0, q=0
π
when x→Ç, θ=
2
∞ x m -1 π
(tan 2 θ )m -1
∫0 (1 + x) m + n
dx =
∫ 0
2
(1 + tan 2 θ )m + n
⋅ 2 tan θ sec 2 θ dθ
π
(tan θ )2 m -1 sec 2 θ
= 2∫2 dθ
0 (sec θ )2 m + 2 n
π
= 2 ∫ 2 (sin θ )2 m -1 (cos θ )2 n -1 dθ
0
= B(m, n)
example 1
∞ x m-1 1
Prove that ∫0 ( a + bx ) m+ n
dx = n m B( m, n) and hence, find the value
a b
∞ x5
of ∫0 ( 2 + 3 x )16
.
Solution
a
Let bx = at, dx = dt
b
when x = 0, t=0
m -1
a 
∞ x m -1
∞
 t  a
b
∫0 (a + bx) m + n
dx = ∫
0 (a + at ) m+n
⋅ dt
b
1 ∞ t m -1 1
=
a bm
n ∫0 (1 + t ) m+n
dt = n m B(m, n)
a b
Putting a = 2, b = 3, m = 6, n = 10 in the above integral,
∞ x5 1
∫ 0 (2 + 3 x)16
dx = 10 6 B(6, 10)
2 ⋅3
1 6 10 1 5!10 !
= = 10 6
210 ⋅ 36 16 2 ⋅ 3 15!
example 2
∞ x 8 (1 - x 6 )
Prove that ∫0 (1 + x ) 24
dx = 0 .
Solution
∞ x8 (1 - x 6 ) ∞ x8 ∞ x14
∫ 0 (1 + x) 24
dx = ∫ 0 (1 + x) 24
dx - ∫
0 (1 + x ) 24
dx
∞ x 9 -1 ∞ x15 -1
= ∫ 0 (1 + x)9 +15
d x - ∫0 (1 + x)15+ 9 dx
= B(9, 15) - B(15, 9)
=0
example 3
∞ x2 5π 2
Prove that ∫0 4 3
(1 + x )
dx =
128
.
Solution
1
1 - 43
Let x4 = t, x = t 4 , dx = t dt
4
when x = 0, t=0
1
∞ x2 ∞ 2
t 1 -3
∫0 (1 + x 4 )3
dx = ∫
0 (1 + t ) 4
3
⋅ t 4 dt
1 3
- -1
1 ∞ t 4 1 ∞ t4
= ∫ dt = ∫ dt
4 0 (1 + t ) 3
4 0 3 9
+
(1 + t ) 4 4
3 9
1 3 9 1 4 4
= B , =
4 4 4 4 3
3 5 1 1
⋅ ⋅
1 4 4 4 4 5 1 1
= ⋅ = 1-
4 2! 128 4 4
5 π  π 
= ⋅ Q 1- n n = 
128 sin π  sin nπ 
4
5π 2
=
128
example 4
∞ 8
∫0 sech
6
Prove that x dx = .
15
Solution
6
∞ ∞  2   e x + e- x 
∫ sech x dx = ∫ Q cosh x =
6
 x  dx 
0 0 e + e- x   2 
1 ∞ 1 Q a f ( x)dx = 2 a f ( x)dx 
∫  ∫- a ∫0
= 26 ⋅ dx
2 - ∞ (e + e - x ) 6
x 
 if f (- x) = f ( x) 
 
e6 x ∞
= 25 ∫ dx
- ∞ (e 2 x + 1)6
1
Let e2x = t, 2e2x dx = dt, dx = dt
2t
when x → - ∞, t=0
∞ ∞ t3 1
∫0
sec h 6 x dx = 25 ∫0 (t + 1) 6
⋅ dt
2t
∞ t 3-1
= 24 ∫0 dt = 24 B(3, 3)
(1 + t )3+ 3
33 2! 2! 8
= 16 ⋅ = 16 ⋅ = .
6 5! 15
example 5
∞ e 2 mx + e - 2 mx 1
Prove that ∫0 x
(e + e ) - x 2n
dx = B( n + m, n - m), n > m.
2
Solution
∞ e 2 mx + e - 2 mx 1 ∞ (e 2 mx + e -2 mx ) e 2 nx
∫0 (e + e )
x - x 2n
dx = ∫
2 -∞ (e 2 x + 1) 2 n
dx
Q a f ( x)dx = 2 a f ( x)dx 
 ∫- a ∫0 
 if f (- x) = f ( x) 
 
1 ∞ e2( m + n) x + e2( n - m) x
2 ∫- ∞
= dx
(1 + e 2 x ) 2 n
1
Let e2x = t, 2e2x dx = dt, dx = dt
2t
when x → - ∞, t=0
when x → ∞, t → ∞,
∞ e 2 mx + e -2 mx 1 ∞ t m+n + t n-m 1
∫ 0 (e x + e - x ) 2 n
dx =
2 ∫0 (1 + t ) 2 n
⋅ dt
2t
1 ∞ t ( m + n ) -1 ∞ t ( n - m ) -1 
=  ∫0 (m+ n)+(n- m)
d t + ∫ (n- m)+(n+ m)
dt 
4  (1 + t ) 0 (1 + t ) 
1
=
4
[ B(m + n, n - m) + B(n - m, n + m)]
1
= B (n + m, n - m)
2
[Q B(m, n) = B(n, m)]
example 6
π sin n-1 x 2n-1  n n
Prove that ∫0 ( a + b cosx ) n
dx =
2 2 2
n
B  ,  and hence,
 2 2
(a - b )
2
 3
 4
π sinx  
deduce that ∫0 3
dx =
2 2π
.
(5 + 3 cosx ) 2
Solution
x x 2
Let tan = t , = tan -1 t , dx = dt
2 2 1+ t2
1- t2 2t
cos x = , sin x =
1+ t 2
1+ t2
when x = 0, t=0
when x = p, t→∞
n -1
 2t 
n -1
sin x   ∞ t n -1
π
1+ t2 
∫ 2
∫
∞
dx = dt = 2
n
0 (a + b cos x) n ∫ 0
 1 - t 2 
n
⋅
1+ t 2 0
(a + b) + (a - b) t 2 
n
dt
a + b  
  1 + t 2  
a+b ⋅ u a+b 1
Let (a - b) t2 = (a + b)u, t = , dt = ⋅ 1
du
a-b 2 a-b 2
u
when t = 0, u=0
when t → ∞, u→∞
n -1
 (a + b)u  2
sin n -1 x  ( a - b) 
a+b 1
∫0 (a + b cos x)n dx = 2n ∫0  
π ∞
⋅ du
[(a + b) + (a + b) u ] 2 a - b u 12
n
n
-1
2n -1 ∞ u2 2n -1 n n
= ∫ du = B , 
n n 0 n n
+
n
2 2
( a + b) ( a - b)
2 2
(1 + u ) 2 2
(a 2 - b ) 2 2
3
Putting a = 5, b = 3, n = in the above integral,
2
3
-1
π sin x 22 3 3
∫0 3
dx = 3
B , 
4 4
(5 + 3 cos x) 2
(52 - 3 ) 2 4
2
 3
3 3 2 
2  4
= 3 4 4=
2 3 1 1
23 ⋅
2 2 2
2
 3
 4
 
=
2 2π
example 7
π
cos 2 m-1θ sin 2 n-1θ Β( m, n)
Prove that ∫ 0
2
( a cos θ + b sin θ )
2 2 2 2 m+ n
dθ = 2 m 2 n .
2a b
Solution
π
cos 2 m -1 θ sin 2 n -1 θ
∫0
2
(a 2 cos 2 θ + b 2 sin 2 θ )m + n
dθ
cos 2 m-1 θ sin 2 n -1 θ (cosθ )-2 m- 2 n

π
= ∫ 2
dθ
0 (a 2 + b 2 tan 2 θ )m+ n
(tan θ )2 n -1 sec 2 θ
π
1
= 2( m+ n ) ∫ 2
m+ n
dθ
0
a  b2 2 
1 + a 2 tan θ 
b2 a a 1
Let 2
tan 2 θ = t, tan q = t, sec2 q dq = ⋅ dt
a b 2b t
when q = 0, t=0
π
when q= , t→∞
2 2 n -1
 a 12 
π
cos 2 m -1 θ sin 2 n -1 θ 1  t 
∞ b a 1
∫
0
2
(a 2 cos 2 θ + b 2 sin 2 θ ) m + n
dθ = 2 ( m + n )
a ∫ 0 (1 + t ) m + n
⋅ ⋅
2b t
dt
1 ∞ t n -1
=
2a 2 m b 2 n ∫
0 (1 + t ) m + n
dt
1
= B(m, n)
2a b 2 n
2m
example 8
1 x m -1 + x n-1
Prove that B(m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x ) m+ n
dx .
Solution
x m -1
∞
we have B(m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n dx
1 x m -1 ∞ x m -1
= ∫ +
dx + ∫ dx … (1)
0 (1 + x ) m n 1 (1 + x ) m + n
∞ x m -1
Consider, I= ∫
1 (1 + x) m + n
dx
1 1
Let x= , dx = - dy
y y2
when x =1, y=1
when x → ∞, y=0
m -1
1
0
 y   1  1 y n -1
I= ∫ 1
 1
m+n  - y 2  dy = ∫0 ( y + 1)m + n dy
1 + y 
Substituting in Eq. (1),
1 x m -1 1 y n -1
B(m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n d x + ∫0 (1 + y)m + n dy
Replacing y by x,
1 x m -1 1 x n -1
B(m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n d x + ∫0 (1 + x)m + n dx
1 x m -1 + x n -1
= ∫ 0 (1 + x) m + n
dx
example 9
2
 1
π
dθ  4
 
Prove that ∫0
2
1
=
4 π
.
1 - sin 2θ
2
Solution
θ θ 2
Let tan = t, = tan -1 t , dθ = dt
2 2 1 + t2
2t
sin q =
1+ t2
when q = 0, t=0
π
when θ= , t=1
2
π
dθ
∫ 2
= 1 2
1
0
1 ∫0 2
⋅
1+ t2
dt
1 - sin 2 θ 1  2t 
2 1-  
2 1 + t 2 
1
1 - 43 1 1
Let t4 = u, t = u 4 , dt = u du = 2∫ 1
dt
4 0
(1 + t ) 4 2
when t = 0, u=0
when t = 1, u=1
π
dθ 1 1 1 -3
∫0
2
1
= 2∫
0 1
⋅ u 4 du
4
1- sin 2 θ (1 + u ) 2
2
1 1 1
-1 -1 -1
1 1 u4 1 1 u4 + u4
=
2 ∫ 0 1
du =
4 ∫0 1
+
1
du
(1 + u ) 2 (1 + u ) 4 4
1 1 1
= B ,  [From Ex. 8]
4 4 4
2
 1
1 1  
=
1 4 4
=  4
4 1 4 π
2
exercIse 3.5
∞ dy
1. Evaluate ∫0 1+ y 4
.
 π 
 ans. : 
2. Prove that  2 2
∞ x m -1 + x n -1
∫0 (1 + x )m + n
dx = 2B (m, n).
3. Prove that
∞ x π
∫0 (4 + 4 x + x )
2
dx =
4 2
.
4. Prove that
∞ dx 1  n n
∫ 0
= B ,
(e x + e - x )n 4  2 2 
∞
and hence, evaluate ∫0
sech 8 x dx.
 16 
 ans. : 35 
∞ dx
5. Prove that ∫ 1 x p +1
(x - 1)q
= B(p + q, 1 - q), if - p < q < 1.
Points to remember
Gamma Function
∞
n = ∫ e - x x n -1dx, n > 0
0
∞
n = 2 ∫ e - x x 2 n -1dx
2
Properties of Gamma Function

Property 1: n +1 = n n
(i) n + 1 = n! if n is a positive integer

(ii) n +1 = n n if n is a positive real number
n +1
(iii) n= if n is a negative fraction
n
π
(iv) n 1- n =
sin nπ
Property 2: 1
= π
2
Beta Function
1
B (m, n) = ∫ x m -1 (1 - x) n -1 dx, m > 0, n > 0.
0
Trigonometric Form of Beta Function

π
B(m, n) = 2 ∫ 2 sin 2 m -1 x cos 2 n -1 x dx

0
Properties of Beta Functions

Symmetry
B(m, n) = B(n, m)
Relation between Beta and Gamma Functions
m n
B(m, n) =
m+n
Duplication Formula
1 o 2m
m m+ = 2 m -1
2 2
Beta Function as Improper Integral

∞ x m -1
B(m, n) = ∫
0 (1 + x) m + n
dx

∞ Ê -x ˆ
2
1 ÁË ˜
8 ¯
1. The value of the integral I =
2p
Úe dx is
0
(a) 1 (b) p (c) 2 (d) 2p
2. Match the items in columns I and II for the following special functions
I II
1
(P) b (p, q) (i)
2
∞
y p -1
Ú (1 + y)( p + q) dy
p q
(Q) (ii)
p+q 0
(R) p (iii) b (p, q)
p
(S) (iv) p 1 - p
sin pp
(a) P-(iv), Q-(iii), R-(i), S-(ii) (b) P-(ii), Q-(iii), R-(i), S-(iv)
(c) P-(iii), Q-(ii), R-(i), S-(iv) (d) P-(ii), Q-(iii), R-(iv), S-(i)
∞
3
3. The value of Ú y e - y dy is
0
p p p
(a) (b) (c) p (d)
2 3 6
4. The value of B (m + 1, n) is
n n
(a) B (m, n) (b) B (m, n)
m+n m +1
m m
(c) B (m, n) (d) B (m, n)
m+n m +1
p
5. The value of Ú0
2 cot q dq is
p 2 p p 2 p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 2 4 4
3
1 4 È Ê 1ˆ˘
6. The value of Ú0
x Ílog ÁË ˜¯ ˙ dx is
Î x ˚
3 6 3 6
(a) (b) (c) (d)
325 625 625 325
1
7. If B (n, 2) = and n is a positive integer, then the value of n is
6
(a) 3 (b) - 2 (c) 2 (d) - 3
• t 2 dt
8. The value of Ú0 1 + t4
is
p p p p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 2 2 4
9. The value of B (m, m) is
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ
(a) 21 - 2m B ÁË m, ˜¯ (b) 21 - 2m B ÁË m + 1, ˜¯
2 2
Ê 1 ˆ Ê 3ˆ
(c) 21 - 2m B ÁË m + , 1˜¯ (d) 21 - 2m B ÁË m, ˜¯
2 2
10. Gamma function is discontinuous for
(a) all p < 0 (b) any p > 0
(c) p = 0 only (d) p = 0 and negative integers
11. Beta function B (p, q) is convergent for

(a) p > 0, q < 0 (b) p > 0, q > 0
(c) p < 0, q > 0 (d) p < 0, q < 0
answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (a)
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (b)
CHAPTER
Applications
4
of Definite Integrals
chapter outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Volume using Cross-sections
4.3 Length of Plane Curves
4.4 Area of Surface of Solid of Revolution
4.1 IntroductIon
In this chapter, we will explore few applications of definite integrals. Applications of
definite integrals in finding volume by cross-sections, length of plane curves and areas
of surfaces of revolution are discussed in detail.
4.2 Volume usIng cross-sectIons
The volume of a solid of known integrable cross-section area A(x) formed by a plane
perpendicular to the x-axis at any point between x = a to x = b is
b
V = ∫ A( x)dx
a
Note: If the cross-section A(y) is perpendicular to the y-axis at any point between
y = c to y = d, then the volume of the solid is
d
V = ∫ A( y )dy
c
4.2 Chapter 4 Applications of Definite Integrals
example 1
Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating the plane region
1
bounded by y = , x = 1 and x = 3 about the x-axis.
x
Solution
The volume is generated by rotating the dotted region about the x-axis.
The cross-section PQ of the generated volume is a circle of radius y perpendicular to
x-axis. y
Area of cross-section, A = p y2
1 1
= p◊ y=
x2 x
For the region shown, x varies from

P (x, y)
1 to 3.
x=1
3 p x=3
Volume, V =Ú dx O A B x
1 x2
3
1 Q
=p -
x1
Ê 1 ˆ
= p Á - + 1˜
Ë 3 ¯
2
= p
3
Fig. 4.1
example 2
Find the volume of the solid that lies between planes perpendicular to
the x-axis at x = 0 and x = 4. The cross-sections perpendicular to the
x-axis between these planes run from one side of the parabola x = y 2 to
the other. The cross-sections are squares with bases in the xy-plane.
Solution
The cross-section of the solid is a square PQRS with side runs from y = − x to
y= x
Length PQ = 2 y = 2 x
Area of cross-section, A = (2 x ) 2 = 4 x
For the region shown, x varies y

from 0 to 4. S
4 P(x,y)
Volume, V = Ú 4 x dx
0
4
x2 x
=4 S P(x,y)
O R
2 x=4
0
= 2(16 - 0) Q
= 32 R Q
Fig. 4.2
example 3
Find the volume of a right circular cone of base radius r and height h.
Solution
The cone is generated by rotating the line y
AB about the y-axis. Equation of the line
AB passing through the points A(r, 0) and B(0,h)
B (0, h) is
h-0
y-0 = (x - r)
0-r
P x
Q(x,y)
Ê yˆ
x = r Á1 - ˜
Ë h¯
The cross-section PQ of the cone is a circle
O x A(r,0) x
of radius x perpendicular to the y-axis.
Area of cross-section, A = p x 2
2
Ê yˆ Fig. 4.3
= p r 2 Á1 - ˜
Ë h¯
For the region shown, y varies from 0 to h.
2
h Ê yˆ
Volume, V = Ú p r 2 Á 1 - ˜ dy
o Ë h¯
h
3
Ê yˆ
ÁË 1 - h ˜¯
= p r2
Ê 1ˆ
3Á - ˜
Ë h¯
o
p r2h
=- (0 - 1)
3
1
= pr 2 h
3
example 4
Find the volume of the solid with a circular base of radius 5 and whose
cross-sections perpendicular to the base and parallel to the x-axis are
equilateral triangles.
Solution
Equation of the circular base of radius 5 is,
x 2 + y 2 = 25 …(1)
The cross-section of the solid is an equilateral triangle PQR with base 2x.
Area of cross-section, 1
A= ¥ (base) ¥ (height )
2
1
= (2 x )(h )
2
1
= (2 x )( x tan 60°)
2
= x2 3
= (25 - y 2 ) 3 [from Eq. (1)]
For the region shown, y varies from −5 to 5.
y
Q
Q
h
R P (x, y ) 60°
x R P
O 2x
Fig. 4.4
5
Volume, V =Ú 3 (25 - y 2 ) dy
-5
5
= 2Ú 3 (25 - y 2 ) dy
0
5
y3
= 2 3 25 y -
3
0
Ê 125 ˆ
= 2 3 Á 125 -
Ë 3 ˜¯
500 3
=
3
example 5
Use the method of slicing to find the volume of solid with semicircular
È p p˘
base defined by y = 5 cos x on the interval Í - , ˙ . The cross-sections
Î 2 2˚
of the solid are squares perpendicular to the x-axis with base running
from x-axis to the curve. [Winter 2015]
Solution
The cross-section of the solid is a square with side runs from y = 0 (x-axis) to
y = 5 cos x .
Length of one side of the square = 5 cos x

2
(
Area of cross-section, A = 5 cos x )
= 25 cos2 x
È p p˘ p p
In the given interval Í - , ˙ , x varies from - to .
Î 2 2 ˚ 2 2
p
2
Volume, V = Ú 25 cos2 x dx
p
-
2
p
2
Ê 1 + cos 2 x ˆ
= 25 Ú Á ˜¯ dx
p
Ë 2
-
2
p
25 sin 2 x 2
= x+
2 2 -
p
2
25 ÈÊ p p ˆ ˘
= Í +
2 ÎÁË 2 2 ˜¯
+ 0˙ [Qsin p = 0]
˚
25
= p
2
exercIse 4.1
1. Find the volume of the solid that lies between planes perpendicular to
the y-axis at y = 0 and y = 2. The cross-sections perpendicular to the
y-axis are circular disks with diameters running from the y-axis to the
parabola x = 5y 2 .
[Ans.: 8p ]
2. Find the volume of the solid that lies between the planes perpendicular
to the x-axis at x = −1 and x = 1. The cross-sections perpendicular to the
x-axis are circular disks whose diameters run from the parabola y = x2 to
the parabola y = 2 − x2.
 16 
 Ans.: 15 π 
 
4 3
3. Show that the volume of a sphere of radius r is πr .
3
4. Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region bounded between
the curves y = x and y = x2, and whose cross-sections perpendicular to the
x-axis are squares.
 1
 Ans.: 30 
 
5. Find the volume of the solid whose base is a triangle with vertices (0, 0),
(2, 0) and (0, 2) and whose cross-sections perpendicular to the base and
parallel to the y-axis are semicircles.
 π
 Ans.: 3 
 
4.3 length oF PlAne curVes
The process of determining the length of an arc of a plane curve is known as rectification
of curves.
4.3.1 length of Arc in cartesian Form

We know from differential calculus that for the curve
y y = f (x)
y = f (x),
2
ds Ê dy ˆ
= 1+ Á ˜
dx Ë dx ¯
The length of the arc of the curve y = f (x) between x = a
and x = b is given by, O x=a x=b x
b ds Fig. 4.5
s=∫ dx
a dx
2
b  dy 
=∫ 1 +   dx
a  dx 
Similarly, the length of the arc of the curve x = f (y) between y = c and y = d is given
by,
d ds
s=Ú dy
c dy
2
d Ê dx ˆ
=Ú 1 + Á ˜ dy
c Ë dy ¯
example 1
y
Show that the length of the arc of the curve 4 ax = y 2 - 2 a 2 log - a 2
a
y2 a
from (0, a) to any point (x, y) is given by - - x.
2a 2
Solution
y
4ax = y 2 - 2a 2 log
- a2 … (1)
a
dx a 1
4a = 2 y - 2a2 ◊ ◊
dy y a
dx y a y2 - a2
= - =
dy 2 a 2 y 2 ay
For the required arc, y varies from a to y.

2
y Ê dx ˆ
Length of the arc, s=Ú 1 + Á ˜ dy
a Ë dy ¯
2
y  y2 − a2 
=∫ 1+  dy
a  2ay 
2
y ( y2 + a2 )
=∫ dy
a (2ay ) 2
1 y y2 + a2
2 a ∫a
= dy
y
1  y y 1 
2a  ∫a ∫
= y dy + a 2 dy
a y 
y
1 y2
= + a 2 log y
2a 2 a
1  y2 y a2 
=  + a log − 
2
2a 2 a 2
1  y2  y2 a2  a2 
=  +  − 2ax −  −  … [From Eq. (1)]
2a  2 2 2 2
1 2
= ( y − 2ax − a 2 )
2a
y2 a
= −x−
2a 2
2
y a
= − −x
2a 2
example 2
Find the length of the arc of the curve y = ex from the point (0, 1) to
(1, e).
Solution y
y = ex y = ex
dy
= ex
dx
For the required arc, x varies from 0 to 1. B(1, e)
A
2 (0, 1)
1  dy 
Length of the arc AB, s=∫ 1 +   dx
0  dx  O x
1
=∫ 1 + e 2 x dx Fig. 4.6
0
Putting 1 + e2x = t2,

2e2xdx = 2t dt
t
dx = 2 dt
t −1
when x = 0, t= 2
when x = 1, t = 1 + e2
1+ e2 t
Length of the arc, s=∫ t⋅ dt
2 t −1
2
t2 −1+1
1+ e2
=∫ dt
2 t2 −1
1+ e2  1 
=∫ 1 + 2  dt
2 t −1
1+ e2
1 t −1
= t + log
2 t +1 2
1 1 + e2 − 1 2 − 1
= 1 + e 2 − 2 +  log − log 
2 1 + e2 + 1 2 + 1
1   ( 1 + e 2 − 1) 
  2
  ( 2 − 1)2  
= 1 + e − 2 + log   − log   
2
2   1 + e2 − 1  2 − 1
     
= 1 + e 2 − 2 + log ( 1 + e 2 − 1) − log e 2 − log ( 2 − 1)

1
2
= 1 + e 2 − 2 + log ( 1 + e 2 − 1) − 1 − log ( 2 − 1)
[Q log e2 = 2 log e = 2]
example 3
p
Find the length of the arc of the curve y = log sec x from x = 0 to x = .
3
Solution
y = log sec x
dy 1
= ⋅ sec x tan x = tan x
dx sec x
p
For the required arc, x varies from 0 to .
3
2
 dy 
p
Length of the arc, s = ∫ 3 1 +   dx
0  dx 
p
= ∫ 3 1 + tan 2 x dx
0
p
= ∫ 3 sec x dx
0
p
= log(sec x + tan x) 03
= log ( 2 + 3 )
example 4
Ê e x - 1ˆ
Find the length of the arc of the curve y = log Á ˜ from x = 1 to x = 2.
Ë e x + 1¯
Solution
ex − 1
y = log
ex + 1
y = log (e x − 1) − log (e x + 1)
dy ex ex 2e x
= x − x = 2x
dx e − 1 e + 1 e − 1
For the required arc, x varies from 1 to 2.
2
2  dy 
Length of the arc, s=∫ 1 +   dx
1  dx 
2 4e 2 x
=∫ 1+ dx
1 (e 2 x − 1) 2
2 (e 2 x − 1) 2 + 4e 2 x
=∫ dx
1 (e 2 x − 1) 2
2 e + 1
2x
= ∫  2 x  dx
1 e − 1
−x
2 e + e 
x
=∫  x dx
1  e − e− x 

2
= log (e x − e − x ) 1
= log (e 2 − e −2 ) − log(e − e −1 )
e 2 − e −2
= log
e − e −1
= log (e + e −1 )
 1
= log  e + 
 e
example 5
Show that the length of the arc of the curve ay2 = x3 from the origin to
8a ÈÍÊ 9b ˆ 2 ˘˙
3
the point whose abscissa is b is 1+ -1 .

7 ÍÁË 4 a ˜¯ ˙
Î ˚
Solution
ay 2 = x 3
dy
2ay = 3x 2 y
dx
dy 3 x 2 3x 2 3 x P
= = =
dx 2ay x3 2 a
2a
a
For the arc OP, x varies from 0 to b. O x=b x
2
b  dy 
Length of the arc OP, s=∫ 1 +   dx
0  dx 
b 9x
=∫ 1+ dx Fig. 4.7
0 4a
3 b
2  9 x  2 4a
= 1 + 
3  4a  9
0
  3
8a  9b  2
= 1 +  − 1
27  4a 
 
example 6
x
For the catenary y = c cosh , prove that the length of the arc s, mea-
c
sured from its vertex to any point (x, y), is
x
(i) s = c sinh (ii) s2 = y 2 - c 2 (iii) s = c tan y
c
y
Solution
x
(i) y = c cosh
c
dy x P(x, y)
= sinh
dx c A
For the arc AP, x varies from 0 to x. (0, c)
2
x  dy  y
Length of the arc AP, s=∫ 1 +   dx
0  dx  x
x x
=∫ 1 + sinh 2 dx
0 c
Fig. 4.8
x x
= ∫ cosh dx
0 c
x
x
= c sinh
c0
x
= c sinh
c
x
(ii) s 2 = c 2 sinh 2
c
 x 
= c 2  cosh 2 − 1
 c 
x
= c 2 cosh 2 − c 2
c
= y 2 − c2
(iii) The tangent at point P(x, y) makes an angle y with the x-axis.
dy
tan y =
dx
x
= sinh
c
s
= [From (i)]
c
s = c tan y
example 7
2
Ê 1 ˆ
Prove that the length of the arc of the curve y = x Á 1 - x˜ from the
2
Ë 3 ¯
4
origin to the point P(x, y) is given by s2 = y 2 + x 2 . Hence, rectify the
3
loop. y
Solution P(x, y)
2
 1 
y 2 = x  1 − x
 3 
1
O A (3, 0) x
 x 1 3
y= x 1 −  = x 2 − x 2
 3 3
dy 1 − 12 1 3 12 (1 − x)
= x − ⋅ x =
dx 2 3 2 2 x Fig. 4.9
For the arc OP, x varies from 0 to x.

2
x  dy 
Length of the arc OP, s=∫ 1 +   dx
0  dx 
x (1 − x) 2
=∫ 1+ dx
0 4x
x (1 + x) 2
=∫ dx
0 4x
x 1+ x
=∫ dx
0
2 x
1 x − 12 1
= ∫
2 0
( x + x 2 ) dxx
x
1 3
2 2
1 x x
= +
2 1 3
2 2 0
 x 
= x 1 + 
 3
2
 x
s 2 = x 1 + 
 3
2
 x 4
= x 1 −  + x 2
 3 3
4
= y 2 + x2
3
2
 1 
The points of intersection of the curve y = x 1 − x and x-axis are obtained as,
2
 3 
2
 1 
0 = x  1 − x
 3 
x = 0, 3, 3 and y = 0, 0, 0
Hence, A: (3, 0) is the point of intersection.
 3
Length of the upper half of the loop = 3 1 +  = 2 3
 3
Length of the complete loop = 4 3
example 8
Show that the length of the loop of the curve 9ay 2 = ( x - 2 a )( x - 5a)2
is 4 3a .
Solution
The points of intersection of the curve 9ay 2 = ( x − 2a )( x − 5a ) 2 and x-axis are ob-
tained as,
y
0 = ( x − 2a)( x − 5a) 2
x = 2a, 5a and y = 0, 0
Hence, A: (2a, 0) and B: (5a, 0) are the points
of intersection.
A B
9ay 2 = ( x − 2a )( x − 5a ) 2
O (2a, 0) (5a, 0) x
dy
18ay = ( x − 2 a ) 2 ( x − 5a ) + ( x − 5 a ) 2
dx
= ( x − 5a )(3 x − 9a )
dy ( x − 5a )( x − 3a )
= Fig. 4.10
dx 6ay
For the upper half of the loop, x varies from 2a to 5a.
Length of the loop of the curve, s = 2 (Length of upper half of the loop)
2
5a  dy 
= 2∫ 1 +   dx
2a  dx 
5a ( x − 5a ) 2 ( x − 3a ) 2
= 2∫ 1+ dx
2a 36a 2 y 2
5a (xx − 5a ) 2 ( x − 3a ) 2
= 2∫ 1+ dx
2a 4a ( x − 2a )( x − 5a ) 2
5a ( x − 3a ) 2
= 2∫ 1+ dx
2a 4a ( x − 2a )
5a ( x − a)2
= 2∫ dx
2a 4a ( x − 2a )
5a x−a
= 2∫ dx
2 a ⋅ x − 2a
2a
1 5 a ( x − 2a ) + a
= ∫
a 2a x − 2a
dx
1  5a − 
1
= ∫ 
a 2a 
x − 2 a + a ( x − 2 a ) 2
 dx

3 1 5a
1 2
= ( x − 2a ) 2 + 2a ( x − 2a ) 2
a 3 2a
1 2 3 1

=  (3a ) 2
+ 2 a (3a ) 2

a 3 
= 2 3 a + 2a 3
= 4 3a
example 9
In the evolute 27ay 2 = 4( x - 2 a )3 of the parabola y 2 = 4 ax, show
that the length of the arc from one cusp to the point where it meets the
parabola is 2 a(3 3 - 1) .
Solution y
(8a, ≥32a)
(i) The points of intersection of the parabola
B
y 2 = 4ax with its evolute 27 ay 2 = 4( x − 2a )3
are obtained as,
27a ⋅ 4 ax = 4( x − 2a)3 A
x 3 − 6 ax 2 − 15a 2 x − 8a3 = 0 O
(2a, 0)
x
( x + a ) 2 ( x − 8a ) = 0
x = − a, 8 a C
(8a, −≥32a)
But x = –a does not lie on the parabola.
x = 8a and y = ± 32a Fig. 4.11
( )
Hence, B: 8a, 32a is the point of intersection.
(ii) The points of intersection of the evolute 27 ay 2 = 4( x − 2a )3 with the x-axis are
obtained as,
x = 2a and y = 0
Hence A: (2a, 0) is the point of intersection.
Now, 27 ay 2 = 4( x − 2a )3
3
2
y= ( x − 2a ) 2
3 3a
dy 2 3 1
x − 2a
= ⋅ ( x − 2a ) 2 =
dx 3 3a 2 3a
For the arc AB, x varies from 2a to 8a.
2
8a  dy 
Length of the arc AB, s = ∫ 1 +   dx
2a  dx 
8a x − 2a
=∫ 1+ dx
2a 3a
1 8a
=
3a
∫ 2a
x + a dx
3 8a
1 2
= ⋅( x + a) 2
3a 3 2a
1 2 3 3

= ⋅ (9a ) − (3a ) 2 
2
3a 3  
3 3
2
= (3a ) 2 (3 2 − 1)
3 3a
= 2a (3 3 − 1)
example 10
Find the length of the parabola x2 = 4y which lies inside the circle
x2 + y2 = 6y.
Solution
The equation of the circle is y
x2 + y2 = 6y
x + y2 – 6y = 0
2
The centre of the circle is (0, 3) and radius

is 3. A B (2≥2, 2)
The points of intersection of parabola x2 = 4y (−2≥2, 2)
and circle x2 + y2 = 6y are obtained as,
4 y + y2 = 6 y
O x
y2 − 2 y = 0
Fig. 4.12
y ( y − 2) = 0
y = 0, 2
when y = 0, x=0
y = 2, x = ±2 2
( ) ( )
Hence A : −2 2 , 2 and B : 2 2 , 2 are the points of intersection.
Now, x2 = 4 y
dy x
=
dx 2
For the arc, OB, x varies from 0 to 2 2.
Length of the arc OB, s = 2(Length of the arc OB)
2
2 2  dy 
= 2∫ 1 +   dx
0  dx 
2 2 x2
= 2∫ 1+ dx
0 4
2 2
=∫ x 2 + 4 dx
0
( )
2 2
x 2
= g x + x2 + 4
x + 4 + 2 log
2 0
(
= 2 ⋅ 12 + 2 log 2 2 + 12 − 2 log 2 )
= 2  6 + log
 ( 2+ 3 
 )
example 11
Show that the length of the parabola y2 = 4ax from the vertex to the end
of the latus rectum is a È 2 + log (1 + 2 )˘ . Find the length of the arc
Î ˚
cut off by the line 3y = 8x.
Solution
(i) The points of intersection of the parabola
y2 = 4ax and its latus rectum x = a are obtained y 3y = 8x
as,
P (a, 2a)
y 2 = 4a ⋅ a = 4a 2 A
y = ± 2a and x = a x=a
Hence, P: (a, 2a) and Q : (a, − 2a ) are the
points of intersection. O (a, 0) x
2
y
Now, x=
4a
dx y Q (a, −2a)
=
dy 2a
y 2 = 4ax
For the arc OP, y varies from 0 to 2a.
Fig. 4.13
2
2a  dx 
Length of the arc OP, s=∫ 1 +   dy
0  dy 
2a y2
=∫ 1+ dy
0 4a 2
1 2a 2
2a ∫ 0
= y + 4 a 2 dy
2a
=
1 y
2a 2
y 2 + 4a 2 +
4a 2
2
(
log y + y 2 + 4a 2 )
0
a ⋅ 2a 2 + 2a 2 log ( 2a + 2a 2 ) − 2a 2 log 2a 
1 
=
2a  
 2a + 2a 2 
= a  2 + log 
 2a
= a  2 + log (1 + 2 )
 
(ii) The points of intersection of the parabola y2 = 4ax and the line 3y = 8x are obtained
as,
 3y 
y 2 = 4a  
 8
 3a 
y y −  = 0
 2
3a 9a
y = 0, and x = 0,
2 16
 9a 3a 
Hence, A :  ,
 16 2 
is the point of intersection.
For the arc OA, y varies from 0 to 3a .

2
3a
1
2a ∫0
Length of the arc OA, s = 2
y 2 + 4a 2 dy
3a
1 y 4a 2
( )
2
= y 2 + 4a 2 + log y + y 2 + 4a 2
2a 2 2 0
1  3a 9a 2   3a 9a 2   
=  + 4a 2 + 2a 2 log  + + 4a 2  − log 2a  
2a  4
 
4
 
2 4 

1  3a 5a 2   3a 5a  
=  ⋅ + 2a log g  +  − log 2a  
2a  4 2   2 2 
1  15a 2 
=  + 2a 2 log 2
2a 8 
 15 
= a  log 2 + 
 16 
exercIse 4.2
1. Find the length of the arc of following curves:
Ê xˆ
(i) y = log Á tanh ˜ from x = 1 to x = 2
Ë 2¯
(ii) 24 xy = x 4 + 48 from x = 2 to x = 4
3
(iii) x = 3y 2 - 1 from y = 0 to y = 4
(iv) y = x (2 - x) from x = 0 to x = 2
È Ê 1ˆ 17
Í Ans.: (i) log ÁË e + ˜¯ , (ii) , (iii)
8
(82 82 - 1), (iv) 1 log (2 + 5 )+ 5 ˘˙
Î e 6 243 2 ˚
2. Find the length of the curve y 2 = (2 x - 1)3 cut off by the line x = 4.
È 1022 ˘
Í Ans.: 27 ˙
Î ˚
3. Find the arc of the parabola y 2 = 4 a(a - x) cut off by the y-axis.
ÍÎ Î (
È Ans.: a È2 2 - log 3 - 2 2 ˘ ˘
˚ ˙˚ )
4. Find the length of the arc of the parabola y2 = 8x cut off by its latus
rectum. Find the length of the arc cut off by the line 3y = 8x
È Ê 15 ˆ ˘
Í Ans.: 4 ÈÎ 2 + log(1 + 2)˘˚ , 2 ÁË log 2 + ˜¯ ˙
Î 16 ˚
5. Find the length of the arc of the parabola x2 = 4ay measured from the
vertex to one extremity of the latus rectum.
È Ans.: log È x + (1 + x 2 ) ˘ ˘
ÎÍ Î ˚ ˚˙
6. Show that if s is the arc of the curve 9y 2 = x(3 - x)2 measured from the
origin to the point P(x, y), then 3s 2 = 3y 2 + 4 x 2 .
7. Find the length of the loop of the curve
(i) 3ay 2 = x(x - a)2
(ii) 9y 2 = (x + 7)(x + 4)2

(iii) 9ay 2 = x(x - 3a)2
(iv) ay 2 = x 2 (a - x)
È 4 4 ˘
Í Ans.: (i) a, (ii) 4 3, (iii) 4 3a, (iv) a˙
Î 3 3 ˚
4.3.2 length of Arc in Parametric Form

When the equation of the curve is given in y
parametric form x = f1(t), y = f2(t), we have, from
differential calculus, x = f (y)
y=d
2 2
ds  dx   dy 
=   + 
dt  dt   dt 
The length of the arc of the curve between the y=c
points t = t1 and t = t2 is given by,
O x
2 2 Fig. 4.14
t2  dx   dy 
s=∫   +   dt
t1 dt dt
example 1
Find the length of the curve x = a(cos q + q sinq ), y = a(sin q – q cos q ),
from q = 0 to q = 2p.
Solution
x = a(cos q + q sin q )
dx
= a ( − sin q + sin q + q cos q ) = a q cos q
dq
y = a (sin q − q cos q )
dy
= a (cos q − cos q + q sin q ) = a q sin q
dq
For the required arc, q varies from 0 to2p.
2 2
2p  dx   dy 
Length of the curve, s=∫   +   dq
0 dq dq
2p
=∫ (a q cos q ) 2 + (a q sin q ) 2 dq
0
2p
= a ∫ q dq
0
2p
q2
=a
2 0
= 2ap 2
example 2
Ê qˆ
Find the length of the curve x = eq ÊÁ sin + 2 cos ˆ˜ , y = eq Á cos - 2 sin ˜
q q q
Ë 2 2¯ Ë 2 2¯
measured from q = 0 to q = p.
Solution
 q q
x = eq  sin + 2 cos 
 2 2
dx  q q 1 q q 5 q
= eq  sin + 2 cos  + eq  cos − sin  = eq cos
dq  2 2   2 2 2  2 2
 q q
y = eq  cos − 2 sin 
 2 2
dy  q q  1 q q 5 q
= eq  cos − 2 sin  + eq  − sin − cos  = − eq sin
dq  2 2  2 2 2 2 2
For the required arc, q varies from 0 to p.
2 2
p  dx   dy 
Length of the curve s=∫   +   dq
0 dq dq
p 25 2q q 25 q
=∫ e cos 2 + e 2q sin 2 dq
0 4 2 4 2
p 25 2q
=∫ e dq
0 4
5 p q
2 ∫0
= e dq
5 p
= eq 0
2
5 p
= (e − 1)
2
example 3
Find the length of the cycloid from one cusp to the next cusp
x = a(q + sin q ), y = a(1 - cos q ).
Solution y
x = a (q + sin q ) A B
dx
= a (1 + cos q )
dq
y = a (1 − cos q )
dy O ap x
= a sin q
−ap
dq
Fig. 4.15
For the arc OB, x varies from 0 to ap, hence q
varies from 0 to p.
Length of the arc AB,
s = 2 (Length of arc OB)
2 2
p  dx   dy 
= 2∫   +   dq
0 dq dq
p
= 2∫ a 2 (1 + cos q ) 2 + a 2 sin 2 q dq
0
p
= 2a ∫ 2(1 + cos q ) dq
0
p q
= 4a ∫ 0
cos
2
dq
p
q
= 4a 2 sin
20
= 8a
example 4
Find the length of one arc of the cycloid x = a(q – sinq ), y = a(1 + cosq ).
y
Solution
A B
x = a (q − sin q )
dx
= a (1 − cos q )
dq
y = a (1 + cos q )
dy O 2ap x
= − a sin q Fig. 4.16
dq
For the arc AB, x varies from 0 to 2ap, hence q varies from 0 to 2p.
2 2
2p  dx   dy 
Length of the arc AB, s=∫   +   dq
0 dq dq
2p
=∫ a 2 (1 − cos q ) 2 + a 2 sin 2 q dq
0
2p
= a∫ 2 − 2 cos q dq
0
2p q
= a∫ 2 ⋅ 2 sin 2 dq
0 2
2p q
= 2a ∫ sin dq
0 2
2p
q
= 2a −2 cos
20
= −4a (cos p − cos 0)
= 8a
example 5
È Ê t ˆ˘
Find the length of the tractrix x = a Ícos t + log tan Á ˜ ˙ , y = a sin t from
Î Ë 2¯ ˚
p
t = to any point t.
2
Solution
  t 
x = a cos t + log tan   
  2 
 
dx  1  t  1
= a  − sin t + sec 2   ⋅ 
dt  t  2 2 
 tan   
 2
 
 1 
= a  − sin t +
t t
 2 sin cos 
2 2
 1 
= a  − sin t + 
 sin t 
(1 − sin 2 t )
=a
sin t
cos 2 t
=a
sin t
y = a sin t
dy
= a cos t
dt
p
For the required arc, t varies from to t.
2
2 2
t  dx   dy 
Length of the curve, s = ∫p   +   dt
2
 dt   dt 
t cos 4 t
= ∫p a 2 + a 2 cos 2 t dt
2 sin 2 t
t
= a ∫p cos t cot 2 t + 1 dt
2
t
= a ∫p cot t dt
2
t
= a log sin t p
2
= a log sin t
example 6
For the curve x = a (2 cos t - cos 2t ), y = a (2 sin t - sin 2t ), show that
the length of the arc of the curve measured from t = 0 to the point where
the tangent makes an angle y with the tangent, at t = 0 is given by
y
s = 16 a sin 2 .
6
Solution x = a (2 cos t − cos 2t )
dx
= a ( −2 sin t + 2 sin 2t ) = 2a (sin 2t − sin t )
dt
y = a ( 2 sin t − sin 2t )
dy
= a ( 2 cos t − 2 cos 2t ) = 2a (cos t − cos 2t )
dt
For the required arc, t varies from 0 to t.
2 2
t  dx   dy 
Length of the curve, s=∫   +   dt
0 dt dt
t
=∫ 4a 2 [(sin 2t − sin t ) 2 + (cos t − cos 2t ) 2 dt
0
t
= 2a ∫ 2 − 2(sin 2t sin t + cos t cos 2t ) dt
0
t
= 2a ∫ 2 [1 − cos(2t − t )] dt
0
t
= 2a ∫ 2 (1 − cos t ) dt
0
t t
= 2a ∫ 2 ⋅ 2 sin 2 dt
0 2
t t
= 4a ∫ sin dt
0 2
t
t
= 8a − cos
2 0
 t
= 8a 1 − cos 
 2
t
= 16a sin 2 … (1)
4
dy
dy dt 2a (cos t − cos 2t )
= =
dx dx 2a (sin 2t − sin t )
dt
3t t
2 sin sin
= 2 2 = tan 3t
3t t 2
2 cos sin
2 2
dy
At t = 0, y = 0, =0
dx
Hence, the tangent is x-axis at t = 0.
At the point where tangent makes an angle y with the tangent at t = 0, i.e., x-axis, we
get
dy
= tany
dx
3t
tan = tan y
2
3t
y =
2
2y
t=
3
Putting t in Eq. (1),
2y
s = 16a sin 2
12
2 y
= 16a sin
6
example 7
2 2
Find the total length of the curve ÊÁ ˆ˜ + ÊÁ ˆ˜ = 1. Hence, deduce the

x 3 y 3
Ë a¯ Ë b¯
2 2 2
p
total length of the curve x3 + y3 = a3. Also show that the line q =
3
2 2 2
divides the length of the curve x3 + y3 = a3 in the first quadrant in the
ratio 1:3.
Solution y
(i) The parametric equations of the curve (0, b) B
2 2 q= p
x  y
3 3 3
  +   = 1 are given by,
a b C
p
x = a cos q , y = b sin q
3 3
3 A
(−a, 0) O (a, 0) x
dx
= −3a cos 2 q sin q
dq
dy
= 3b sin 2 q cos q
dq (0, −b)
For the arc AB, x varies from a to 0, hence q

p Fig. 4.17
varies from 0 to .
2
Total length of the curve, s = 4 (Length of the arc AB)
p 2 2
 dx   dy 
= 4∫ 2   +   dq
0  dq   dq 
p
= 4∫ 2 9a 2 sin 2 q cos 4 q + 9b 2 sin 4 q cos 2 q dq
0
p
= 12∫ 2 sin q cos q a 2 + (b 2 − a 2 ) sin 2 q dq
0
Putting a + (b − a ) sin q = t ,
2 2 2 2 2
2(b 2 − a 2 ) sin q cos q dq = 2t dt

t
sin q cos q dq = dt
b − a2
2
when q = 0, t=a
p
when q = , t=b
2
b t
s = 12∫ t ⋅ dt
a b − a2
2
b
12 t 3
= 2
b − a2 3 a
4(b − a )
3 3
=
b2 − a 2
4(a 2 + ab + b 2 )
=
a+b
(ii) Putting b = a,
2 2 2
4( a 2 + a 2 + a 2 )
Total length of the curve ( x 3 + y 3 = a 3 ) = = 6a
2a
2 2 2
6a 3
(iii) Length of the curve x 3 + y 3 = a 3 in the first quadrant = = a
4 2
p
Length of the arc AC = ∫ 3 3a sin q cos q dq
0
3a p3
2 ∫0
= sin 2q dq
p
3a − cos 2q 3
=
2 2 0
9a
=
8
Length of the arc BC = length of the arc AB − length of the arc AC
3a 9a 3a
=− =
2 8 8
Length of the arc BC 1
=
Length of the arc AC 3
example 8
Show that the length of the arc of the curve x sin q + y cos q = f ¢(q),
x cos q – y sin q = f ¢¢(q) is given by s = f (q) + f ¢¢(q) + C.
Solution
x sin q + y cos q = f ′ (q ) … (1)
x cos q − y sin q = f ′′ (q ) … (2)
Multiplying Eq. (1) by sin q and (2) by cos q and adding,
x = sin q f ′(q ) + cos q f ′′(q ) … (3)
Multiplying Eq. (1) by cos q and (2) by sin q and subtracting,

y = cos q f ′(q ) − sin q f ′′(q )
dx
= cos q f ′(q ) + sin q f ′′(q ) − sin q f ′′(q ) + cos q f ′′′(q )
dq
= cos q [ f ′(q ) + f ′′′(q )]
dy
= cos q f ′′(q ) − sin q f ′(q ) − cos q f ′′(q ) − sin q f ′′′(q )
dq
= − sin q [ f ′(q ) + f ′′′(q )]
2 2
 dx   dy 
Length of the arc, s=∫   +   dq
dq dq
= ∫ (cos 2 q + sin 2 q ) [ f ′(q ) + f ′′′(q )]2 dq

= ∫ [ f ′(q ) + f ′′′(q )] dq
= f (q ) + f ′′(q ) + C
exAmPle 9
Show that for the curve 8a 2 y 2 = x 2 (a 2 - x 2 ), arc length

a
s= (2q + sin q cos q) where x = a sinq and that the perimeter of
2 2
pa
one of the loop is .
2
y
Solution
When x = a sinq
8a 2 y 2 = a 2 sin 2 q ( a 2 − a 2 sin 2 q )
= a 4 sin 2 q cos 2 q
a a B A
y= sinq cosq = sin 2q (−a, 0) (a, 0) x
2 2 4 2 O
dx
= a cos q
dq
dy a
= cos 2q
dq 2 2
Fig. 4.18
For the upper half of the loop OA, x varies
p
from 0 to a, hence q varies from 0 to .
2
Length of one loop, s = 2( Length of upper half of the loop OA)

p 2 2
 dx   dy 
= 2∫ 2
  +  dq
0 dq   dq 
p
a2
= 2 ∫ 2 a 2 cos 2 q + cos 2 2q dq
0 8
p
a
=
2
∫
0
2
8 cos 2 q + ( 2 cos 2 q − 1) 2 dq
p
a
=
2
∫
0
2
4 cos 4 q + 4 cos 2 q + 1 dq
p
a
=
2
∫ 2
0
( 2 cos 2 q + 1) dq
p
a
=
2
∫ 2
0
( 2 + cos 2q ) dq
p
a sin 2q 2
= 2q +
2 2 0
a
= (p )
2
pa
=
2
example 10
x
Show that the length of one complete wave of the curve y = b cos is
a
equal to the perimeter of the ellipse whose semi-axes are a 2 + b2 and a.
Solution
x
(i) y = b cos
a
dy b x
= − sin
dx a a
x
For one complete wave varies from 0 to 2p i.e., x varies from 0 to 2pa.
a
2
2p a  dy 
Length of one complete wave, s1 = ∫0 1 +   dx
 dx 
2p a b2 x
=∫ 1+ sin 2 dx
0 a2 a
1 2p a 2 x
=
a ∫0
a + b 2 sin 2 dx
a
x
Putting = t,
a
dx = a dt
when x = 0, t=0
when x = 2pa, t = 2p
1 2p 2
a ∫0
s1 = a + b 2 sin 2 t ⋅ a dt
2p
=∫ a 2 + b 2 sin 2 t dt
0
Q 2a
f (t ) dt = 2 ∫ f (t ) dt 
a
= 2∫
p
a + b sin t dt 
2 2 2 ∫
0 0 
0  if f ( 2a − t ) = f (t ) 
p
= 4∫ a 2 + b 2 sin 2 t dt (1)
2
(ii) Now, parametric equations of the given ellipse are x = a 2 + b 2 cost and
y = a sin t
y
dx dy
= − a 2 + b 2 sin t , = a cos t
dt dt B (0, a)
For the arc AB, x varies from a + b 2 2
p A
x
to 0, hence t varies from 0 to . (√a 2 + b 2, 0(
2
Perimeter of the ellipse,
s2 = 4 (Length of the arc AB)
p 2 2
 dx   dy  Fig. 4.19
= 4∫ 2   +   dt
0  dt   dt 
p
= 4∫ 2 (a 2 + b 2 ) sin 2 t + a 2 cos 2 t dt
0
p
= 4∫ 2 a 2 + b 2 sin 2 t dt … (2)
0
From Eqs (1) and (2),

Length of one complete wave = perimeter of the ellipse.
example 11
x 2 y2
Show that the perimeter of the ellipse 2
+ 2 = 1 is
a b
È e2 12 ◊ 3 4 12 ◊ 32 ◊ 5 6 ˘
2p a Í1 - 2 - 2 2 e - 2 2 2 e -º˙ , where e is the eccentricity
Î 2 2 ◊4 2 ◊ 4 ◊6 ˚
of the ellipse.
Solution
y
The parametric equations of the given ellipse
are x = a cosq and y = b sinq .
B (0, b)
dx
= − a sin q
dq A
dy O (a, 0) x
= b cos q
dq
For the arc AB, x varies from a to 0, hence q

p
varies from 0 to .
2 Fig. 4.20
Perimeter of the ellipse = 4(Length of the arc AB)

p 2 2
 dx   dy 
= 4 ∫ 2   +   dq
0  dq   dq 
p
= 4∫ 2 a 2 sin 2 q + b 2 cos 2 q dq
0
p  b2 
= 4∫ 2 a 2 sin 2 q + a 2 (1 − e 2 ) cos 2 q dq Q e = 1 − 2 
0
 a 
p 1
= 4a ∫ 2 (1 − e 2 cos 2 q ) 2 dq
0
 11 
p  1  2 − 1
= 4a ∫ 2 1 + ( −e 2 cos 2 q ) + 2 ( −e 2 cos 2 q ) 2
0  2 2!
11 1  
 2 − 1  2 − 2 
2
+ ( −e 2 cos 2 q )3 + K dq
3! 
p
 1 1 4 1⋅ 3 6 
= 4a ∫ 2 1 − e 2 cos 2 q − e cos 4 q − e cos 6 q K dq
0  2 2⋅ 4 2⋅ 4⋅6 
p 1 1 p 1 43 1 p 1⋅ 3 6 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅1 p 
= 4a  − e 2 ⋅ ⋅ − e ⋅ ⋅ − e ⋅ ⋅ − K
2 2 2 2 2⋅ 4 4 2 2 2⋅ 4⋅6 6⋅ 4⋅ 2 2 
 e 2 12 ⋅ 3 12 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 5 
= 2p a 1 − 2 − 2 2 e 4 − 2 2 2 e6 ⋅ K
 2 2 ⋅4 2 ⋅4 ⋅6 
exercIse 4.3
1. Find the length of the following curves:
(i) x = a (2 cos q + cos 2q ), y = a (2 sin q + sin2q ), from q = 0 to any point q.
(ii) x = a (q - sin q ), y = a (1 - cos q ) from q = 0 to q = 2p
q p
(iii) x = aeq sin q , y = ae cos q from q = 0 to q =
2
(iv) x = log(sec q + tan q ) - sinq , y = cos q from q = 0 to any point q
(v) x = a (t - tanh t ), y = a sech t from t = 0 to any point t.
Êa+b ˆ Êa+b ˆ
(vi) x = (a + b) cosq - bcos Á q ˜ , y = (a + b) sinq - b sin Á q ˜ from
Ë b ¯ Ë b ¯
pb
q = to any point q.
a
(vii) x = a sin2q (1 + cos 2q ), y = a cos 2q (1 - cos 2q ), from q = 0 to any
point q
È q ˘
Í Ans.: (i) 8a sin 2 , (ii) 8a ˙
Í p
˙
Í ˙
Í (iii) 2(e 2
- 1)a, (iv) log sec q ˙
Í 4b Ê aq ˆ ˙
Í (v) log cosh t (vi) (a + b)cos Á ˜ ˙
Í a Ë 2b ¯ ˙
Í 4 ˙
Í (vii) a sin q ˙
Î 3 ˚
1 3
2. Prove that the loop of the curve x = t2, y = t - t is of length 4 3.
3
3. Show that the length of the arc of the curve x = a(3 sinq - sin3 q ),
3
y = a cos3q measured from (0, a) to any point (x, y) is a(q + sin q cos q ).
2
4. If ‘s’ be the length of the arc of the curve x = a(q + sinq cosq ),
p
y = a(1 + sinq )2, measured from the point q = - to a point q, show that
2
s4 varies as y3.
4.3.3 length of Arc in Polar Form

For the curve r = f (q ), we have, from differential calculus,
2
ds  dr 
= r2 +  
dq  dq  q=p
2
The length of the arc of the curve r = f (q) between the P (r, q )
points q = q 1 and q = q 2 is given by,
r
2
q2 Ê dr ˆ q
s=Ú r 2 + Á ˜ dq
q1 Ë dq ¯ q1 q2
q =0
Similarly, the length of the arc of the curve q = f (r)
between the points r = r1 and r = r2 is given by, Fig. 4.21
2
r2 Ê dq ˆ
s=Ú 1 + r 2 Á ˜ dr
r1 Ë dr ¯
example 1
Find the length of the spiral r = e2q from q = 0 to q = 2p.
Solution
r = e 2q
dr
= 2e 2q
dq
For the required length of the spiral, q varies from 0 to 2p.
2
2p  dr 
Length of the spiral, s=∫ r 2 +   dq
0  dq 
2p
=∫ e 4q + 4e 4q dq
0
2p
= 5∫ e 2q dq
0
2p
e 2q
= 5
2 0
5 4p
= (e − 1)
2
example 2
Find the length of the arc of the equiangular spiral r = aeq cot a from the
point corresponding to q = 0 to the point corresponding to q = tan a.
Solution
r = aeq cot a
dr
= a cot a eq cot a
dq
For the required arc, q varies from 0 to tan a.
2
tan a  dr 
Length of the arc, s=∫ r 2 +   dq
0  dq 
tan a
=∫ a 2 e 2q cot a + a 2 cot 2 a e 2q cot a dq
0
tan a
= a 1 + cot 2 a ∫ eq cot a dq
0
tan a
eq cot a
= a cosec a
cot a 0
a cosec a tan a cot a

= (e − 1)
cot a
= a sec a (e − 1)
= a (e − 1) sec a
example 3
p
Find the length of the cissoid r = 2 a tan q sin q from q = 0 to q = .
4
Solution
r = 2a tan q sin q
dr
= 2a (sec 2 q sin q + tan q cos q )
dq
= 2a sin q (sec 2 q + 1)
p
For the required arc length of the cissoid, q varies from 0 to .
4
p 2
 dr 
Length of the curve, s = ∫ 4 r 2 +   dq
0  dq 
p
= ∫ 4 4a 2 tan 2 q sin 2 q + 4a 2 sin 2 q (sec 2 q + 1) 2 dq
0
p
= ∫ 4 4a 2 sin 2 q (sec 2 q − 1 + sec 4 q + 2 sec2 q + 1) dq
0
p
= ∫ 4 4a 2 sin 2 q sec 2 q (sec 2 q + 3) dq
0
p
= ∫ 4 4a 2 tan 2 q (tan 2 q + 4) dq
0
p
= ∫ 4 2a tan q tan 2 q + 4 dq
0
Putting tan 2 q + 4 = t 2 ,
2 tan q sec 2 q dq = 2t dt
t dt t dt t dt
tan q dq = = = 2
sec q 1 + tan q t − 3
2 2
When q = 0, t = 2
p
When q = , t= 5
4
5 t2
s = ∫ 2a ⋅ dt
2 t −32
5  3 
= ∫ 2a  1 + 2 dt
2  t − 3 
5
3 t− 3
= 2a t + log
2 3 t+ 3 2
 3 5− 3 3 2 − 3
= 2a  5 + log −2− log 
 2 5+ 3 2 2 + 3
 
( 5 − 3 ) (
 2 − 3
) 
2 2
= 2a  5 − 2 +
3
log   − log 

2  5 − 3   4 − 3  
 
 
= 2a  5 − 2 +
2
3
(
log 4 − 15 − log 7 − 4 3 ) ( )
 
Note: Only positive values of t are considered since q lies in the first quadrant.
example 4
Find the length of the whole arc of the cardioid r = a (1 + cos q ) and
p
show that the upper half is bisected by the line q = .
3
Solution q= p q= p
2 3
r = a (1 + cos q )
C A
dr
= − a sin q D
dq
(i) For the arc BACDO, q varies from 0 to p. q=p O B q=0
Length of the whole arc of the curve,
s = 2( Length of arc BACDO )
2 Fig. 4.22
 dr 
= 2 r +  2
 dq 
p
= 2∫ a 2 (1 + cos q ) 2 + ( − a sin q ) 2 dq
0
p
= 2∫ a 2 + 2 cos q dq
0
p q
= 2∫ a 2 ⋅ 2 cos 2 dq
0 2
p q
= 4a ∫ cos dq
0 2
p
q
= 4a 2sin
2 0
= 8a
Length of the upper half of the cardioid = 4a
p
(ii) Let q = intersects the cardioid at point A.
3 p
p
q q 3
Length of the arc, BA = ∫ 3 2a cos dq = 2a 2sin = 2a
0 2 2 0
p
Hence, the upper half of the cardioid is bisected by the line q = .
3
example 5
Find the length of the cardioid r = a (1 - cos q ) lying outside the circle
r = a cos q .
Solution
The points of intersection of cardioid r = a (1 − cos q ) and the circle r = a cos q is
obtained as,
a (1 − cos q ) = a cos q
q= p
1 = 2 cos q q= p 3
2
1 A
cos q =
2
p
q =±
3
q=p B O q=0
p
Hence at A, q =
3
r = a (1 − cos q )
dr Fig. 4.23
= a sin q
dq
p
For the arc of the cardioid lying outside the circle, q varies from to p.
3
Length of the cardioid lying outside the circle, s = 2 (Length of arc AB)
2
p  dr 
= 2 ∫p r2 +  dq
3
 dq 
p
= 2 ∫p a 2 (1 − cos q ) 2 + ( a sin q ) 2 dq
3
p
= 2∫p a 2 − 2 cos q dq
3
p q
= 2∫p a 2 ⋅ 2 sin 2 dq
3 2
qp
= 4a ∫p sin dq
3 2
p
q
= 4a −2 cos
2p
3
 3
= −8a  − 
 2 
= 4a 3
example 6
Show that the length of the arc of that part of cardioid r = a (1 + cos q )
which lies on the side of the line 4r = 3a sec q away from the pole is
4a.
Solution
The points of intersection of cardioid q= p
r = a (1 + cos q ) and the line 4r = 3a sec q are q= p 3
2 A
obtained as,
3a
a (1 + cos q ) = secq B
4 O (2a, 0) q = 0
4 (1 + cos q ) cos q = 3
4r = 3a sec q
4 cos q + 4 cos 2 q − 3 = 0 C
(2 cos q + 3) (2 cos q − 1) = 0
Fig. 4.24
1 −3
cos q = and cos q = (does not exist)
2 2
p
q =±
3
p
Hence at A, q =
3
r = a (1 + cos q )
dr
= − a sin q
dq
p
For the arc BA, q varies from 0 to .
3
Length of the arc CBA, s = 2 (length of arc BA)
p 2
 dr 
= 2∫ 3 r 2 +   dq
0  dq 
p
= 2∫ 3 a 2 (1 + cos q ) + ( − a sin q ) dq
2 2
0
p
= 2∫ 3 a 2 + 2 cos q dq
0
p
q
= 2∫ 3 a 2 ⋅ 2 cos 2 dq
0 2
p
q
= 4a ∫ 3 cos dq
0 2
p
q 3
= 4a 2 sin
2 0
= 4a
example 7
q
Find the total length of the curve r = a sin 3 .
3
q= p
2
Solution
q B
r = a sin 3
3
A
dr q q 1
= a ⋅ 3sin 2 cos ⋅ C O q=0
dq 3 3 3
q q
= a sin 2 cos
3 3
3p D
For the arc OABCD, q varies from 0 to .
2 Fig. 4.25
Length of the curve = 2 (Length of the arc OABCD)
3p 2
 dr 
= 2∫ 2
r 2 +   dq
0  dq 
3p
q q q
= 2∫ 2
a 2 sin 6 + a 2 sin 4 cos 2 dq
0 3 3 3
3p
q
= 2∫ 2
a sin 2
dq
0 3
3p
 2q 
= a∫ 2 1 − cos  dq
0  3
3p
3 2q 2
= a q − sin
2 3 0
3p 3
= a⋅ = pa
2 2
example 8
Find the perimeter of the lemniscate r 2 = a 2 cos 2q .
Solution r 2 = a 2 cos 2q
dr
2r = a 2 ( − sin 2q ) ⋅ 2
dq
dr a2
= − sin 2q
dq r
p
For the arc OBA, q varies from 0 to .
4
Perimeter of the curve q= p

2 q= p
= 4 (Length of the arc OBA) 4
p 2
 dr 
= 4 ∫ 4 r 2 +   dq
0  dq  B
p
A
a4
= 4∫ 4
a cos 2q + 2 sin 2 2q dq
2
O
q=0
0 r
p
a4
= 4 ∫ 4 a 2 cos 2q + sin 2 2q dq
0 r2
p
a 4 sin 2 2q Fig. 4.26
= 4 ∫ 4 a 2 cos 2q + dq
0 a 2 cos 2q
p
a4
= 4∫ 4 2
dq
0 a cos 2q
p
1
= 4a ∫ 4 dq
0
cos 2q
Putting 2q = t ,
2dq = dt
When q = 0, t=0
p p
When q = , t=
4 2
4a p2 dt
2 ∫0 cos t
Perimeter of the curve =
p −1
= 2a ∫ 2 sin 0 t ⋅ (cos t ) 2 dt
0
 1 1
= aB  , 
 2 4
1 1
a
= 2 4
3
4
2
1  1
a
2  4 
=
1 1
1−
4 4
2
1  1
a  
2  4
=
p
p
sin
4
2
 1
a p 
 4  p 
= Q n 1 − n = sin np 
p 2  
2
a  1
=  
2p  4 
example 9
2a
Show that for the parabola = 1 + cos q , the arc intercepted between
r
the vertex and the extremity of the latus rectum is a ÈÎ 2 + log(1 + 2)˘˚ .
Solution
p q= p
The latus rectum is the line q = . 2
2 B
2a
= 1 + cos q
r
2a 2a q
r= = = a sec 2 O A q=0
1 + cos q 2 q 2
2 cos
2
dr q q
= a sec 2 ⋅ tan
dq 2 2
p Fig. 4.27
For the arc AB, q varies from 0 to .
2
p 2
 dr 
Length of the arc AB, s = ∫ 2 r 2 +   dq
0  dq 
p
q q q
= ∫ 2 a 2 sec 4 + a 2 sec 4 tan 2 dq
0 2 2 2
p
q q
= ∫ 2 a sec 2 1 + tan 2 dq
0 2 2
q
Putting tan = t,
2
1 2q q
sec dq = dt , sec 2 dq = 2dt
2 2 2
When q = 0, t=0
p
When q = , t=1
2
1
s = ∫ 2a 1 + t 2 dt
0
( )
1
t 1
= 2a 1 + t 2 + log t + 1 + t 2
2 2 0
1
= 2a 
2
1 
2 + log 1 + 2 
2 
( )
(
= a  2 + log 1 + 2 
  )
example 10
Show that the whole length of the limacon r = a cos q + b (a < b) is equal
to that of an ellipse whose semi-axes are equal in length to the maximum
and minimum radii vectors of the limacon.
Solution q= p
r = a cos q + b 2
B
dr
= − a sin q
dq
q=p C A q=0
For the arc ABC, q varies from 0 to p. O
(b−a, 0) (b + a, 0)
whole length of the limacon
= 2(length of the arc ABC )
p  dr 
2 Fig. 4.28
= 2∫ r 2 +   dq
0  dq 
p
= 2∫ (a cos q + b) 2 + ( − a sin q ) 2 dq
0
p
= 2∫ a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cosq dq … (1)
0
Maximum radius vector of the limacon = a (1) + b = b + a

[Q Maximum value of cosq = 1]
Minimum radius vector of the limacon = a ( −1) + b = b − a
[Q Minimum value of cosq = −1]

The parametric equations of the ellipse with above
q= p
radii vectors as semi-axes are given as, 2
x = (b + a ) cos q and y = (b − a ) sin q
B (0, b- a)
dx
= −(b + a) sin q
dq A (b+a, 0)
O q =0
dy
= (b − a ) cos q
dq
p
For the arc AB, q varies from 0 to .
2 Fig. 4.29
whole length of the ellipse = 4(length of the arc AB)
p 2 2
 dx   dy 
= 4 ∫ 2   +   dq
0  dq   dq 
p
= 4∫ 2 [ −(b + a ) sin q ]2 + [(b − a ) cosq ]2 dq
0
p
= 4∫ 2 (a 2 + b 2 + 2ab sin 2 q − 2ab cos 2 q ) dq
0
p
= 4∫ 2 (a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos 2q ) dq
0
Putting 2q = t ,
dt
dq =
2
When q = 0, t = 0
p
When q = , t=p
2
p
whole length of the ellipse = 2∫ a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos t dt
0
p
= 2∫ a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos (p − t ) dt
0
p
= 2∫ a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cos t dt
0
Q a f ( x) dx = a f (a − x) dx 
 ∫0 ∫0 … (2)

From Eqs. (1) and (2),
whole length of the limacon = whole length of the ellipse
example 11
Find the length of the arc of the hyperbolic spiral rq = a from the point
r = a to r = 2a.
Solution
rq = a
dq
r +q = 0
dr
2
2a  dq 
Length of the arc, s=∫ 1 + r 2   dr
a  dr 
2a
=∫ 1 + q 2 dr
a
2a a2
=∫ 1+ dr
a r2
2a r 2 + a2
=∫ dr
a r2
Putting r 2 + a2 = t 2 ,
t dt
2r dr = 2t dt , dr =
t − a2
2
When r = a, t=a 2
When r = 2a, t=a 5

a 5 t t dt
s=∫
a 2
t − a t − a2
2 2 2
5t −a +a
2 2 2
a
=∫ dt
a 2 t 2 − a2
a 5 a 5 dt
=∫ dt + a 2 ∫
a 2 a 2 t 2 − a2
a 5
a 5 a2 t−a
= t + log
a 2
2a t+a a 2
a a 5−a a 2 − a
=a ( 5− 2 + log
2
)
a 5+a
− log 
a 2 + a
a 5 −1 2 − 1
=a ( 5 − 2 + log
2
)
5 +1
− log 
2 + 1
 5 − 1  2 + 1 
=a ( 5− 2 + )
a
2
log 

 
5 + 1  2 − 1 

( )
2 +1 
2
5 −1
=a ( )
a
5 − 2 + log  

( ) 2 −1 
2
2 5 +1
 
2( 2 + 1)
=a ( 5− 2 ) + a log
5 +1
exercIse 4.4
1. Find the perimeter of the following curves:
(i) r = a cos q (ii) r = a(q 2 - 1)
Êq ˆ
(iii) r = a cos3 Á ˜ (iv) r = ae mq
Ë 3¯
q
(v) r = aq (vi) r = a sec2
2
(vii) r = 4 sin2 q
È ˘
ÍAns. : ˙
Í 8a ˙
Í (i) p a (ii) ˙
Í 3 ˙
Í 3p a 1+ m 2
˙
Í (iii) (iv) (r2 - r1 ) ˙
Í 2 m ˙
a
Í (v) Èq 1 + q 2 + sinh-1 q ˘ (vi) 2a È 2 + log( 2 + 1)˘ ˙
Í 2Î ˚ Î ˚˙
Í 4 ˙
Í (vii) 8 + log( 3 + 2) ˙
Î 3 ˚
2. Find the perimeter of the cardioid r = a(1 - cosq ) and prove that the line
2p
q= bisects the upper half of the cardioid.
3
[Ans.: 8a]
3. Find the length of the cardioid r = a(1 + cosq ) which lies outside the circle
r + a cosq = 0.
È Ans.: 4 3a ˘
Î ˚
q cota
4. Prove that the length of the spiral r = ae as r increases from r1 to r2
is given by (r2 - r1)sec a .
5. Find the length of the cardioid r = a(1 - cos q ) lying inside the circle
r = a cos q .
È Ê 3ˆ˘
Í Ans. : 8a Á 1 - ˙
ÍÎ Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
6. Find the length of the spiral r = ae mq lying inside the circle r = a.

È a 2 ˘
Í Ans.: m 1 + m ˙
Î ˚
l
7. Find the length of the arc of parabola = 1 + cos θ cut off by its latus
r
rectum.
  ( )
 Ans. : l  2 + log 1 + 2  
 
4.4 AreA oF surFAce oF solId oF reVolutIon

Let y = f (x) be a curve included between two lines x = a and x = b. Let P(x, y) be any
point on the curve. when the chord PQ is revolved about the x-axis, a solid of revolution
is generated. The elementary surface area d S is
approximately equal to the circumference of the y B y = f (x)
circle multiplied by the PQ. Q
A P
d S = 2p yPQ = 2p y d s
The total surface area of the solid of revolution
about x-axis is given by,
x
S = ∫ 2π y ds O x=a x=b
Fig. 4.30
4.4.1 Area of surface of solid of revolution in

cartesian Form
Area of surface generated by revolving the arc of the curve y = f (x) about the x-axis
is given by,
b
S = ∫ 2p y ds
a
b ds
= ∫ 2p y dx
a dx
2
b  dy 
= ∫ 2p y 1 +   dx
a  dx 
Similarly, the area of the surface generated by revolving the arc of the curve x = f (y)
about y-axis is given by,
d
S = ∫ 2p x ds
c
d ds
= ∫ 2p x dy
c dy
2
d  dx 
=∫ 2p x 1 +   dy
c  dy 
example 1
Find the area of the surface of revolution generated by revolving the
curve x = y3 from y = 0 to y = 2.
Solution
dx y
x = y3 = 3y2
dy A(8, 2)
2
ds  dx 
= 1 +   = 1 + 9 y4
dy  dy 
O x
The area of the surface is generated by revolving the
region about the y-axis. For the region shown, y varies Fig. 4.31
from 0 to 2.
2 ds
Surface area, S = ∫ 2p x dy
0 dy
2
= ∫ 2p y 3 1 + 9 y 4 dy
0
1
2p 2
= ∫
36 0
(1 + 9 y 4 ) 2 (36 y 3 )dy
2
3
p (1 + 9 y ) 4 2
 [ f ( y )]n +1 
= Q ∫ [ f ( y )] f ′( y ) dy =
n

18 3  n +1 
2 0
=
π
27
(
145 145 − 1 )
example 2
Find the area of the surface of revolution of the solid generated by
x 2 y2
revolving the ellipse + = 1 about the x-axis.
16 4
Solution
x2 y2 y
+ =1
16 4
2x 2 y dy B (0, 2)
+ =0
16 4 dx
dy x A
=− O
x
dx 4y (− 4, 0) (4, 0)
2
ds  dy  (0, −2)
= 1+  
dx  dx 
x2
= 1+ Fig. 4.32
16 y 2
x 2 + 16 y 2
=
4y
The area of the surface of solid is generated by revolving the upper half of the ellipse
about the x-axis. For the region above the x-axis, x varies from - 4 to 4. Due to
symmetry about the y-axis, considering the region in the first quadrant where x varies
from 0 to 4,
4 ds
Surface area, S = 2 ∫ 2π y dx
0 dx
4 x 2 + 16 y 2
= 4p ∫ y dx
0 4y
4
= p∫ x 2 + 64 − 4 x 2 dx
0
2
4  8 
= p 3∫   − x d x
2
0
3
4
x 64 1 64 x 3
=p 3 − x 2 + ⋅ sin −1
2 3 2 3 8 0
 64 32 3
= p 3 2 − 16 + sin −1 
 3 3 2 
 4p 
= 8p 1 +
 3 3 
example 3
The part of the parabola y2 = 4ax cut off by the latus rectum revolves
about the tangent at the vertex. Find the surface area of the revolution.
Solution
The points of intersection of the parabola y2 = 4ax and its latus rectum x = a are obtained
as,
y2 = 4a . a = 4a2 y
A
y = ± 2a and x = a
(a, 2a)
Hence, A: (a, 2a) and B: (a, -2a) are the points
of intersection.
y2 C
Now, x= O (a, 0) x
4a
dx 2 y y
= =
dy 4 a 2 a
(a, −2a)
2 B
ds  dx 
= 1+  
dy  dy  Fig. 4.33
y2
= 1+
4a 2
The surface area is generated by revolving the region about the tangent at the vertex
i.e., y-axis. For the region shown, y varies from -2a to 2a. Due to symmetry about
x-axis, considering the region in the first quadrant where y varies from 0 to 2a,
2a ds
Surface area, S = 2∫ 2π x dy
0 dy
2a y2 y2
= 2∫ 2π ⋅ 1 + 2 dy
0 4a 4a
Putting y = 2a tan q,
dy = 2a sec2q dq
when y = 0, q = 0
p
when y = 2a, q =
4
p
4a 2 tan 2 q
S = 4p ∫ 4
1 + tan 2 q 2a sec 2 q dq
0 4a
p
= 8p a 2 ∫ 4
tan 2 q sec3 q dq
0
p
= 8p a 2 ∫ 4 (sec5 q − sec3 q ) dq
0
1 3 3
= 8p a 2 tan q sec3 q + tan q sec q + log(sec q + tan q )
4 8 8
p
1 1 4
− tan q sec q − log(sec q + tan q )
2 2 0
[Using reduction formula]

1 
= 8π a 2  2 2 +
4
3
8
3
2 + log( 2 + 1) −
8
1
2
1
2 − log
2
( )
2 +1 

= π a 2 3 2 − log
 ( )
2 +1 

example 4
Find the surface area generated by revolving the loop of the curve
9ay2 = x(3a - x)2 about the x-axis.
Solution
The points of intersection of the curve 9ay2 = x(3a - x)2 and x-axis are obtained as,
0 = x(3a - x)2
x = 0, 3a, 3a and y = 0, 0, 0 y
Hence, A : (3a, 0) is the point of intersection.

Now, 9ay 2 = x(3a − x) 2
dy
18ay = (3a − x) 2 − 2 x(3a − x) A
dx O (3a, 0) x
dy (3a − x) 2 − 2 x(3a − x)
=
dx 18ay
(3a − x)(a − x)
=
6ay
2 Fig. 4.34
ds  dy 
= 1+  
dx  dx 
(3a − x) 2 (a − x) 2
= 1+
36a 2 y 2
36a 2 y 2 + (3a − x) 2 (a − x) 2
=
36a 2 y 2
1
= 4ax(3a − x) 2 + (3a − x) 2 (a − x) 2
6ay
1
= (3a − x) 2 (a + x) 2
6ay
(3a − x)(a + x)
=
6ay
The surface area is generated by revolving the loop about the x-axis. For the loop,
x varies from 0 to 3a.
3a ds
Surface area, S = ∫ 2p y dx
0 dx
3a (3a − x)(a + x)
= 2p ∫ y ⋅ dx
0 6ay
p 3a
3a ∫0
= (3a 2 + 2ax − x 2 ) dx
3a
p x3
= 3a 2 x + ax 2 −
3a 3 0
= 3p a 2
example 5
Find the area of the surface of revolution of a quadrant of a circular arc
as obtained by revolving it about a tangent at one of its ends.
Solution
Let x2 + y2 = a2 be the equation of the circle and let AC be the tangent at A.
x2 + y 2 = a2 y
dy
2x + 2 y =0 C
dx B
dy x
=− P(x, y)
dx y
2
A
ds  dy  x2 (a, 0) x
= 1+   = 1+ 2
dx  dx  y Fig. 4.35
x +y
2 2
a
= 2
=
y y
The surface area is generated by revolving the quadrant of circular arc APB about
the line AC. If P(x, y) is any point on the circle, the distance of P from the tangent at
A = a - x. For the region shown, x varies from 0 to a.
a ds
Surface area, S = ∫ 2p (a − x) dx
0 dx
a a
= 2p ∫ (a − x) dx
0 y
a a−x
= 2p a ∫ dx
0
a2 − x2
a a x 
= 2p a ∫  −  dx
0
 a2 − x2 a2 − x2 
a 
−1
a 1
= 2p a ∫  + (a 2 − x) 2 ( −2 x)  dx
 a −x 2
0 2 2

 [ f ( x)]n +1 
Q ∫ [ f ( x)] f ′( x)dx =
n
a 
x  n +1 
= 2π a a sin −1 + a2 − x2
a 0
 π 
= 2π a  a − a 
 2 
= π a (π − 2)
2
exercIse 4.5
1. Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the arc of the
parabola y2 = 4ax bounded by its latus rectum about the x-axis.
È ˘
Í Ans.:
Î
8a 2
3
(
p 2 2 -1 ˙
˚
)
2. Find the area of the curved surface generated when one loop of the curve
x2(a2 - x2) = 8a2y2 is revolved about the x-axis.
È p a2 ˘
Í Ans.: ˙
Î 4 ˚
3. Prove that the surface area of the solid obtained by revolving the ellipse
È Ê 1ˆ ˘
b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2 about the x-axis is 2p ab Í 1 - e 2 + Á ˜ sin-1 e ˙ , e being
the eccentricity of the ellipse. Î Ë e ¯ ˚
4. Show that the surface area of the solid obtained by revolving
the arc of the curve y = sin x from x = 0 to x = p about the x-axis is
(
p 2 È 2 + log 2 + 1 ˘ .
Î ˚ )
5. Show that the area of the surface formed by rotating the curve y2 = x3
128p
from x = 0 to x = 4 about the y-axis is
1215
1 + 125 10 .( )
6. Find the area of the curved surface of the cup formed by the revolution of
the smaller part of the parabola y2 = 4ax cut off by the line x = 3a about
its axis.
È 56 2 ˘
Í Ans.: 3 p a ˙
Î ˚
7. The arc of the parabola y2 = 4ax between its vertex and an extremity of its
latus rectum revolves about its axis. Find the surface area traced out.
È 8 2˘
Í Ans.: 3 (2 2 - 1)p a ˙
Î ˚
8. The arc of the curve a2y = x3 between x = 0 and x = a is revolved about the
x-axis. Find the area of the surface so generated.
È ˘
Í
Î
Ans.:
p a2
27
(
10 10 - 1 ˙
˚
)
9. Find the surface area of the solid formed by the revolution of the loop of
the curve 3ay2 = x (x - a)2 about the x-axis.
È p a2 ˘
Í Ans.: ˙
Î 3 ˚
10. Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the area bounded
by the circle x2 + y2 = a2 about the line y = a.
[Ans.: 4p 2a2]
4.4.2 Area of surface of solid of revolution in

Parametric Form
When the equation of the curve is given in parametric form x = f1(t), y = f2(t) with
t1 ≤ t ≤ t2, the area of surface of solid of revolution about the x-axis is given by,
t2 ds
S = ∫ 2p y dt
t1 dt
2 2
t2  dx   dy 
= ∫ 2p y   +   dt
t1  dt   dt 
Similarly, the area of surface of solid of revolution about the y-axis is given by,
t2 ds
S = ∫ 2p x dt
t1 dt
2 2
t2  dx   dy 
= ∫ 2p x   +   dt
t1  dt   dt 
example 1
Prove that the surface generated by the revolution of the tractrix
1 t
x = a cos t + a log tan 2 , y = a sin t about its asymptote is equal to
2 2
the surface of the radius a. y
Solution A
(0, a)
1 t
x = a cos t + a log tan 2
2 2
dx 1 t 1
= − a sin t + a ⋅ ⋅ sec 2 ⋅
dt t 2 2
tan O x
2
a
= − a sin t +
sin t
a cos 2 t B (0, −a)
=
sin t
y = a sin t Fig. 4.36
dy
= a cos t
dt
2 2
ds  dx   dy 
=   + 
dt  dt   dt 
a 2 cos 4 t
= + a 2 cos 2 t
sin 2 t
a cos t
=
sin t
The surface area is generated by revolving the tractrix about its asymptote, i.e., x-axis.
For the region shown, x varies from – • to •, hence t varies from 0 to p. Due to
symmetry about the y-axis, considering the region in the second quadrant where t
p
varies from 0 to ,
2 p
ds
Surface area, S = 2∫ 2 2p y dt
0 dt
p
a cos t
= 4p ∫ 2 a sin t ⋅ dt
0 sin t
p
= 4p a 2 ∫ 2 cos t dt
0
p
= 4p a 2 sin t 02
= 4p a 2
example 2
Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the astroid
2 2 2
x3 + y3 = a3 about the x-axis.
Solution q= p
2
The parametric equations of the astroid
are B (0, a)
x = a cos3 q , y = a sin 3 q
dx
= −3a cos 2q sinq ,
dq
dy q=0
= 3a sin 2q cosq (−a, 0) O A(a, 0)
dq
2 2
ds  dx   dy 
=   + 
dq  dq   dq 
(0, a)
= 9a 2 cos 4 q sin 2 q + 9a 2 sin 4 q cos 2 q
= 3a siin q cos q Fig. 4.37
The surface area is generated by revolving the upper half of the astroid about the
x axis. For the region shown, x varies from –a to a, hence q varies from p to 0. Due
to symmetry about the y-axis, considering the region in the first quadrant, where
p
q varies from 0 to ,
2
p
ds
Surface area, S = 2∫ 2 2p y dq
0 dq
p
= 4p ∫ 2 a sin 3 q ⋅ 3a sin q cos q dq
0
p
= 12p a 2 ∫ 2 sin 4 q cos q dq
0
p
sin 5 q 2  [ f (q )]n + 1 
= 12p a  ∫ ′
2 n
Q [ f (q ) ] f (q ) dq = 
5 0  n +1 
12
= p a2
5
example 3
Find the surface area of the solid formed by revolving one arch of the
cycloid x = a(q - sin q ), y = a(1 - cos q ) about the y-axis.
Solution
x = a(q − sin q )
y
dx
= a (1 − cos q )
dq
y = a(1 − cos q )
dy
= a sin q
dq O (2ap, 0) x
q =0
q = 2p
2 2
ds  dx   d y  Fig. 4.38
=   + 
dq  dq   dq 
= a 2 (1 − cos q ) 2 + a 2 sin 2 q
= 2a 2 (1 − cosq
q)
q
= 2a sin
2
The surface area is generated by revolving one arch of the curve about the y-axis. For
the region shown, q varies from 0 to 2p.
2p ds
Surface area, S = ∫ 2p x dq
0 dq
2p q
= 2p ∫ a (q − sin q )2a sin
dq
0 2
2p  q q q
= 4p a 2∫ q sin − 2 sin 2 cos  dq
0  2 2 2
2p
  q  q  4 q
= 4p a q  −2 cos  − 1  −4 sin   − sin 3
2
  2   
2  3 2 0
 [ f (q )]n +1 
 ∫ ′
n
Q [ f (q ) ] f (q )d q = 
 n +1 
= 4p a2(4p )
= 16p 2 a2
example 4
A circular arc of radius a revolves round its chord. Show that the surface
of the spindle generated is 4p a 2(sin a - a cos a ), where 2a is the angle
subtended by the arc at the centre. Find the surface area if the circular
arc is a quadrant of circle.
Solution
Taking the centre of the circle as origin and radius as a, the equation of the circle is x2 +
y2 + a2. The parametric equations of the circle are:
x = a cos q , y = a sin q
y
dx dy
= − a sin q , = a cos q A
dq dq
2 2 M P(x, y)
ds  dx   d y 
=   +  a
dq  dq   dq  q
O L N C(a, 0) x
= a sin q + a cos q = a
2 2 2 2
a
The arc ACB is revolved about the chord AB.
If P(x, y) is any point on the circle and M B
is the foot of perpendicular from P on AB,
then
PM = ON − OL Fig. 4.39
= x − a cosa
For the region shown, q varies from –a to a. Due to symmetry about the x-axis, consider-
ing the region in the first quadrant where q varies from 0 to a,
a ds
Surface area, S = 2∫ 2p ( PM ) dq
0 dq
a
= 4p ∫ ( x − a cos a ) adq
0
a
= 4p a∫ (a cos q − a cos a ) dq
0
a
= 4p a 2 sin q − q cos a 0
= 4p a (sin a − a cos a )
2
p
when circular arc is quadrant of a circle, a =
4
 1 p 1 
S = 4p a 2  −
 2 4 2 
p a2
= (4 − p )
2
example 5
Show that the total surface area of the solid generated by the revolution
Ê 1 - e2 1+ eˆ
of an ellipse about its minor axis is 2p a 2 Á 1 + log ˜ , where a
Ë 2e 1- e¯
is the semi-major axis and e is the eccentricity.
Solution
The parametric equations of the ellipse are, y
x = a cos q , y = b sin q B (0, b)
dx dy A
= − a sin q , = b cos q
dq dq (−a, 0) O (a, 0) x
2 2 (0, −b)
ds  dx   d y 
=   +  Fig. 4.40
dq  dq   dq 
= a 2 sin 2 q + b 2 cos 2 q
The surface area of the solid is generated by the revolution of the ellipse about its minor
p p
axis. For the region shown, y varies from –b to b, hence q varies from − to . Due
2 2
to symmetry about x-axis, considering the region in the first quadrant where q varies
p
from 0 to ,
2
p
ds
Surface area, S = 2 ∫ 2 2p x dq
0 dq
p
= 4p ∫ 2 a cos q a 2 sin 2 q + b 2 cos 2 q dq
0
p
= 4ap ∫ 2 cos q a 2 sin 2 q + b 2 (1 − sin 2 q ) dq
0
p
b2
= 4ap ∫ 2 cos q b 2 + a 2 e 2 sin 2 q dq where e = 1−
0 a2
Putting sinq = t
cosq dq = d t
when q = 0, t=0
p
when q = , t =1
2
1
S = 4ap ∫ b 2 + a 2 e 2 t 2 dt
0
2
1  b
= 4ap ⋅ ae∫ t 2 +   dt
0  ae 
1
t 2 b2 b2  b2 
= 4p a e
2
t + 2 2 + 2 2 log  t + t 2 + 2 2 
2 ae 2a e  ae 
0
 1 b  1 2
 b2 b
= 4p a 2e  a 2 e 2 + b 2 + 2 2 log 1 + a 2 e 2 + b 2  − 2 2 log 
 2ae 2a e  ae  2a e ae 
 1 b2  a b2 b Q b = a 1 − e 2 
= 4p a 2e  ⋅ a + 2 2 log 1 +  − 2 2 log 
 2ae 2a e  ae  2a e ae   
 b2 a(1 + e) 
= 2p  a 2 + log 
 e b 
 b2 1+ e  Q b = a 1 − e 2 
= 2p  a 2 + log 
 2e 1− e   
 1 − e2 1+ e 
= 2p a 2 1 + log 
 2e 1− e 
exercIse 4.6
1. Find the surface area of the reel formed by the revolution of the
cycloid x = a(q + sinq ), y = a(1 - cosq ) about (i) the tangent at the vertex,
(ii) y-axis, and (iii) base.
È 32 2 Ê 4ˆ 64 2 ˘
Í Ans.: (i) p a , (ii) 4p a 2 Á 2p - ˜ , (iii) pa ˙
Î 3 Ë 3 ¯ 3 ˚
2. Find the surface area of the solid generated by the revolution of the loop
t3
of the curve x = t 2 , y = t - about x-axis.
3
[Ans.: 3p ]
3. Show that the area of the surface of the solid generated by revolving the
curve x = a(u - tanh u), y = a sechu, about the x-axis is equal to the area
of the surface of a sphere of radius a.
4. Find the area of the surface of revolution generated by revolving the
cardioid x = 2cosq - cos 2q, y = 2sinq - sin 2q, about the x-axis.
È 128p ˘
Í Ans.: 5 ˙
Î ˚
5. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve x = 3t(t - 2),
3
y = 8t 2 with 0 £ t £ 1 about the y-axis.
[Ans.: 39p ]
6. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve x = a cos2 t,
y = a sin2 t about x-axis.
È 12p 2 ˘
Í Ans.: 5 a ˙
Î ˚
7. Show that the ratio of the areas of the surface formed by revolving the arch
of the cycloid x = a(q + sinq ), y = a(1 + cosq ) between two consecutive
cusps about the x-axis to the area enclosed by the cycloid and x-axis is
64
.
9
4.4.3 Area of surface of solid of revolution in Polar Form

For the curve r = f (q), bounded between the radii vectors at q = q 1 and q = q 2, the area
of surface of the solid of revolution about the initial line q = 0 is given by,
q2 ds
S = ∫ 2p y dq
q1 dq
2
q2  dr 
= ∫ 2p r sin q r 2 +   dq
q1  dq 
p
Similarly, the area of surface of solid of revolution about the line q = is given by,
2
q2 ds
S = ∫ 2p x dq
q1 dq
2
q2  dr 
= ∫ 2p r cos q r 2 +   dq
q1  dq 
example 1
q
The curve r = e 2 is revolved about the initial line. Prove that the area
of surface of revolution traced out by the part between the points q = 0
and q = p is equal to p 5 (ep + 1).
2
Solution
q
r = e2
d r 1 q2
= e
dq 2
2
ds  dr  1 5 q2
= r 2 +   = eq + eq = e
dq  dq  4 2
The surface area is generated by revolving the curve about the initial line. For the
region shown, q varies from 0 to p.
ds
p
Surface area, S = ∫ 2p y dq
dq0
p ds
= ∫ 2p r sin q dq
0 dq
q
p 5 q2
= 2p ∫ e 2 sin q e dq
0 2
p
= p 5 ∫ eq sin q dq
0
p
eq
=p 5 (sin q − cos q )
2 0
p
= 5 (ep + 1).
2
example 2
Find the area of the surface of the solid generated by revolving upper
half of the cardioid r = a(1 - cos q ) about the initial line.
q= p
Solution 2
r = a(1 − cos q )
dr
= a sin q
dq
q =p O q=0
2
ds  dr 
= r2 +  
dq  dq 
= a 2 (1 − cos q ) 2 + a 2 sin 2 q Fig. 4.41
2 2
 q  q q
= a 2  2 sin 2  + a 2  2 sin cos 
 2  2 2
q
= 4a 2 sin 2
2
q
= 2a sin
2
The area of the surface of the solid is generated by revolving the upper half of the
cardioid about the initial line q = 0. For the region shown, q varies from 0 to p.
p ds
Surface area, S = ∫ 2p y dq
0 dq
p ds
= ∫ 2p r sin q dq
0 dq
p q
= 4p a 2 ∫ (1 − cos q ) sin q sin dq
0 2
p  q q q q
= 4p a 2 ∫  2 sin 2   2 sin cos  sin dq
0  2  2 2 2
pq q
= 16p a 2 ∫ sin 4 cos dq
02 2
p q 1 q
= 32p a 2 ∫ sin 4 ⋅ cos dq
0 2 2 2
p
q
sin 5
2  [ f (q ) n + 1 ] 
= 32p a 2 Q ∫ [ f (q ) f ′ (q ) dq =
n
]
5  n +1 
0
32
= p a2
5
example 3
p p
The arc of cardioid r = a(1 + cos q ) included between q = - to
p
2 2
is rotated about the line q = . Show that the area of the surface
2
48 2
generated is p a 2.
5 q= p
2
Solution
r = a (1 + cos q )
dr
= − a sin q O
dq q=0
2
ds  dr 
= r2 +  
dq  dq 
Fig. 4.42
= a 2 (1 + cos q ) 2 + a 2 sin 2 q
2 2
 q  q q
= a 2  2 cos 2  + a 2  2 sin cos 
 2  2 2
q
= 4a 2 cos 2
2
q
= 2a cos
2
p
The area of the surface is generated by revolving the cardioid about the line q = .
2
p p
For the region shown, q varies from − to . Due to symmetry about the initial line
2 2
p
considering the region in the first quadrant where q varies from 0 to ,
p 2
ds
Surface area, S = 2∫ 2 2p y dq
0 dq
p
ds
= 2∫ 2 2p r cos q dq
0 dq
p
q
= 8p a 2 ∫ 2 (1 + cos q ) cosq cos dq
0 2
p
 q q q
= 8p a 2∫ 2  2 cos 2  1 − 2 sin 2  cos dq
0  2   2  2
p
 q q q
= 8p a 2∫ 2 2 1 − sin 2  1 − 2 sin 2  cos dq
0  2  2 2
q
Putting sin = t,
2
1 q
cos dq = dt
2 2
when q = 0, t=0
p 1
when q = , t=
2 2
1
S = 32 p a 2 ∫ 2 (1 − t 2 )(1 − 2t 2 )dt
0
1
= 32 p a 2 ∫ 2 (1 − 3t 2 + 2t 4 ) dt
0
1
2 2
= 32 p a t − t + t 5
2 3
5 0
 1 1 2 1 
= 32 p a 2  − + ⋅ 
 2 2 2 5 4 2
48 2 2
= pa
5
example 4
Find the surface area of the solid formed by the revolution of the loop
about the tangent at the pole of the curve r 2 = a 2 cos 2q .
Solution q= p
2
r 2 = a 2 cos 2q q= p
4
dr
2r = −2a 2 sin 2q M
dq r sin ( p −q )
4
dr a 2 sin 2q P (r, q )
=− p −q
4
dq a cos 2q q
O q=0
sin 2q
= −a
cos 2q
2
ds  dr 
= r2 +   q=− p
dq  dq  4
sin 2 2q Fig. 4.43

= a 2 cos 2q + a 2
cos 2q
a 2 cos 2 2q + a 2 sin 2 2q
=
cos 2q
a
=
cos 2q
The surface area is formed by the revolution of the loop about the tangent at the pole
p p
i.e., q = . If P(r, q) is any point on the curve, its distance from the line q = is
4 4
p  1 p
r(cos q − sin q ). For the region shown, q varies from − to
r sin  − q  , i.e.,
4  2 4
p
. Due to symmetry about the initial line, considering the region in the first quadrant
4
p
where q varies from 0 to ,
4
p
1 ds
Surface area, S = 2∫ 4 2p r (cosq − sin q ) dq
0
2 dq
p
4p a
=
2
∫ 4
0
a cos 2q (cos q − sin q )
cos 2q
dq
p
= 2 2p a 2 ∫ 4 (cos q − sin q ) dq
0
p
= 2 2p a 2 sin q + cos q 4
0
= 2 2 p a 2 ( 2 − 1)
exercIse 4.7
1. Find the area of the surface of the solid generated by revolving the curve
r 2 = a 2 cos 2q about the initial line.
È 2Ê 1 ˆ˘
Í Ans.: 4pa Á 1 - ˜˙
Î Ë 2¯˚
r = 2a cosq about the initial line.
ÈÎ Ans.: 4p a 2 ˘˚
r = 4 cos q about the initial line.
[Ans.: 16p ]
Points to remember
Volume Using Cross-sections
The volume of a solid of known integrable cross-section area A(x) formed by a plane
perpendicular to the x-axis at any point between x = a to x = b is
b
V = ∫ A( x)dx
a
If the cross-section A(y) is perpendicular to the y-axis at any point between

y = c to y = d, then the volume of the solid is
d
V = ∫ A( y )dy
c
Length of Plain Curves

Length of Arc
(i) Cartesian form
2
b  dy 
(a) s = ∫ 1 +   dx
a  dx 
2
d  dx 
(b) s = ∫c 1 +   dy
 dy 
(ii) Parametric form
2 2
t2  dx   dy 
s=∫   +   dt
t1 dt dt
(iii) Polar form

2
q2  dr 
(a) s = ∫q r 2 +   dq
1  dq 
2
r2  dq 
(b) s = ∫r 1 + r 2   dr
1  dr 
Area of Surface of Solid of Revolution

(i) Cartesian form
2
b  dy 
(a) S = ∫a 2p y 1 +  dx  dx (revolution about x-axis)
2
d  dx 
(b) S = ∫ c
2p x 1 +   dy
 dy 
(revolution about y-axis)
(ii) Parametric form

2 2
t2  dx   dy 
(a) S = ∫ t1
2p y   +   dt
 dt   dt 
(revolution about x-axis)
2 2
t2  dx   dy 
(b) S = ∫ t1
2p x   +   dt
 dt   dt 
(revolution about y-axis)
(iii) Polar form

2
q2  dr 
(a) S = ∫
q1
2p r sin q r 2 +   dq
 dq 
(revolution about q = 0)
q2  dr 
2
 p
(b) S = ∫ 2p r cos q r 2 +   dq  revolution about q = 
q1  dq  2

p
1. The length of the arc of the curve y = log sec x from x = 0 to x = is
3
(a) log (2 + 3 ) (b) log ( 2 + 3)
(c) log ( 2 + 1) (d) log ( 3 + 1)

2
( x 2 + 2) 3
2. The length of the curve y = from x = 0 to x = 3 is
3
(a) 10 (b) 12 (c) 3p (d) 6p
3. The whole length of the curve r = 2a sin q is equal to
(a) p a (b) 2p a (c) 3p a (d) 4p a
4. The length of the arc of the curve 6xy = x4 + 3 from x = 1 to x = 2 is
13 17 19
(a) (b) (c) (d) none of these
12 12 12
5. The arc of the sine curve y = sin x from x = 0 to x = p revolved about the x-axis.
The area of the surface of the solid generated is
2p 2
(a) 2p [ 2 + log ( 2 + 1)] (b) [ 2 + log ( 2 + 1)]
3
p p2
(c) [ 2 + log ( 2 + 1)] (d) [ 2 + log ( 2 + 1)]
3 3
6. The area of the surface of the solid generated by revolving the curve
r = 2a cos q about the initial line is
(a) 2p a2 (b) 4p a2 (c) p a2 (d) 8p a2
7. The area of the surface of the solid generated by revolving the curve
x = t3 – 3t, y = 3t2, 0 £ t £ 1 about the x-axis is
40p 24p 36p 48p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5 5 5 5
8. The area of the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the line
segment y = 2x from x = 0 to x = 2 about the x-axis is equal to
(a) p 5 (b) 2p 5 (c) 4p 5 (d) 8p 5
Answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (d)
UNIT-2
Chapter 5. Sequences and Series

Chapter 6. Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series
CHAPTER
Sequences
5
and Series
chapter outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sequence
5.3 Infinite Series
5.4 The nth Term Test for Divergence
5.5 Geometric Series
5.6 Telescoping Series
5.7 Combining Series
5.8 Harmonic Series
5.9 p-Series
5.10 Comparison Test
5.11 D’Alembert’s Ratio Test
5.12 Raabe’s Test
5.13 Cauchy’s Root Test
5.14 Cauchy’s Integral Test
5.15 Alternating Series
5.16 Absolute and Conditional Convergent of a Series
5.17 Power Series
5.1 IntroductIon
In this chapter, we will learn about the convergence and divergence of sequence and
series. There are various methods to test the convergence and divergence of an infinite
series. We will study Comparison Test, D’Alembert’s ratio test, Cauchy’s root test
and Cauchy’s integral test. We will also study alternating series, absolute and uniform
convergence of the series and power series.
5.2 Chapter 5 Sequences and Series
5.2 Sequence
An ordered set of real numbers as u1, u2, u3, ……..un, …… is called a sequence and
is denoted by {un}. If the number of terms in a sequence is infinite, it is said to be an
infinite sequence, otherwise it is a finite sequence and un is called the nth term of the
sequence.
5.2.1 Limit of a Sequence

A sequence {un} tends to a finite number l as n Æ • if for every Œ > 0 there exists an
integer m such that, | un - l | < Œ for all n > m, i.e., lim un = l.
n Æ•
5.2.2 continuous Function theorem for Sequences

Let {un} be a sequence of real numbers. If un Æ l and if f is a function that is continu-
ous at l and defined at all un, then f(un) Æ f(l).
5.2.3 convergence, divergence and oscillation of

Finite Series
(i) If the sequence {un} has a finite limit, i.e., lim un is finite, the sequence is said to
n Æ•
be convergent.
Ï ¸
Ô 1 Ô
e.g. {un } = Ì ˝
Ô1 + 1 Ô
Ó n˛
lim un = 1
n Æ•
Since limit is finite, the sequence is convergent.

(ii) If the sequence {un} has infinite limit, i.e., lim un is infinite, the sequence is said
n Æ•
to be divergent.
e.g. {un} = {2 n + 1}
lim un = •
n Æ•
Since limit is infinite, the sequence is divergent.

(iii) If the limit of the sequence {un} is not unique, the sequence is said to be oscillatory.
e.g. 1
{un} = ( -1)n +
2n
lim un = 1, if n is even
n Æ•
= –1, if n is odd
Since limit is not unique, the sequence is oscillatory.
5.2 Sequence 5.3
5.2.4 Monotonic Sequence

A sequence is said to be monotonically increasing if un +1 ≥ un for each value of n and
is monotonically decreasing if un +1 £ un for each value of n. The sequence is called
alternating sequence if the terms are alternate positive and negative.
For example, (i) 1, 2, 3, 4, … is a monotonically increasing sequence.
1 1 1
(ii) 1, , , , … is a monotonically decreasing sequence.
2 3 4
(iii) 1, –2, 3, – 4, … is an alternating sequence.
5.2.5 Bounded Sequence

A sequence {un} is said to be a bounded sequence if there exists numbers m and M
such that m < un < M for all n.
Note 1: Every convergent sequence is bounded but the converse is not true.
Note 2: A monotonic increasing sequence converges if it is bounded above and
diverges to + • if it is not bounded above.
Note 3: A monotonic decreasing sequence converges if it is bounded below and
diverges to – • if it is not bounded below.
Note 4: If sequence {un} and {vn} converges to l1 and l2 respectively then
(i) Sequence {un + vn} converges to l1 + l2
(ii) Sequence {un . vn} converges to l1◊ l2
Ïu ¸ l
(iii) Sequence Ì n ˝ converges to 1 provided l2 π 0
Ó n˛
v l2
example 1
ÏÔ n2 + n ¸Ô
Test the convergence of the sequence Ì 2 ˝.
ÓÔ 2 n - n ˛Ô
Solution
n2 + n
Let un =
2n2 - n
n2 + n
lim un = lim
n Æ• 2n2 - n
n Æ•
1
1+
= lim n
n Æ• 1
2-
n
1
=
2
Hence, {un} is convergent.
example 2
Test the convergence of the sequence {tanh n}.
Solution
Let un = tanh n
lim un = lim tanh n
n Æ• n Æ•
sinh n
= lim
n Æ• cosh n
en - e- n
= lim
n Æ• en + e- n
e2 n - 1
= lim
n Æ• e2 n + 1
1
1 - 2n
= lim e
n Æ• 1
1 + 2n
e
=1
Hence, {un} is convergent.
example 3
Test the convergence of the sequence {2n}.
Solution
Let un= 2n
lim un = lim 2 n
n Æ• n Æ•
=•
Hence, {un} is divergent.
example 4
Test the convergence of the sequence 2 - ( -1)n .{ }
Solution
Let un= 2 –(–1)n
lim un = lim 2 - ( -1)n
n Æ• n Æ•
=2–1=1 , if n is even
= 2 –(–1) = 3 , if n is odd
Since limit is not unique, the sequence {un} is oscillatory.
5.2 Sequence 5.5
example 5
1 1 1
Show that the sequence {un} whose nth term is un = 1 + + 2 + L + n ,
3 3 3
is monotonic increasing and bounded. Is it convergent?
Solution
1 1 1
un = 1 + + 2 +L+ n
3 3 3
1 1 1 1
un +1 = 1 + + 2 + L + n + n +1
3 3 3 3
1
un +1 - un = n +1
>0
3
Hence, {un} is monotonic increasing sequence.

1 1 1
Also, un = 1 + + +L+ n
3 32 3
Ê 1 ˆ
1 Á 1 - n +1 ˜
Ë 3 ¯
=
1
1-
3
3Ê 1 ˆ 3
= Á 1 - n +1 ˜ <
2Ë 3 ¯ 2
3
{un} is bounded above by .
2
Since {un} is monotonic increasing and bounded above, it is convergent.
example 6
1 2 1
Show that the sequence {un} whose nth term is un = + + …+ ,
1! 2 ! n!
n Œ N, is monotonic increasing and bounded. Is it convergent?
Solution
1 1 1
un =+ + …+
1! 2 ! n!
1 1 1 1
un +1 = + + … + +
1! 2 ! n ! (n + 1)!
1
un +1 - un = >0
(n + 1)!
un+1 > un
Hence, {un} is a monotonic increasing sequence.
1 1 1 1
Also, un = + + +L+
1! 2 ! 3! n!
1 1 1
= 1+ + +L+
2 ! 3! n!
1 1 1
< 1+ + 2 +L+ n
2 2 2
Ê 1 ˆ
1 Á 1 - n +1 ˜
Ë 2 ¯
< [Using sum of G.P]
1
1-
2
Ê 1 ˆ
< 2 Á 1 - n +1 ˜
Ë 2 ¯
<2
{un} is bounded above by 2.
Since {un} is monotonic increasing and bounded above, it is convergent.
example 7
Ï n ¸
Show that the sequence Ì 2 ˝ is monotonic decreasing and bounded.
Ó n + 1˛
Is it convergent?
Solution
n
Let un = 2
n +1
n +1
un +1 =
(n + 1)2 + 1
n +1 n
un +1 - un = -
(n + 1)2 + 1 n2 + 1
(n + 1)(n2 + 1) - n(n2 + 2 n + 2)
=
(n2 + 2 n + 2)(nn2 + 1)
- n2 - n + 1
= <0
(n2 + 2 n + 2)(n2 + 1)
Hence, {un} is a monotonic decreasing sequence.
n
Also, un = 2
>0
n +1
{un} is bounded below by 0.
Since {un} is monotonic decreasing and bounded below, it is convergent.
5.2 Sequence 5.7
5.2.6 Sandwich theorem for Sequences

Let {un}, {vn} and {wn} be three sequences such that un £ vn £ wn for all n.
If lim un = lim wn = l, then lim vn = l
n Æ• n Æ• n Æ•
example 1
sin n
Show that the sequence {un}, where un = converges to zero.
n
Solution
We know that
-1 £ sin n £ 1
1 sin n 1
- £ £
n n n
Ê 1ˆ
lim Á - ˜ = 0
n Æ• Ë n ¯
Ê 1ˆ
lim Á ˜ = 0
n Æ• Ë n¯
By sandwich theorem,
sin n
lim =0
n Æ• n
Hence, {un} converges to zero.
example 2
If x Œ R with | x | < 1 then prove that xn Æ 0 as n Æ •.
Solution
For x = 0, xn = 0
1
For x π 0, let | x | =
1+ y
1
| x |n =
(1 + y)n
1
=
n(n - 1) y 2
1 + ny + +L
2!
1 È ÏÔ n(n - 1) y 2 ¸Ô ˘
< ÍQ Ì1 + ny + + L˝ > ny ˙
ny ÍÎ ÓÔ 2! ˛Ô ˙˚
n 1
0< x <
ny
1
lim =0
n Æ• ny
By sandwich theorem,
n
lim x =0
n Æ•
n
Hence, x Æ 0 as n Æ •
exercISe 5.1
1. Test the convergence of the following sequences:
2n + 1
(i) (ii) 2 + (0.1)n (iii) 1 + (–1)n
1 - 3n
n2 Ê 1ˆ
(iv) en (v) 1 + (–1)n (vi) sin
2n - 1 ÁË n ˜¯
(vii) tan–1 n
 Ans. : (i) convergent (ii) convergent
 
 (iii) divergent (iv) divergentt 
 (v) oscillatory (vi) convergent 
 
 (vii) convergent 
2. Determine whether the following sequences are monotonically increasing/
decreasing, bounded or convergent/divergent.
1 2n − 7
(i) 1 + (ii)
n 3n + 2
 Ans. : (i) decreasing, bounded, convergent 
 
 (ii) increasing, bounded
d, convergent 
1 1 1
3. Show that the sequence {un}, where un = 1 + + + L + ; n ≥ 2,
is convergent. 1! 2 ! (n − 1)!
n
 n + 1
4. Does the sequence {un} convergent where un =  ?
 n − 1
[ Ans.: yes ]
5.3 InFInIte SerIeS
If u1, u2, u3, . . . un, . . . is an infinite sequence of real numbers, then the sum of the terms
of the sequence, u1 + u2 + u3 + K + un + K • is called an infinite series.
5.4 The nth Term Test for Divergence 5.9
•
The infinite series u1 + u2 + u3 + . . . + un + . . . • is usually denoted by Â un or Sun.
n =1
The sum of its first n terms is denoted by Sn and is also known as nth partial sum of Sun.
5.3.1 convergence, divergence and oscillation of

Finite Series
Consider the infinite series Σun = u1 + u2 + u3 + K un + K∞ and let the sum of the first
n terms be Sn = u1 + u2 + u3 + . . . + un. As n Æ •, three possibilities arise for Sn:
(i) If Sn tends to a finite limit as n Æ •, the series Sun is said to be convergent.
(ii) If Sn tends to ± • as n Æ •, the series Sun is said to be divergent.
(iii) If Sn does not tend to a unique limit as n Æ •, i.e., limit does not exist, the
series Sun is said to be oscillatory.
5.3.2 Properties of Infinite Series

1. The convergence or divergence of an infinite series remains unaffected:
(i) by addition or removal of a finite number of terms
(ii) by multiplication of each term with a finite number
2. If two series Sun and Svn are convergent, then S (un + vn ) is also convergent.
3. If two series Sun and Svn are divergent, then S(un+ vn) may be convergent.
4. If each term of a series Sun of positive terms does not exceed the corresponding
term of a convergent series Svn of positive terms, then Sun is convergent.
5. If each term of a series Sun of positive terms exceeds the corresponding term of
a divergent series Svn of positive terms, then Sun is divergent.
5.4 the nth terM teSt For dIvergence
If a positive term series Sun is convergent, then nlim

Æ•
un = 0.
The converse of this result is not true, i.e., if lim un = 0, it is not necessary that the
n Æ•
series will be convergent.
1 1 1
For example, Â un = 1 + 2
+
3
+K+
n
+K•
1
lim un = lim =0
n Æ• n Æ• n
1 1 1 1 1 1
Now, Sn = 1 + + +K+ > 1+ + +K+
2 3 n n n n
n
Sn >
n
Sn > n
and lim n = •
n Æ•
Thus, the series is divergent.

Hence, lim un = 0 is a necessary but not sufficient condition for convergence
n→∞
of Sun.
If lim un π 0 or lim un does not exist, then Sun is divergent.

n Æ• n Æ•
5.5 geoMetrIc SerIeS
Consider the geometric series a + ar + ar 2 + L + ar n -1 + L ... (1)

2 n −1
S n = a + ar + ar + L + ar
a (1 − r n )
= , if r < 1
1− r
a (r n − 1)
= , if r > 1
r −1
(i) When | r | < 1, lim r n = 0

n Æ•
a
lim Sn = is finite.
n Æ• 1- r
Hence, the series is convergent.
(ii) When r > 1, lim r n Æ ∞

nÆ∞
a(r n - 1)
lim Sn = lim Æ∞
nÆ∞ nÆ∞ r -1
Hence, the series is divergent.
(iii) When r = 1,
Sn = a + a + a + L = na
lim Sn Æ ∞
nÆ∞
Hence, the series is divergent.

(iv) When r = –1,

Sn = a - a + a - L ( -1)n -1 a
= 0, if n is even
= a, if n is odd
Hence, the series is oscillatory.
(v) When r < –1, let r = –k where k > 0
a[1 - ( - k )n ]
lim Sn = lim
n Æ• n Æ• 1+ k
a[1 - ( -1)n k n ]
= lim
n Æ• 1+ k
= – •, if n is even
= + •, if n is odd
Hence, the series is oscillatory.
From all the above cases, we conclude that the geometric series (1) is
(i) convergent if | r | < 1
(ii) divergent if r ≥ 1
(iii) oscillatory if r £ –1
example 1
2 4 8 16
Prove that 1 + + + + + L converges and find its sum.
3 9 27 81
[Winter 2014]
Solution
2
The given series is geometric series with a = 1 and r = .
3
• • n -1
2 4 8 Ê 2ˆ
1+ + + + L = Â ar n -1 = Â Á ˜
3 9 27 n =1
Ë ¯
n =1 3
2
r = <1
3
a 1
Sn = = =3
1- r 2
1-
3
example 2
10 20 40
Test the convergence of the series 5 - + - +L
3 9 27
[Summer 2017]
Solution
2
The given series is geometric series with a = 5 and r = - .
3
•
10 20 40
5- + - + L = Â ar n - 1
3 9 27 n =1
• n -1
Ê 2ˆ
= Â 5 ÁË - 3 ˜¯
n =1
2 2
r = - = <1
3 3
a
Sn =
1- r
5
=
Ê 2ˆ
1- Á- ˜
Ë 3¯
5
=
2
1+
3
5
=
5
3
=3
example 3
•
Let S = Â n a n where a < 1. Find the value of a in (0, 1) such that
n =1
S = 2a. [Winter 2016]
Solution
S = a + 2a2 + 3a3 + ... ... (1)
aS = a2 + 2a3 + 3a4 + ... ... (2)
Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1),

S(1 – a) = a + a2 + a3 + ...
a
S(1 - a ) =
1-a
a
S=
(1 - a )2
If S = 2 a,
a
2a =
(1 - a )2
1
(1 - a )2 =
2
1
1-a =
2
a = 0.2929
example 4
A ball is dropped from ‘a’ meters above a flat surface. Each time the
ball hits the surface after falling a distance h, it rebounds a distance rh
where 0 < r < 1. Find the total distance the ball travels up and down,
2
when a = 6 m and r = m. [Winter 2016]
3
Solution
Total distance (h) = a + 2ar + 2ar2 + 2ar3 + ...
2 ar
=a+
1- r
a(1 + r )
=
1- r
2
Here, a=6m r= m
3
Ê 2ˆ
6 Á1 +
Ë 3 ˜¯ 5 3
h= = 6 ◊ ◊ = 30 m
Ê 2ˆ 2 1
ÁË 1 - 3 ˜¯
Example 5
The figure 5.1 shows the first seven of a sequence of squares. The
outermost square has an area of 4m2. Each of the other squares is
obtained by joining the midpoints of the sides of the squares in the
infinite sequence. Find sum of the areas of all the squares in the infinite
sequence. [Winter 2015]
Solution
Since each square is obtained by joining the midpoints of the square before its, area of
each square is half the area of previous square.
1
Area of 2nd square = (area of outermost square)
2
1
= (4) = 2
2
1
Area of 3rd square = (area of 2 nd square)
2
1 Fig. 5.1
= (2) = 1
2
1
Area of 4th square = (area of 3rd square)
2
1 1
= (1) =
2 2
and so on.
Sum(s) of areas of all squares in the infinite sequence is
1
S = 4 + 2 +1+ +
2
Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= 4 Á 1 + + + + ˜
Ë 2 4 8 ¯
Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= 4 Á 1 + + 2 + 3 + ˜
Ë 2 2 2 ¯
1
which is an infinite geometric series with a = 1, r = .
2
Ê a ˆ
S = 4Á
Ë 1 - r ˜¯
Ê ˆ
Á 1 ˜
= 4Á
1˜
Á 1- ˜
Ë 2¯
=8
5.6 Telescoping series

A telescoping series is a series in which the nth partial sum Sn (sum of first n terms)
can be represented in such a manner that almost each term cancels with a preceeding
or following term except fixed number of terms.
example 1
1 1 1
Test the convergence of the series + + + .
1◊ 2 2 ◊ 3 3 ◊ 4
[Summer 2014]
Solution
1
un =
n(n + 1)
n + 1- n
=
n(n + 1)
1 1
= -
n n +1
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1 1ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ Ê1 1 ˆ
Sn = Á 1 - ˜ + Á - ˜ + Á - ˜ +  + Á -
Ë 2 ¯ Ë 2 3¯ Ë 3 4 ¯ Ë n n + 1˜¯
1
= 1-
n +1
Ê 1 ˆ
lim Sn = lim Á 1 -
n Æ• n Æ• Ë n + 1˜¯
= 1- 0
= 1 [finite]
Hence, the series Sun is convergent.
example 2
• 1
Test the convergence of the series Â 2 .
n =1 n + 3n + 2
Solution
1
un = 2
n + 3n + 2
1
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)
(n + 2) - (n + 1)
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)
1 1
= -
n +1 n + 2
Sn = u1 + u2 + u3 + L + un
Ê 1 1ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ Ê 1 1ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ
= Á - ˜ + Á - ˜ + Á - ˜ +L+ Á -
Ë 2 3¯ Ë 3 4 ¯ Ë 4 5¯ Ë n + 1 n + 2 ˜¯
1 1
= -
2 n+2
Ê1 1 ˆ
lim Sn = lim Á -
n Æ• n Æ• Ë 2 n + 2 ˜¯
1
= [finite]
2
example 3
• 1
Test the convergence of the series Â 2
.
n =1 n + 4n + 3
Solution
1
un =
n2 + 4n + 3
1
=
(n + 1)(n + 3)
(n + 3) - (n + 1)
=
2(n + 1)(n + 3)
1È 1 1 ˘
= -
2 Î n + 1 n + 3 ˙˚
Í
Sn = u1 + u2 + u3 +  + un
1 ÈÊ 1 1 ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ
= Í - + - + -
2 ÎÁË 2 4 ˜¯ ÁË 3 5 ˜¯ ÁË 4 6 ˜¯
Ê 1 1ˆ Ê1 1 ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ˘
+Á - ˜ ++ Á - + -
Ë 5 7¯ Ë n n + 2 ˜¯ ÁË n + 1 n + 3 ˜¯ ˙˚
1Ê1 1 1 1 ˆ
= + - -
2 2 3 n + 2 n + 3 ˜¯
Á
Ë
1Ê5 1 1 ˆ
= - -
2 ÁË 6 n + 2 n + 3 ˜¯
1Ê5 1 1 ˆ
lim Sn = lim - -
n Æ• n Æ• 2 ÁË 6 n + 2 n + 3 ˜¯
5
= [finite]
12
Example 4
• 2n + 1
.
n =1 n + (n + 1)2
Solution
2n + 1
un =
n (n + 1)2
2
(n + 1)2 - n2
=
n2 (n + 1)2
1 1
= 2-
n (n + 1)2
Sn = u1 + u2 + u3 +  + un
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1 1ˆ Ê 1 1ˆ È1 1 ˘
= Á1 - 2 ˜ + Á 2 - 2 ˜ + Á 2 - 2 ˜ +  + Í 2 - ˙
Ë 2 ¯ Ë2 3 ¯ Ë3 4 ¯ În (n + 1)2 ˚
1
= 1-
(n + 1)2
È 1 ˘
lim Sn = lim Í1 - 2˙
n Æ• n Æ•
Î (n + 1) ˚
= 1 [finite]
5.7 coMBInIng SerIeS
If two series Sun and Svn are convergent then the basic mathematical operations between
the series do not change the behaviour (convergence) of these series, i.e. combine series
S(un + vn), S(un – vn), Skun are also convergent, where k is a constant.
example 1
• 3n -1 - 1
Find the sum of the series Â . [Summer 2015]
n =1 6 n -1
Solution
•
3n -1 - 1 • ÈÊ 1 ˆ n -1 Ê 1 ˆ n -1 ˘
Â 6 n -1
= Â ÍÁË 2 ˜¯ - ÁË 6 ˜¯ ˙˙
n =1 n =1Í
Î ˚
• n -1 • n -1
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ
= Â ÁË 2 ˜¯ - Â ÁË 6 ˜¯
n =1 n =1
Ê 1 1 1 ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ
= Á 1 + + + + L˜ - Á 1 + + + L˜
Ë 2 4 8 ¯ Ë 6 36 ¯
1 1
Both the series are geometric series with a = 1 and r = and r = respectively.
2 6
a1 a
Sn = - 2
1 - r1 1 - r2
1 1
= -
1 1
1- 1-
2 6
6
= 2-
5
4
=
5
5.8 Harmonic Series 5.19
example 2
• 2n + 5
Investigate the convergence of the series Â .
n =1 3n
[Summer 2015]
Solution
•
2n + 5 ÈÊ 2 ˆ n
•
Ê 1ˆ ˘
n
Â = Â ÍÁ ˜ + 5 Á n ˜ ˙
Ë 3¯ Ë3 ¯ ˙
n =1 3n n =1Í
Î ˚
• n • n
Ê 2ˆ Ê 1ˆ
= Â ÁË 3 ˜¯ + Â 5 ÁË 3 ˜¯
n =1 n =1
• n -1 • n -1
Ê 2ˆ Ê 2ˆ Ê 5ˆ Ê 1ˆ
= ÂÁ ˜Á ˜ + ÂÁ ˜Á ˜
Ë ¯ Ë 3¯
n =1 3
Ë ¯ Ë 3¯
n =1 3
2 1
Both the series are geometric series with r1 = and r2 = respectively.
3 3
| r1 | < 1 and | r2 | < 1
Hence, both the series are convergent.
2 2
a 3
S1 = 1 = = 3 =2
1 - r1 2 1
1-
3 3
5
5
a 3
3 5
S2 = 2 = = =
1 - r2 1 2 2
1-
3 3
•
2n + 5 5 9
Hence, Â 3 n
= 2+ = .
2 2
n =1
5.8 harMonIc SerIeS
The harmonic series is expressed as

•
1 1 1
Â n = 1+ 2 + 3 +L
n =1
This series is divergent in nature.

5.9 p-SerIeS
The generalisation of harmonic series is known as p-series. It is represented as

•
1 1 1 1
Â np =
1 p
+
2 p
+
3p
+L
n =1
This series is
(i) convergent if p > 1
(ii) divergent if p £ 1
5.10 coMparISon teSt

u
If Sun and Svn are series of positive terms such that lim n = l (finite and non-zero)
n Æ• vn
then both series converge or diverge together.
Proof un
lim =l
nÆ• vn
By definition of limit, for a positive number Œ, however small, there exists an integer
m such that
un
-l < Œ for all n > m
vn
un
- Œ< -l <Œ for all n > m
vn
un
l - Œ< < l+ Œ for all n > m
vn
Neglecting the first m terms of Sun and Svn,

un
l - Œ< < l+ Œ for all n ... (1)
vn
Case I If Svn is convergent then lim (v1 + v2 + v3 + L + vn ) = finite = k , say

n Æ•
From Eq. (1),
un
< l+ ∈
vn
un < (l + ∈)vn for all n
lim (u1 + u2 + u3 + L + un ) < (l + Œ) lim (v1 + v2 + v3 + L + vn )
n Æ• n Æ•
lim (u1 + u2 + u3 + L + un ) < (l + Œ)k (finite)

n Æ•
Hence, Sun is also convergent.

Case II If Svn is divergent then
lim (v1 + v2 + v3 + ... + vn ) Æ • ... (2)
n Æ•
From Eq. (1),

un
l - Œ<
vn
un > (l - Œ)vn for all n
lim (u1 + u2 + u3 + L + un ) > (l - Œ) lim (v1 + v2 + v3 + L + vn )
n Æ• n Æ•
lim (u1 + u2 + u3 + L + un ) Æ • [From Eq. (2)]

n Æ•
Hence, Sun is also divergent.

Note
The following standard limits can be used to solve the problems:
log n
(i) lim =0 (vi) lim x n = 0 if x < 1
n Æ• n n Æ•
n
Ê 1ˆ
(ii) lim Á 1 + ˜ = e (vii) lim x n = • if x > 1
n Æ• Ë n¯ n Æ•
1
xn
(iii) lim (n) n = 1 (viii) lim = 0 for all x
n Æ• n Æ• n!
1
Ê a n - 1ˆ
(iv) lim (n !) n = • (ix) lim Á = log a
n Æ• nÆ0 Ë n ˜¯
1 1
Ê n!ˆ n 1 an -1
(v) lim Á ˜ = (x) lim = log a
n Æ• Ë n ¯ e n Æ• 1
n
example 1
• n
.
n=1 n +1
Solution
n
Let un =
n +12
1
= 3
Ê 1ˆ
n 2 Á1 + 2 ˜
Ë n ¯
1
Let vn = 3
n2
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn n Æ• 1
1+
n2
=1 [finite and non-zero]
1 3
and Svn = Â 3
is convergent as p = > 1.
2
n2
Hence, by comparison test, Sun is also convergent.
example 2
•
2n - 1
Test the convergence of the series Â n(n + 1)(n + 2) .
n =1
Solution
2n - 1
Let un =
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 - n ˜¯
=
Ê 1ˆ Ê 2ˆ
n2 Á 1 + ˜ Á 1 + ˜
Ë n¯ Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n2
Ê 1ˆ
un ÁË 2 - n ˜¯
lim = lim
n Æ• vn n Æ• Ê 1ˆ Ê 2ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
= 2 [finite and non-zero]
1
and the series Svn = Â is convergent as p = 2 > 1.
n2
example 3
• 1
.
n =1 1 + 2 + 32 + L + n2
[Winter 2015]
Solution
1
Let un =
1 + 2 + 3 + L + n2
2 2
6
=
n(n + 1)(2 n + 1)
6
=
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ
n3 Á 1 + ˜ Á 2 + ˜
Ë n¯ Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n3
un 6
lim = lim
n Æ• vn nÆ• Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ÁË 2 + n ˜¯

1
and Svn = Â is convergent as p = 3 > 1.
n3
example 4
• n+2
Test the convergence of the series Â .
n =1 ( n + 1) n
Solution
n+2
Let un =
(n + 1) n
2
1+
= 1
n
 1
n 2 1 + 
 n
1
Let vn = 1
n2
Ê 2ˆ
un ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
lim = lim
n Æ• vn n Æ• Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1 1
and Svn = Â is divergent as p = < 1.
1 2
n 2
Hence, by comparison test, Sun is also divergent.
example 5
• 2n + 1
Is the series Â 2 convergent or divergent? [Summer 2015]
n =1 ( n + 1)
Solution
2n + 1
Let un =
(n + 1)2
Ê 1ˆ
nÁ2 + ˜
Ë n¯
= 2
Ê 1ˆ
n Á1 + ˜
2
Ë n¯
Ê 1ˆ
Á 2+ ˜
1 Ë n¯
=
n Ê 1ˆ2
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1
Let vn =
n
Ê 1ˆ
un ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
lim = lim
n Æ• vn nÆ• Ê 1 ˆ 2
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
2
= =2 [finite and non-zero]
1
1
and Svn = Â is divergent as p = 1.
n
example 6 2
1
• (2 n - 1) 3
. [Winter 2013]
n =1 3
(3n + 2 n + 5) 4
Solution 1
(2 n2 - 1) 3
Let un = 1
(3n3 + 2 n + 5) 4
1
2
Ê 1 ˆ3
n3 ÁË 2 - 2 ˜¯
n
= 1
3
Ê 2 5 ˆ4
n4 ÁË 3 + 2 + 3 ˜¯
n n
1
Ê 1 ˆ3
ÁË 2 - 2 ˜¯
n
= 1
1
Ê 2 5 ˆ4
n 12 ÁË 3 + 2 + 3 ˜¯
n n
1
Let vn = 1
n 12
1
Ê 1 ˆ3
un ÁË 2 - 2 ˜¯
n
lim = lim 1
n Æ• vn n Æ•
Ê 2 5 ˆ4
ÁË 3 + 2 + 3 ˜¯
n n
1
(2 ) 3
= 1
[finite and non-zero]
(3) 4
1 1
and Svn = Â 1
is divergent as p = < 1.
12
n 12
example 7
1 2 3 4
Test the convergence of the series + + + +L.
1◊ 3 3 ◊ 5 5 ◊ 7 7 ◊ 9
Solution
n
Let un =
(2 n - 1)(2 n + 1)
1
=
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ
nÁ2 - ˜ Á2 + ˜
Ë n¯ Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn nÆ• Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 - n ˜¯ ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
1
= [finite and non-zero]
4
1
n
example 8
1 1 1
Test the convergence of the series + + + L.
3p 5p 7p
Solution
1
Let un =
(2 n + 1) p
1
= p
Ê 1ˆ
np Á 2 + ˜
Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
np
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn n Æ• p
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 +
n ˜¯
1
2p
1
and Svn = Â is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p £ 1.
np
Hence, by comparison test, Sun is also convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p £ 1.
example 9
Test the convergence of the series 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + L + n + 1 + L.
1 8 27 64 n3
Solution
n +1
Let un =
n3
1 Ê 1ˆ
= 2 Á1 + ˜
n Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n2
un Ê 1ˆ
lim = lim 1 +
n Æ• vn nÆ• ÁË n ˜¯
1
n2
example 10
1 2 3
Test the convergence of the series + + +L.
1+ 2 1+ 2 3 1+ 3 4
Solution
n
Let un =
1+ n n +1
n
=
3 Ê ˆ
Á 1 1˜
n 2 + 1+
Á 3 n˜
Ën 2 ¯
1
=
1 Ê ˆ
1 1
n2 Á 3 + 1+ ˜
Á n˜
Ë n2 ¯
1
Let vn = 1
n2
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn nÆ• Ê ˆ
Á 1 + 1+ 1 ˜
Á 3 n˜
Ë n2 ¯
1 1
and Svn = 1
2
n2
example 11
1 2 3
Test the convergence of the series 3
+ 3
+ +L.
2 3 43
Solution
n
Let un =
(n + 1)3
1
n2
= 3
( n + 1) 2
1
n2
= 3
3
Ê 1ˆ 2
n2 ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1
= 3
Ê 1ˆ 2
n Á1 + ˜
Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n
un 1
lim = lim 3
n Æ• vn nÆ•
Ê 1ˆ 2
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1
n
example 12
14 24 34
13 23 33
Solution
nth term of the numerator = a + (n – 1)d = 14 + (n – 1)10 = 10n + 4
nth term of the denominator = n3
10 n + 4
un =
n3
1 Ê 4ˆ
= 2 Á 10 + ˜
n Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n2
un Ê 4ˆ
lim = lim Á 10 + ˜
n Æ• vn n Æ• Ë n¯
1
and Svn = is convergent as p = 2 > 1.
n2
example 13
1 2 3
+ 2
+ + L.
a ◊1 + b a◊2 + b a ◊ 32 + b
Solution
n
Let un =
a ◊ n2 + b
1
=
Ê bˆ
nÁa + 2 ˜
Ë n ¯
1
Let vn =
n
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn nÆ• Ê bˆ
ÁË a + 2 ˜¯
n
1
a
1
n
example 14
1 2 3
+ 2
+ 2
+ L.
1 +m 2 +m 3 +m
Solution
n
Let un = 2
n +m
1
=
Ê mˆ
n Á1 + 2 ˜
Ë n ¯
1
Let vn =
n
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn n Æ• Ê mˆ
ÁË 1 + 2 ˜¯
n
1
n
example 15
2 ◊ 13 + 5 2 ◊ 23 + 5 2 ◊ n3 + 5
Test the convergence of the series + +L + + L.
4 ◊ 15 + 1 4 ◊ 25 + 1 4 ◊ n5 + 1
Solution
2 n3 + 5
Let un =
4 n5 + 1
Ê 5ˆ
ÁË 2 + 3 ˜¯
n
=
Ê 1ˆ
n2 Á 4 + 5 ˜
Ë n ¯
1
Let vn =
n2
Ê 5ˆ
Á 2+ 3˜
u Ë n ¯
lim n = lim
ÁË 4 + 5 ˜¯
n
2
4
1
n2
example 16
1◊ 2 3◊ 4 5◊6
Test the convergence of the series 2 2
+ 2 2
+ +L.
3 ◊4 5 ◊6 72 ◊ 82
[Winter 2013]
Solution
(2 n - 1) ◊ 2 n
Let un = [Using A.P.]
(2 n + 1)2 (2 n + 2)2
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 - n ˜¯ ◊ 2
= 2 2
Ê 1ˆ Ê 2ˆ
n Á2 + ˜ Á2 + ˜
2
Ë n¯ Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n2
Ê 1ˆ
2Á2 - ˜
un Ë n¯
lim = lim 2 2
n Æ• vn n Æ•
Ê 1ˆ Ê 2ˆ
ÁË 2 + n ˜¯ ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
1
4
1
n2
example 17
1 3 5 7
1◊ 2 ◊ 3 2 ◊ 3 ◊ 4 3 ◊ 4 ◊ 5 4 ◊ 5 ◊ 6
[Winter 2014]
Solution
(2n + 1)
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
=
Ê 1ˆ Ê 2ˆ
n2 Á 1 + ˜ Á 1 + ˜
Ë n¯ Ë n¯
1
Let vn = 2
n
Ê 1ˆ
un ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
lim = lim
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1
n2
example 18
•
Test the convergence of the series Â( n4 + 1 - n4 - 1 . )
n =1
[Summer 2016]
Solution
Let un = n 4 + 1 - n 4 - 1
( n4 + 1 - n4 - 1 )
= ( n4 + 1 + n4 - 1 )
( 4
n +1 + n 4
- 1)
(n 4 + 1) - (n 4 - 1)
=
n4 + 1 + n4 - 1
2
=
n4 + 1 + n4 - 1
1 2
= 2◊
n Ê 1 1 ˆ
Á 1+ 4 + 1- 4 ˜
Ë n n ¯
1
Let vn =
n2
un 2
lim = lim
n Æ• vn nÆ• Ê 1 1 ˆ
Á 1+ 4 + 1- 4 ˜
Ë n n ¯
1
and Â vn = Â n2 is convergent as p = 2 > 1.
example 19
• 5n3 - 3n
Check for convergence of the series Â .
n =1 n2 (n - 2)(n2 + 5)
[Winter 2016]
Solution
5n 3 - 3n
un =
n (n - 2)(n2 + 5)
2
Ê 3ˆ
n3 Á 5 - 2 ˜
Ë n ¯
=
Ê 2ˆ Ê 5ˆ
n5 Á 1 - ˜ Á 1 + 2 ˜
Ë n¯ Ë n ¯
Ê 3ˆ
ÁË 5 - 2 ˜¯
n
=
Ê 2 ˆ Ê 5ˆ
n2 Á 1 - ˜ Á 1 + 2 ˜
Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯
1
Let vn =
n2
Ê 3ˆ
un ÁË 5 - 2 ˜¯
n
lim = lim
ÁË 1 - n ˜¯ ÁË 1 + 2 ˜¯
n
=5 [finite and non zero]
1
Hence, by comparison text, Â un is also convergent.
example 20
• È1 Ê n + 1ˆ ˘
Test the convergence of the series Â Í n - log ÁË ˜ .
n ¯ ˙˚
n =1 Î
Solution
1 Ê n + 1ˆ
un = - log Á
Ë n ˜¯
Let
n
1 Ê 1ˆ
= - log Á 1 + ˜
n Ë n¯
1 Ê1 1 1 1 ˆ
= - Á - 2 + 3 - 4 + L˜
n Ë n 2n 3n 4n ¯
1 1 1
= 2
-
-L 3
+
2n 3n 4n4
1 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= 2Á - + 2 - L˜
n Ë 2 3n 4n ¯
1
Let vn =
n2
un Ê1 1 1 ˆ
lim = lim - + - L˜
n Æ• vn nÆ• ÁË 2 3n 4n2 ¯
1
2
1
n2
example 21 • 1
Test the convergence of the series Â sin n .
n =1
Solution
1
Let un = sin
n
1 1 1
= - 3
+ -L
n 3! n 5! n5
1Ê 1 1 ˆ
= 1- + - L˜
n ÁË 3! n2 5! n 4 ¯
1
Let vn =
n
un Ê 1 1 ˆ
lim = lim Á 1 - + - L˜
n Æ• vn n Æ• Ë 3! n 2
5! n 4 ¯
1
n
example 22
È • 1 ˘
Test the convergence of the series Â Í n3 + 1
n =1 Í
( ) 3 - n ˙.
˙˚
[Summer 2017]
Î
Solution
È 1 ˘
Let un = Í(n + 1) 3 - n ˙
3
ÍÎ ˙˚
1
Ê 1 ˆ3
= n Á1 + 3 ˜ - n
Ë n ¯
È 1Ê1 ˆ 1Ê1 ˆÊ1 ˆ ˘
Í 1 1 3 ÁË 3 - 1˜¯ 2 -1 -2
3 ÁË 3 ˜¯ ÁË 3 ˜¯
3 ˙
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ
= n Í1 + ◊ 3 + ÁË 3 ˜¯ + ÁË 3 ˜¯ + L˙˙ - n
ÍÎ 3 n 2! n 3! n ˚
1 1 1 1 5 1
= ◊ - ◊ + ◊ -L
3 n2 32 n5 34 n8
1 Ê1 1 1 5 1 ˆ
= 2 Á
- 2 ◊ 3 + 4 ◊ 6 - L˜
n Ë3 3 n 3 n ¯
1
Let vn =
n2
un Ê1 1 1 5 1 ˆ
lim = lim Á - 2 ◊ 3 + 4 ◊ 6 - L˜
n Æ• vn n Æ• Ë 3 3 n 3 n ¯
1
3
1
and the series Svn = Â is convergent as p = 2 > 1.
n2
example 23
•È 1 1˘
Test the convergence of the series ÂÎ
Í ( n + 1) 3 - n3 ˙.
˚
n =1
Solution
1 1
Let un = (n + 1) 3 - n 3
È
1
1 ˘
Í Ê 1ˆ 3 ˙
= n3
ÍÁË 1 + - 1
n ˜¯ ˙
ÎÍ ˙˚
ÈÏ 1Ê1 ˆ 1Ê1 ˆÊ1 ˆ ¸ ˘
1 ÍÔ Á - 1˜ Á - 1˜ Á - 2˜ Ô ˙
Í Ô 1 3Ë3 ¯ 1 3Ë3 ¯Ë3 ¯ 1 Ô
= n Ì1 +
3 + ◊ 2+ ◊ 3 + L˝ - 1˙
Í Ô 3n 2! n 3! n Ô ˙˙
ÍÔ
ÎÓ ˛Ô ˚
1 1 5
= 2
- 5
+ 8
-L
3n 3 9n 3 81n 3
1 Ê1 1 5 ˆ
= 2 Á
- + - L˜
Ë 3 9n 81n2 ¯
n3
1
Let vn = 2
n3
un Ê1 1 5 ˆ
lim = lim Á - + - L˜
n Æ• vn n Æ• Ë 3 9n 81n 2 ¯
1
3
1 2
and Svn = Â 2
3
n3
example 24
∞
n2 + n + 1 − n2 − n + 1
Test the convergence of the series ∑n =1 n
.
Solution
n2 + n + 1 - n2 - n + 1
Let un =
n
1 1
È Ê 1 1 ˆ ˘2 È Ê 1 1 ˆ ˘2
= Í1 + Á + 2 ˜ ˙ - Í1 + Á - + 2 ˜ ˙
Î Ë n n ¯˚ Î Ë n n ¯˚
Expanding using binomial expansion,
È 1Ê1 ˆ ˘
Í 1 1 1 Á - 1˜ 2 ˙
Ê ˆ 2 2Ë ¯ Ê1 1 ˆ
un = Í1 + Á + 2 ˜ + ÁË n + ˜ + L ˙
Í 2Ën n ¯ 2! n2 ¯ ˙
Í ˙
Î ˚
È 1Ê1 ˆ ˘
Í 1 ÁË 2 - 1˜¯ 2 ˙
Ê 1 1 ˆ 2 Ê 1 1 ˆ ˙
- Í1 + Á - + 2 ˜ + -
ÁË n + ˜ + L
Í 2Ë n n ¯ 2! n2 ¯ ˙
Í ˙
Î ˚
È 1 1 1Ê 1 2 1ˆ ˘
= Í1 + + 2 - Á 2 + 3 + 4 ˜ + L˙
Î 2n 2n Ë
8 n n n ¯ ˚
È 1 1 1Ê 1 2 1ˆ ˘
- Í1 - + 2 - Á 2 - 3 + 4 ˜ + L˙
Î 2n 2n Ë
8 n n n ¯ ˚
1 1
= - 3 +L
n 2n
1Ê 1 ˆ
= Á 1 - 2 + L˜
n Ë 2n ¯
1
Let vn =
n
un Ê 1 ˆ
lim = lim 1 - + L˜
n Æ• vn nÆ• ÁË 2 n2 ¯
1
n
example 25
Ê n2 + 1 - n ˆ
Test the convergence of the series Â ÁÁ ˜.
˜¯
Ë np
Solution
n2 + 1 - n
Let un =
np
È 1 ˘
Ê ˆ
n Á 1 + 2 ˜ - 1˙
Í 1 2
ÍË n ¯ ˙
ÍÎ ˙˚
= p
n
ÈÏ 1Ê1 ˆ 1Ê1 ˆÊ1 ˆ ¸ ˘
ÍÔ Á - 1˜ Á - 1˜ Á - 2˜ Ô ˙
n Ô 1 2 2Ë ¯ 1 2 2Ë ¯ Ë 2 ¯ 1 Ô
= p Í Ì1 + 2 + ◊ 4 + ◊ 6 + L˝ - 1˙
n Í Ô 2n 2! n 3! n Ô ˙˙
ÍÔ Ô˛ ˚
ÎÓ
n Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= p Á
- 4+ - L˜
n 2nË 2
8n 16 n 6 ¯
1 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= ÁË 2 - 2 +
p +1
- L˜
n 8n 16 n 4 ¯
1
Let vn = p +1
n
un Ê1 1 1 ˆ
lim = lim - + - L˜
n Æ• vn nÆ• ÁË 2 8n2 16 n 4 ¯
1
= [finite and non-zeero]
2
1
and Svn = Â p +1
is convergent if p + 1 > 1, i.e., p > 0 and divergent if p + 1 £ 1,
n
i.e., p £ 0.
Hence, by comparison test, Sun is also convergent if p > 0 and divergent if p £ 0.
example 26
1 1 1 1 1
Test the convergence of the series + + + + +L,
x x -1 x +1 x - 2 x + 2
where x is a positive fraction.
Solution
Since it is an infinite series, by ignoring the first term, the series can be rewritten as
Ê 1 1 ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ
Â un = ÁË x - 1 + x + 1˜¯ + ÁË x - 2 + x + 2 ˜¯ + L
2x 2x
= + +L
x -1
2
x - 22
2 2
2x
=Â
x 2 - n2
2x
un =
x 2 - n2
2x
=
Ê x2 ˆ
n2 Á 2 - 1˜
Ën ¯
1
Let vn =
n2
un 2x
lim = lim
n Æ• vn n Æ• Êx 2 ˆ
Á 2 - 1˜
Ën ¯
= –2x [finite and non-zero]
1
and Svn = is convergent as p = 2 > 1.
n2
exercISe 5.2
1. Test the convergence of the following series:
1
(i) ∑n 2
+1
(ii) ∑( n +1− n )
 
(iii) ∑( n4 + 1 − n4 − 1 ) (iv) ∑  n +1+ n
np

p
1  1
∑
n
(v) ∑ (n + 1) q
(vi)
n
tan  
 n
 1 1
(vii) ∑ tan −1
  (viii) ∑  b
 a + 
n n
n
 Ans. : 
 
 (i) Convergent (ii) Divergent (iii) Convergent
 1 1 
(iv) Convergent if p < − Divergent if p ≥ − 
 2 2 
 (v) Convergent if p − q + 1 < 0, Divergent if p − q + 1 ≥ 0 
(vi) Convergent (vii) Divergent 
 
(viii) Convergent if a > 1, Divergent if a ≤ 1 
2. Test the convergence of the series
(1 + a)(1 + b) (2 + a)(2 + b) (3 + a)(3 + b)
+ + +K.
1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 2⋅3⋅4 3⋅ 4 ⋅5
[ans. : Divergent]
5.11 d’aLeMBert’S ratIo teSt
un +1
If Sun is a positive-term series and lim = l then
n Æ• un
(i) Sun is convergent if l < 1
(ii) Sun is divergent if l > 1

Proof
un +1
Case I If lim = l < 1.
n Æ• un
un +1
Consider a number l < r < 1 such that < r for all n > m … (1)
un
Neglecting the first m terms,
•
Â un = um +1 + um + 2 + um + 3 + K •
n = m +1
Ê u u u ˆ
= um +1 Á 1 + m + 2 + m + 3 + m + 4 + K˜
Ë um +1 um +1 um +1 ¯
Ê u u u u u u ˆ
= um +1 Á 1 + m + 2 + m + 3 ◊ m + 2 + m + 4 ◊ m + 3 ◊ m + 2 + K˜
Ë um +1 um + 2 um +1 um + 3 um + 2 um +1 ¯
< um +1 (1 + r + r ◊ r + r ◊ r ◊ r + K) [ Using Eq. (1)]
2 3
= um +1 (1 + r + r + r + K)
1
= um + 1 ◊ (r < 1)
1-r
• um + 1
\ Â un <
1-r
(finite)
n = m +1
•
Thus, the series Â un is convergent.
n = m +1
The nature of a series remains unchanged if we neglect a finite number of terms in the
•
beginning. Hence, the series Â un is convergent.
n=1
un +1
Case II If lim = l > 1,
n Æ• un
un +1
> 1 for all n > m ... (2)
un

•
Â un = um +1 + um + 2 + um + 3 + um + 4 + K •
n = m +1
Ê u u u ˆ
= um +1 Á 1 + m + 2 + m + 3 + m + 4 + K˜
Ë um +1 u m +1 u m +1 ¯
Ê u u u u u u ˆ
= um +1 Á 1 + m + 2 + m + 3 ◊ m + 2 + m + 4 ◊ m + 3 ◊ m + 2 + K˜
Ë um +1 um + 2 um +1 um + 3 um + 2 um +1 ¯
> um +1 (1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + K)
\ (um +1 + um + 2 + K to n terms) > um +1 (1 + 1 + 1K to n terms)

Sn > um +1 .n
lim Sn > lim num +1 Æ • [Q um +1 is positive]
n Æ• n Æ•
•
Thus, the series Â un is divergent.
n = m +1
The nature of a series remains unchanged if we neglect a finite number of terms in the
•
beginning. Hence, the series Â un is divergent.
n=1
un +1
Note 1: If lim = 1 the ratio test fails, i.e. no conclusion can be drawn about the
n Æ• un
convergence or divergence of the series.
Note 2: It is convenient to use D’Alembert’s ratio test in the following form:
u
If Sun is a positive term series and lim n = l, then
n Æ• un +1
(i) Sun is convergent if l > 1

(ii) Sun is divergent if l < 1
(iii) The ratio test fails if l = 1
example 1
• 32 n
Test the convergence of the series Â . [Summer 2014]
n£0 23 n
Solution
32 n
Let un =
23 n
32( n +1) 32 n + 2
un +1 = =
23( n +1) 23 n + 3
un 32 n 23n + 3
= 3n ◊ 2 n + 2
un +1 2 3
23 8
= 2
=
3 9
un 8 8
lim = lim = < 1
n Æ• un +1 nÆ• 9 9
Hence, by D’Alembert’s ratio test, the series is divergent.
example 2
•5n -1
n =1 n !
Solution
5n -1
Let un =
n!
5n
un +1 =
(n + 1)!
un 5n -1 (n + 1)!
= ◊
un +1 n! 5n
n +1
=
5
un n +1
lim = lim Æ • >1
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 5
Hence, by D’Alembert’s ratio test, the series is convergent.
example 3
• 2n
. [Winter 2016]
n =1 n +1
Solution
2n
Let un =
n3 + 1
2 n +1
un +1 =
(n + 1)3 + 1
un 2 n (n + 1)3 + 1
= 3 ◊
un +1 n + 1 2 n +1
3
Ê 1ˆ 1
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ + 3 1
n
= ◊
1 2
1+ 3
n
3
Ê 1ˆ 1
un ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ + 3 1
n
lim = lim ◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 1 2
1+ 3
n
1
= <1
2
example 4
n!
nn
Solution
n!
Let un =
nn
(n + 1)!
un +1 =
(n + 1)n +1
n!
un
= nn
un +1 (n + 1)!
(n + 1)n +1
(n + 1)(n + 1)n
=
(n + 1)n n
n
Ê 1ˆ
= Á1 + ˜
Ë n¯
n
un Ê 1ˆ
lim = lim Á 1 + ˜
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ë n¯
= e >1
example 5
n !(2) n
Test the convergence of the series ∑ nn .
Solution
n !(2)n
Let un =
nn
(n + 1)!(2)n +1
un +1 =
(n + 1)n +1
un n! 2 n (n + 1)n +1
= n ◊
un +1 n (n + 1)! 2 n +1
1 Ê n + 1ˆ
n
=
2 ÁË n ˜¯
n
un 1 Ê 1ˆ
lim = lim Á 1 + ˜
n Æ• un +1 2 nÆ• Ë n ¯
e
=
>1
2
example 6
n3 •
n =1 ( n - 1)!
Solution
n3
Let un =
(n - 1)!
(n + 1)3
un +1 =
n!
un n3 n!
= ◊
un +1 (n - 1)! (n + 1)3
n3 n(n - 1)!
= ◊
(n - 1)! (n + 1)3
n
= 3
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
un n
lim = lim 3
Æ • >1
n Æ• Æ•
un +1 n
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
example 7
∞
(n + 1) n
Test the convergence of the series ∑
n =1 n!
.
Solution
(n + 1)n
Let un =
n!
(n + 2)n +1
un +1 =
(n + 1)!
un (n + 1)n (n + 1)!
= ◊
un +1 n! (n + 2)n +1
(n + 1)n (n + 1)(n !)
= ◊
n! [(n + 1) + 1]n+1
1
= n +1
Ê 1 ˆ
ÁË 1 + n + 1˜¯
un 1
lim = lim n +1
n Æ• un +1 nÆ• Ê 1 ˆ
ÁË 1 + n + 1˜¯
1
<1 =
e
example 8 •
2n + 1
Test the convergence of the series Â n .
n =1 3 + 1
Solution
2n + 1
Let un =
3n + 1
2 n +1 + 1
un +1 =
3n +1 + 1
un Ê 2 n + 1ˆ Ê 3n +1 + 1 ˆ
=Á ÁË n +1 ˜¯
un +1 Ë 3n + 1 ˜¯ 2 +1
Ê 1 ˆÊ 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ÁË 3 + n ˜¯
2 3
=
Ê 1 ˆÊ 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
3 2
Ê 1 ˆÊ 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ÁË 3 + n ˜¯
un 2 3
lim = lim
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ê 1 ˆÊ 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
3 2
3
= >1
2
example 9
• 5n + a
Test the convergence of the series Â n
, a > 0, b > 0.
n =1 3 +b
Solution
5n + a
Let un =
3n + b
5n +1 + a
un +1 =
3n +1 + b
un 5n + a 3n +1 + b
lim = lim n ◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 3 + b 5n +1 + a
a b
1+
n
3+ n
= lim 5 ◊ 3
n Æ• b a
1+ n 5 + n
3 5
3
= <1
5
example 10
2! 3! 4!
Test the convergence of the series + + + L.
3 32 33
Solution
(n + 1)!
Let un =
3n
(n + 2)!
un +1 =
3n +1
un (n + 1)! 3n +1
lim = lim ◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 3n (n + 2)!
Ê 3 ˆ
= lim Á ˜
n Æ• Ë n + 2 ¯
= 0 <1
example 11
4 4 2 43 4 4
Test the convergence of the series 1 + + + + +L.
2 ! 3! 4 ! 5!
Solution
4 n -1
Let un =
n!
4n
un +1 =
(n + 1)!
un 4 n -1 (n + 1)!
= ◊
un +1 n! 4n
(n + 1)
=
4
un (n + 1)
lim = lim Æ • >1
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 4
example 12
22 32 42
Test the convergence of the series 1 + + + + L.
2 ! 3! 4 !
Solution
n2
Let un =
n!
(n + 1)2
un +1 =
(n + 1)!
un n2 (n + 1)!
= ◊
un +1 n! (n + 1)2
n2 (n + 1) ◊ n !
=
n !(n + 1)2
n2
=
n +1
n
=
1
1+
n
un n
lim = lim Æ • >1
n Æ•
un +1 nÆ• 1
1+
n
example 13
2 p 3p 4 p
Test the convergence of 1 + + + + … ,( p > 0).
2! 3! 4!
Solution
np
Let un =
n!
(n + 1) p
un +1 =
(n + 1)!
np
un n!
lim = lim
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• ( n + 1) p
(n + 1)!
np (n + 1)!
= lim ◊
n Æ• (n + 1) p n!
(n + 1)
= lim Æ • >1
n Æ• p
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
example 14
1 2 3 4
Test the convergence of the series + + + + L.
1 + 2 1 + 2 1 + 2 1 + 24
2 3
Solution
n
Let un =
1 + 2n
n +1
un +1 =
1 + 2 n +1
un n 1 + 2 n +1
= ◊
un +1 1 + 2n n + 1
1
+2
= 2n
Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1ˆ
ÁË n + 1˜¯ ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
2
1
+2
lim
un
= lim 2n
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1ˆ
ÁË n + 1˜¯ ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
2
ÈQ lim 2 n Æ • ˘
=2>1 ÍÎ nÆ• ˙˚
example 15
• 2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 K 2n
Test the convergence of the series Â 5 ◊ 8 ◊11K(3n + 2).
n =1
Solution
2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 K 2n
5 ◊ 8 ◊ 11K (3n + 2)
2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 K 2 n(2 n + 2)
un +1 =
5 ◊ 8 ◊ 11K (3n + 2)(3n + 5)
un 2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 K 2n 5 ◊ 8 ◊ 11K (3n + 2)(3n + 5)
= ◊
un +1 5 ◊ 8 ◊ 11K (3n + 2) 2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 K 2 n( 2 n + 2 )
3n + 5
=
2n + 2
5
3+
= n
2
2+
n
5
un 3+
lim = lim n
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 2
2+
n
3
= >1
2
example 16
2 2 ◊ 5 2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8 2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8 ◊ 11
1 1 ◊ 5 1 ◊ 5 ◊ 9 1 ◊ 5 ◊ 9 ◊ 13
Solution
Let 2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8 ◊ 11K (3n - 1) [Using A.P.]
un =
1 ◊ 5 ◊ 9 ◊ 13K (4 n - 3)
2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8 ◊ 11K (3n - 1)(3n + 2)
un+1 =
1 ◊ 5 ◊ 9 ◊ 13K(4 n - 3)(4n + 1)
2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8 ◊ 11K(3n - 1)
un 1 ◊ 5 ◊ 9 ◊ 13K(4 n - 3)
lim = lim
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8 ◊ 11K((3n - 1)(3n + 2)
1 ◊ 5 ◊ 9 ◊ 13K (4 n - 3)(4 n + 1)
4n + 1
= lim
n Æ• 3n + 2
1
4+
= lim n
n Æ• 2
3+
n
4
= >1
3
example 17 2 2 2
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1◊ 2 ˆ Ê 1◊ 2 ◊ 3 ˆ
Test the convergence of the series Á ˜ + Á ˜ +Á + K •.
Ë 3¯ Ë 3 ◊ 5¯ Ë 3 ◊ 5 ◊ 7 ˜¯
Solution
2
È 1 ◊ 2 ◊ 3K n ˘
Let un = Í ˙ [Using A.P.]
Î 3 ◊ 5 ◊ 7 K (2 n + 1) ˚
2
È 1 ◊ 2 ◊ 3 K n(n + 1) ˘
un +1 = Í ˙
Î 3 ◊ 5 ◊ 7 K ( 2 n + 1 (
)( 2 n + 3) ˚
2
È 1 ◊ 2 ◊ 3K n ˘
Í 3 ◊ 5 ◊ 7 K(2 n + 1) ˙
lim
un
= lim Î ˚
n Æ• un +1 nÆ• È 2
1 ◊ 2 ◊ 3K n(n + 1) ˘
Í 3 ◊ 5 ◊ 7 K(2 n + 1)(2 n + 3) ˙
Î ˚
2
È 2n + 3 ˘
= lim Í
n Æ• Î n + 1 ˙˚
2
È 3˘
Í2 + n ˙
= lim Í ˙
n Æ•
Í1+ 1 ˙
ÍÎ n ˙˚
= 4 >1
example 18
3 4 5
Test the convergence of the series 2 + x + x 2 + x 3 + L.
2 3 4
[Summer 2014]
Solution
n + 1 n -1
Let un = x
n
n+2 n
un +1 = x
n +1
un (n + 1) x n -1 n +1
= ◊
un +1 n ( n + 2) x n
1 1
1+ 1+
= n◊ n ◊1
1 2 x
1+
n
1 1
1+ 1+
lim
un
= lim n◊ n ◊1
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 1 2 x
1+
n
1
=
x
By D’Alembert’s ratio test, the series is

1
(i) convergent if > 1 or x < 1
x
1
(ii) divergent if < 1 or x > 1
x
1
The test fails if = 1, i.e., x = 1.
x
n +1 1
Then un = = 1+
n n
Ê 1ˆ
lim un = lim Á 1 + ˜
n Æ• n Æ• Ë n¯
Sun is divergent for x = 1.
Hence, the series is convergent for x < 1 and is divergent for x ≥ 1.
example 19
• (n + 1)
xn.
n =1 n
Solution
n +1
Let un = 2
xn
n
n+2
un +1 = 2
x n +1
(n + 1)
un (n + 1) x n (n + 1)2
= 2
◊
un +1 n (n + 2) x n +1
(n + 1)3
= 2
n ( n + 2) x
3
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ 1
= ◊
Ê 2ˆ x
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
3
Ê 1ˆ
un ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ 1
lim = lim ◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ê 2ˆ x
1 +
ÁË n ˜¯
1
=
x

1
x
1
x
1
The test fails if = 1, i.e., x = 1.
x
n +1
Then un =
n2
1 Ê 1ˆ
= 1+ ˜
n ÁË n¯
Let 1
vn =
n
un  1
lim = lim 1 + 
n →∞ vn n→∞  n 
1
n
By comparison test, Sun is also divergent for x = 1.
example 20
Ê xn ˆ •
Test the convergence of the series Â Á 2 ˜ , for x > 0.
n =1 Ë n + 1¯
Solution
xn
Let un = 2
n +1
x n +1
un +1 =
(n + 1)2 + 1
un x n (n + 1)2 + 1
= 2 ◊
un +1 n + 1 x n +1
2
Ê 1ˆ 1
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ + 2 1
n
= ◊
1 x
1+ 2
n
2
Ê 1ˆ 1
un ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ + 2 1
n
lim = lim ◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 1 x
1+ 2
n
1
=
x
1
x
1
x
The test fails if x = 1.
1
Then un =
n2 + 1
1
=
Ê 1ˆ
n2 Á 1 + 2 ˜
Ë n ¯
1
Let vn = 2
n
un 1
lim = lim
ÁË 1 + 2 ˜¯
n
1
n2
By comparison test, Sun is also convergent if x = 1.
Hence, the series is convergent for x £ 1 and is divergent for x > 1.
example 21
2n
x n , x > 0.
n +1
Solution
2n
Let un = 4
xn
n +1
2 n +1
un +1 = x n +1
(n + 1) + 1
4
un 2 n x n (n + 1)4 + 1
= ◊
un +1 n 4 + 1 2 n +1 x n +1
4
Ê 1ˆ 1
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ + 4
n
=
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + 4 ˜¯ 2 x
n
4
Ê 1ˆ 1
un ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ + 4
n
lim = lim
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + 4 ˜¯ 2 x
n
1
=
2x
(i) convergent if 1 > 1 or x < 1

2x 2
(ii) divergent if 1 < 1 or x > 1

2x 2
The test fails if 1 = 1 or x = 1 .

2x 2
2n 1
Then un = ◊
4
n + 1 2n
1
=
n4 + 1
1
=
Ê 1ˆ
n4 Á1 + 4 ˜
Ë n ¯
1
Let vn =
n4
un 1
lim = lim
ÁË 1 + 4 ˜¯
n
1
and Σvn = ∑ is convergent as p = 4 > 1.
n4
1
By comparison test, Sun is also convergent if x = .
2
1 1
Hence, the series is convergent for x £ and is divergent for x > .
2 2
example 22
n
Test the convergence of the series ∑ 2
n +1
xn .
Solution
n
Let un = ◊ xn
n2 + 1
(n + 1)
un +1 = ◊ x n +1
(n + 1)2 + 1
un n (n + 1)2 + 1 1
= ◊ xn ◊ n +1
un +1 n2 + 1 n +1 x
n (n2 + 2 n + 2) 1
= ◊ ◊
(n + 1) (n2 + 1) x
Ê 2 2ˆ
un ÁË 1 + n + 2 ˜¯ 1
n
lim = lim ◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ x
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ÁË 1 + 2 ˜¯
n
1
=
x
1
(i) convergent if > 1, or x < 1
x
1
(ii) divergent if < 1, or x >1
x
The test fails for x = 1.
n
Then un = 2
n +1
1
n2
=
1
n 1+
n2
1
= 1
1
n2 1+
n2
1
Let vn = 1
n2
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn nÆ• 1
1+
n2
1 1
and Svn = Â 1
is divergent for p = <1
2
n2
example 23
x x2 x3 x4
x +1 x + 2 x + 3 x + 4
Solution
xn
Let un =
x+n
x n +1
un +1 =
x + n +1
un xn x + n + 1
= ◊
un +1 x + n x n +1
x 1
+1+
= n n ◊1
x x
+1
n
x 1
+1+
lim
un
= lim n n ◊1
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• x x
+1
n
1
=
x

1
x
1
x
1
The test fails if = 1 or x = 1.
x
1
Then un =
1+ n
1
=
1 
n  + 1
n 
1
Let vn =
n
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn n Æ• Ê 1 ˆ
ÁË n + 1˜¯
1
and Σvn = ∑ is divergent as p = 1.
n
example 24
x x2 x3 x4
1◊ 2 3 ◊ 4 5 ◊ 6 7 ◊ 8
Solution
xn
Let un =
(2 n - 1)2 n
x n +1
un +1 =
(2 n + 1)(2 n + 2)
un xn (2 n + 1)(2 n + 2)
= ◊
un +1 (2 n - 1)2 n x n +1
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
Ê 1ˆ 1
= 1+ ◊
Ê 1 ˆ ÁË n ˜¯ x
ÁË 2 -
n ˜¯
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
un Ê 1ˆ 1
lim = lim ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ◊ x
ÁË 2 - n ˜¯
1
=
x
1
x
1
x
1
The test fails if = 1 or x = 1.
x
1
Then un =
(2n − 1)2n
1
=
 1
2n  2 − 
2
 n
1
Let vn =
n2
un 1
lim = lim
n →∞ vn n →∞  1
22 − 
 n
1
4
1
and Σvn = ∑ is convergent as p = 2 > 1.
n2
By comparison test, Sun is also convergent.
example 25
1 x x2
1◊ 2 ◊ 3 4 ◊ 5 ◊ 6 7 ◊ 8 ◊ 9
[Summer 2017]
Solution
xn - 1
Let un =
(3n - 2)(3n - 1) 3n
xn
un + 1 =
(3n + 1) (3n + 2)(3n + 3)
un xn - 1 (3n + 1) (3n + 2) (3n + 3)
= ◊
un + 1 (3n - 2) (3n - 1) (3n) xn
Ê 1ˆ Ê 2ˆ Ê 3ˆ
ÁË 3 + n ˜
¯ Á
Ë
3 + ˜ Á3 + ˜
n ¯ Ë n¯ 1
= ◊
Ê 2ˆ Ê 1ˆ x
ÁË 3 - n ˜¯ ÁË 3 - n ˜¯ 3
Ê 1ˆ Ê 2ˆ Ê 3ˆ
un ÁË 3 + n ˜¯ ÁË 3 + n ˜¯ ÁË 3 + n ˜¯ 1
lim = lim ◊
n Æ • un + 1 nÆ• Ê 2ˆ Ê 1ˆ x
ÁË 3 - n ¯˜ ÁË 3 - n ˜¯ 3
1
=
x
By D¢ Alembert’s ratio text, the series is
1
x
1
x
1
The test fails if = 1 or x = 1 .
x
1
Then un =
(3n - 2)(3n - 1)(3n)
1
=
Ê 2ˆ Ê 1ˆ
n3 Á 3 - ˜ Á 3 - ˜ 3
Ë n¯ Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n3
un 1
lim = lim
ÁË 3 - n ˜¯ ÁË 3 - n ˜¯ 3
1
27
1
By comparison test, Â un is also convergent for x = 1.

example 26
3 4 (n + 1)
Test the convergence of the series 2 x + x 2 + x 3 + L + 3 x n + L.
8 27 n
Solution
n +1
Let un = ◊ xn
n3
n+2
un +1 = ◊ x n +1
(n + 1)3
un (n + 1) x n (n + 1)3
= ◊
un +1 n3 (n + 2) x n +1
4
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ 1
= ◊
Ê 2ˆ x
ÁË 1 +
n ˜¯
4
Ê 1ˆ
un ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ 1
lim = lim ◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ê 2ˆ x
1 +
ÁË n ˜¯
1
=
x
1
x
1
x
1
The test fails if = 1 or x = 1 .
x
n +1
Then un =
n3
1 Ê 1ˆ
= 2 Á1 + ˜
n Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n2
un Ê 1ˆ
lim = lim Á 1 + ˜
1
n2
By comparison test, Sun is also convergent for x = 1.
example 27
1 x2 x4 x6
2 1 3 2 4 3 5 4
[Winter 2013]
Solution
x2n− 2
Let un =
(n + 1) n
x2n
u n +1 =
( n + 2) n + 1
un x2n− 2 ( n + 2) n + 1
= ⋅
un +1 (n + 1) n x2n
( n + 2) n + 1 1
= ⋅
(n + 1) n x2
Ê 2ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ 1 1
= 1+ ◊ 2
Ê 1ˆ n x
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
Ê 2ˆ
un ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ 1 1
lim = lim 1+ ◊ 2
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ê 1ˆ n x
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1
=
x2
1
(i) convergent if 2 > 1 or x2 < 1
x
1 2
(ii) divergent if 2 < 1 or x > 1
x
1
The test fails if = 1 or x 2 = 1.
x2
1
Then un =
(n + 1) n
1
= 3
Ê 1ˆ
n2 ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1
Let vn = 3
n2
un 1
= lim
lim
vn nn Æ•
Æ• Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1 3
and Svn = 3 is convergent as p = > 1.
2
n2
By comparison test, Sun is also convergent for x2 = 1.
Hence, the series is convergent for x2 £ 1 and is divergent for x2 > 1.
example 28
3 5 7 3 9 4
Test the convergence of the series 1 + x + x2 + x + x + L.
2 9 28 65
Solution
2n + 1
Let un = xn [Neglecting the first term]
n3 + 1
2n + 3
un +1 = x n +1
(n + 1)3 + 1
un (2 n + 1) x n [(n + 1)3 + 1]
= ◊
un +1 n3 + 1 (2 n + 3) x n +1
1 ˆ ÈÊ 1 ˆ 1˘
3
Ê
ÁË 2 + n ˜¯ ÍÁË 1 + n ˜¯ + 3 ˙
ÍÎ n ˙˚
=
Ê 3ˆ Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 + n ˜¯ ÁË 1 + 3 ˜¯ x
n
1 ˆ ÈÊ 1 ˆ 1˘
3
Ê
ÁË 2 + ˜ Í Á 1 + ˜ + 3˙
n ¯ ÍË n¯ n ˙˚
lim
m
un
= lim Î
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ê 3ˆ Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 + n ˜¯ ÁË 1 + 3 ˜¯ x
n
1
=
x
1
x
1
x
2n + 1
Then un =
n3 + 1
1
2+
= n
 1
n 2 1 + 3 
 n 
1
Let vn =
n2
1
2+
un
lim = lim n
n →∞ v n →∞  1
1 + 3 
n
n
1
n2
By comparison test, Sun is also convergent if x = 1.
exercISe 5.3
Test the convergence of the following series:
2 2 32 4 2
1. 1 + + + + K∞
2! 3! 4!
[ans.: Convergent]
∞
4 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 10 K(3n + 1)
2. ∑
n =1 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 K n
[ans.: Convergent]
1 2 3
3. + 2
+ + K∞
1+ 5 1+ 5 1 + 53
[ans.: Convergent]
2! 3! 4!
4. 1 + + + + K∞ [ans.: Convergent]
22 33 4 4
2 3 4
5. + + +L [ans.: Convergent]
3! 4 ! 5!
3 32 33 34
6. 1 + + + + +L [ans.: Convergent]
2 ! 3! 4 ! 5!
∞
n2 [ans.: Convergent]
7. ∑3
n =1
n
∞
2 n −1
8. ∑3
n =1
n
+1
[ans.: Convergent]
∞
1
9. ∑ n!
n =1
[ans.: Convergent]
∞
n 2 (n + 1)2
10. ∑
n =1 n! [ans.: Convergent]
∞
3n + 4 n
11. ∑ n n [ans.: Divergent]
n =1 4 + 5
∞
xn
12. ∑ n 2 , x > 0
n =1 3 ⋅ n
[ans.: Convergent for x < 3, divergent for x > 3]
∞ n
3 − 2 n −1
13. ∑3
n =1
n
+1
⋅ x , x>0
∞
xn
14. ∑ (2 )!
n =1
n
[ans.: Convergent]
∞
n +1 n
15. ∑
n =1 n3 + 1
⋅x , x > 0 [ans.: Convergent for x < 1, divergent for x > 1]
16. x + 2 x 2 + 3x 3 + 4 x 4 + K ∞
2 3
x x x xn
17. 1 + + + +K+ 2 + K∞
2 5 10 n +1
2 3
18. x + x + x + K ∞
1⋅ 3 3 ⋅ 5 5 ⋅ 7
3 2 8 3 15 4 n2 − 1 n
19. x + x + x + x +K + 2 x + K∞
5 10 17 n +1
x x2 x3
20. + + + K∞
2 3 3 4 4 5
5.12 raaBe’S teSt

 u 
If Sun is a positive term series and nlim n  n − 1 = l , then
→∞
 un +1 
(iii) Test fails if l = 1
proof:
1
(i) Consider a number p such that p > 1. The series Σun = Σ p is convergent
n
if p > 1. By comparison test, Sun will be convergent if from and after some term
p
un v (n + 1) p Ê 1 ˆ
> n = = Á1 + ˜
un +1 vn +1 np Ë n¯
p
un Ê 1ˆ p p( p - 1)
> 1+ = 1+ + +K
un +1 ÁË n ˜¯ n 2! n2
Ê u ˆ È p p( p - 1) ˘
n Á n - 1˜ > n Í + + K˙
Ë un +1 ¯ Î n 2 n 2
˚
Ê u ˆ È p( p - 1) ˘
lim n Á n - 1˜ > lim Í p + + K˙
n Æ• Ë un +1 ¯ n Æ• Î 2n ˚
l > p >1
Hence, Sun is convergent if l > 1.

1
(ii) Consider a number p such that p < 1. The series Svn = S is divergent if p < 1.
np
By comparison test, Sun will be divergent if from and after some term
un v
< n
un +1 vn +1
Proceeding as in case (i), we get

 u   p ( p − 1) 
lim n  n − 1 < lim  p + + K
n →∞
 un +1  n →∞
 2n 
l < p <1
Hence, Sun is divergent if l < 1.
(iii) Raabe’s test fails if l = 1 and other tests are required to check the nature of the
series.
Note: When Raabe’s test fails, logarithmic test can be applied.
example 1
2 2◊5 2 ◊5◊8
Test the convergence of the series + + +….
7 7 ◊ 10 7 ◊ 10 ◊ 13
Solution
2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8KK (3n - 1)
un =
7 ◊ 10 ◊ 13KK (3n + 4)
2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8 K (3n - 1)(3n + 2)
un +1 =
7 ◊ 10 ◊ 13K (3n + 4)(3n + 7)
un 2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8 K (3n - 1) 7 ◊ 10 ◊ 13 K (3n + 4)(3n + 7)
= ◊
un+1 7 ◊ 10 ◊ 13 K (3n + 4) 2 ◊ 5 ◊ 8 K(3n - 1)(3n + 2)
3n + 7
=
3n + 2
Ê u ˆ Ê 3n + 7 ˆ
lim n Á n - 1˜ = lim n Á -1
n Æ• Ë un +1 ¯ n Æ• Ë 3n + 2 ˜¯
5n
= lim
3n + 2
n Æ•
5 5
= lim = >1
n Æ• 2 3
3+
n
Hence, by Raabe’s test, the series is convergent.
example 2
4 ◊ 7 ºº (3n + 1) x n
n!
Solution
4 ◊ 7 K (3n + 1) x n
un =
n!
4 ◊ 7 K (3n + 1)(3n + 4) x n +1
un +1 =
(n + 1)!
un 4 ◊ 7 K (3n + 1) x n (n + 1)!
= ◊
un +1 n! 4 ◊ 7 K (3n + 1)(3n + 4) x n +1
n +1
=
(3n + 4) x
1
1+
un
lim = lim n
ÁË 3 + n ˜¯ x
1
=
3x
By ratio test, the series is
1 1
(i) Convergent if > 1 or x <
3x 3
1 1
(ii) Divergent if < 1 or x >
3x 3
1
(iii) Test fails if x =
3
un n +1
=
Then un+1 1
(3n + 4)
3
3n + 3
=
3n + 4
Applying Raabe’s test,
Ê u ˆ Ê 3n + 3 ˆ
lim n Á n - 1˜ = lim n Á - 1˜
n Æ• Ë un +1 ¯ nÆ• Ë 3n + 4 ¯
Ê -n ˆ
= lim Á ˜
n Æ• Ë 3n + 4 ¯
Ê ˆ
Á -1 ˜
= lim Á
n Æ• 4˜
Á 3+ ˜
Ë n¯
1
= - <1
3
1
By Raabe’s test, the series is divergent if x = .
3
1 1
Hence, the series is convergent if x < and divergent if x ≥ .
3 3
example 3
1 ◊ 3 ◊ 5 ……(2 n - 1) x 2 n +1
2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 …… 2 n(2 n + 1)
Solution
1 ◊ 3 ◊ 5KK (2 n - 1) x 2 n +1
un =
2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 KK(2 n + 1)
1 ◊ 3 ◊ 5K (2 n - 1)(2 n + 1) x 2 n + 3
un +1 =
2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 K 2 n (2 n + 2)(2 n + 3)
un 1 ◊ 3 ◊ 5KK (2 n - 1) x 2 n +1 2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 KK 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 3)
= ◊
un +1 2 ◊ 4 ◊ 6 KK 2 n(2 n + 1) 1 ◊ 3 ◊ 5KK(2 n - 1)(2 n + 1) x 2 n + 3
(2 n + 2)(2 n + 3)
=
(2 n + 1)2 x 2
Ê 2ˆ Ê 3ˆ
un ÁË 2 + n ˜¯ ◊ ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
lim = lim 2
n Æ• un +1 n Æ•
Ê 1ˆ 2
ÁË 2 +
n ˜¯
x
1
=
x2
1
(i) Convergent if > 1 or x 2 < 1
x2
1
(ii) Divergent if
2
< 1 or x 2 > 1
x
2
(iii) Test fails if x = 1
un (2 n + 2)(2 n + 3)
Then =
un +1 (2 n + 1)2
Ê u ˆ È (2 n + 2)(2 n + 3) ˘
lim n Á n - 1˜ = lim n Í - 1˙
n Æ• Ë n +1 ¯
u n Æ•
Î (2 n + 1)
2
˚
n(6 n + 5)
= lim
n Æ• (2 n + 1)2
Ê 5ˆ
ÁË 6 + n ˜¯
= lim 2
n Æ•
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 2 + n ˜¯
3
= >1
2
By Raabe’s test, the series is convergent if x 2 = 1 .

Hence, the series is convergent if x 2 £ 1 and is divergent if x 2 > 1.
example 4
Test the convergence of the series
a(a + 1)(a + 2)ºº (a + n - 1) ◊ b(b + 1)(b + 2)ºº (b + n - 1) x n
Â .
1 ◊ 2 ◊ 3ºº n ◊ c(c + 1)(c + 2)ºº (c + n - 1)
Solution
a(a + 1)(a + 2)KK(a + n - 1) ◊ b(b + 1)(b + 2)KK(b + n - 1) x n
un =
1 ◊ 2 ◊ 3KK n ◊ c(c + 1)(c + 2)KK(c + n - 1)
un a(a + 1)KK (a + n - 1) ◊ b(b + 1)KK (b + n - 1) x n

= ◊
un +1 1 ◊ 2 ◊ 3KK n ◊ c(c + 1)KK (c + n - 1)
1 ◊ 2 KK n(n + 1) ◊ c(c + 1)...(c + n - 1)(c + n)
a(a + 1)KK (a + n - 1)(a + n) ◊ b(b + 1)KK(b + n - 1)(b + n) x n +1
(n + 1)(c + n)
=
(a + n)(b + n) x
Ê 1ˆ Ê c ˆ
un ÁË 1 + n ˜¯ ËÁ n + 1˜¯
lim = lim
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• Ê a ˆÊb ˆ
ÁË n + 1˜¯ ÁË n + 1˜¯ x
1
=
x

1
(i) Convergent if > 1 or x < 1
x
1
(ii) Divergent if < 1 or x >1
x
(iii) Test fails if x = 1
Then un (n + 1)(c + n)
=
un +1 (a + n)(b + n)

Ê u ˆ È (n + 1)(c + n) ˘
lim n Á n - 1˜ = lim n Í - 1˙
n Æ• Ë n +1 ¯
u n Æ• Î (a + n)(b + n) ˚
È (c - ab) + n(1 + c - a - b) ˘
= lim n Í ˙
n Æ• Î (a + n)(b + n) ˚
È (c - ab) ˘
Í + (1 + c - a - b) ˙
= lim Í n ˙
n Æ• Í Êa ˆÊb ˆ ˙
Í ÁË n + 1˜¯ ÁË n + 1˜¯ ˙
Î ˚
= 1+ c - a - b
By Raabe’s test, the series is (i) convergent if 1 + c - a - b > 1 or c > a + b , and
(ii) divergent if 1 + c - a - b < 1 or c < a + b.
Hence, the series is convergent if x < 1 and divergent if x > 1.
For x = 1, the series is convergent if c > a + b and divergent if c < a + b.
exercISe 5.4
1. 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ... .
2 2◊4 2◊4 ◊6 [ans.: Divergent]
12 ◊ 52 ◊ 92 KK(4 n - 3)2
2. Â 4 2 ◊ 82 ◊ 122 KK(4 n)2
.
[ans.: Convergent]
22 22 ◊ 4 2 22 ◊ 4 2 ◊ 6 2
3. (i) 1 + + + +K.
3◊ 4 3◊ 4 ◊5◊6 3◊ 4 ◊5◊6 ◊7 ◊8
[ans.: Convergent]
(1!)2 (2!)2 2 (3!)2 3

(ii) 1 + x+ x + x + K.
2! 4! 6!
[ans.: Convergent for x < 4 and divergent for x ≥ 4]
(iii) 1 + 3 x + 3 ◊ 6 x 2 + 3 ◊ 6 ◊ 9 x 3 + K .
7 7 ◊ 10 7 ◊ 10 ◊ 13
[ans.: Convergent for x £ 1 and divergent for x > 1]
22 22 ◊ 4 2 22 ◊ 4 2 ◊ 6 2
4. 1 + + + + K.
32 32 ◊ 52 32 ◊ 52 ◊ 7 2
[ans. : Divergent]
a(a + 1) (a + 1)(a + 2) (a + 2)(a + 3)

5. + + + K.
2! 3! 4!
[ans.: Convergent for a £ 0]
(n !)2
6. Â (2n)!x 2n
.
[ans.: Convergent for x < 4 and divergent for x2 ≥ 4]
5.13 cauchy’S root teSt
1
If Sun is a positive term series and if lim (un ) n = l then
n Æ•
(i) Sun is convergent if l < 1.

(ii) Sun is divergent if l > 1.
Proof
1
Case I If lim (un ) n = l < 1.
n Æ•
1
Consider a number l < r < 1 such that (un ) n < r for all n > m
un < r n for all n > m ... (1)
The geometric series, Sr n = r + r 2 + r 3 + K∞

Sn = r + r 2 + r 3 + K + r n
r (1 - r n )
=
1- r
r (1 - r n )
lim Sn = lim
n Æ• n Æ• 1 - r ÈQr < 1 ˘
r Í ˙
ÍÎ\ xlim r = 0˙
n
= , which is finite
1- r Æ• ˚
Hence, the series Sr n is convergent.

From Eq. (1), un < r n for all n > m
Sun < Sr n
Since Sr n is convergent, Sun is also convergent.

1
Case II: If lim (un ) n = l > 1.
n Æ•
1
(un ) n > 1 for all n > m … (2)

1 1 1 1
S (un ) n = (um +1 ) m +1 + (um + 2 ) m + 2 + (um + 3 ) m + 3 + K ∞
> 1 + 1 + 1K ∞ [Using Eq. (2)]
1 1 1 1
Sn = (um +1 ) +1
m + (um + 2 ) +2
m + (um + 3 ) +3
m + K + (um + n ) +n
m
> 1 + 1 + 1K n terms = n
lim Sn > lim n Æ •

n Æ• n Æ•
•
The series Â un is divergent. The nature of a series remains unchanged if we
n = m +1
•
neglect a finite number of terms in the beginning. Hence, the series Â un is divergent.
n= 1
1
Note: If lim(un ) n = 1, the root test fails, i.e., no conclusion can be drawn about the
n→∞
convergence or divergence of the series.
example 1
• 1
.
n=1 (log n)
Solution
1
Let un =
(log n)n
1
1
(un ) n =
log n
1
1
lim (un ) n = lim
n Æ• n Æ• log n
= 0 <1 [Q log • Æ •]
Hence, by Cauchy’s root test, the series is convergent.
example 2
a n +1
∞
Test the convergence of the series ∑ n .
n =1 n
Solution
a n +1
Let un =
nn
1
1 1+
(a) n
(un ) =
n
n
1
1
a an
lim(un ) = lim
n
n →∞ n →∞ n
= 0 <1
example 3
1
Test the convergence of the series Â n2
.
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + ˜¯
n
Solution
1
Let un =
n2
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1
1
(un ) n = n
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1
1
lim (un ) n = lim
n Æ• n Æ• n
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + n ˜¯
1
= <1
e
example 4 (n - log n)n

2n ◊ nn
Solution
(n - log n)n
Let un =
2n ◊ nn
1
(n - log n) È• ˘
lim (un )n = lim Í • form ˙
n Æ• n Æ• 2n Î ˚
Ê 1 log n ˆ
= lim Á -
n Æ• Ë 2 2 n ˜¯
1
1
= - lim n [Using L’Hospital’s rule]
2 nÆ• 2
1
= <1
2
example 5
2 3 n
1 Ê 2ˆ Ê 3ˆ Ê n ˆ
+ Á ˜ + Á ˜ +L + Á +L .
3 Ë 5¯ Ë 7¯ Ë 2 n + 1˜¯
Solution
n
Ê n ˆ
Let un = Á
Ë 2 n + 1˜¯
1
n
lim (un ) n = lim
n Æ• n Æ• 2 n + 1
1
= lim
n Æ• 1
2+
n
1
= <1
2
example 6
13 23 33 43
3 32 33 34
Solution
n3
Let un =
3n
1
1
Ê n3 ˆ n
(un )n =Á n˜
Ë3 ¯
3
nn
=
3
3
1
nn
lim (un )n = lim
n Æ• n Æ• 3
3
1
= lim n n
3 nÆ•
( ) 1
…(1)
1
Let l = lim (n) n

n Æ•
1
log l = lim log n
n Æ•
n
log n È• ˘
= lim ÍÎ • form ˙˚
n Æ• n
1
= lim n [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
n Æ• 1
log l = 0
l = e0
=1
1
\ lim (n) n = 1
n Æ•

1
1
<1
lim (un ) n =
3
n Æ•
example 7
-1 -2 -3
Ê 22 2 ˆ Ê 33 3 ˆ Ê 44 4 ˆ
Á 2 - 1˜ +Á 3 - ˜ +Á 4 - ˜ + L.
Ë1 ¯ Ë2 2¯ Ë3 3¯
Solution
-n
ÈÊ n + 1ˆ n +1 Ê n + 1ˆ ˘
un = ÍÁ -Á ˙
Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ˜¯ ˙
Let
ÎÍ ˚
-1
1 ÈÊ n + 1ˆ n +1 Ê n + 1ˆ ˘
(un )n = ÍÁ ˜ -Á ˙
ÍÎË n ¯ Ë n ˜¯ ˙
˚
-1
ÈÊ 1 ˆ n Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ ˘
= ÍÁ 1 + ˜ Á 1 + ˜ - Á 1 + ˜ ˙
Ë n¯ Ë n¯ Ë n¯ ˙
ÎÍ ˚
-1
1 ÈÊ 1 ˆ n Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ ˘
lim (un )n = lim ÍÁ 1 + ˜ Á 1 + ˜ - Á 1 + ˜ ˙
n Æ• n Æ• Í Ë n¯ Ë n¯ Ë n¯ ˙
Î ˚
= (e - 1)-1
1
= <1
e -1
example 8 • nn x n
, x > 0.
n =1 ( n + 1)
Solution
nn x n
Let un =
(n + 1)n
1
1
È nn x n ˘ n
(un )n =Í n˙
Î (n + 1) ˚
nx
=
n +1
1
x
lim (un ) n = lim
n Æ• n Æ• 1
1+
n
=x
Hence, by Cauchy’s root test, the series is
(i) convergent if x < 1
(ii) divergent if x > 1
The test fails if x = 1. nn
Then un =
(n + 1)n
1
lim un = lim
n Æ• n Æ• n
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË 1 + ˜¯
n
1
= π0
e
The series is divergent for x = 1.
Hence, the series is convergent if x < 1 and is divergent if x ≥ 1.
example 9
(n + 1)n x n
n n+1
Solution
un =
( n + 1)n x n
Let
n n +1
1
(n + 1) x
(un ) n = n +1
n n
(n + 1) x
= 1
n.n n
1
Ê 1ˆ x
lim (un ) n = lim Á 1 + ˜ 1
n Æ• n Æ• Ë n¯
nn
È 1 ˘
=x Í Q lim n n = 1 as solved in Ex 6 ˙
ÍÎ x Æ• ˙˚
Hence, by Cauchy’s root test, the series is convergent, if x < 1 and divergent if x > 1.
The test fails for x = 1.
Then (n + 1)n
un =
n n +1
(n + 1)n
=
n ◊ nn
1 Ê n + 1ˆ
n
=
n ÁË n ˜¯
n
1 Ê 1ˆ
= 1+ ˜
n ÁË n¯
1
Let vn =
n
n
un Ê 1ˆ
lim = lim Á 1 + ˜
=e [finite and non-zero]
1
Svn = Ân is divergent as p = 1.

Hence, the series is convergent for x < 1 and divergent for x ≥ 1.
example 10
2 3
1 2 Ê 3ˆ Ê 4ˆ
Test the convergence of the series + x + Á ˜ x 2 + Á ˜ x 3 + º• .
2 3 Ë 4¯ Ë 5¯
Solution
n -1
Ê n ˆ
un = Á x n -1
Let Ë n + 1˜¯
n -1
1 n -1
Ê n ˆ n
(un )n =Á
Ë n + 1˜¯
x n
1
1- 1
Ê n ˆ n 1-
=Á ( x)
Ë n + 1˜¯
n
1
1-
Ê ˆ n
1 1
Á 1 ˜ 1-
lim (un ) n = lim Á ( x)
1˜
n
n Æ• n Æ•
Á 1+ ˜
Ë n¯
=x
Hence, by Cauchy’s root test, the series is convergent if x < 1 and divergent if
x > 1. Root test fails for x = 1.
exercISe 5.5
1 1 1
1. 1 + + + + K∞ [ans.: Convergent]
22 33 4 4
n
 n + 1
2. ∑  3n 
 [ans.: Convergent]
3
− n2
3. ∑ 1 + 1 
 
n
[ans.: Convergent]
x x2 x3
4. 1 + + + + K(x > 0)
2 32 4 3
[ans.: Convergent]
n2
 1
5. ∑ 1 + n 
[ans.: Divergent]
(1 + nx)n
6. ∑
nn
[ans.: Convergent if x < 1 and divergent if x > 1]
5.14 cauchy’S IntegraL teSt

• •
If Â un = Â f (n) is a positive term series where f (n) decreases as n increases and let
n =1 n =1
•
Ú1 f ( x )dx = I then
(i) Sun is convergent if I is finite

(ii) Sun is divergent if I is infinite
Proof Consider the area under the curve y = f (x) from x = 1 to x = n + 1 represented
n +1
as Ú1 f ( x )dx. Plot the terms f (1), f (2), f (3), …, f (n), f (n + 1).
n +1
The area Ú1 f ( x )dx lies between the sum of the areas of smaller rectangles and sum
of the areas of larger rectangles
n +1
f (2) + f (3) + L + f (n + 1) £ Ú f ( x )dx £ f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + L + f (n)
1
n +1
Sn +1 - f (1) £ Ú f ( x )dx £ Sn
1
As n Æ • first inequality reduces to

•
lim Sn +1 £ Ú f ( x ) dx + f (1)
n Æ• 1
•
This shows that if Ú1 f ( x ) dx is finite, S f (n) = Sun is convergent.
y
As n Æ • second inequality reduces to
∞
∫1
f ( x) dx ≤ lim S n
n→∞
∞
or lim S n ≥ ∫ f ( x)dx
n→∞ 1 y = f(x)
∞ f(1) f(2)f(3)
This shows that if ∫1
f ( x)dx is infinite,
f(n) f(n + 1)
Σ f (n) = Σun is divergent. O 1 2 3 n n+1 x
Fig. 5.2
example 1 ∞
1
Test the convergence of the series ∑ n log n .
n= 2
Solution
1
Let un = = f ( n)
n log n
1
f ( x) =
x log x
• • 1
Ú2 f ( x )dx = Ú
2 x log x
dx
m 1
= lim Ú dx
m Æ• 2 x log x
m
= lim log log x 2
m Æ• È f ¢( x ) ˘
= lim (log log m - log log 2) Æ • ÍQ Ú dx = log f ( x )˙
m Æ• Î f ( x) ˚
Hence, by Cauchy’s integral test, the series is divergent.
example 2
• 3
Test the convergence of the series Â n2 e - n .
n =1
Solution
3
Let un = n2 e - n = f (n)
3
f ( x) = x2 e- x
• • 3
Ú1 f ( x )dx = Ú x 2 e - x dx
1
È 1 m 3 ˘
= lim Í - Ú e - x ( -3 x 2 )dx ˙
m Æ• Î 3 1 ˚
È 1 3 m ˘
= lim Í - e - x ˙ ÈQ e f ( x ) f ¢( x )dx = e f ( x ) ˘
m Æ• Î ˚
Î 3 1 ˚
È 1
m Æ• Î 3
3
(
= lim Í - e - m - e -1 ˙
˘
˚
)
1
= - (e -• - e -1 )
3
1Ê 1ˆ
= - Á0 - ˜
3Ë e¯
1
= [finite]
3e
Hence, by Cauchy’s integral test, the series is convergent.
example 3
• 1
n=3 n log n log2 n - 1
[Winter 2015]
Solution
1
Let un =
n log n log2 n - 1
1
f ( x) =
x log x log2 x - 1
• •
1
Ú f ( x ) dx = Ú dx
3 3 x log x log2 x - 1
1
Putting log x = t, dx = dt
x
When x = 3, t = log 3
When x Æ •, t = log • = •
• •
dt
Ú f ( x)dx = Ú
3 log 3 t t2 - 1
m
dt
= lim
m Æ•
Ú
log 3 t t2 - 1
m
= lim sec -1 t
m Æ• log 3
= lim ÈÎsec -1 m - sec -1 (log 3)˘˚

m Æ•
= sec -1 • - sec -1 (log 3)

p
= - sec -1 (log 3)
2
= cosec -1 (log 3) [finite ]
example 4
• 2 tan -1 n
Test the convergence of the series Â . [Winter 2014]
n =1 1 + n2
Solution
Let 2 tan -1 n
un = = f ( n)
1 + n2
2 tan -1 x
f ( x) =
1 + x2
• •
2 tan -1 x
Ú f ( x ) dx = Ú 1 + x2
dx
1 1
2 tan -1 x
m
= lim
m Æ•
Ú 1 + x2
dx
1
dx
Putting tan–1x = t, = dt
1 + x2
p
When x = 1, t = tan–1(1) =
4
When x = m, t = tan–1 m
• tan -1 m
Ú f ( x)dx = lim
m Æ•
Ú 2 t dt
1 p
4
tan -1 m
2t 2
= lim
m Æ• 2 p
4
È p2 ˘
( )
2
= lim Í tan -1 m - ˙
m Æ• Í 16 ˙˚
Î
( ) p2
2
= tan -1 • -
16
p2 p2
= -
4 16
3p 2
= [finite]
16
example 5
Show that the harmonic series of order p,
• 1 1 1 1
Â p = p + p + p + …• is convergent if p > 1 and is divergent if p £ 1.
n=1 n 1 2 3
[Summer 2015]
Solution
Let 1
un = = f ( n)
np
1
f ( x) =
xp
• • 1
Ú1 f ( x )dx = Ú
1 xp
dx
m
x - p +1
= lim
m Æ• - p + 1
1
Êm 1 ˆ
1- p
= lim Á -
m Æ• Ë 1 - p 1 - p ˜¯
1
=- , p >1
1- p
= •, p <1
If p = 1, • • 1
Ú1 f ( x )dx = Ú
1 x
dx
m 1
= lim
m Æ• 1
Ú x
dx
m
= lim log x 1
m Æ•
= lim (log m - log 1)
m Æ•
= log • Æ •
•
The integral Ú1 f ( x )dx is finite if p > 1 and is infinite if p £ 1.
Hence, by Cauchy’s integral test, the series is convergent if p > 1 and is divergent if
p £ 1.
exercISe 5.5
∞
1
1. ∑ [ans.: Divergent]
n =1 n
∞
1
2. ∑n
n =1
2
+1
[ans.: Convergent]
∞
− n2
3. ∑ ne
n =1
[ans.: Convergent]
∞
1
4. ∑ n(log n)
n =1
2
[ans.: Convergent]
5.15 aLternatIng SerIeS

An infinite series with alternate positive and negative terms is called an alternating
series.
Leibnitz’s Test for Alternating Series
• •
An alternating series Â (-1)n -1vn = Â un is convergent if
n =1 n =1
(i) each term is numerically less than its preceding term, i.e. un +1 < un or
un > un +1
(ii) lim un = 0
n Æ•
example 1
1 1 1
Test the convergence of the series 1 − + − +… .
2 3 4
Solution
1
Let un = ( -1)n -1
n
1
un =
n
The given series is an alternating series.
1 1
(i) un - un +1 = -
n n +1
n +1 - n
= >0 for all n Œ N
n n +1
\ un > un +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim
n Æ• n Æ• n
=0
Hence, by Leibnitz’s test, the series is convergent.
example 2
1 1 1
Test the convergence of the series 1 - + - +L.
2 2 3 3 4 4
Solution
( -1)n -1
Let un =
n n
1
un =
n n
1 1
(i) un - un +1 = -
n n (n + 1) n + 1
(n + 1) n + 1 - n n
= > 0 for all n Œ N
( n n ) ÈÎ(n + 1) ( n + 1) ˘˚
\ un > un +1
(ii) 1
lim un = lim
n Æ• n nn Æ•
=0
example 3
1 1 1 1
- 2
+ 2
- +L.
1 2 3 42
Solution
1
Let un = ( -1)n -1 ◊
n2
1
un =
n2
1 1
(i) un - un +1 = -
n2 (n + 1)2
2n + 1
= 2 > 0 for all n Œ N
n (n + 1)2
\ un > un +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim
n Æ• n Æ• n2
=0
example 4
1 1 1 1
Test the convergence of the series p
- p
+ p
- + º.
1 2 3 4p
Solution
1
Let un = ( -1)n
np
1
un =
np

Case I: If p > 0,
1 1
(i) un - un +1 = p -
n (n + 1) p
(n + 1) p - n p
= >0 [Q p > 0]
n p (n + 1) p
\ un > un +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim
n Æ• n Æ• np
=0 [Q p > 0]
Hence, by Leibnitz’s test, the series is convergent if p > 0.
Case II: If p<0
In this case the conditions (i) and (ii) of the Leibnitz’s test are not satisfied.
Hence, the given series is not convergent if p < 0.
example 5
1 1 1 1
Test the convergence of the series 1 - + - + -L.
2 4 8 16
Solution
1
Let un = ( -1)n -1 n -1
2
1
un =
2 n -1
1 1
(i) un - un +1 = n -1 - n
2 2
1 Ê 1ˆ
= n -1 Á 1 - ˜
2 Ë 2¯
1 1
= n -1
◊
2 2
1
2n
\ un > un +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim n -1
n Æ• n Æ• 2
=0
example 6
1 2 3 4
Test the convergence of the series - + - +L.
2 5 10 17
Solution
n
Let un = ( -1)n -1 2
n +1
n
un =
n2 + 1
n n +1
(i) un - un +1 = 2
-
n +1 (n + 1)2 + 1
n(n2 + 2n + 2) - (n + 1)(n2 + 1)
=
(n2 + 1)(n2 + 2n + 2)
n2 + n - 1
(n2 + 1)(n2 + 2n + 2)
\ un > un +1
n
(ii) lim un = lim 2
n Æ• n +1
n Æ•
1
= lim
n Æ• 1
n+
n
=0
example 7
• ( -1)n+1
n£1 log( n + 1)
Solution
( -1)n +1
Let un =
log( n + 1)
1
un =
log(n + 1)
1 1
(i) un - un +1 = -
log(n + 1) log (n + 2)
log(n + 2) - log(n + 1)
= >0
log(n + 1) ◊ log (n + 2)
\ un > un +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim
n Æ• n Æ• log(n + 1)
=0
example 8
• ( -1)n -1
.
n =1 n (n + 1)
Solution
( -1)n -1
Let un =
n2 (n + 1)
1
un =
n2 (n + 1)
1 1
(i) un - un +1 = -
n2 (n + 1) (n + 1)2 (n + 2)
(n + 1)(n + 2) - n2
=
n2 (n + 1)2 (n + 2)
3n + 2
n (n + 1)2 (n + 2)
2
\ un > un +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim 2
n Æ• n (n + 1)
n Æ•
=0
example 9
x2 x3 x 4
Test the convergence of the series x - + - + º(if x < 1) .
2 3 4
Solution
xn
Let un = ( -1)n -1
n
xn
un =
n

x n x n +1
(i) un - un +1 = -
n n +1
x n [(n + 1) - n x ]
=
n(n + 1)
x n [1 + (1 - x )n] [Q n ≥ 1 and 0 < x < 1]
= >0
n(n + 1)
\ un > un +1
xn
(ii) lim un = lim ÈQ lim x n = 0 if x < 1˘
n Æ• n Æ• n ÎÍ nÆ• ˚˙
=0
example 10
log Á ˜ - log Á ˜ + log Á ˜ - log Á ˜ + L
Ë 2¯ Ë 3¯ Ë 4¯ Ë 5¯
Solution
log Á ˜ - log Á ˜ + log Á ˜ - log Á ˜ + L
Ë 2¯ Ë 3¯ Ë 4¯ Ë 5¯
= - log Á ˜ + log Á ˜ - log Á ˜ + log Á ˜ - L
Ë 1¯ Ë 2¯ Ë 3¯ Ë 4¯
Ê n + 1ˆ
un = ( -1)n log Á
Ë n ˜¯
Let
Ê n + 1ˆ
un = log Á
Ë n ˜¯

n +1 n+2 È n +1 n + 2 ˘
(i) un - un +1 = log - log > 0 ÍQ > for all n Œ N ˙
n n +1 Î n n +1 ˚
\ un > un +1
Ê n + 1ˆ
(ii) lim un = lim log Á
n Æ• n Æ• Ë n ˜¯
Ê 1ˆ
= lim log Á 1 + ˜
n Æ• Ë n¯
= log 1
=0
example 11
1 2 3 4
Test the convergence of the series - + - +L.
2 3 4 5
Solution
n
Let un = ( −1) n −1 ⋅
n +1
n
un =
n +1
n n +1
(i) un - un +1 = -
n +1 n + 2
n2 + 2n - n2 - 2n - 1
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)
1
=- <0
(n + 1)(n + 2)
Since each term of the series is not numerically less than the preceding term,
Leibnitz’s test cannot be applied.
The series can be written as
•
Â un = ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯ - ÁË1 - 3 ˜¯ + ÁË1 - 4 ˜¯ - ÁË1 - 5 ˜¯ + L
n=1
Ê 1 1 1 1 ˆ
= (1 - 1 + 1 - 1 + L) + Á - + - + - L˜
Ë 2 3 4 5 ¯
•
= Â ( -1)n -1 + (log 2 - 1)
n =1
As n Æ •, the sum of this series tends to (– 1 + log 2 – 1) or (1 + log 2 – 1) according

as n is even or odd.
Hence, the given series is an oscillatory series.
exercISe 5.6
1 1 1 1
1. 1 − + − + − KKK
2 3 4 5
[ans.: Convergent]
∞
n
2. ∑ (−1)
n =1
n −1
2n − 1
[ans.: Oscillatory]
1 1 1 1
3. − (1 + 2) + 3 (1 + 2 + 3) − 3 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) + K
23 33 4 5
[ans.: Convergent]
4. 1 − 2 x + 3x 2 − 4 x 3 + K(x < 1)
[ans.: Convergent]
x x2 x3 x4
5. − + − + K(0 < x < 1)
1+ x 1+ x 2 1+ x3 1+ x 4
[ans.: Convergent]
5.16 aBSoLute and condItIonaL convergent oF a SerIeS

•
Absolute Convergence of a Series The series Â un with both positive
n =1
and negative terms (not necessarily alternative) is called absolutely convergent if the
•
corresponding series Â un with all positive terms is convergent.
n =1 •
Conditional Convergence of a Series If the series Â un is convergent
• • n =1
and Â un is divergent, then the series Â un is called conditionally convergent.
n =1 n =1
Note 1: Every absolutely convergent series is a convergent series but converse is not
true.
Note 2: Any convergent series of positive terms is also absolutely convergent.
example 1
• ( -1)n 23n
n =1 32 n
Solution
( -1)n 23n
Let un =
32 n
23 n
un =
32 n
23( n +1)
un +1 =
32( n +1)
un 23n 32 n + 2
lim = lim ◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 32 n 23 n + 3
9
= lim
n Æ• 8
9
= >1
8
•
By D’Alembert’s ratio test, Â un is convergent. Thus, the series is absolutely conver-
n=1
gent and hence convergent.
example 2
Test the series for absolute or conditional convergence
2 3 4
1- + 2 + 3 +L.
3 3 3
Solution
Let n
un = ( -1)n -1 ◊ n -1
3
•
2 3 4
Â un = 1+ + 2 + 3 +K
3 3 3
n =1
n
un =
3n -1
n +1
un +1 =
3n
un n 3n
lim = lim n -1
◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 3 n +1
3
= lim
n Æ• 1
1+
n
= 3>1
•
By D’Alembert’s ratio test, Â un is convergent and hence, the series is absolutely
convergent. n =1
example 3
• (-1)n
Test the series for absolute or conditional convergence Â .
n =1 n + n +1
[Winter 2016]
Solution
(-1)n
Let un =
n + n +1
1
un =
n + 1+n
1 1
(i) un - un +1 = -
n + 1+ n n +1 + n + 2
n +1 + n + 2 - n - n +1
=
( n + 1 + n ) ( 1 + n + n + 2)
n+2 - n
= >0 for all n Œ N
( n + 1 + n ) ( 1 + n + n + 2)
\ un > un +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim =0
n Æ• n Æ• n + 1+ n
By Leibnitz’s test, Â un is convergent.
1
un =
n + 1+ n
1
=
Ê 1ˆ
n Á1 + 1 + ˜
Ë n¯
1
Let vn =
n
un 1
lim = lim
Á1 + 1 + n ˜
Ë ¯
1 1
and Â vn = Â 1
is divergent as p = .
2
n2
By comparison test, Â un is also divergent.
The series Â un is convergent and Â un is divergent.
Hence, the series is conditionally convergent.
example 4
Determine absolute or conditional convergence of the series
• n2
Â (-1) ◊ n
[Winter 2013; Summer 2017]
n =1 n3 + 1
Solution
n2
Let un = ( -1)n ◊
n3 + 1
n2
un =
n3 + 1
1
=
Ê 1ˆ
n Á1 + 3 ˜
Ë n ¯
1
Let vn =
n
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn n Æ• 1
1+
n3
1
n
By comparison test, Â un is also divergent.
Hence, Sun is not absolutely convergent.
To check the conditional convergence, applying Leibnitz’s test,
n2 (n + 1)2
(i) un - un +1 = -
n3 + 1 (n + 1)3 + 1
n2 (n3 + 3n2 + 3n + 2) - (n3 + 1)(n2 + 2 n + 1)

=
(n3 + 1)[(n + 1)3 + 1]
n 4 + 2 n3 + n 2 - 2 n - 1
=
(n3 + 1)[(n + 1)3 + 1]
n 4 + n2 (2 n + 1) - 1(2n + 1)
=
(n3 + 1)[(n + 1)3 + 1]
n 4 + (2n + 1)(n2 - 1)
(n3 + 1)[[(n + 1)3 + 1]
un > un +1
n2
(ii) lim un = lim 3
n Æ• n Æ• n +1
1
= lim
n Æ• Ê 1ˆ
n Á1 + 3 ˜
Ë n ¯
=0
By Leibnitz’s test, Su n is convergent.
The series Sun is convergent and Â un is divergent.
example 5
Test the series for absolute or conditional convergence
2 3 1 4 1 5 1
- ◊ + ◊ - ◊ +º
3 4 2 5 3 6 4
Solution
Ê n +1 1ˆ
un = ( -1)n -1 Á ◊
Let Ë n + 2 n ˜¯
•
2 3 1 4 1 5 1
Â un = + ◊ + ◊ + ◊ + ◊◊◊.
3 4 2 5 3 6 4
n=1
n +1 1
| un | = ⋅
n+2 n
1
Let vn =
n
un n +1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn n Æ• n + 2
1
1+
= lim n
n Æ• 2
1+
n
1
n
By comparison test, Σ un is also divergent.
Hence, the series is not absolutely convergent.
To check the conditional convergence, applying Leibnitz’s test,
n +1 n+2
(i) un - un +1 = -
n(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 3)
n2 + 3n + 3
= >0 for all n Œ N
n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
u n > u n +1
n +1
(ii) lim un = lim
n Æ• n Æ•n(n + 2)
1
1+
= lim n
n Æ• Ê 2ˆ
n Á1 + ˜
Ë n¯
=0
By Leibnitz’s test, Sun is convergent.
The series Sun is convergent and Σ un is divergent.
example 6
x3 x5
Test the convergence of the series x − + − L, x > 0.
3 5 [Summer 2016]
Solution
x 2 n -1
Let un = ( -1)n -1
2n - 1
x 2 n -1
un =
2n - 1
x 2 n +1
un +1 =
2n + 1
un x 2 n -1 2 n + 1
= ◊
un +1 2 n - 1 x 2 n +1
1
2+
= n◊ 1
1 x2
2-
n
Ê 1ˆ
2+
un Á n˜◊ 1
lim = lim Á
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 1 ˜ x2
Á2- ˜
Ë n¯
1
= 2
x
1
By D’Alembert’s ratio test, Â un is convergent if > 1 or x2 < 1 or x < 1 [Q x > 0]
x2
Thus, the given series is absolutely convergent and hence, is convergent for x < 1.
If x2 = 1 or x = 1 [Q x > 0]
( -1)n -1
un =
2n - 1
1
un =
2n - 1
1 1
(i) un - un +1 = -
2n - 1 2n + 1
2
= 2 > 0 for all n Œ N
4n - 1
1
(ii) lim un = lim
n Æ• n Æ• 2n - 1
=0
By Leibnitz’s test, the series is convergent for x = 1
Hence, the series is convergent for x £ 1.
exercISe 5.7
Test the following series for absolute or conditional convergence:
1 1 1 1 1
1. 1 − + − + − +K
2 3 4 5 6
[ans.: Conditionally convergent]
1 1 1 1 1
2. 1 + 2 − 2 − 2 + 2 + 2 − K
2 3 4 5 6
[ans.: Absolutely convergent]
1 1 1
3. 1 − + − +K
2 3 4
[ans.: Conditionally convergent]
sin x sin2 x sin3x
4. − + −K
13 23 33
[ans.: Absolutely convergent]
5.17 power SerIeS

∞
A power series is an infinite series of the form ∑a x

n =1
n
n
= a0 + a1 ( x − c) + ..
a2 ( x − c) 2 + a3 ( x − c)3 +L, where an represents the coefficient of the nth term, c is a
constant and x varies around c. When c = 0, the series becomes
∞
∑a x
n=0
n
n
= a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + L
5.17.1 Interval and radius of convergence

A power series will converge only for certain values of x. An interval (−R, R) in which
a power series converges is called the interval of convergence. The number R is called
the radius of convergence, e.g., if a power series converges for all the values of x, then
interval of convergence will be (−•, •) and the radius of convergence will be •.
5.17.2 test for convergence

Since a power series may be positive, alternating or mixed series, the concept of
absolute convergence is used to test the convergence of a power series. Applying
D’Alembert’s ratio test,
un = an x n
un +1 = an +1 x n +1
un an x n
lim = lim
n Æ• un +1 nÆ• an +1 x n +1
1 a
= lim n
x nÆ• an +1
If an
lim = l,
n Æ• an +1
un 1 l
lim = ◊l =
n Æ• un +1 x x
By D’ Alembert’s ratio test, the series is absolutely convergent and hence is convergent
l
If > 1, i.e., | x |< l, - l < x < l.
x
Here, interval of convergence of the series is (−l, l ) and the radius of convergence is l.
example 1
∞
xn
Obtain the range of convergence of ∑
n =1 2
n
, x > 0.
Solution
xn
Let un =
2n
x n +1
un +1 =
2 n +1
un x n 2 n +1
lim = lim n ◊ n +1
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 2 x
2
=
x
2
x
2
x
2
The test fails if = 1, or x = 2.
x
2n
Then un = =1
2n
•
Â un = 1 + 1 + 1 + L •
n=1
which is a divergent series.
Hence, the series is convergent for 0 < x < 2 and the range of convergence is
0 < x < 2.
example 2
∞
2n x n
Determine the interval of convergence for the series ∑
n = 0 n!
and also,
their behaviour at each end point.
Solution
2n x n
Let un =
n!
2 n +1 x n +1
un +1 =
(n + 1)!
un 2 n x n (n + 1)!
= ◊
un +1 n ! 2 n +1 x n +1
n +1
=
2x
un n +1
lim = lim
n Æ• un +1 nÆ• 2 x
= • >1
Hence, By D’Alembert’s ratio test, the series is convergent for all values of x
i.e. – • < x < • and interval of convergence is (– •, •).
example 3
∞
xn
n =1 a + n
, x > 0, a > 0.
Solution
xn
Let un =
a+ n
x n +1
un +1 =
a + n +1
un xn a + n +1
lim = lim ◊
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• a + n x n +1
a 1
+ 1+
n n 1
= lim ◊
n Æ• a x
+1
n
1
=
x
1
x
1
x
1
Then un =
a+ n
1  1 
=
n  a + 1
 
n 
1
Let vn =
n
un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn nÆ• a
+1
n
1 1
and Σvn = ∑ 1
2
2
n
By comparison test, Σun is also divergent for x = 1.
Hence, the series is convergent for 0 < x < 1 and the range of convergence is 0 < x < 1.
example 4 ∞
( x + 1) n
n =1 3 ⋅ n
n
.
Solution
( x + 1)n
Let un =
3n ◊ n
( x + 1)n +1
un +1 =
3n +1 (n + 1)
un ( x + 1)n 3n +1 (n + 1)
= n ◊
un +1 3 ◊ n ( x + 1)n +1
3(n + 1)
=
( x + 1)n
Ê 1ˆ
3 Á1 + ˜
Ë n¯
=
x +1
 1
3 1 + 
un  n
lim = lim
n →∞ u
n +1
n →∞ x +1
3
=
x +1
The series is convergent if

3
>1
x +1
3 > x +1
x +1 < 3
−3 < ( x + 1) < 3
−4 < x < 2
At x = 2,
1
un =
n
∞ ∞
1
∴ ∑u
n =1
n =∑
n =1 n
is divergent as p = 1.
( −1) n
At x = – 4, un =
n
1
un =
n

1 1
(i) un − un +1 = −
n n +1
1
= >0
n(n + 1) for all n Œ N
∴ u n > u n +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim
n →∞ n →∞ n
=0
By Leibnitz’s test, the series is convergent at x = – 4.
Hence, the series is convergent for – 4 £ x < 2 and the range of convergence
is – 4 £ x < 2.
example 5 ∞
xn
Obtain the range of convergence of ∑ n+
n =1 1 + n2
.
Solution
xn
Let un =
n + 1 + n2
x n +1
u n +1 =
(n + 1) + 1 + (n + 1) 2
un xn (n + 1) + 1 + (n + 1) 2
= ⋅
u n +1 n + 1 + n 2 x n +1
2
 1 1  1
1 +  + + 1 + 
n n2  n 
=
 1 
1 + + 1 x

n2
2
 1 1  1
1 +  + + 1 + 
un n n2  n 
lim = lim
n →∞ u n +1 n →∞  1 
1 + 2
+ 1 x

n
1
=
x
1
>1
x
x <1
−1 < x < 1
At x = 1, 1
un =
n + 1 + n2
1
=
 1 
n 1 + + 1
 n 2

1
Let vn =
n
un 1
lim = lim
n →∞ v n →∞  
1
1 + + 1
n
n 2

1
2
1
n
Thus, by comparison test, Σun is also divergent if x = 1.
At x = – 1,
( −1) n
un =
n + 1 + n2
1
un =
n + 1 + n2

1 1
(i) un − un +1 = −
2
n + 1+ n (n + 1) + 1 + (n + 1) 2
(n + 1) + 1 + (n + 1) 2 − n − 1 + n 2
=
(n + 1 + n 2 ) (n + 1) + 1 + (n + 1) 2 
1 + 1 + (n + 1) 2 − 1 + n 2
= >0
(n + 1 + n 2 ) (n + 1) + 1 + (n + 1) 2 
for all n ŒN
∴ u n > u n +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim
n →∞ n →∞
n + 1 + n2
=0
Thus, by Leibnitz’s test, the series is convergent if x = –1.
Hence, the series is convergent for – 1 £ x < 1 and the range of convergence is
– 1 £ x < 1.
example 6
• x2n - 1
For the series Â (-1)n - 1 , find the radius and interval of
n =1 2n - 1
convergence. [Winter 2016]
Solution
(-1)n -1 x 2 n - 1
Let un =
2n - 1
(-1)n x 2 n + 2 - 1
un + 1 =
2n + 2 - 1
(-1)n x 2 n + 1
=
2n + 1
un (-1)n - 1 x 2 n -1 2n + 1
= ◊
un + 1 2n - 1 (-1)n x 2 n + 1
(2 n + 1) 1
=- ◊
(2 n - 1) x 2
un (2 n + 1) 1
lim = lim ◊
n Æ• un + 1 n Æ• (2 n - 1) x 2
1
=
x2
1 2 2
By D’Alembert’s ratio test, the series is convergent if > 1 or 1 > x or x < 1
x2
i.e., – 1 < x < 1 and divergent for x > 1.
At x = 1,
(-1)n - 1 (1)2 n - 1
un =
2n - 1
1 1 1
=1- + - +L
3 5 7
(-1)n - 1
=
2n - 1
1
un =
2n - 1
1 1
(i) un - un + 1 = -
2n - 1 2n + 1
2n + 1 - 2n + 1
=
(2 n - 1) (2 n + 1)
2
= >0 for all n Œ N
(2 n - 1) (2 n + 1)
un > un +1
1
(ii) lim un = lim =0
n Æ• n Æ• 2n - 1
By Leibnitz’s test, Â un is convergent.

At x = –1,
(-1)n - 1 (-1)2 n - 1
un =
2n - 1
(-1)3n - 2
=
2n - 1
1
un =
2n - 1
Hence, by Leibnitz’s test, Â un is convergent.
Thus, for the interval –1 £ x £ 1, given series is convergent.

Since condition for convergence is | x2 | < 1, radius of convergence = 1.
•
Since Â un is convergent, the series is absolutely convergent for –1 £ x £ 1.
n =1
example 7
• ( -3)n x n
Find the interval of convergence of the series Â .
n +1
n= 0
Solution
(-3)n x n
un =
n +1
(-3)n +1 x n +1
un +1 =
n+2
un (-3)n x n n+2
= ◊
un +1 n + 1 (-3)n +1 x n +1
n+2
=
(-3) x n + 1
2
1+
n
=
1
(-3) x 1 +
n
2
1+
u n
lim n = lim
n Æ• un +1 n Æ• 1
( -3) x 1 +
n
1
=
-3 x
1
=
3x
1 1
By D’Alembert’s ratio test, the series is convergent if > 1 or 3 x < 1 or x < or
3x 3
1 1
- <x< .
3 3
Ê 1 1ˆ
The interval of convergence is Á - , ˜ .
Ë 3 3¯
1
At x = - ,
3
n
Ê 1ˆ
( -3)n Á - ˜
Ë 3¯
un =
n +1
1
=
n +1
1
=
1
n 1+
n
1
Let vn =
n un 1
lim = lim
n Æ• vn nÆ• 1
1+
n
1 1
and Svn = Â is divergent as p = .
n 2
1
Thus, by comparison test, Sun is also divergent if x = - .
3
1
At x = ,
3
n
Ê 1ˆ
( -3)n Á ˜
Ë 3¯
un =
n +1
( -1)n
=
n +1
1
un =
n +1
1
lim un = lim =0
n Æ• n Æ• n +1
1
By Leibnitz’s test, the series is convergent at x = .
3
Hence, the series is convergent at each end point.
example 8
• n( x + 1)n
Determine the interval of convergence for the series Â ( -1) n
n =1 2n
and also its behaviour at each end point.
Solution
n( x + 1)n
Let un = ( -1)n
2n
(n + 1)( x + 1)n +1
un +1 = ( -1)n +1
2 n +1
un ( -1)n n ◊ ( x + 1)n 2 n +1
= ◊
un +1 2n ( -1)( n +1) (n + 1)( x + 1)n +1
n 2
= ◊
n +1 x +1
1 2
= ◊
1 x +1
1+
n
un Ê 1 ˆÊ 2 ˆ
lim = lim Á ˜
n Æ• un +1 nÆ• Á 1 ˜ Ë x + 1¯
ÁË 1 + ˜¯
n
2
=
x +1

2
>1
x +1
2 > x +1
x +1 < 2
−2 < ( x + 1) < 2
−3 < x < 1
The series is convergent in the interval (– 3, 1).

At x = –3,
n( −3 + 1) n
un = ( −1) n
2n
∞ ∞
∑u
n =1
n = ∑n
n =1

At x = 1,
n(1 + 1) n
un = ( −1) n
2n
= ( −1) n n
un = n
lim un ≠ 0
n →∞
By Leibnitz’s test, the series is not convergent at x = 1.

Hence, the series is not convergent at each end point and the interval of convergence
is (– 3, 1).
example 9
• ( -1)n ( x + 2)n
For the series Â n
, find the radius and interval of
n =1
convergence. For what values of x does the series converge absolutely,
conditionally? [Winter 2015]
Solution
( -1)n ( x + 2)n
Let un =
n
( -1)n +1 ( x + 2)n +1
un +1 =
n +1
un ( -1)n ( x + 2)n (n + 1)
= ◊
un +1 n ( -1) ( x + 2)n +1
n +1
Ê 1ˆ 1
= - Á1 + ˜ ◊
Ë n ¯ ( x + 2)
un Ê 1ˆ 1
lim = lim ÁË 1 + ˜¯ ◊
n Æ• un +1 nÆ• n ( x + 2)
1
=
x+2

1
>1
x+2
1> x+2
x+2 <1
-1 < ( x + 2) < 1
-3 < x < -1
At x = –3,
( -1)n ( -3 + 2)n 1
un = =
n n
• •
1
Â un = Â n
n =1 n =1

At x = –1,
( -1)n ( -1 + 2)n
un =
n
( -1)n
=
n
1
un =
n
1
lim un = lim = 0
n Æ• n Æ• n
By Leibnitz’s test, the series is convergent at x = –1.

Hence, interval of convergence is (–3, –1], i.e. –3 < x £ –1.
Since condition for convergence is x + 2 < 1 , radius of convergence = 1.
•
Since Â un is convergent, the series is absolutely convergent for –3 < x £ –1.
n=1
example 10
∞
1
Obtain the range of convergence of ∑x
n =1
n
+ x−n
.
Solution
1
Let un =
x + x-n
n
xn
=
x2n + 1
x n +1
un +1 =
x2n+2 + 1
un xn x2n+2 + 1
= 2n ◊
un +1 x + 1 x n +1
x2n+2 + 1
=
x( x 2 n + 1)
un x2n+2 + 1
=
un +1 x( x 2 n + 1)
If x > 1,
1
x2 +
u
lim n = lim x2n
n →∞ u n →∞  1 
n +1
x 1 + 2 n 
 x 
= x > 1 Q lim x 2 n → ∞ 
 n→∞ 
Thus, the series is convergent for x > 1, i.e. x > 1 and x < – 1
At x = 1,
1
un =
2
∞
1 1 1
∑
n =1
un = + + + L ∞
2 2 2
At x = – 1,
( −1) n
un =
2
1
un =
2
1
lim un = ≠ 0
n →∞ 2
Thus, by Leibnitz’s test, the series is not convergent at x = – 1.
Hence, the series is convergent for x > 1 and range of convergence is x > 1.
5.17 Points to Remember 5.115
exercISe 5.9
Obtain the range of convergence of the following series:

1. 1 + x + 2 x 2 + 3x 3 + L + nx n + L [ans.: −1< x < 1]
2 3 n
1 x x x x
2. + + + +L+ +L [ans.: −1 < x < 1]
2 3 4 5 n+2
∞
(−1)n x n
3. ∑
n =1 (n + 1)
[ans.: |x| ≤ 1]
∞
(x + 2)
4. ∑
n=0 n +1
[ans.: −3 ≤ x ≤ −1]
∞
xn
5. ∑ (−1)
n=0
n
log(n + 1)
[ans.: |x| < 1]
∞
 1 3
6. ∑ (−2) (n + 1)(x − 1)
n n
 Ans.: 2 < x < 2 
n=0  
∞
7. ∑ n !(x − 1)
n =1
n
[ans.: x = 1]
∞
(n !)2 n
8. ∑ x [ans.: |x| < 4]
n =1 (2n)!
∞
(−2)n (2 x + 1)n
9. ∑ n2  3 1
n =1
 Ans.: − 4 ≤ x ≤ − 4 
 
∞
(−1)n x 2 n
10.
∑
n =1
3
[ans.: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1]
(2n) 2
points to remember
Sequence
A sequence {un} is said to be convergent, divergent or oscillatory according as
lim un is finite, infinite or not unique respectively.
n Æ•
The infinite series Sun is said to be convergent, divergent or oscillatory according as
lim Sn is finite, infinite or not unique respectively.
n Æ•
If a positive term series Sun is convergent then lim un = 0 but converse is not true,
n →∞
i.e., if lim un = 0, the series may converge or diverge. If lim un π 0, the series is
n Æ• n Æ•
not convergent.
Comparison Test
un
If Sun and Svn are series of positive terms such that lim = l (finite and non-zero)
n Æ• vn
then both series converge or diverge together.
D’Alembert’s Ratio Test
un
If Sun is a positive term series and lim = l then
n Æ• un +1
(i) Sun is convergent if l > 1.

(ii) Sun is divergent if l < 1.
(iii) The test fails if l = 1.
Raabe’s Test
 u 
If Sun is a positive term series and nlim n  n − 1 = l , then
→∞ u
 n +1 
(iii) Test fails if l = 1
Cauchy’s Root Test 1
If Sun is a positive term series and if lim (un ) n = l then
n Æ•
(i) Sun is convergent if l < 1.
(ii) Sun is divergent if l > 1.
This test is preferred when un contains nth powers of itself.
Cauchy’s Integral Test
If Sun = S f (n) is a positive term series where f (n) decreases as n increases and let
•
Ú1
f (x) dx = I then
(i) Sun is convergent if I is finite.

(ii) Sun is divergent if I is infinite.
This test is preferred when evaluation of the integral of f (x) is easy.
Leibnitz’s Test •
An alternating series Â (- 1)n -1 un is convergent if
n =1
(i) each term is numerically less than its preceding term, i.e, un +1 < un or
un > un +1
(ii) lim un = 0
n Æ•
Absolute Convergence
•
The series Â un with both positive and negative terms (not necessarily alternative)
n=1 •
is called absolutely convergent if the corresponding series Â |un | with all positive
n=1
terms is convergent.
Conditional Convergence
• • •
If the series Â un is convergent and Â | un | is divergent then the series Â un is
n=1 n=1 n=1
called conditionally convergent.
Multiple choice questions

1
1. The value of lim x sin is [Summer 2014]
x Æ0 x
(a) 1 (b) p (c) 0 (d) •
•
1
2. The sum of the series Â 2n
is [Winter 2015]
n =1
3
(a) 0 (b) (c) 1 (d) 2
4
•
( -1)n
3. The series Â is [Winter 2015]
n =1 n
(a) divergent (b) absolutely convergent
(c) conditionally convergent (d) nothing can be said
1
4. The series Â n(5 n - 1) is
(a) convergent (b) divergent
(c) oscillates finitely (d) oscillates infinitely
•
1
5. The series Â n(log n)
is
n=2

1
6. The series Â np is divergent if
(a) p > 1 (b) p £ 1 (c) p = 1 (d) p = 0

•
> 1, then Â un is
un +1
7. If lim
x Æ 0 un n =1
(c) may or may not be convergent (d) oscillatory
2 3
8. The series a + ar + ar + ar + L oscillates finitely if
(a) |r| < 1 (b) r > 1 (c) r = 1 (d) r £ –1
3 9 27 81
9. The series + + + + L is
4 8 16 32
•
1
10. The series Â
n 5n
is
n =1
11. The series a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + L diverges if
(a) |r| < 1 (b) r ≥ 1 (c) r £ –1 (d) r = 1
1
12. The series Â p converges if
n
(a) p > 1 (b) p < 1 (c) p = 0 (d) p = 1
1
13. The series Â 1 is
n4
•
32 n
14. The series Â is
n =1 4 n
•
1
15. The series Â sin n is
n =1
(c) oscillatory (d) may or may not be convergent
un
16. lim = 1 and Â vn diverges then Â un is
nÆ a vn
(a) divergent (b) convergent
(c) oscillatory (d) oscillates infinitely
2 3 4
17. + + L • converges if
+
p p
1 2 3p
(a) p < 2 (b) p > 2 (c) p > 1 (d) p ≥ 1
18. If Sun is a series of positive terms such that lim un = 0 then Sun is
n Æ•
(c) may or may not be convergent (d) oscillatory
1
19. Â n(log n) p is convergent
(a) for p > 1 (b) for p < 1

(c) for all real values of p (d) for no value of p
•
20. Â (2 x)n is divergent if
n=0
1 1 1 1
(a) -1 £ x £ 1 (b) - <x< (c) -2 £ x £ 2 (d) - ≥x≥
2 2 2 2
•
21. The geometric series Â ar n , when r = –1 × 2 is
n=0
(a) convergent (b) divergent (c) oscillatory (d) none of these

n! un
22. If un = n
then lim =
n x Æ• un +1
2
(a) e (b) e (c) e–1 (d) 1
1 1 1
23. The series 1 + + + + L is
2 4 8
3n
2
24. The series Â 32 n is

•
25. The power series Â (3 x)n is convergent if
n =1
1 1 1 1 1
(a) x= (b) x > (c) - <x< (d) < x <1
3 3 3 3 3
•
n2
26. The series Â n!
is
n =1
(a) oscillatory (b) divergent (c) convergent (d) none of these
• n2
Ê 1ˆ
27. The series Â Á 1 + ˜ is
n =1
Ë n¯
(a) oscillatory (b) convergent (c) divergent (d) none of these
2 2 3 n
x x x x x
28. The series + + + +L+ + L is
1◊ 2 3 ◊ 4 3 ◊ 4 5 ◊ 6 (2 n - 1) 2 n
(a) p series (b) geometric series
(c) alternating series (d) power series
•
xn
29. The series Â (-1)n+1 n
converges only if
n =1
(a) –1 < x < 1 (b) –1 £ x £ 1 (c) –1 < x £ 1 (d) –1 £ x < 1
30. Which of the following series is divergent?
Ê 1ˆ 1 1 1
(a) Â ÁË1 + n ˜¯ (b) Â n2 (c) Â np (d) Â ne
31. Which of the following series is convergent?
• • 1
1 1 1
(a) Â n0.9 (b) Â (c) Ân (d) Â n1.001
n =1 n =1 n
cos np
32. The series Â 1 + n2 is
(a) absolutely convergent (b) conditionally convergent

(c) convergent (d) divergent
33. The series Â ( - n) is
(a) divergent (b) convergent (c) oscillatory (d) none of these

1 1 1
34. The sum of the series 1 - + - + L is [Summer 2016]
2 2 2 23
2 3 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) none of these
3 2 2
•
1
35. The series Â (log n)n is [Summer 2016]
n =1
(a) oscillatory (b) divergent (c) convergent (d) none of these

Ê p 1ˆ
36. The sequence sin Á + ˜ converges to [Winter 2016]
Ë 6 n¯
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) 0.5
• n
Ê eˆ
37. The sum of the series Â Á ˜ is [Winter 2016]
Ë ¯
n =1 p
p e p e
(a) (b) (c) (d)
p -e p -e e-p p
•
2n
38. Â 3n - 1 is [Winter 2016]
n =1
(a) convergent and sum is 0 (b) convergent and sum is 1

(c) divergent (d) oscillating
1 1 1
39. Infinite series 1 + + 2 + 3 + L is [Summer 2017]
2 2 2
(a) divergent (b) convergent (c) oscillatory (d) none of these
answers
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (b)
10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (c)
19. (a) 20. (b) 21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (c)
28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (a) 31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (d)
37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (b)
CHAPTER
6
Taylor’s and
Maclaurin’s Series
chapter outline
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Taylor’s Series
6.3 Maclaurin’s Series
6.1 IntroductIon
In this chapter, we will study Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series. A Taylor series is a
representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the
values of the function’s derivatives at a single point. The concept of a Taylor series
was discovered by the Scottish mathematician James Gregory and formally introduced
by the English mathematician Brook Taylor in 1715. A Maclaurin series is a Taylor
series expansion of a function about zero. It is named after the Scottish mathematician
Colin Maclaurin, who made extensive use of this special case of Taylor series. It is
common practice to approximate a function by using a finite number of terms of its
Taylor series and Maclaurin’s series covering expansions by definition, by standard
expansion, by differentiation and integration and by substitution.
6.2 taylor’s serIes

Statement If f (x + h) is a given function of h which can be expanded into a conver-
gent series of positive ascending integral powers of h then
h2 h3 hn n
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + h f ′( x) +f ′′( x) + f ′′′( x) + ........ + f ( x) + .......
2! 3! n!
Proof Let f (x + h) be a function of h which can be expanded into positive ascend-
ing integral powers of h, then
f (x + h) = a0 + a1 h + a2 h2 + a3 h3 + a4 h4 +…….…… ... (1)
6.2 Chapter 6 Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series
Differentiating w.r.t. h successively,

f ¢(x + h) = a1 + a2 · 2h + a3 · 3h2 + a4 · 4h3 + ……. ……… ... (2)
f ¢¢(x + h) = a2 · 2 + a3 · 6h + a4 · 12h2 +……. ……… ... (3)
f ¢¢¢(x + h) = a3 · 6 + a4 · 24h +……. ……… ... (4)
and so on.
Putting h = 0 in Eq. (1), (2), (3) and (4),
a0 = f (x)
a1 = f ¢ (x)
1
a2 = f ′′ ( x)
2!
1
a3 = f ′′′ ( x) and so on
3!
Substituting a0, a1, a2 and a3 in Eq. (1),
h2 h3 hn n
f ( x + h) = f ( x ) + h f ′ ( x ) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + ....... + f ( x) + .......
2! 3! n!
This is known as Taylor’s series.
Putting x = a and h = x – a in above series, we get Taylor’s series in powers of (x – a) as
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3 ( x − a)n n
f ( x) = f (a ) + ( x − a ) f ′ (a ) +
f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + ...... + f (a ) + ......
2! 3! n!
Note: To express the function in ascending powers of x, express h in terms of x.
example 1
(m − 1) 2 2
Prove that f (mx) = f ( x) + (m − 1) x f ′ ( x) + x f ′′ ( x) + ... .
2!
Solution
f (mx) = f (mx – x + x) = f [x + (m – 1) x]
By Taylor’s series,
h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x ) + h f ′ ( x ) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + ................
2! 3!
Putting h = (m − 1) x,
(m − 1) 2 2
f [ x + (m − 1) x] = f (mx) = f ( x) + (m − 1) x f ′ ( x) + x f ′′ ( x) + .........
2!
example 2
Prove that
 x2  x x2 x3
f = f ( x ) − f ′ ( x ) + f ′′ ( x ) − f ′′′ ( x) + ... .
 1 + x  1+ x 2!(1 + x) 2 3!(1 + x)3
Solution
x2 x
= x−
1+ x 1+ x
h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + h f ′( x) + f ′′ ( x) − f ′′′ ( x) + ...
2! 3!
Putting x
h=- ,
1+ x
Ê x ˆ Ê x2 ˆ
f Áx - = f Á 1+ x ˜
Ë 1 + x ˜¯ Ë ¯
Ê x2 ˆ x x2 x3
fÁ ˜ = f ( x ) - f ′ ( x ) + f ′′ ( x ) - f ′′′( x ) + ...
Ë 1+ x ¯ 1+ x 2 ! (1 + x )2 3! (1 + x )3
example 3
Express f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 – 8x + 7 in terms of (x – 2).
Solution
f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 – 8x + 7
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3 ( x − a)n n
f ( x) = f (a ) + ( x − a ) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + L + f (a ) +L
2! 3! n!
Putting a = 2,
( x − 2) 2 ( x − 2)3
f ( x) = f (2) + ( x − 2) f ′ (2) + f ′′ (2) + f ′′′ (2) + L ...(1)
2! 3!
f ( x) = 2 x3 + 3 x 2 − 8 x + 7 , f (2) = 16 + 12 − 16 + 7 = 19
2
f ′ ( x) = 6 x + 6 x − 8, f ′ (2) = 24 + 12 − 8 = 28
f ′′ ( x) = 12 x + 6, f ′′ (2) = 24 + 6 = 30
f ′′′ ( x) = 12, f ′′′ (2) = 12
( x - 2 )2 ( x - 2)3
f ( x ) = 19 + ( x - 2)28 + ◊ 30 + ◊ 12
2! 3!
= 19 + 28( x - 2) + 15( x - 2)2 + 2( x - 2)3
example 4
Express 2 x3 + 7 x 2 + x − 6 in ascending powers of (x – 2).
Solution
Let f ( x) = 2 x3 + 7 x 2 + x − 6
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′ (a) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + L
2! 3!
Putting a = 2,
( x − 2) 2 ( x − 2)3
f ( x) = f (2) + ( x − 2) f ′ (2) + f ′′ (2) + f ′′′ (2) + L ...(1)
2! 3!
f ( x) = 2 x 3 + 7 x 2 + x − 6, f (2) = 40
2
f ′ ( x) = 6 x + 14 x + 1, f ′ (2) = 53
f ′′ ( x) = 12 x + 14, f ′′ (2) = 38
f ′′′ ( x) = 12, f ′′′ (2) = 12
Substituting in Eq.(1),
( x - 2 )2 ( x - 2)3
f ( x ) = 40 + ( x - 2)(53) + (38) + (12)
2! 3!
= 40 + 53( x - 2) + 19( x - 2)2 + 2( x - 2)3
example 5
Expand x3 + 7 x 2 + x − 6 in powers of (x – 3).
Solution
Let f ( x) = x3 + 7 x 2 + x − 6
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′ (a) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + L
2! 3!
Putting a = 3,
( x − 3) 2 ( x − 3)3 ...(1)
f ( x) = f (3) + ( x − 3) f ′ (3) + f ′′ (3) + f ′′′ (3) + L
2! 3!
f ( x) = x 3 + 7 x 2 + x − 6, f (3) = 87
2
f ′ ( x) = 3 x + 14 x + 1, f ′ (3) = 70
f ′′ ( x) = 6 x + 144, f ′′ (3) = 32
f ′′′ ( x) = 6, f ′′′ (3) = 6
( x − 3) 2 ( x − 3)3
f ( x) = 87 + ( x − 3)(70) + (32) + ( 6)
2! 3!
= 87 + 70( x − 3) + 16( x − 3) 2 + ( x − 3)3
example 6
Expand x 4 − 3 x3 + 2 x 2 − x + 1 in powers of (x – 3).
Solution
Let f ( x) = x 4 − 3 x 3 + 2 x 2 − x + 1
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3 ( x − a ) 4 IV
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′ (a) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + f (a ) +L
2! 3! 4!
Putting a = 3,
( x − 3) 2 ( x − 3)3
f ( x) = f (3) + ( x − 3) f ′ (3) + f ′′ (3) + f ′′′ (3)
2! 3!
( x − 3) 4 IV ...(1)
+ f (3) +L
4!
f ( x ) = x 4 - 3 x 3 + 2 x 2 - x + 1, f (3) = 16
3 2
f ¢( x ) = 4 x - 9 x + 4 x - 1, f ¢(3) = 38
f ¢¢( x ) = 12 x 2 - 18 x + 4, f ¢¢(3) = 58
f ¢¢¢( x ) = 24 x - 18, f ¢¢¢(3) = 54
f IV ( x ) = 24, f IV ( x ) = 24
( x - 3)2 ( x - 3)3 ( x - 3)4

f ( x ) = 16 + ( x - 3)(38) + (58) + (54) + (24)
2! 3! 4!
= 16 + 38( x - 3) + 29( x - 3)2 + 9( x - 3)3 + ( x - 3)4
example 7
Expand 49 + 69 x + 42 x 2 + 11x3 + x 4 in powers of (x + 2).
Solution
Let f ( x) = 49 + 69 x + 42 x 2 + 11x 3 + x 4
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3
f ( x) = f (a ) + ( x − a ) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a )
2! 3!
…(1)
( x − a ) 4 IV
+ f (a ) +L
4!
Putting a = – 2,
( x + 2 )2 ( x + 2)3
f ( x ) = f ( -2) + ( x + 2) f ¢( -2) + f ¢¢( -2) + f ¢¢¢( -2)
2! 3!
( x + 2)4 IV
+ f ( -2) + L
4!
f ( x ) = 49 + 69 x + 42 x 2 + 11x 3 + x 4 , f (-2) = 7
2 3
f ¢( x ) = 69 + 84 x + 33 x + 4 x , f ¢(-2) = 1
2
f ¢¢( x ) = 84 + 66 x + 12 x , f ¢¢(-2) = 0
f ¢¢¢( x ) = 66 + 24 x, f ¢¢¢(-2) = 18
IV
f ( x ) = 24, f IV (-2) = 24
( x + 2 )2 ( x + 2)3 ( x + 2)4
f ( x ) = 7 + ( x + 2)(1) + (0 ) + (18) + (24)
2! 3! 4!
= 7 + ( x + 2) + 3( x + 2)3 + ( x + 2)4
example 8
Expand f (x) = x5 – x4 + x3 – x2 + x – 1 in powers of (x – 1) and find
f (0.99).
Solution
f (x) = x5 – x4 + x3 – x2 + x – 1
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′ (a) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + ......
2! 3!
Putting a = 1,
( x − 1) 2 ( x − 1)3
f (x) = f (1) + ( x − 1) f ′ (1) + f ′′(1) + f ′′′ (1)
2! 3!
( x − 1) 4 iv ( x − 1)5 v
+ f (1) + f (1) + ....... ... (1)
4! 5!
f ( x) = x 5 − x 4 + x 3 − x 2 + x − 1, f (1) = 0
4 3 2
f ¢(x) = 5x – 4x + 3x – 2x + 1, f ¢(1) = 5 – 4 + 3 – 2 + 1 = 3
f ¢¢(x) = 20x3 – 12x2 + 6x – 2, f ¢¢(1) = 20 – 12 + 6 – 2 = 12
f ¢¢¢(x) = 60x2 – 24x + 6, f ¢¢¢(1) = 60 – 24 + 6 = 42
IV
f (x ) = 120x – 24, f I V (1) = 120 – 24 = 96
f V (x) = 120, f V (1) = 120

( x − 1) 2 ( x − 1)3 ( x − 1) 4 ( x − 1)5
f ( x) = 0 + ( x − 1) (3) + (12) + (42) + (96) + (120)
2! 3! 4! 5!
= 3( x − 1) + 6( x − 1) 2 + 7( x − 1)3 + 4( x − 1) 4 + ( x − 1)5
Putting x = 0.99,
f (0.99) = 3 (0.99 – 1) + 6 (0.99 – 1)2 + 7 (0.99 – 1)3 + 4 (0.99 – 1)4 + (0.99 – 1)5
= 3 (– 0.01) + 6 (– 0.01)2 + 7 (– 0.01)3 + 4 (– 0.01)4 + (– 0.01)5
= – 0.02939 approx.
example 9
Expand f ( x) = ( x + 2) 4 + 5( x + 2)3 + 6( x + 2) 2 + 7( x + 2) + 8 in ascend-
ing powers of (x – 1).
Solution
f ( x) = ( x + 2) 4 + 5( x + 2)3 + 6( x + 2) 2 + 7( x + 2) + 8
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3 ( x − a ) 4 IV
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′ (a) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + f (a ) +L
2! 3! 4!
Putting a = 1,
( x − 1) 2 ( x − 1)3 ( x − 1) 4 IV
f ( x) = f (1) + ( x − 1) f ′ (1) + f ′′ (1) + f ′′′ (1) + f (1) +L ...(1)
2! 3! 4!
f ( x ) = ( x + 2)4 + 5( x + 2)3 + 6( x + 2)2 + 7( x + 2) + 8, f (1) = 299
f ¢( x ) = 4( x + 2)3 + 15( x + 2)2 + 12( x + 2) + 7, f ¢(1) = 286
2
f ¢¢( x ) = 12( x + 2) + 30( x + 2) + 12, f ¢¢(1) = 210
f ¢¢¢( x ) = 24( x + 2) + 30, f ¢¢¢(1) = 102
f IV ( x ) = 24, f IV (1) = 24
4
( x - 1)2 ( x - 1)3 ( x - 1)4
f ( x ) = 299 + ( x - 1)(286) + (210) + (102) + (24)
2! 3! 4!
= 299 + 286( x - 1) + 105( x - 1)2 + 17( x - 1)3 + ( x - 1)4
example 10
1 1 ( x + 2) ( x + 2) 2 ( x + 2) 3
Prove that = + + + + ... .
1− x 3 32 33 34
Solution
1
Let f ( x) =
1− x
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + ... ..........
2! 3!
Putting a = – 2,
( x + 2) 2 ( x + 2) 3
f ( x) = f ( −2) + ( x + 2) f ′ ( −2) + f ′′ ( −2) + f ′′′ ( −2) + .......... ... (1)
2! 3!
1 1
f ( x) = , f ( −2) =
1− x 3
1 1
f ′ ( x) = , f ′ ( −2) = 2
(1 − x) 2 3
2 2!
f ′′ ( x) = 3
, f ′′ ( −2) = 3
(1 − x) 3
2⋅3 3!
f ′′′ ( x) = 4
, f ′′′ ( −2) = 4 and so on
(1 − x) 3
1 ( x + 2) ( x + 2 ) 2 ( x + 2 ) 3
f ( x) = + + + + ............
3 32 33 34
example 11
Expand log x in powers of (x – 1).
Solution
Let f ( x) = log x
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′(a) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + L
2! 3!
( x − a)n n
+ f (a ) +L
n!
Putting a = 1,
( x − 1) 2 ( x − 1)3
f ( x) = f (1) + ( x − 1) f ′ (1) + f ′′ (1) + f ′′ (1) + L ...(1)
2! 3!
f ( x) = log x, f (1) = log 1 = 0
1
f ′ ( x) = , f ′ (1) = 1
x
1
f ′′ ( x) = − , f ′′ (1) = −1
x2
2
f ′′′ ( x) = , f ′′′ (1) = 2 and so on
x3
( x - 1)2 ( x - 1)3
f ( x ) = 0 + ( x - 1)(1) + ( -1) + (2 ) + L
2! 3!
( x - 1)2 ( x - 1)3
log x = ( x - 1) - + -L
2 3
example 12
Expand log sin x in powers of (x – 2). [Summer 2014]
Solution
Let f (x) = log sin x
( x - a )2 ( x - a )3
f ( x ) = f ( a ) + ( x - a ) f ¢( a ) + f ¢¢(a ) + f ¢¢¢(a ) + L
2! 3!
Putting a = 2,
( x - 2 )2 ( x - 2)3
f ( x ) = f (2) + ( x - 2) f ¢ (2) + f ¢¢(2) + f ¢¢¢(2) + L ...(1)
2! 3!
f ( x ) = log sin x, f (2) = log sin (2)
cos x
f ¢( x ) = = cot x, f ¢(2) = cot (2))
sin x
f ¢¢( x ) = - cosec 2 x, f ¢¢(2) = - cosec 2 (2)
2
f ¢¢¢( x ) = 2 cosec x cot x, f ¢¢¢(2) = 2 cosec 2 (2) cot (2) and so on
( x - 2 )2 È
f ( x ) = log sin (2) + ( x - 2) cot(2) + - cosec 2 (2)˘˚
2! Î
( x - 2)3 È
+ 2 cosec 2 (2) cot(2)˘˚ + L
3! Î
( x - 2 )2
log sin x = log sin (2) + ( x - 2) cot (2) - cosec 2 (2)
2
( x - 2)3
+ cosec 2 (2) cot(2) + L
3
example 13
π
Expand log (cos x) about .
3
Solution
Let f (x) = log (cos x)
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3
f ( x) = f (a ) + ( x − a) f ′ (a) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + K K
2! 3!
p
Putting a = ,
3
2 3
Êp ˆ Ê p ˆ Êp ˆ 1 Ê pˆ Êp ˆ 1 Ê pˆ Êp ˆ
f ( x ) = f Á ˜ + Á x - ˜ f ′ Á ˜ + Á x - ˜ f ′′ Á ˜ + Á x - ˜ f ′′′ Á ˜ + K ... (1)
Ë 3¯ Ë 3 ¯ Ë 3 ¯ 2! Ë 3¯ Ë 3 ¯ 3! Ë 3¯ Ë 3¯
p   p  1
f ( x) = log(cos x), f   = log  cos  = log   = − log 2
 3  3   2
1 p  p
f ′ ( x) = ( − sin x) = − tan x, f ′   = − tan = − 3
cos x  3 3
p  p
f ′′ ( x) = − sec 2 x, f ′′   = − sec 2 = − 4
 3 3
p  p p
f ′′′ ( x) = −2 sec 2 x tan x, f ′′′   = −2 sec 2 tan
 3 3 3
= −2(4) 3
= −8 3 annd so on

2
Ê pˆ
( )
1Ê pˆ
f ( x ) = - log 2 + Á x - ˜ - 3 + Á x - ˜ ( -4)
Ë 3¯ 2! Ë 3¯
3
+
1Ê
Á
3! Ë
pˆ
x- ˜
3¯
( -8 3 ) + K
2 3
Ê pˆ Ê pˆ 4 3Ê pˆ
log (cos x ) = - log 2 - 3 Á x - ˜ - 2 Á x - ˜ - Á x - ˜ -K
Ë 3¯ Ë 3¯ 3 Ë 3¯
example 14
Obtain tan–1 x in powers of (x – 1).
Solution
Let f (x) = tan–1 x
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + KK
2! 3!
Putting a = 1,
( x − 1) 2 ( x − 1)3
f ( x) = f (1) + ( x − 1) f ′ (1) + f ′′ (1) + f ′′′ (1) + K ... (1)
2! 3!
p
f ( x) = tan −1 x, f (1) = tan −1 1 =
4
1 1
f ′ ( x) = , f ′ (1) =
1 + x2 2
2x 2 1
f ′′ ( x) = − , f ′′ (1) = − =−
(1 + x 2 ) 2 4 2
2 8x2 1
f ′′′( x) = − 2 2
+ , f ′′′ (1) = and so on
(1 + x ) (1 + x 2 )3 2
p Ê 1 ˆ ( x - 1)2 Ê 1 ˆ ( x - 1)3 Ê 1 ˆ
f ( x) = + ( x - 1) Á ˜ + ÁË - 2 ˜¯ + + LL
3! ÁË 2 ˜¯
L
4 Ë 2¯ 2!
p 1 1 1
tan -1 x = + ( x - 1) - ( x - 1)2 + ( x - 1)3 + L
4 2 4 12
example 15
Express 7 + ( x + 2) + 3( x + 2)3 + ( x + 2) 4 − ( x + 2)5 in ascending powers
of x.
Solution
Let f ( x + 2) = 7 + ( x + 2) + 3( x + 2)3 + ( x + 2) 4 − ( x + 2)5
f ( x) = 7 + x + 3x3 + x 4 − x5
h2 h3 h 4 IV h5 V
f ( x + h ) = f ( x ) + h f ¢( x ) + f ¢¢( x ) + f ¢¢¢( x ) + f ( x) f ( x) + L
2! 3! 4! 5!
Putting h = 2,
f ( x + 2) = (7 + x + 3 x 3 + x 4 − x 5 ) + 2(1 + 9 x 2 + 4 x3 − 5 x 4 )
22 23
+ (18 x + 12 x 2 − 20 x 3 ) + (18 + 24 x − 60 x 2 )
2! 3!
4 5
2 2
+ (24 − 120 x) + ( −120)
4! 5!
= 17 − 11x − 38 x 2 − 29 x 3 − 9 x 4 − x 5
example 16
Express (x – 1)4 + 2(x – 1)3 + 5(x – 1) + 2 in ascending powers of x.
[Summer 2016]
Solution
Let f ( x - 1) = ( x - 1)4 + 2( x - 1)3 + 5( x - 1) + 2
f ( x) = 2 + 5x + 2 x3 + x 4
h2 h3 h 4 iv
f ( x + h ) = f ( x ) + hf ¢( x ) + f ¢¢( x ) + f ¢¢¢( x ) + f ( x) + L
2! 3! 4!
Putting h = –1,
(-1)2 (-1)3 (-1)4 iv

f ( x - 1) = f ( x ) + (-1) f ¢( x ) + f ¢¢( x ) + f ¢¢¢ + f ( x) + L
2! 3! 4!
= (2 + 5 x + 2 x 3 + x 4 ) + (-1) (5 + 6 x 2 + 4 x 3 )
1 (-1) 1
+ (12 x + 12 x 2 ) + (12 + 24 x ) + (24) + 0
2! 3! 4!
= (2 + 5 x + 2 x 3 + x 4 ) + (-1)(5 + 6 x 2 + 4 x 3 ) + (6 x + 6 x 2 ) + (-1)(2 + 4 x ) + 1
= 2 + 5x + 2 x3 + x 4 - 5 - 6 x2 - 4 x3 + 6 x + 6 x2 - 2 - 4 x + 1
= x 4 - 2 x3 + 7 x - 4
example 17
Express 5 + 4( x − 1) 2 − 3( x − 1)3 + ( x − 1) 4 in ascending powers of x.
[Winter 2013]
Solution
Let f ( x − 1) = 5 + 4( x − 1) 2 − 3( x − 1)3 + ( x − 1) 4
f ( x) = 5 + 4 x 2 − 3x3 + x 4
h2 h3 h 4 IV
f ( x + h) = f ( x ) + h f ′ ( x ) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + f ( x) + L
2! 3! 4!
Putting h = – 1,
( −1) 2 ( −1)3 ( −1) 4 IV
f ( x − 1) = f ( x) + ( −1) f ′ ( x) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + f ( x) +L
2! 3! 4!
( −1) 2
= (5 + 4 x 2 − 3x 3 + x 4 ) + ( −1)(8 x − 9 x 2 + 4 x 3 ) + (8 − 18 x + 12 x 2 )
2!
3
( −1) ( −1) 4
+ ( −18 + 24 x) + (24)
3! 4!
= 5 + 4 x2 - 3x3 + x 4 - 8 x + 9 x2 - 4 x3 + 4 - 9 x + 6 x2 + 3 - 4 x + 1
= x 4 - 7 x 3 + 19 x 2 - 21x + 13
example 18
 p
Find the expansion of tan  x +  in ascending powers of x up to terms
 4
in x4 and find the approximate value of tan (43°).
Solution
 π  π
Let f  x +  = tan  x + 
 4  4
f ( x) = tan x
h2 h3 h 4 IV
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + hf ′ ( x) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + f ( x) + L
2! 3! 4!
π
Putting x= , h = x,
4
π  π π x π x  π  x IV π
2 3 4
f  + x = f   + xf ′   + f ′′   + f ′′′   + f   + L ...(1)
4   4  4  2!  4  3!  4  4! 4
π π
f ( x) = tan x, f   = tan = 1
 4 4
π π
f ′ ( x) = sec 2 x, f ′   = sec 2 = 2
 4 4
π π π
f ′′ ( x) = 2 sec x ⋅ sec x tan x, f ′′   = 2 tan + 2 tan 3 = 4
 4 4 4
= 2 sec 2 x tan x
= 2(1 + tan 2 x) tan x
= 2 tan x + 2 tan 3 x
π π π
f ′′′ ( x) = 2 sec 2 x + 6 tan 2 x sec 2 x, f ′′′   = 2 + 8 tan 2 + 6 tan 4 = 16
 4 4 4
(
= 2(1 + tan 2 x) + 6 tan 2 x 1 + tan 2 x )
= 2 + 8 tan x + 6 tan x
2 4
Êpˆ p p
f IV ( x ) = 16 tan x ◊ sec 2 x + 24 tan 3 x ◊ sec 2 x, f IV Á ˜ = 16 tan ◊ sec 2
Ë 4¯ 4 4
p p
+ 24 tan 3 ◊ sec 2
4 4
= 80 and so on
π  x2 x3 x4
f  + x = 1 + x(2) + (4) + (16) + (80) + L
4  2! 3! 4!
…(2)
π  8 10
tan  + x = 1 + 2 x + 2 x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + L
4  3 3
Now tan 43° = tan(45° − 2°)

 π 2π 
= tan  −
 4 180 
π 
= tan  − 0.0349
4 
8 10
= 1 + 2( −0.0349) + 2( −0.0349) 2 + ( −0.0349)3 + ( −0.0349) 4
3 3
= 0 ⋅ 9326 approx.
example 19
Prove that
h2 h3 cos x
log [sin (x + h)] = log sin x + h cot x − cosec 2 x + + LL
2 3 sin 3 x
Solution
Let f (x + h) = log [sin (x + h)]
f (x) = log (sin x)
h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + h f ′( x) + f ′′( x) + f ′′′( x) + KKKK ...(1)
2! 3!
1
f ′ ( x) = cos x = cot x
sin x
f ′′ ( x) = − cosec 2 x
2 cos x and so on
f ′′′( x) = 2 cosec 2 x cot x =
sin 3 x
h2 h3 2 cos x
f ( x + h) = log sin x + h cot x − cosec 2 x + + KKK
2! 3! sin 3 x
h2 h3 cos x
log [sin( x + h) ] = log sin x + h cot x − cosec 2 x + + KKK
2 3 sin 3 x
example 20
 π
Expand log cos  x +  using Taylor’s theorem in ascending powers of
 4
x and hence find the value of log (cos 48°) correct up to three decimal
places.
Solution
 π  π
Let f  x +  = log cos  x + 
 4  4
f ( x) = log cos x
h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + hf ′ ( x) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + L
2! 3!
π
Putting x = , h = x,
4
π  π π x π
2
f  + x = f   + xf ′   + f ′′   + L ...(1)
4   4  4  2!  4
Êpˆ p Ê 1 ˆ
f ( x ) = log cos x, f Á ˜ = log cos = log Á = - log 2
Ë 4¯ 4 Ë 2 ˜¯
1 Êpˆ p
f ¢( x ) = ( - sin x ), f ¢ Á ˜ = - tan = -1
cos x Ë 4¯ 4
= - tan x
Êpˆ Êpˆ
f ¢¢( x ) = - sec 2 x, f ¢¢ Á ˜ = - sec 2 Á ˜ = -2 and so on
Ë 4¯ Ë 4¯
π  x2
f  + x = − log 2 + x( −1) + ( −2) + L
4  2!
π 
log cos  + x = − log 2 − x − x 2 + L ...(2)
4 
Now, log(cos 48°) = log [ cos(45° + 3°) ]
  π 3π  
= log cos  + 
  4 180  
 π 
= log cos  + 0.0523 
  4 
= − log 2 − 0.0523 − (0.0523) 2

= −0.402 approx.
example 21
sin a sin 2a
Show that tan -1 ( x + h ) = tan -1 x + (h sin a ) - (h sin a )2
1 2
sin 3a
+(h sin a )3 +L
3
where a = cot–1x. [Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x + h) = tan–1 (x + h)
f (x) = tan–1 x
h2 h3
f ( x + h ) = f ( x ) + h f ′( x ) + f ′′( x ) + f ′′′( x ) + L ... (1)
2! 3!
1
f ′( x ) =
1 + x2
2x
f ′′( x ) = −
(1 + x 2 )2
2 2x ◊ 4x 2(3 x 2 - 1)
f ′′′( x ) = - 2 2
+ 2 3
= and so on
(1 + x ) (1 + x ) (1 + x 2 )3
Putting x = cot a,
1 1
f ¢(cot a ) = == sin 2 a
1 + cot a cosec 2 a
2
2 cot a cos a
f ¢¢(cot a ) = - 2 2
= - 2 sin 2 a sin 2 a
(cosec a ) sin a
= - 2 sin 2 a sin a cos a = - sin 2 a sin 2a
2(3 cot 2 a - 1) 2(3 cos2 a - sin 2 a )
f ¢¢¢(cot a ) = 2 3
=
(1 + cot a ) cosec6 a ◊ sin 2 a
= 2(3 - 4 sin 2 a )sin 4 a = 2(3 sin a - 4 sin 3 a )sin 3 a
= 2 sin 3a sin 3 a
h2 h3
f ( x + h ) = tan -1 x + h sin 2 a + ( - sin 2 a sin 2a ) + (2 sin 3 a sin 3a ) + L
2! 3!
Ê sin a ˆ sin 2a sin 3a
= tan -1 x + h sin a Á ˜ - (h sin a )2 + (h sin a )3 +L
Ë 1 ¯ 2 3
example 22
Expand tan–1 (x + h) in powers of h and hence, find the value of
tan–1 (1.003) up to five places of decimal.
Solution
Let f (x + h) = tan–1 (x + h)
f (x) = tan–1 x
h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x ) + h f ′ ( x ) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + KKKK ... (1)
2! 3!
1
f ′( x) =
1 + x2
2x
f ′′ ( x) = −
(1 + x 2 ) 2
2 2x ⋅ 4x 2(3 x 2 − 1)
f ′′′( x) = − 2 2
+ 2 3
= and so on
(1 + x ) (1 + x ) (1 + x 2 )3
1 h2  2x 
f ( x + h) = tan −1 ( x + h) = tan −1 x + h ⋅ + −
1+ x 2
2!  (1 + x 2 ) 2 
h3  2(3 x 2 − 1) 
+   +KKK
3!  (1 + x 2 )3 
Putting x = 1, h = 0.003,
0.003 (0.003) 2 3
 2  (0.003)  1 
tan −1 (1 + 0.003) = tan −1 1 + +  −  +   +KKK
2 2! 4 3!!  2 
π
tan −1 (1.003) = + 0.00015 − 2.25 × 10 −8 + 2.25 × 10 −12 [Considering first 4 terms]
4
= 0.78540 approx.
example 23
x 7 x 2 7 x3
Prove that 1 + x + 2 x 2 = 1 + + − +L .
2 8 16
solution
Let f ( x) = x
f ( x + h) = x+h
h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x ) + h f ′ ( x ) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + KKK
2! 3!
Putting x = 1, h = x + 2x 2 ,
f ( x + h) = x + h = 1 + x + 2x2
( x + 2 x 2 )2 ( x + 2 x 2 )3
= f (1) + ( x + 2 x 2 ) f ′ (1) + f ′′ (1) + f ′′′ (1) + KKK ... (1)
2! 3!
f ( x) = x, f (1) = 1
1 1
f ′ ( x) = , f ′ (1) =
2 x 2
1  1 1 1
f ′′ ( x) =  −  3 , f ′′ (1) = −
2  2 2 4
x
1  1  3 1 3
f ′′′ ( x) =  −   −  5 , f ′′′ (1) = and so on
2  2  2 2 8
x
1 1 ( x 2 + 4 x 3 + 4 x 4 ) 3 ( x3 + K)
1 + x + 2x2 = 1 + ( x + 2x2 ) − + + .........
2 4 2 8 6
x 7 x 2 7 x3
= 1+ + − +K
2 8 16
example 24
Expand 1 + x + 2 x 2 in powers of (x – 1).
Solution
1 + x + 2 x 2 = 4 + 2 ( x − 1) 2 + 5 ( x − 1) [Expressing in terms of (x – 1)]
Let f ( x) = x
f ( x + h) = x+h
h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + h f ′( x) + f ′′( x) + f ′′′( x) + KKK
2! 3!
Putting x = 4, h = 2 (x – 1)2 + 5 (x – 1),
f ( x + h) = x + h = 4 + 2 ( x − 1) 2 + 5 ( x − 1)
[2 ( x − 1) 2 + 5 ( x − 1)]2
= f (4) + [2 ( x − 1) 2 + 5 ( x − 1)] f ′ (4) + f ′′ (4) + K ... (1)
2!
f ( x) = x, f ( 4) = 2
1 1
f ′ ( x) = , f ′ ( 4) =
2 x 4
1  1 1 1
f ′′ ( x) =  −  3 , f ′′ (4) = − and so on
2  2 2 32
x
Ê 1ˆ
4 + 2 ( x - 1)2 + 5( x - 1) = 2 + [2 ( x - 1)2 + 5 ( x - 1)] Á ˜
Ë 4¯
[2 ( x - 1)2 + 5( x - 1)]2 Ê 1ˆ
+ ÁË - 32 ˜¯ + KK
2!
5 7
1 + x + 2 x2 = 2 + ( x - 1) + ( x - 1)2 + KKKK
4 64
example 25
Show that
1 ( x − a )3 ( x − a )5 V
[ f ( x) − f (2a − x)] = ( x − a ) f ′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + f (a ) +L
L
2 3! 5!
Solution
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3 ( x − a ) 4 IV
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′ (a) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a ) + f (a)
2! 3! 4!
( x − a )5 V
+ f (a ) +L ...(1)
5!
h2 h3 h 4 IV h5 V
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + hf ′ ( x) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + f ( x) + f ( x) +L …(2)
2! 3! 4! 5!
Now, f (2a − x) = f [a + (a − x)]

Putting x = a, h = a – x in Eq. (2),
(a − x) 2 ( a − x )3
f [a + (a − x)] = f (a ) + (a − x) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + f ′′′ (a )
2! 3!
(a − x) 4 IV ( a − x )5 V
+ f (a) + f (a) + L
4! 5!
( x − a)2 ( x − a )3
f ( 2a − x ) = f ( a ) − ( x − a ) f ′ ( a ) + f ′′ (a ) − f ′′′ (a )
2! 3! ...(3)
( x − a ) 4 IV ( x − a )5 V
+ f (a) − f (a) + L
4! 5!
1 1 ( x − a )3 ( x − a )5 V 
2
[ f ( x ) − f ( 2 a − x ) ] =  2( x − a ) f ′ ( a ) + 2 ⋅
2 3!
f ′′′ (a ) +2 ⋅
5!
f (a ) + L

( x − a) 3
( x − a) V5
= ( x − a) f ′(a) + f ′′′ (a ) + f (a) + L
3! 5!
example 26
Using Taylor’s theorem, evaluate up to four places of decimals:
(i) 1.02 (ii) 25.15 (iii) 9.12
(iv) 10 (v) 36.12 [Winter 2014]
Solution
Let f ( x) = x
f ( x + h) = x+h
h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + h f ′( x) + f ′′( x) + f ′′′( x) + KKKK ... (1)
2! 3!
(i) Putting x = 1, h = 0.02,
f ( x + h) = x + h = 1 + 0.02 = 1.02
(0.02) 2
= f (1) + (0.02) f ′ (1) + f ′′ (1) + KKK
K ... (2)
2!
f ( x) = x, f (1) = 1
1 1
f ′ ( x) = , f ′ (1) =
2 x 2
1 1
f ′′ ( x) = − 3 , f ′′ (1) = − and so on
4
4x 2
Substituting in Eq. (2) and considering only first three terms,

2
 1  (0.02)  1 
1.02 = 1 + (0.02)   + − 
 2 2!  4 
= 1.0099 approx.
(ii) Putting x = 25, h = 0.15 in Eq. (1),
f ( x + h) = x + h = 25 + 0.15
(0.15) 2
= f (25) + (0.15) f ′(25) + f ′′(25) + K ... (3)
2!
f ( x) = x, f (25) = 5
1 1
f ′ ( x) = , f ′ (25) = = 0.1
2 x 10
1 1
f ′′ ( x) = − 3 , f ′′ (25) = − = − 0.002 and so on
500
4x 2
(0.15) 2
25.15 = 5 + (0.15) (0.1) + ( − 0.002)
2
= 5.0150 approx.
(iii) Putting x = 9, h = 0.12 in Eq. (1),
f ( x + h) = x + h = 9 + 0.12
(0.12) 2
= f (9) + (0.12) f ′(9) + f ′′(9) + K ... (4)
2!
f ( x) = x, f (9) = 3
1 1
f ′ ( x) = , f ′ (9) =
2 x 6
1 1
f ′′ ( x) = − 3 , f ′′ (9) = − and so on
108
4x 2
2
 1  (0.12)  1 
9.12 = 3 + (0.12)   + − 
 6 2  108 
= 3 + 0.02 − (0.12) (0.06) (0.0093)
= 3.0199 approx.
(iv) Putting x = 9, h = 1 in Eq. (1),

1
f ( x + h) = x + h = 9 + 1 = f (9) + f ′(9) + f ′′(9) + K ... (5)
2!
1 1 [Refer (iii)]
10 = 3 + −
6 216
= 3.1620 approx.
(v) Putting x = 36, h = 0.12 in Eq. (1),

f ( x + h) = x + h = 36 + 0.12 = 36 ◊ 12
(0.12)2 ... (6)
= f (36) + (0.12) f ′(36) + f ′′(36) +L
2!
f ( x) = x, f (36) = 36 = 6
1 1 1
f ′( x ) = , f ′(36) = =
2 x 2 36 12
1 1 1
f ′′( x ) = - 3 , f ′′′(36) = - 3
=- and so on
864
4x 2 4(36) 2
Ê 1 ˆ (0.12)2 Ê 1 ˆ
36.12 = 6 + (0.12) Á ˜ + ÁË - 864 ˜¯ + L
Ë 12 ¯ 2!
= 6.0099 approx
x.
example 27
Find cosh (1.505), given sinh (1.5) = 2.1293 and cosh (1.5) = 2.3524.
Solution
Let f (x) = cosh x
h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x ) + h f ′ ( x ) + f ′′ ( x) + f ′′′ ( x) + KKKK
2! 3!
Putting x = 1.5, h = 0.005,
f (x + h) = cosh (x + h) = cosh (1.5 + 0.005)
(0.005) 2 (0.005)3 ... (1)

= f (1.5) + (0.005) f ′(1.5) + f ′′(1.5) + f ′′′ (1.5) +L
2! 3!
f ( x) = cosh x, f (1.5) = cosh (1.5) = 2.3524
f ¢(x) = sinh x, f ¢(1.5) = sinh (1.5) = 2.1293
f ¢¢(x) = cosh x, f ¢¢(1.5) = cosh (1.5) = 2.3524 and so on

(0.005) 2
cosh (1.505) = cosh (1.5) + (0.005) sinh (1.5) + co
osh (1.5) + K
2!
= 2.3524 + (0.005)(2.1293) + (12.5) (10−6 )(2.3524)
= 2.3631 approx.
example 28
Find the approximate value of sin (30°30¢).
Solution
Let f (x) = sin x
 π 30 π 
sin(30°30 ′ ) = sin(30° + 30 ′ ) = sin  + ⋅
 6 60 180 
π 
= sin  + 0.0087
6 
h2
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + hf ′ ( x) +f ′′ ( x) + L
2!
h2
sin( x + h) = sin x + h cos x + ( − sin x) +L
2!
π
Putting x= , h = 0.0087,
6
π  π  π  (0.0087) 2  π
sin  + 0.0087 = sin + (0.0087)  cos  +  − sin 
6  6  6 2! 6
[Considering first 3 terms]
sin 30° 30¢ = 0.50752 approx.
exercIse 6.1
1. Expand ex in powers of (x − 1).
  (x − 1)2 (x − 1)3 
 Ans.: e  1 + (x − 1) + + + K 
  2 ! 3 ! 
2. Expand 2x3 + 7x2 + x − 1 in powers of (x − 2).
[ans.: 45 + 53 (x – 2) + 19 (x – 2)2 + 2 (x – 2)3]

3. Expand x5 − 5x4 + 6x3 − 7x2 + 8x – 9 in powers of (x – 1).

 Ans.: − 6 − 3 (x − 1) − 9 (x − 1)2 − 4 (x − 1)3 + (x − 1)5 
4. Expand x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 − x + 1 in powers of (x – 3).
 Ans.: 16 + 38 (x − 3) + 29 (x − 3)2 + 9 (x − 3)3 + (x − 3)4 
5. Expand x3 − 2x2 + 3x − 5 in powers of (x – 2).

[ans.: 11 + 7 (x – 2) + 4 (x – 2)2 + (x − 2)3]
6. Expand 2x3 + 3x2 − 8x + 7 in terms of (x – 2).
[ans.: 19 + 28 (x – 2) + 15 (x – 2)2 + 2 (x − 2)3]
7. Expand 2x3 + 5x2 + 3x – 4 in powers of (x + 3).
[ans.: –22 + 27(x + 3) – 13(x + 3)2 + 2(x + 3)3]
8. Expand x in powers of (x − a).
 (x − a) (x − a)3 
 Ans.: a+ − − …
 2 a 8a a 
9. Expand 1 + x + 2x 2 in powers of (x − 1).

 5 7 
 Ans.: 2 + 4 (x − 1) + 32 (x − 1) + …
2
 
10. Expand sin x in powers of (x − a).
 (x − a)2 (x − a)3 
 Ans.: sin a + ( x − a)cos a − sin a − cos a + K
 2! 3! 
 p 
11. Expand cos x in powers of  x −  .
 2
  p 1 p
3
1 p
5

 Ans.: −  x −  +  x −  −  x −  + K
  2  3!  2 5!  2 
 p
12. Expand tan x in powers of  x −  .
 4
  p  p
2

 Ans.: 1 + 2  x −  + 2  x −  + K 
  4   4  
p 
13. Expand sin  + x  in powers of x up to x 4.
6 
 1 3 1 x2 3 x3 1 x4 
 Ans.: + x− ⋅ − ⋅ + ⋅ +K 
 2 2 2 2! 2 3! 2 4 ! 
p 
14. Expand tan  + x  in powers of x up to x4 and hence, find the value
4 
of tan (46° 36').
  8 3 10 4  
 1 + 2 x + 2 x + 3 x + 3 x + K , 1.0574
2
 Ans.:
 
15. Find the approximate value of cos 64°.
[ans.: 0.4384]
16. Expand log x in powers of (x – 2).
 1 1 (x − 2)2 1 (x − 2)3 
 Ans.: log 2 + (x − 2) − ⋅ + ⋅ + K
 2 2! 4 3! 4 
p 
17. Expand log tan  + x  in powers of x.
4 
 4 3 4 5 
 Ans.: 2 x + 3 x + 3 x + K 
 
18. Expand 7 + (x + 2) + 3(x + 2)3 + (x + 2)4 in powers of x.
[ans.: 49 + 69x + 42x2 + 11x3 + x 4]
19. Expand 17 + 6(x + 2) + 3(x + 2)3 + (x + 2)4 − (x + 2)5 in powers of x.

[ans.: 37 − 6x − 38x2 − 29x3 − 9x 4 − x5]
20. Expand (x – 2)4 – 3(x – 2)3 + 4(x – 2)2 + 5 in powers of x.

[ans.: 61 – 84x + 46x2 – 11x3 + x4]
21. Expand (x + 2)4 + 5(x + 2)3 + 6(x + 2)2 + 7(x + 2) + 8 in powers of (x + 1).
Hint : f (x) = x 4 + 5x 3 + 6 x 2 + 7 x + 8, f [(x + 1) + 1] = f (1)
 
 (x + 1)2 
+(x + 1)f ′(1) + f ′′ (1) + K
 2! 
 Ans.: 27 + 38(x + 1) + 27(x + 1)2 + 9(x + 1)3 + (x + 1)4 
x2
22. Prove that sinh (x + a) = sinh a + x cosh a + sinh a + … If
2!
sinh (1.5) = 2.1293, cosh (1.5) = 2.3524, find the value of sinh (1.505).
[ans.: 2.1411]
6.3 MaclaurIn’s serIes

Statement If f (x) is a given function of x which can be expanded in positive ascend-
ing integral powers of x then
x2 x3 xn n
f ( x) = f (0) + x f ′(0) + f ′′ (0) + f ′′′ (0) + KKK + f (0) + KKK
2! 3! n!
Proof Let f (x) be a function of x which can be expanded into positive ascending
integral powers of x.
f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 +……. … ... (1)
Differentiating w.r.t. x successively,
f ¢(x) = a1 + a2· 2x + a3 · 3x2 + a4 · 4x3 + ……. ……… ... (2)

f ¢¢(x) = a2 · 2 + a3 · 6x + a4 · 12x2 + ……. ……… ... (3)
f ¢¢¢(x) = a3 · 6 + a4 · 24x + ……. ……… ... (4)
and so on.
Putting x = 0 in Eq. (1), (2), (3) and (4),
a0 = f (0)
a1 = f ¢(0)
1
a2 = f ′′(0)
2!
1
a3 = f ′′′(0) and so on.
3!
Substituting a0, a1, a2 and a3 in Eq. (1),
x2 x3 xn n
f ( x) = f (0) + x f ′(0) + f ′′ (0) + f ′′′ (0) + KKK + f (0) + KKK
2! 3! n!
This is known as Maclaurin’s series.

This series can also be written as,
x2 x3 xn
y = y (0) + xy1 (0) + y 2 ( 0) + y3 (0) + KK + yn (0) + KKK
2! 3! n!
standard expansions
Using Maclaurin’s series, expansion of some standard functions can be obtained.
These expansions can be directly used while solving the examples.
(i) Expansion of ex (Exponential series)
Proof Let y = ex, y (0) = e0 = 1
dn
Now, yn = (e x ) = e x , yn (0) = e0 = 1
dx n
Substituting in Maclaurin’s series,
x 2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + + KKK
2 ! 3!
This series is known as the exponential series.
(a) Replacing x by −x in the above series,
x 2 x3
e− x = 1 − x +
− + KKK
2 ! 3!
(b) Replacing x by ax in the above series,
a 2 x 2 a3 x3
eax = 1 + ax + + +KKK
2! 3!
(ii) Expansion of sin x (Sine series)
Proof Let y = sin x, y (0) = sin 0 = 0
dn  np  y (0) = sin  np 
Now, yn = (sin x) = sin  x + , n  
dx n
 2   2 
Putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ..….. ,
y1 (0) = 1, y2 (0) = 0, y3 (0) = – 1, y4 (0) = 0, y5 (0) = 1, and so on.

x3 x5
sin x = x − + − KKK
3! 5 !
This series is known as the sine series.
(iii) Expansion of cos x (cosine series)
Proof Let y = cos x, y (0) = cos 0 = 1
dn  np   np 
Now, yn = (cos x) = cos  x +
  , yn (0) = cos  2  ,
dx n 2 
Putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….. ,
y1 (0) = 0, y2 (0) = –1, y3 (0) = 0, y4 (0) = 1, and so on.
x 2 x 4 KKK
cos x = 1 −
+ −
2! 4!
This series is known as the cosine series.
(iv) Expansion of tan x (Tangent series)

Proof Let y = tan x, y(0) = 0
2 2 2
y1 = sec x = 1 + tan x = 1 + y , y1 (0) = 1
y2 = 2 yy1 , y2 (0) = 2 y (0) y1 (0) = 2(0)((1) = 0
2
y3 = 2 y + 2 yy2 ,
1 y3 (0) = 2(1) 2 + 2(0)(0) = 2
y4 = 4 y1 y2 + 2 y1 y2 + 2 yy3 y4 (0) = 6(1)(0) + 2(0)(2)
= 6 y1 y2 + 2 yy3 , =0
2
y5 = 6 y2 + 6 y1 y3 + 2 y1 y3 + 2 yy4 y5 (0) = 0 + 8(1)(2) + 0
2
= 6 y2 + 8 y1 y3 + 2 yy4 , = 16

x3 x5
tan x = x + (2) + (16) + KKK
3! 5!
x3 2 x5
= x+ + + KKK
3 15
This series is known as the tangent series.
Note: This series can also be obtained by dividing the sine and cosine series
sin x
since tan x = .
cos x
(v) Expansion of sinh x
e x − e− x
Proof sinh x =
2
Substituting exponential series ex and e–x,
 x 2 x3   x 2 x3 
1 + x + + + K  − 1 − x + − + K 
2 ! 3! 2 ! 3!
sinh x =    
2
x3 x5
= x + + +KKK
3! 5!
(vi) Expansion of cosh x
e x + e- x
Proof cosh x =
2
Substituting exponential series ex and e–x,
 x 2 x3   x 2 x3 
 1 + x + + + K +
  1 − x + − + K
2 ! 3 ! 2 ! 3!
cosh x =    
2
x2 x4
= 1 + + +KKK
2 ! 4!
(vii) Expansion of tanh x

Proof Expansion of tanh x can be obtained by dividing the series of sinh x and
cosh x.
sinh x
tanh x =
cosh x
x3 x5 x 7
x + + + +K
= 3! 5! 7 !
x2 x4 x6
1+ + + +K
2! 4! 6!
x3 2
= x − + x 5 − KKK
3 15
Note: This series can also be obtained by using Maclaurin’s series (refer tan-
gent series).
(viii) Expansion of log (1 + x) (Logarithmic series)
Proof Let y = log (1 + x), y (0) = log 1 = 0
Now, dn (n − 1)!
yn = n
[ log (1 + x)] = (−1) n −1 ⋅
dx ( x + 1) n
yn (0) = ( −1) n −1 ⋅ (n − 1)!
Putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …..
y1(0) = 1, y2 (0) = – 1, y3 (0) = 2! and so on
x 2 x3
log (1 + x) = x − + − KKK
2 3
This series is known as the logarithmic series and is valid for –1 < x < 1.
Note: In the above series, replacing x by −x, we get expansion of log (1 − x).
x 2 x3 x 4 x5
log (1 − x) = − x − − − − −K
2 3 4 5
(ix) Expansion of (1 + x)m (Binomial series)
Proof Let y = (1 + x) m , y (0) = (1 + 0) m = 1
Now, yn = m (m − 1) (m − 2)KKK (m − n + 1)(1 + x) m − n
yn (0) = m(m − 1)(m − 2)KKK (m − n + 1)
Putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …..
y1(0) = m, y2(0) = m (m − 1), y3(0) = m (m − 1) (m − 2) and so on

m(m − 1) 2 m(m − 1)(m − 2) 3
(1 + x) m = 1 + mx + x + x + KKK
2! 3!
This series is known as the binomial series and is valid for –1 < x < 1.
By Definition
example 1
Expand 5x up to the first three non-zero terms of the series.
Solution
x
Let f (x) = 5
By Maclaurin’s series,
x2
f ( x ) = f ( 0) + x f ′ ( 0) + f ′′ (0) + KKK ...(1)
2!
x
f (x) = 5 , f (0) = 50 = 1
x
f ¢(x) = 5 log 5, f ¢(0) = 50 log 5 = log 5
x
f ¢¢(x) = 5 (log 5)2, f ¢¢(0) = 50 (log 5)2 = (log 5)2
x2
5 x = 1 + x log 5 + (log 5) 2 + KKK
2!
x
Aliter: f (x) = 5x = e log 5 = e x log 5
( x log 5) 2
= 1 + x log 5 + + KKK [Using exponential
2! series]
example 2
 1+ x
Obtain the series log (1 + x) and find the series log 
 1 − x 
and hence,
find the value of loge   .
11
[Winter 2016]
 9
Solution
Let y = log (1 + x)
x2 x3 x4
y = y (0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + y4 (0) + KKK …(1)
2! 3! 4!
y = log(1 + x), y ( 0) = 0
1
y1 = , y1 (0) = 1
1+ x
1
y2 = − , y2 (0) = −1
(1 + x) 2
(2 !)
y3 = , y3 (0) = 2 !
(1 + x)3
(3!)
y4 = − , y4 (0) = − (3!)
(1 + x) 4

x 2 x3 x4
y =0+ x − + (2 !) − (3!) + KKK
2 ! 3! 4!
x 2 x3 x 4
log (1 + x) = x − + − + KKK
2 3 4
Replacing x by −x,
x 2 x3 x 4
log (1 − x) = − x − − − − KKK
2 3 4
1+ x
Now, log  = log (1 + x) − log (1 − x)
 1 − x 
 x3 x5 
= 2  x + + + K
 3 5 
1
Putting x = , and considering first three terms,
10
 11  1 1 1 1 1 
log e   = 2  + ⋅ 3
+ ⋅ 5 
= 0.20067
9 10 3 (10) 5 (10) 
example 3
x 26 3
If x3 + y 3 + xy − 1 = 0, prove that y = 1 − − x − L.
3 81
Solution
x2 x3
y = y (0) + xy1 (0) + y 2 ( 0) + y3 (0) + LL ...(1)
2! 3!
x3 + y3 + xy – 1 = 0 ...(2)
Putting x = 0, y (0) = 1
Differentiating Eq. (2) w.r.t. x,
3 x 2 + 3 y 2 y1 + xy1 + y = 0 ...(3)
1
Putting x = 0, y1 (0) = −
3
6x + 6yy12 + 3y 2y2 + 2y1 + xy2 = 0 ...(4)
Putting x = 0,
2
 1  1
6  −  + 3 y 2 ( 0) + 2  −  = 0
 3  3
y2 (0) = 0
6 + 6y13 + 12yy1y2 + 3y 2y3 + 6yy1 y2 + 3y2 + xy3 = 0
Putting x = 0,
 1
6 + 6  −  + 0 + 3 y3 (0) = 0
 27 
− 52
y3 (0) = and so on.
27
x x2 x 3  52 
y = 1−+ (0) +  −  + LL
3 2! 3!  27 
x 26 3
= 1− − x − LL
3 81
example 4
If x3 + 2xy2 – y3 + x – 1 = 0, expand y in ascending powers of x.
Solution
x2 ... (1)
y = y (0) + xy1 (0) +
y2 (0) + LL
2!
x3 + 2xy2 – y3 + x – 1 = 0 ...(2)
Putting x = 0, y(0) = – 1
3x2 + 2y2 + 4xyy1 – 3y2y1 + 1 = 0 … (3)
Putting x = 0,
2 – 3y1(0) + 1 = 0
y1(0) = 1
6x + 4yy1 + 4yy1 + 4xy12 + 4xyy2 – 6yy12 – 3y2y2 = 0

Putting x = 0,
–8 + 6 – 3y2(0) = 0
2 and so on.
y 2 ( 0) = −
3
x2  2 
y = −1+ x +  −  + LL
2!  3 
x2
= −1 + x − + LL
3
example 5
If x = y (1 + y2), prove that y = x – x3 + 3x5 + … .
Solution
x2 x3 x4 x5 ... (1)
y = y (0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + y4 (0) + y5 (0) + LL
2! 3! 4! 5!
x = y (1 + y2) .... (2)
Putting x = 0, y (0) = 0
1 = y1 + 3y2y1 … (3)
Putting x = 0,
1 = y1(0)
y1(0) = 1
0 = y2 + 6yy12 + 3y2y2 … (4)
Putting x = 0, y2(0) = 0,
0 = y3 + 12yy1 y2 + 6y13 + 6yy1 y2 + 3y2y3

0 = y3 (1 + 3y2) + 18yy1y2 + 6y13 … (5)

Putting x = 0,
0 = y3 (0) + 6
y3 (0) = −6

0 = (1 + 3y2) y4 + 6yy1y3 + 18y12 y2 + 18yy22 + 18yy1y3 + 18y12 y2
= (1 + 3y2) y4 + 24yy1y3 + 36y12 y2 + 18yy22 … (6)
Putting x = 0, y4 (0) = 0,
0 = (1 + 3y2) y5 + 6yy1y4 + 24y12 y3 + 24yy2y3 + 24yy1y4 + 72y1y22

+ 36y12y3 + 36yy2y3 + 18y1y22
Putting x = 0,
0 = y5 (0) + 24 (−6) + 36 (−6)
y5 (0) = 360 and so on.
x2 x3 x4 x5
y = 0 + x ⋅1 + ⋅ 0 + ( − 6) + ⋅0+ ⋅ 360 + LL
2! 3! 4! 5!
= x − x 3 + 3 x 5 + LL
By standard expansion
example 1
1 + x2
Obtain the expansion of .
1 + x4
Solution
1 + x2
= (1 + x 2 )(1 + x 4 ) −1
1 + x4
= (1 + x2) (1 − x 4 + x 8 − x12 + x16 − …)
= 1 + x 2 − x 4 − x6 + x 8 + x10 − …
example 2
y 2 y3 y 4
If x = y − + − + LL, prove that
2 3 4
x 2 x3 x 4
y = x + + + + LLL and conversely.
2 ! 3! 4 !
Solution
x = log(1 + y )
1 + y = ex
y = ex − 1
x 2 x3
= x+ + + LL
2 ! 3!
Conversely,
y = ex − 1
ex = 1 + y
x = log(1 + y )
y 2 y3 y 4
= y− + − + LL
2 3 4
example 3
Expand 1+ sin x .
Solution
x x
1 + sin x = sin + cos
2 2
 x 1  x 3   1 x
2
1 x
4

=  −   + L + 1 −   +   − L
 2 3!  2    2 !  2  4 2 
2 3 4
x x x x
= 1+ − − + −L
2 8 48 384
example 4
1 2
Prove that cos 2 x = 1 − x 2 + x 4 − x 6 +L .
3 45
Solution
1
cos 2 x = (1 + cos 2 x)
2
1 (2 x) 2 (2 x) 4 (2 x)6 
= 1 + 1 − + − + L
2 2! 4! 6! 
1 4 2 6
= 1 − x2 + x − x +L
3 45
example 5
x4 2 6
Show that sin 2 x = x 2 − + x +L .
3 45
Solution
1
sin 2 x = (1 − cos 2 x)
2
1 4 x 2 16 x 4 64 x 6 
=  1 − 1 + − + − L
2 2! 4! 6! 
x4 2 6
= x2 − + x −L
3 45
example 6
1 ∞ 32 n + 3 2 n
3
Prove that cos h x = ∑
4 n = 0 (2n)!
x .
Solution
1
cosh3 x = (cosh 3 x + 3 cosh x)
4
1  (3 x) 2 (3 x) 4   x2 x4 
=  1 + + + L  + 3 1 + + + L
4  2! 4!   2! 4! 
1 32 + 3 2 34 + 3 4 
=  (1 + 3) + x + x + L
4 2! 4! 
1 ∞
32 n + 3 2 n
=
4
∑
n = 0 ( 2n)!
x
example 7
2 8 6 32 10
Prove that sin x sin h x = x − x + x − ... .
6! 10 !
Solution
 x3 x5 x 7 x9  x3 x5 x 7 x9 
sin x sin h x =  x − + − + − ...  x + + + + + ...
 3! 5! 7 ! 9 !  3! 5! 7 ! 9! 
2 1  10  2 2 1 
= x2 + x6  − 2
+x  − + 2
+ ...
 5! (3!)   9 ! 7 !3! (5!) 
8 32 10
= x2 − x6 + x − ...
6! 10 !
example 8
22 x 4 22 x8
Prove that cos x cosh x = 1 − + −L .
4! 8!
Solution
 x 2 x 4 x 6 x8   x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 
cos x cosh x = 1 − + − + − L 1 + 2 ! + 4 ! + 6 ! + 8! + L
 2 ! 4 ! 6 ! 8! 
2 1  2 2 1 
= 1 + x4  − + x8  − + +L
2
 4 ! (2 !)   8 ! 6 ! 2 ! ( 4 !) 2 
22 x 4 22 x8
= 1− + −L
4! 8!
example 9
Expand sin x cosh x in ascending powers of x up to x5.
Solution
 x3 x5   x2 x4 
sin x cosh x =  x − + − L 1 + + + L
 3! 5!  2! 4! 
 x 2 x 4  x3  x 2 x 4  x5  x 2 x 4 
= x 1 + +  − 1 + + + L + 1 + + + L + L
 2 ! 4 !  3!  2! 4!  5!  2! 4! 
x3 x5 x3 x5 x5
= x+ + − − + +L
2 24 6 6.2 120
[Considering the terms only upp to x 5 ]
x3 x5
= x+ − +L
3 30
example 10
2 3
 x  1 x  1 x 
Prove that log x = log 2 +  − 1 −  − 1 +  − 1 + L.
2  22  3 2 
Solution
 x
log x = log  2 ⋅ 
 2
x
= log 2 + log
2
 x 
= log 2 + log 1 +  − 1 
 2 
2 3
x  1 x  1 x 
= log 2 +  − 1 −  − 1 +  − 1 − K
2  22  3 2 
example 11
Expand log (1 + x + x2 + x3) up to x8.
Solution
log (1 + x + x2 + x3) = log [(1 + x) (1 + x2)]

= log (1 + x) + log (1 + x2)
 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x8   ( x 2 ) 2 ( x 2 )3 ( x 2 ) 4 
=  x − + − + − + − + ... +  x 2 − + − + ...
 2 3 4 5 6 7 8   2 3 4 
2 3 5 6 7
x x 3 x x x 3
= x + + − x 4 + + + − x8 + ...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
example 12
x 2 x3 x 4
Prove that log (1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4) = x + + + −L .
2 3 4
Solution
 1 − x5 
log (1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4) = log   [Using sum of G.P.]
 1− x 
= log (1 − x 5 ) − log (1 − x)
 x10 x15 x 20   x 2 x3 x 4 
=  − x5 − − − − L −  − x − − − L
 2 3 4   2 3 4 
2 3 4
x x x
=x+ + + −L
2 3 4
example 13
x 2 x3 x 4
Prove that log(1 + sin x) = x − + − +L.
2 6 12
Solution
sin 2 x sin 3 x sin 4 x
log(1 + sin x) = sin x − + − +L
2 3 4
2 3 4
 x3  1 x3  1 x3  1 x3 
=  x − + L −  x − + L +  x − + L −  x − + L + L
 3 !  2  3 !  3  3!  4  3 ! 
x2  1 1  1 1
= x− + x3  − +  + x 4  −  + L
2  6 3  6 4
x 2 x3 x 4
= x− + − +L
2 6 12
example 14
x 2 2 x3
Prove that log(1 + tan x) = x − + +L .
2 3
Solution
tan 2 x tan 3 x
log(1 + tan x) = tan x − + −L
2 3
2
 x3  1 x3  1
=  x + + L −  x + + L + ( x + L)3 − L
 3  2 3  3
x2  1 1
= x− + x3  +  + L
2  3 3
x2 2 3
= x− + x −L
2 3
example 15
3
 tan x  x 7
Prove that log   = + x4 + L .
 x  3 90
Solution
 tan x  1  x3 2 5 
log   = log   x + + x + L 
 x  x 3 15 
 x2 2 
= log 1 + + x 4 + L
 3 15 
2
 x2 2  1  x2 2 
=  + x 4 + L −  + x 4 + L + L
 3 15  2  3 15 
x2  2 1
= + x4  −  + L
3  15 18 
x2 7 4
= + x +L
3 90
example 16
2
 sin h x x x4
Prove that log  = − + ... .
 x  6 180
Solution
 sinh x  1 
3
x x5 
log   = log   x + + + ... 
 x   
x 3 ! 5 ! 
 x2 x4 
= log 1 + + + ...
 3! 5! 
2
 x2 x4  1  x2 x4 
=  + L −  + + L + LL
 3! 5!  2  3! 5! 
 1 1
= x2 + x4  − +L
 120 72 
x2 x4
= − + LL
6 180
example 17
x2 7 4
Prove that log( x cot x) = − − x +L .
3 90
Solution
 1 
log( x cot x) = − log 
 x cot x 
 tan x 
= − log  
 x 
 x2 2 
= − log  1 + + x 4 + ... 
 3 15 
 x 2 2  1  x2 2 
2

= −  + x 4 + ....  −  + x 4 + ...  + ...
 3 15  2  3 15  
x 2
 2 1 
= −  + x 4  −  + ...
3  15 18  
x2 7 4
=− − x + ...
3 90
example 18
2
Expand [ log(1 + x) ] in ascending powers of x.
Solution
[log(1 + x)]2 = [log(1 + x)] ⋅ [log(1 + x)]
 x 2 x3 x 4  x 2 x3 x 4 
=  x − + − + L  x − + − + L
 2 3 4  2 3 4 
 x 2 x3 x 4  x2  x 2 x3 
= x  x − + − + L −  x − + − L
 2 3 4  2  2 3 
x3  x2  x4
+  x − 2 + L − 4 ( x − L)
3
y up to x5 ]
[Considering the terms only
x3 x 4 x5 x3 x 4 x5 x 4 x5 x5
= x2 − + − − + − + − − +L
2 3 4 2 4 6 3 6 4
11 10
= x 2 − x 3 + x 4 − x 5 +L
12 12
example 19
 1 + e2 x  x2 x4 x6
Prove that log  = log 2 + − + −L.
 e x  2 12 45
Solution
 1 + e2 x 
log  x  = log (e − x + e x )
 e 
= log (2 cosh x)
= log 2 + log cosh x
 x2 x4 x6 
= log 2 + log 1 + + + + ... 
 2! 4! 6! 
2 3
 x2 x4 x6  1  x2 x4  1  x2 
= log 2 +  + + + ...  −  + + ...  +  + ...  + ...
 2! 4! 6!  2  2! 4!  3  2! 
 x2 x4 x6  1  x4 x6  1  x6 
= log 2 +  + + + ...  −  + 2 ⋅ + ...  +  + ...  + ...
 2! 4! 6!  2 4 48  3 8 
2
x  1 1  1 1 1 
= log 2 + + x 4  −  + x 6  − +  + ...
2  24 8   720 48 24 
x2 x4 x6
= log 2 + − + − ...
2 12 45
example 20
 xe x 
Expand log  x  in ascending powers of x up to the terms in x4.
 e − 1
Solution
 xe x   e x − 1
log  x  = − log 
 e − 1  xe x 
 1 − e− x 
= − log 
 x 
 1   x 2 x3 x 4 x5   
= − log  1 − 1 − x + − + − + L  
 x   2 ! 3! 4 ! 5 !   
1  x 2 x3 x 4 x5 
= − log   x − + − + + L 
x 2 6 24 120 
  x x 2 x3 x 4 
= − log 1 −  − + − + L 
  2 6 24 120 
2 3
  x x 2 x3 x 4  1 x x
2
x3  1  x x2 
= − −  − + − + L −  − + − L −  − + L

 2 6 24 120  2  2 6 24  3 2 6 
1x 
4

−  − L − L [Considering the terms onnly up to x 4 ]
42  
 x x 2 x3 x 4  1  x2 x4  x   x2   x  x 
3

= − + − + L +  + +2    −  + 2     + L
 2 6 24 120  2  4 36  2   6   2   24  
1  x3  1 x4
2
 x  x 
2
+  + 3    −  + L + ⋅ + L
3  8  2  6   4 16
x x 2 x3 x 4 x 2 x 4 x3 x 4 x3 x 4 x 4
= − + − + + − + + − + +L
2 6 24 120 8 72 12 48 24 24 64
x x2 x4
= − + +L
2 24 2880
example 21
x x2 x4
Prove that log(1 + e x ) = log 2 + + − +L .
2 8 192
Solution
 x 2 x3 x 4 
log (1 + e x ) = log 1 + 1 + x + + + + L
 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 
  x x 2 x3 x 4 
= log  2 1 + + + + + ...  
  2 4 12 48 
 x x 2 x3 x 4 
= log 2 + log  1 + + + + + ... 
 2 4 12 48 
2 3
 x x 2 x3 x 4  1  x x 2 x3  1  x x2 
= log 2 +  + + + + ... −  + + + ... +  + + ...
 2 4 12 48  2  2 4 12  3 2 4 
4
1x 
−  + ... + ...
42 
 x  1 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1
= log 2 +   + x 2  −  + x 3  − +  + x 4  − − + −  + ...
 2  4 8  12 8 24   48 32 24 16 64 
x x2  1  4
= log 2 + + +0+− x + ...
2 8  192 
x x2 x4
= log 2 + + − + ...
2 8 192
example 22
 1
 x 5 x 2 x 3 251 4
Prove that log log (1 + x)  = − +
x
− + x + ... .
  2 24 8 2880
Solution
1
1
log (1 + x) x = log (1 + x)
x
1 x 2 x3 x 4 x5 
=  x − + − + − L
x 2 3 4 5 
x x 2 x3 x 4
=1− + − + −L
2 3 4 5
 x x 2 x3 x 4 
=1−  − + − + L
 2 3 4 5 
= 1− y
 1

Now, log log (1 + x) x  = log (1 − y )
 
y 2 y3 y 4
= −y − − − − ...
2 3 4
2
 x x 2 x3 x 4  1  x x 2 x3 
=− − + − + ...  − ⋅  − + − ... 
2 3 4 5  2 2 3 4 
3 4
1  x x2  1  x x2 
−  − − ...  −  − + ...  − ...
32 3  4 2 3 
x  1 1   1 1 1   1 1 1 1 1 
= − + x 2  −  − x 3  − +  + x 4  − − + −  + ...
2 3 8  4 6 24   5 18 8 12 64 
x 5 x 2 x 3 251 4
=− + − + x + ...
2 24 8 2880
example 23
1
 1+ ex  2
Expand   up to the term containing x2.
2e x 
Solution
1 1
 1 + ex  2  1 − x 1  2
 x 
= e + 
 2e  2 2
1
1  x2  1 2
=  1 − x + − L + 
 
2 2 !  2
1
 1 x2 2
= 1 − x + −L 
 2 4 
1
  x x2  2
= 1 −  − + L
 2 4 
11 
−1
 2  2 
2
1  x x2  x x2 
= 1−  − + L +  − + L − L
22 4  2! 2 4 
2 2
x x 1 x
= 1− + − ⋅ +L
4 8 8 4
x 3 2
= 1− + x +L
4 32
example 24
Expand ecos x up to x4.
Solution
y = ecos x
 x2 x4 
1− + −L
 2! 4! 
=e
 x2 x4 
 − + −L
 2! 4! 
=ee
  x2 x4  1  x2 
2

= e 1 +  − + − L +  − + L + L
  2 ! 4 !  2!  2!  
 x2 x4 x4 
= e 1 − + + + L
 2 ! 24 8 
 x2 x4 
= e 1 − + − L
 2! 6 
example 25
x x3 x 4
Prove that e cos x = 1 + x − − + L .
3 6
Solution
 x 2 x3 x 4   x2 x4 
e x cos x = 1 + x + + + + L 1 − + − L
 2 ! 3! 4 !  2! 4! 
 x2 x4   x2 x4  x2  x2 x4 
= 1 1 − + + L + x 1 − + + L + 1 − + + L
 2! 4!   2! 4!  2!  2! 4! 
x3  x 2 x 4  x4  x2 x4 
+  1 − + − L + 1 − + + L + L
3!  2! 4!  4!  2! 4! 
x2 x4 x3 x 2 x 4 x3 x 4
= 1− + +x− + − + + +L
2 24 2 2 4 6 24
[Considering the terms only up to x 4 ]
x3 x 4
= 1+ x − − +L
3 6
example 26
x cos x x 2 x3 11 4 x5
Prove that e = 1+ x + − − x − +L.
2 3 24 5
Solution
 x2 x4 
x 1− + −L
 2! 4! 
e x cos x = e
2 3
 x3 x5  1 x3  1 x3 
= 1 +  x − + − ...  +  x − + ...  +  x − + .... 
 2! 4!  2!  2!  3!  2! 
4 5
1 x3  1 x3 
+  x − − ...  +  x − − ... 
4!  2!  5!  2! 
 1 1  1 1   1 1 1 
2
x
= 1 + x + + x3  − +  + x 4  − +  + x5  − +  + ...
2  2 6  2 24   24 4 120 
x 2 x 3 11 4 x 5
= 1+ x + − − x − + ...
2 3 24 5
example 27
x sin x x4 x6
2
Prove that e = 1+ x + + +L .
3 120
Solution
 ( x sin x) 2 ( x sin x)3 
e x sin x = 1 + x sin x + + + L
 2 ! 3 ! 
2 3
 x3 x5  x2  x3 x5  x3  x3 x5 
= 1 + x  x − + − L +  x − + − L +  x − + − L + L
 3! 5!  2!  3! 5!  3!  3! 5! 
 1 1  1 1 1
= 1 + x2 + x4  − +  + x6  − + +L
 6 2  120 6 6 
x4 x6
= 1 + x2 + + +L
3 120
example 28
 5 x3 
Prove that e = e 1 + x + x + + L .
ex 2
 6 
Solution
 x 2 x3 
1 + x + + + L
ex  2 ! 3! 
e =e
x2 x3
x+ + +L
= ee 2! 3!
  x 2 x3  1  x2 
2
1 
= e 1 +  x + + + L +  x + + L + ( x + K )3 + L
  2! 3!  2!  2!  3! 
  1 1  1 1 1 
= e 1 + x + x 2  +  + x 3  + +  + L
  2 2   6 2 6  
 5 
= e 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + L
 6 
example 29
Expand (1 + x)x in a series up to the term in x4.
Solution
(1 + x) x = elog(1+ x )
x
= e x log(1+ x )
 x 2 x3 
x  x − + −L
 2 3 
=e
 2 x3 x 4 
 x − + −L
 2 3 
=e
2
 x3 x 4  1 x3 x 4 
= 1 +  x2 − + − L +  x 2 − + − L + L
 2 3  2 ! 2 3 
 x3 x 4  1
= 1 +  x2 − +
 2 3  2
( )
− L + x 4 + L + L
y up to x 4 ]
[Considering the terms only
x3 5
= 1 + x 2 − + x 4 +L
2 6
example 30
1
e 11e 2
Prove that (1 + x) x = e − x+ x + LL .
2 24
Solution
1 1
log (1+ x )
(1 + x) x = e x
1  x 2 x3 
 x − + −... 
x  2 3
=e 
 x x2 
1− + −... 
 2 3
=e 
 x x 2 x3 x 4 
 − + − + −... 
 2 3 4 5
= ee 
  x x 2 x3 x 4  1  x x 2 x3 
2

= e 1 +  − + − + − L +  − + − + L  + L
  2 3 4 5  2!  2 3 4  
 x 1 1 
= e 1 − + x 2  +  + L
 2 3 8 
e 11e 2
=e− x+ x +L
2 24
example 31
Expand (1 + x)(1 + x) up to the term containing x3.
Solution
(1+ x )
(1 + x)(1+ x ) = elog (1+ x )
= e(1+ x )log(1+ x )
 x 2 x3 
(1+ x )  x − + −L
 2 3 
=e
 x 2 x3 2 x3 
 x − + + x − +L
 2 3 2 
=e o x3 ]
[Considering the terms only up to
 x 2 x3 
 x + − +L
 2 6 
=e
2
 x 2 x3  1 x2  1
= 1+  x + − + L +  x + − L + ( x + L)3 + L
 2 6  2!  2  3!
[Considerring the terms only up to x 3 ]
 x 2 x3  1 x2  1
= 1+  x +
 2
− + L +  x 2 + 2 ⋅ x ⋅ + L + x 3 + L + L
6  2 2  6
( )
x3
= 1 + x + x2 + +L
2
example 32
xx2 5 4
Prove that sin(e − 1) = x + − x +L.
2 24
Solution
 x 2 x3 x 4 
sin (e x − 1) = sin  x + + + + L
 2 ! 3! 4 ! 
3
 x 2 x3 x 4  1  x 2 x3 
=x + + + + L −  x + + + L + L
 2 ! 3! 4 !  3!  2 ! 3! 
2
x  1 1   1 1 
=x+ + x3  −  + x 4  −  +L
2 6 6  24 4 
x2 5 4
=x+ − x +L
2 24
example 33
x2 7 4
Prove that x cosec x = 1 + + x +L
6 360
Solution
x
x cosec x =
sin x
x
=
 x3
x5 
 x − 3! + 5! − L
1
=
 x 2
x4 
 1 − + − L
6 120 
−1
  x2 x4 
= 1 −  − − L 
  6 120 
  x2 x4   x3 
2

= 1 +  − − L +  − L + L
  6 120   6  
[ Using (1 − x) −1 = 1 + x + x 2 + L]
 x2 x4   x4 
= 1+  − − L +  − L + L
 6 120   36 
[Considering the terms only up to x 4 ]
x2  1 1
= 1+ +− +  x4 + L
6  120 36 
x2 7 4
= 1+ + x
6 360
example 34
x
Expand x
up to x4 and hence, prove that
e −1
x ex + 1 x2 x4
= 1 + − +L.
2 ex − 1 12 720
Solution
x x
=
e x − 1  x 2
x 3
x 4 x5  
 1 + x + + + + + ... − 1
 2 ! 3! 4 ! 5 !  
x
=
 x 2
x 3
x 4 x5 
x+ + + + + L
 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 
−1
  x x 2 x3 x 4 
= 1 +  + + + + L
  2 ! 3! 4 ! 5 ! 
2
 x x 2 x3 x4   x x 2 x3 
=1−  + + + + L +  + + + L
 2 6 24 120   2 6 24 
3 4
 x x2  x 
− + + L +  + L
 2 6   2 
x  1 1  1 1 1
= 1 − + x 2  − +  + x3  − + − 
2  6 4  24 6 8 
 1 1 1 1 1
+ x4  − + + − +  +L
 120 36 24 8 16 
x x2 x4 ...(1)
=1−+ + x 3 ( 0) − +L
2 12 720
x ex + 1 x  2 
= 1 + x 
2 e −1 2 
x
e − 1
x x
= + x
2 e −1
x x x2 x4 [Using Eq. (1)]
= +1− + − +L
2 2 12 720
x2 x4
=1+ − +L
12 720
example 35
Prove that
Ê x sin q ˆ x2 x3
tan -1 Á = + + sin 3q + L .
Ë 1 - x cos q ˜¯
x sin q sin 2q
2 3
Solution
 x sin θ 
y = tan −1 
Let  1 − x cos θ 
x sin θ
tan y =
1 − x cos θ
eiy − e − iy x sin θ
=
i (eiy + e − iy ) 1 − x cos θ
eiy − e − iy ix sin θ
=
eiy + e − iy 1 − x cos θ
Applying componendo–dividendo,
eiy 1 − x(cos θ − i sin θ )
=
e − iy 1 − x(cos θ + i sin θ )
1 − xe − iθ
e 2iy =
1 − xeiθ
2iy = log(1 − xe − iθ ) − log(1 − xeiθ )
 x 2 e −2iθ x 3 e −3iθ   x 2 e 2iθ x 3 e3iθ 

=  − xe − iθ − − − ... −  − xeiθ − − − ...
 2 3   2 3 
x 2 2iθ x3
= x(eiθ − e − iθ ) + (e − e −2iθ ) + (e3iθ − e −3iθ ) + ...
2 3
x2 x3
= x ⋅ 2i sin θ + ⋅ 2i sin 2θ + ⋅ 2i sin 3θ + ...
2 3
x2 x3
y = x sin θ + sin 2θ + sin 3θ + ...
2 3
example 36
ax (a 2 − b 2 ) 2 a(a 2 − 3b 2 ) 3
Prove that e cos bx = 1 + ax + x + x +L
2! ∞ n 3!
x
and hence, deduce e x cos α cos( x sin α ) = ∑ cos nα .
n=0 n !
Solution
e ax cos bx = e ax ◊ Real Part of (eibx)
= RP of e(a+ib)x
 (a + ib) 2 2 (a + ib)3 3 
= RP of 1 + (a + ib) x + x + x + L
 2! 3! 
 (a 2 − b 2 + 2aib) 2 (a 3 − ib3 + 3ia 2 b − 3ab 2 ) 3 
= RP of 1 + (a + ib) x + x + x + ...
 2! 3! 
(a − b ) 2 a (a − 3b ) 3
2 2 2 2
= 1 + ax + x + x + ...
2! 3!
Putting a = cos a and b = sin a,
(cos 2 α − sin 2 α ) 2 cos3 α − 3 cos α ⋅ sin 2 α 3

e x cos α cos ( x sin α ) = 1 + x cos α + x + x + ...
2! 3!
cos 2α 2 cos3 α − 3 cos α (1 − cos 2 α ) 3

= 1 + x cos α + x + x + ...
2! 3!
x2 x3
= 1 + x cos α + cos 2α + cos 3α + ....
2! 3!
∞
xn
=∑ cos nα
n=0 n!
example 37
1 1 7
Prove that e x = 1 + tan x + tan 2 x − tan 3 x − tan 4 x + L .
2! 3! 4!
Solution
Let e x = a0 + a1 tan x + a2 tan 2 x + a3 tan 3 x + a4 tan 4 x + LLL ... (1)

2 3 4
 x3   x3   x3   x3 
= a0 + a1  x + + ...  + a2  x + + ...  + a3  x + + ...  + a4  x + + ...  + ........
 3   3   3   3 
 x3   2x4 
= a0 + a1  x + + ...  + a2  x 2 + + ...  + a3 ( x 3 + ...) + a4 ( x 4 + ...) + ..........
 3   3 
a  2 
= a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 +  1 + a3  x 3 +  a2 + a4  x 4 + .......... ...(2)
 3   3 
x 2 x3 x 4
But ex = 1 + x + + + + ...... ...(3)
2 ! 3! 4 !
x 2 x3 x 4 a  2 
1+ x + + + + ..... = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 +  1 + a3  x 3 +  a2 + a4  x 4 + .......
2 ! 3! 4 !  3   3 
Comparing coefficients of x, x2, x3 and x4 on both the sides,
1 1 a1 1 1
a0 = 1, a1 = 1, a2 = = , + a3 = =
2! 2 3 3! 6
1 a1 1 1 1 1
a3 = − = − =− =−
6 3 6 3 6 3!
2 1 1 1 2 1 7 7
a2 + a4 = = , a4 = − ⋅ =− =−
3 4 ! 24 24 3 2 24 4!
1 1 7
e x = 1 + tan x + tan 2 x − tan 3 x − tan 4 x + ...
2! 3! 4!
example 38
Find the values of a and b such that the expansion of
x(1 + ax)
log(1 + x) − in ascending powers of x begins with the term x4
1 + bx
x4
and prove that this term is − .
36
Solution
x(1 + ax)
Let f ( x) = log(1 + x) −
1 + bx
 x 2 x3 x 4 
= x− + − + L − ( x + ax 2 )(1 + bx) −1
 2 3 4 
 x 2 x3 x 4 
= x− + − + L − ( x + ax 2 )(1 − bx + b 2 x 2 − b3 x3 + L)
 2 3 4 
 x 2 x3 x 4 
= x− + − + L − ( x − bx 2 + b 2 x 3 − b3 x 4 + ax 2 − abx 3 + ab 2 x 4 − ab3 x 5 + LL)
 2 3 4 
 1  1   1 
=  − + b − a x 2 +  − b 2 + ab x 3 +  − + b3 − ab 2  x 4 + LL
 2  3   4 
If the expansion begins with the term x4, the coefficients of x2 and x3 must be zero.
1 1 1
− + b − a = 0, b =a+ and − b 2 + ab = 0 ... (1)
2 2 3
Substituting b in Eq. (1),
2
1  1  1
−a +  + aa +  = 0
3  2  2
1 1 1
− a2 − − a + a2 + a = 0
3 4 2
1 1 1
a= , a=
2 12 6
1 1 4 2
b= + = =
6 2 6 3
3 2
1 1 2 12 1
Coefficient of x = − + b3 − ab 2 = − +   −   = −
4
4 4 3 63 36
x4
Hence, the expansion begins with the term − .
36
exercIse 6.2
1. Expand ex sec x in powers of x using Maclaurin’s series.
[ans.: 1 + x + x2 + ...]
x2
2. Using Maclaurin’s series, prove that e sin x = 1 + x + +L
2
x2
3. Using Maclaurin’s series, prove that a x = 1 + x log a + (log a)2 + L
2!
2 2 x4 2 6
4. Prove that sin x = x − + x +L
3 45
x 2 5x 4
5. Prove that sec x = 1 + + +L
2 24
 1   x2 x4  
−1
Hint : sec x = −1
= (cos x) = 1 −  − + K  
 cos x   2! 4 !  
 
3
x
6. Prove that e x sin2 x = 2 x + 2 x 2 − +L
3
x3
7. Prove that e x cos x = 1 + x − +L
3
22 x 4 2 4 x 8
8. Prove that cos x cosh x = 1 − + −L
4! 8!
x x2 5 4
9. Prove that sin (e − 1) = x + − x +L
2 24
x2 x4
10. Prove that cosn x = 1 − n ⋅ + n(3n − 2) ⋅ −L
2! 4!
3x 2 15x 4
Hence, deduce that cos3 x = 1 − + −L
2 48
(3n − 3) − [1 − (−1)n ]x n
3
11. Prove that sinh x = ∑ 8 ⋅ n!
.
x sin x x4 x6
12. Prove that e = 1+ x 2 ++ + LLL
3 120
1 1
13. Prove that log x = (x − 1) − (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 + L
2 3
2 x 2 2x 3
14. Prove that log(1 − x + x ) = − x + + − ...
2 3
1 2 1 4 1 6
15. Prove that log cosh x = x − x + x −K
2 12 45
x 2 2x 3
16. Prove that log(1 + tan x) = x − + + LLL
2 3
 sin x   x2 x4 x6 
17. Prove that log   = − + + + L
 x   6 180 2835 
 tan x  x 3 7 4
18. Prove that log   = + x + LLL
x 3 90
x2 x3
19. Prove that e x log(1 + x) = x + + +L
2 3
π 
20. Expand log tan  + x  upto x 5 .
4 
 p   1 + tan x  
Hint : log tan  + x  = log  = log(1 + tan x) − log(1 − tan x)
 4 1 − tan x  
 4 3 4 5 
 Ans.: 2 x + 3 x + 3 x + K
 
y2 y3 y4 x2 x3 x4
21. Prove that x = y + + + + L if y = x − + − +L
2 ! 3! 4 ! 2 3 4
By Differentiation and Integration
example 1
x2 x4 x6
Prove that log(sec x) = + + +L. [Summer 2017]
2 12 45
Solution
Let y = log (sec x)
dy 1
= ⋅ sec x tan x
dx sec x
= tan x
x3 2
= x + + x 5 + LLL ... (1)
3 15
Integrating Eq. (1),
x2 x4 2 x6
y = c+ + + ⋅ + ........
2 12 15 6
x2 x4 x6
log (sec x) = c + + + + .........
2 12 45
Putting x = 0,
log (sec 0) = c + 0
c = log 1, c = 0
Hence, x2 x4 x6
log(sec x) = + + + LLL
2 12 45
example 2
1 x3 1◊ 3 x5 1◊ 3 ◊ 5
Prove that sin -1 x = x + + + + L.
2 3 2 ◊ 4 5 2 ◊ 4 ◊6
Solution
Let y = sin–1 x
dy 1
=
dx 1 − x2
1
−
= (1 − x 2 ) 2
 1  3  1  3  5
 −  −   −   −   − 
1  2  2 2 2 2
= 1 + x2 + (− x 2 )2 + ( − x 2 )3 + K
2 2! 3!
x 2 1⋅ 3 4 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 6
= 1+ + x + x +K
2 2⋅4 2⋅ 4⋅6
... (1)
1 x 3 1⋅ 3 x 5 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x7
y = c+ x+ + + + ........
2 3 2⋅ 4 5 2⋅ 4⋅6 7
1 x 3 1⋅ 3 x 5 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x7
sin −1 x = c + x + + + + ........
2 3 2⋅ 4 5 2⋅ 4⋅6 7
Putting x = 0,
sin −1 0 = c
c=0
1 x 3 1⋅ 3 x 5 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x 7
Hence, sin −1 x = x + + + + LLL
2 3 2⋅ 4 5 2⋅ 4⋅6 7
example 3
−1 π  1 x3 1.3 x5 
Prove that cos x = −x + + + L .
2  2 3 2.4 5 
Solution
Let y = cos–1 x
dy 1
=−
dx 1 − x2
Proceeding as in Example 2,
 1 x3 1.3 x5 
cos −1 x = c −  x + + + K
 2 3 2.4 5 
Putting x = 0,
cos −1 0 = c
π
c=
2
π  1 x 3 1.3 x 5 
Hence, cos −1 x = − x + + + L
2  2 3 2.4 5 
example 4
x3 x5 x 7
Prove that tan −1 x = x − + − + L.
3 5 7
Solution
Let y = tan–1 x
dy 1
= = (1 + x 2 ) −1 = 1 − x 2 + x 4 − x 6 + K ... (1)
dx 1 + x 2
x3 x5 x 7
y = c+ x− + − +K
3 5 7
3 5 7
x x x
tan −1 x = c + x − + − + ........
3 5 7
Putting x = 0,
tan −1 0 = c
c=0
x3 x5 x 7
Hence, tan −1 x = x − + − +K
3 5 7
example 5
x3 3x5
Prove that sinh −1 x = x − + + L.
6 40
Solution
Let (
y = sin h −1 x = log x + x 2 + 1 )
dy 1  2x 
= 1+
dx x + x + 1  2 x 2 + 1 
2 
1
=
x2 + 1
1
−
= (1 + x 2 ) 2
 1 3
−  − 
= 1 − x2 + 
1 2 2 2 2
(x ) − K
2 2!
1 3 ... (1)
= 1 − x2 + x4 − K
2 8

x3 3 x5
y = c+ x− + ⋅ −K
6 8 5
x3 3x5
sinh −1 x = c + x − + −K
6 40
Putting x = 0,
sinh −1 0 = c, c = 0
x3 3x5
sinh −1 x = x − + −K
6 40
example 6
x3 x5
Prove that tanh −1 x = x + + + L.
3 5
Solution
1 (1 + x) 1
Let y = tanh −1 x = log = [log(1 + x) − log(1 − x)]
2 (1 − x) 2
dy 1
=
dx 1 − x 2
= (1 − x 2 ) −1
= 1 + x2 + x4 + x6 + L ...(1)
x3 x5
y = c+ x+ + +L
3 5
x3 x5
tanh −1 x = c + x + + + L
3 5
Putting x = 0,
tanh −1 0 = c, c = 0
x3 x5
Hence, tanh −1 x = x + + +L
3 5
example 7
y2 y4 y6
If x = 1 – + − + ........, find y in a series of x.
2! 4! 6!
Solution
y 2 y 4 y6
x =1- + - + ºº
2! 4! 6!
= cos y
y = cos –1 x
Proceeding as in Example 3,
π  x3 3x5 
y= − x + + + K
2  6 40 
example 8
−1 1− x π 1  x3 3x5 
Show that tan = − x+ + + L
1+ x 4 2  6 40 
Solution
1− x
Let y = tan −1
1+ x
Putting x = cos 2θ ,
1 − cos 2θ
y = tan −1
1 + cos 2θ
2 sin 2 θ
= tan −1
2 cos 2 θ
= tan −1 tan θ
=θ
1
= cos −1 x
2
1 π  x3 3x5 
=  −x+ + + L 
22  6 40 
By substitution
example 1
Expand sin −1 (3 x − 4 x3 ) in ascending powers of x.
Solution
Let y = sin −1 (3 x − 4 x 3 )
Putting x = sin q,
y = sin −1 (3 sin θ − 4 sin 3 θ )
= sin −1 (sin 3θ )
= 3θ
= 3 sin −1 x
 1 x 3 1⋅ 3 x 5 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x 7 
= 3 x + ⋅ + + + L
 2 3 2⋅ 4 5 2⋅ 4⋅6 7 
example 2
 x3 3 5 
Prove that sinh (3x + 4x ) = 3  x −
–1 3 + x + L .
 6 40 
Solution
y = sinh −1 (3 x + 4 x 3 )
Let
Putting x = sinh q,
y = sinh −1 (3 sinh q + 4 sinh 3 q )
= sinh −1 (sinh 3q )
= 3q
= 3 sinh −1 x
 x3 3x5 
= 3 x − + − K
 6 40 
example 3
−1  2 x   x3 x5 x 7 
Prove that sin  1 + x 2  = 2  x − + − + L .
3 5 7 
Solution
 2x 
y = sin −1 
 1 + x 2 
Let
Putting x = tan θ ,
 2 tan q 
y = sin −1  
 1 + tan q 
2
= sin −1 (sin 2q )
= 2q
= 2 tan −1 x
 x3 x5 x 7 
= 2  x − + − +K
 3 5 7 
example 4
−1  1 
Expand sec  .
1 − 2x 2 
Solution
Ê 1 ˆ
y = sec -1 Á
Let Ë 1 - 2 x 2 ˜¯
Putting x = sin θ ,
Ê 1 ˆ
y = sec -1 Á
Ë 1 - 2 sin 2 q ˜¯
Ê 1 ˆ
= sec -1 Á
Ë cos 2q ˜¯
= sec -1 (sec 2q )
= 2q
= 2 sin -1 x
Ê x3 3x5 ˆ
= 2Á x + + + K˜
Ë 6 40 ¯
example 5
−1
−1  x − x   x3 x5 x 7 
Prove that cos  −1 
= π − 2  nπ + x − + − + … .
 x+ x  3 5 7 
Solution
 x − x −1  −1  x − 1
2
Let y = cos −1  = cos  2 
 x + x −1  x +1
Putting x = tan q,
 tan 2 θ − 1
y = cos −1 
 tan 2 θ + 1
= cos −1 ( − cos 2θ )
= cos −1[ − cos (2nπ + 2θ )]
[Considering general value of cos 2θ ]
−1
= cos [cos{π − (2nπ + 2θ )}]
= π − 2 (nπ + θ )
= π − 2 (nπ + tan −1 x)
 x3 x5 x 7 
= π − 2  nπ + x − + − + K
 3 5 7 
example 6
−1  x3 x5 
Prove that cos [tanh (log x)] = p − 2  x − + − K .
 3 5 
Solution
Let y = cos −1[tanh (log x)]
 elog x − e − log x 
= cos −1  log x 
 e + e − log x 
 x − x −1 
= cos −1  
 x + x −1 
 x2 − 1 
= cos −1  2 
 x +1
Putting x = tan q,
 tan 2 q − 1
y = cos −1 
 tan 2 q + 1
= cos −1 ( − cos 2q )
= cos −1 [cos (p − 2q )]
= p − 2q
= p − 2 tan −1 x
 x3 x5 
= p − 2  x − + − K
 3 5 
example 7
−1
 1 + x 2 − 1 1  x3 x5 
Prove that tan   =  x − + − ... . [Winter 2013]
 x  2 3 5
Solution
 
y = tan −1  1 + x − 1
2
Let
 x 
Putting x = tan q,
Ê 2 ˆ
y = tan -1 Á 1 + tan q - 1˜
Ë tan q ¯
Ê sec q - 1ˆ
= tan -1 Á
Ë tan q ˜¯
Ê 1 - cos q ˆ
= tan -1 Á
Ë sin q ˜¯
Ê q ˆ
2 sin 2
Á 2 ˜
= tan -1 Á
q q˜
Á 2 sin cos ˜
Ë 2 2¯
Ê qˆ
= tan -1 Á tan ˜
Ë 2¯
q
=
2
1
= tan -1 x
2
1Ê x3 x5 ˆ
= Áx- + -º˜
2 Ë 3 5 ¯
example 8
 p − qx  −1 p  x3 x5 x 7 
Prove that tan −1  = tan −  − + − +  .
 q + px 
x
q 
K
3 5 7
Solution
 p 
−x
−1
 q 
Let y = tan  
1+ p x
 q 
p
Putting x = tan q , = tan A
q
 tan A − tan θ 
y = tan −1 
 1 + tan A ⋅ tan θ 
= tan −1[tan ( A − θ )]
= A −θ
p
= tan −1 − tan −1 x
q
p  x3 x5 x7 
= tan −1 −  x − + − + K
q  3 5 7 
exercIse 6.3
tan−1x 4 23 5
1. Prove that 2
= x − x3 + x − K. .
1+ x 3 15
 2x   x3 x5 
2. Prove that tan−1  = 2 x − + − K .
 1 − x 2   3 5 
 3x − x 3   x3 x5 
3. Prove that tan−1  2  = 3 x − + − K .
 1 − 3x   3 5 
 3x − x 3  p  x3 x5 
4. Prove that cot−1  2 
= − 3 x − + − K .
 1 − 3x  2  3 5 
 x  1 3 5
5. Prove that tan−1  = x + x3 + x + K. .
 1 − x 2  6 40
 1− x  p  x3 x5 x7 
6. Prove that tan−1   = − x − + − + K .
 1+ x  4  3 5 7 
 1− x  p 1  x 3 3 x5 
7. Prove that tan−1   = −  x + + + K .
 1+ x  4 2 6 40 
p −  x − x + x − K .
3 5
8. Prove that cot −1 x =  

2 3 5
p  x3 3 5 
9. Prove that cos–1(4x3 – 3x) = 3  −  x + + x + K  .
 2  6 40 
3 5
10. Prove that sec −1 ( 1 + x ) = x − x3 + x5 − K. .
2
 2 − 3x  2  x3 x5 
11. Prove that tan−1   = tan−1 −  x − + − K .
 3 + 2x  3  3 5 
Points to remember
Taylor’s Series
h2 h3 hn n
(i) f (x + h) = f (x) + h f ¢(x) + f ≤(x) + f ≤¢(x) + … + f (x) + …
2! 3! n!
( x - a )2 ( x - a)3
(ii) f (x) = f (a) + (x – a) f ¢(a) + f ≤(a) + f ≤¢(a)
2! 3!
( x - a )n n
+…+ f (a) + …
n!
Maclaurin’s Series
x2 x3 xn n
f (x) = f (0) + xf ¢(0) + f ≤(0) + f ≤¢ (0) + … + f (0) + …
2! 3! n!
List of Expansion of Some Standard Functions
x x2 x3
(i) ex = 1 + + + +…
1! 2! 3!
x3 x5 x7
(ii) sin x = x – + – +…
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
(iii) cos x = 1 – + – +…
2! 4! 6!
x3 2 x5
(iv) tan x = x + + +…
3 15
x3 x5 x7
(v) sinh x = x + + + +…
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
(vi) cosh x = 1 + + + +…
2! 4! 6!
x3 2 x5
(vii) tanh x = x – + –…
3 15
x2 x3 x 4
(viii) log (1 + x) = x – + – …
2 3 4
m (m -1) 2
(ix) (1 + x)m = 1 + mx + x +…
2!
Multiple choice Questions

1. The expansion of log (1 + x) in Maclaurin’s series is
x2 x3 x 4 x2 x3 x 4
(a) x - + - +L (b) x + + + +L
2 3 4 2 3 4
x2 x3 x 4 x2 x3 x 4
(c) x+ + + +L (d) x - + - +L
2 3! 4! 2 3! 4!
2. The expansion of tan x in Maclaurin’s series is
x3 x5 x3 2 5
(a) x + + +L (b) x - + x -L
2! 3! 3 15
x3 x5 x3 2 5
(c) x- + -L (d) x + + x +L
3! 5! 3 15
3. The Maclaurin’s series of sin x is
x3 x5 5 x2 x4
(a) x- + x -L (b) 1 + + +L
3! 5! 2! 4!
x2 x4 x3 x5
(c) 1 - + +L (d) x - + +L
2! 4! 3! 5!
4. The nth term in Maclaurin’s series expansion is
f n ( x) f n (0) f ( x) f (0)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
n! n! n! n!
1
5. Taylor’s series expansion of y = about x = 1 is
x
(a) 1 - ( x - 1) + ( x - 1)2 - ( x - 1)3 + L
(b) 1 + ( x - 1) + ( x - 1)2 + ( x - 1)3 + L
2 3
(c) 1 - ( x - 1) + ( x - 1) - ( x - 1) + L
2! 3!
( x - 1)2 ( x - 1)3
(d) 1 + ( x - 1) + + +L
2! 3!
p
6. Taylor’s series expansion of y = sin x about x = is
2
2 4
Ê pˆ Ê pˆ
(a) 1 - Á x - ˜ + Á x - ˜ - L
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯
2 4
1Ê pˆ 1Ê pˆ
(b) 1 - Á x - ˜ + Á x - ˜ -L
2! Ë 2¯ 4! Ë 2¯
3 5
Ê pˆ 1 Ê pˆ 1Ê pˆ
(c) Á x - ˜ - Á x - ˜ + Á x - ˜ - L
Ë 2 ¯ 3! Ë 2¯ 5! Ë 2¯
3 5
Ê pˆ Ê pˆ Ê pˆ
(d) Á x - ˜ - Á x - ˜ + Á x - ˜ - L
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯
7. Maclaurin’s series of f(x) is
x x2 xn n
(a) f ( x ) + f ¢( x ) + f ¢¢( x ) + L + f ( x) + L
1! 2! n!
x x2 xn n
(b) f (0) + f ¢(0) + f ¢¢(0) + L + f (0) + L
1! 2! n!
x x2 xn n
(c) 1 + f ¢(1) + f ¢¢(1) + L + f (1) + L
1! 2! n!
x x2 xn n
(d) 1 + f ¢( x ) + f ¢¢( x ) + L + f ( x) + L
1! 2! n!
8. The Taylor’s series expansion of log x in (x – 1) is
1 1
(a) ( x - 1) + ( x - 1)2 + ( x - 1)3 + L
2 3
1 1
(b) ( x - 1) - ( x - 1)2 + ( x - 1)3 -L
2 3
1 1
(c) 1 + ( x - 1) + ( x - 1)2 + ( x - 1)3 + L
2 3
1 1
(d) 1 - ( x - 1) +( x - 1)2 - ( x - 1)3 + L
2 3
9. Which of the following is the coefficient of x¢¢ in the expansion of ex?
1 1 1
(a) (b) 11! (c) - (d)
11 11 11!
10. The coefficient of x5 in the expansion of cos x is
1 1 1
(a) 0 (b) (c) - (d)
5! 5! 5
11. The coefficient of x100 in the expansion of log (1 – x)2 is
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) - (c) - (d)
100 100 50 50
12. The constant term in the expansion of 7 + ( x + 2) + 3( x + 2)3 + ( x + 2)4 is
(a) 40 (b) 48 (c) 49 (d) 50
13. The coefficient of x2 in the expansion of ex cos x is

1 1
(a) (b) –1 (c) 0 (d) -
2 2
14. The coefficients of x4 and x5 respectively, in the expansion of
( x - 2)4 - 3( x - 2)3 + 4( x - 2)2 + 5( x - 1) - 100 are
(a) (1, 1) (b) (0, 0) (c) (0, 1) (d) (1, 0)
4 3 2
15. The expansion of x - 3 x + 2 x - x + 1 about 3 is
(a) 16 + 38( x + 3) + 29( x + 3)2 + 9( x + 3)3 + ( x + 3)4
(b) 16 + 38 x + 29 x 2 + 9 x 3 + x 4
(c) 16 + 38( x - 3) + 29( x - 3)2 + 9( x - 3)3 + ( x - 3)4
(d) 16 - 38( x + 3) + 29( x + 3)2 - 9( x + 3)3 + ( x + 3)4
16. The Maclaurin’s series of sin x is [Summer 2015]
•
x 2 n +1
•
( -1)n x 2 n +1
(a) Â (b) Â
n = 0 (2 n + 1)! n = 0 (2 n + 1)!
•
•
x2n x2n
(c) Â (2n)! (d) Â (-1)n (2n)!
n=0 n=0
–x
17. The Maclaurin’s series of e is [Winter 2015]
• • • •
xn ( -1)n x n xn ( -1)n x n
(a) Â n! (b) Â n! (c) Â n! (d) Â n!
n=0 n=0 n =1 n =1
x3 x5
18. The series x + + + L represent expansion of [Summer 2016]
3! 5!
(a) sin x (b) cos x (c) sinh x (d) cosh x
2 3 4
x x x
19. The series x - + - + L represent expansion of [Summer 2017]
2 3 4
(a) ex (b) log (1 + x) (c) sin x (d) cos x
5 x
20. The coefficient of x in the expansion of e is [Winter 2016]
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) 5
5 4! 5!
answers
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d)
10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (c)
19. (b) 20. (c)
UNIT-3
Chapter 7. Fourier Series
CHAPTER
7
Fourier Series
chapter outline
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Periodic Functions
7.3 Orthogonality of Trigonometric System
7.4 Fourier Series
7.5 Trigonometric Fourier Series
7.6 Fourier Series of Functions of Period 2l
7.7 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions
7.8 Half-Range Fourier Series
7.1 IntroductIon
Fourier series is used in the analysis of periodic functions. Many of the phenomena
studied in engineering and sciences are periodic in nature, e.g., current and voltage
in an ac circuit. These periodic functions can be analyzed into their constituent
components by a Fourier analysis. The Fourier series makes use of orthogonality
relationships of the sine and cosine functions. It decomposes a periodic function into a
sum of sine-cosine functions. The computation and study of Fourier series is known
as harmonic analysis. It has many applications in electrical engineering, vibration
analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing, etc.
7.2 PerIodIc FunctIons

A function f(x) is said to be periodic with period T > 0, if f (x) = f (x + T) for all real x.
The function f(x) repeats itself after each interval of T. If f (x) = f (x + T) = f (x + 2T)
= f (x + 3T) = ... then T is called the period of the function f (x).
For example, sin x is a periodic function with period 2p. Hence, sin x = sin(x + 2p).
7.2 Chapter 7 Fourier Series
7.3 orthogonalIty oF trIgonometrIc system
7.3.1 orthogonality of Functions

A set of functions f1(x), f2(x), f3(x), ..., fn(x) is said to be orthogonal in the interval
(a, b) if
b
Úa fm ( x) fn ( x) dx = 0, if m π n
π 0, if m = n
7.3.2 orthogonality of trigonometric Functions

np x np x
Consider a set of trigonometric functions sin and cos , where n = 1, 2, 3, ...
l l
in the interval (c, c + 2l) for any value of c.
np x
Let fn ( x ) = sin , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
l
np x
gn ( x ) = cos , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
l
Consider
c + 2l
(i) Úc fm ( x )gn ( x ) dx
c + 2l
mp x np x
=Ú sin
cos dx
c l l
1 c + 2l È (m + n)p x (m - n)p x ˘
= Ú sin + sin ˙ dx
2 c ÍÎ l l ˚
c + 2l
1 Ï (m + n)p x ¸ l Ï (m - n)nx ¸ l
= - Ìcos ˝ - Ìcos ˝ , mπn
2 Ó l ˛ (m + n)p Ó l ˛ (m - n)p c
l È (m + n)(c + 2l )p (m + n)cp ˘
=- Ícos - cos ˙
2(m + n)p
Î l l ˚
l È (m - n)(c + 2l )p (m - n)cp ˘
- cos - cos ˙, m π n
2(m - n)p ÍÎ l l ˚
l È Ï (m + n)cp ¸ (m + n)cp ˘
=- Ícos Ì + 2(m + n)p ˝ - cos ˙
2(m + n)p Î Ó l ˛ l ˚
l È Ï (m - n)cp ¸ (m - n)cp ˘
- Ícos Ì + 2(m - n)p ˝ - cos ˙, m π n
2(m - n)p Î Ó l ˛ l ˚
7.3 Orthogonality of Trigonometric System 7.3
l È (m + n)cp (m + n)cp ˘
=- Ícos - cos ˙
2(m + n)p
Î l l ˚
l È (m - n)cp (m - n)cp ˘
- Í cos - cos ˙, m π n
2(m - n)p Î l l ˚
[Q cos(2np + q ) = cos q ]
= 0, m π n
If m = n,
c + 2l c + 2l np x np x
Úc f n ( x ) g n ( x ) dx = Ú
c
sin
l
cos
l
dx
1 c + 2l 2 np x
= Ú sin dx
2 c l
c + 2l
1 Ê 2 np x ˆ l
= - Á cos
2 Ë l ˜¯ 2 np c
l È 2 n(c + 2l )p 2 ncp ˘
=- Ícos - cos
4 np Î l l ˙˚
È Ê 2 ncp
l ˆ 2 ncp ˘
=- Ícos ÁË + 4 np ˜ - cos ˙
4 np
Î l ¯ l ˚
l È 2 ncp 2ncp ˘
=- Í
4 np Î
cos
l
- cos
l ˙˚
[Q cos(4np + q ) = cos q ]
=0
c + 2l mp x np x
Hence, Úc sin
l
cos
l
dx = 0 for all m, n
Now consider,
c + 2l
(ii) Úc f m ( x ) f n ( x ) dx
c + 2lmp x np x
=Ú sinsin dx
c l l
1 c + 2l È (m - n)p x (m + n)p x ˘
= Ú cos - cos ˙ dx
2 c ÍÎ l l ˚
c +2 l
1 ÈÏ (m - n)p x ¸ l Ï (m + n)p x ¸ l ˘
= ÍÌsin ˝ - Ìsin ˝ ˙ ,mπn
2 ÎÓ l ˛ (m - n)p Ó l ˛ (m + n)p ˚ c
l È (m - n)(c + 2l )p (m - n)cp ˘
= Ísin - sin ˙
2(m - n)p Î l l ˚
l È (m + n)(c + 2l )p (m + n)cp ˘
- sin - sin ˙, m π n
2(m + n)p ÍÎ l l ˚
l È Ï (m - n)cp ¸ (m - n)cp ˘
= Ísin Ì + 2(m - n)p ˝ - sin ˙
2(m - n)p Î Ó l ˛ l ˚
l È Ï (m + n)cp ¸ (m + n)cp ˘
- Ísin Ì + 2(m + n)p ˝ - sin ˙, m π n
2(m + n)p Î Ó l ˛ l ˚
l È (m - n)cp (m - n)cp ˘
= Ísin - sin ˙
2(m - n)p Î l l ˚
l È (m + n)cp (m + n)cp ˘
- sin - sin ˙, m π n
2(m + n)p ÍÎ l l ˚
[Q sin(2np + q ) = sin q ]
= 0, m π n
If m = n,
c + 2l c + 2l np x
Úc f n ( x ) f n ( x ) dx = Ú
c
sin 2
l
dx
1 c + 2l Ê 2 np x ˆ
= Ú Á 1 - cos dx
2 c Ë l ˜¯
c + 2l
1 Ê 2 np x ˆ l
= x - Á sin
2 Ë l ˜¯ 2 np c
1È l Ï 2 n(c + 2l )p 2 ncp ¸˘
= Í{(c + 2l ) - c} - Ìsin - sin ˝˙
2Î 2 np Ó l l ˛˚
1È l Ï Ê 2 ncp ˆ 2 ncp ¸˘
= Í 2l - Ìsin Á + 4 np ˜ - sin ˝˙
2 ÍÎ 2 np Ó Ë l ¯ l ˛˙˚
1È l Ê 2 ncp 2 ncp ˆ ˘
= Í 2l - Á sin - sin ˙
2Î 2 np Ë l l ˜¯ ˚
[Qsin(4np + q ) = sin q ]
=lπ0
c + 2l mp x np x
Hence, Úc sin
l
sin
l
dx = 0, m π n
= l, m = n
7.4 Dirichlet’s Conditions for Representation by a Fourier Series 7.5
Again consider,
c + 2l
(iii) Úc g m ( x ) g n ( x ) dx
c + 2l mp x np x
=Ú cos cos dx
c l l
1 c + 2l È (m + n)p x (m - n)p x ˘
=
2 Úc Í
Î
cos
l
+ cos
l ˙ dx
˚
c + 2l
1 Ï (m + n)p x ¸ l Ï (m - n)p x ¸ l
= Ìsin ˝ + Ìsin ˝ ,mπn
2 Ó l ˛ (m + n)p x Ó l ˛ (m - n)p x c
Proceeding same as in part (ii),

c + 2l mp x np x
Úc cos
l
cos
l
dx = 0, m π n
If m = n,
c + 2l c + 2l np x
Úc g n ( x ) g n ( x ) dx = Ú
c
cos2
l
dx
1 c + 2l Ê 2 np x ˆ
= Ú 1 + cos dx
2 c ÁË l ˜¯
Proceeding same as in part (ii),

c + 2l mp x np x
Úc cos
l
cos
l
dx = l, m = n
c + 2l mp x np x
Hence, Úc cos
l
cos
l
dx = 0, m π n
= l, m = n
From (i), (ii), and (iii) it is evident that the set of trigonometric functions
np x np x
sin and cos , where n = 1, 2, 3, ... is orthogonal in the interval (c, c + 2l).
l l
7.4 dIrIchlet’s condItIons For rePresentatIon by

a FourIer serIes
Representation of a function over a certain interval by a linear combination of mutually
orthogonal functions is called Fourier series representation.
A function f (x) can be represented by a complete set of orthogonal functions within the
interval (c, c + 2l). The Fourier series of the function f (x) exists only if the following
conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (x) is periodic, i.e., f (x) = f (x + 2l), where 2l is the period of the function
f (x).
(ii) f (x) and its integrals are finite and single-valued.
(iii) f (x) has a finite number of discontinuities, i.e., f (x) is piecewise continuous in
the interval (c, c + 2l).
(iv) f (x) has a finite number of maxima and minima.
These conditions are known as Dirichlet’s conditions.
7.5 trIgonometrIc FourIer serIes
np x np x
We know that the set of functions sin and cos are orthogonal in the interval
l l
(c, c + 2l) for any value of c, where n = 1, 2, 3, ….
c + 2l mp x np x
i.e., Úc sin
l
sin
l
dx = 0 mπn
=l m=n
c + 2l mp x np x
Úc cos
l
cos
l
dx = 0 mπn
=l m=n
c + 2l mp x np x
Úc sin
l
cos
l
dx = 0 for all m, n
Hence, any function f (x) can be represented in terms of these orthogonal functions in
the interval (c, c + 2l) for any value of c.
•
np x • np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos + Â bn sin
n =1 l n =1 l
This series is known as a trigonometric Fourier series or simply, a Fourier series. For
example, a square function can be constructed by adding orthogonal sine components
(Fig. 7.1).
f (x)
x One sine component

O
f (x)
x Addition of two sine

O components
f (x)
x Addition of three sine

O components
..
..
f (x) ..
.
Addition of many sine
x
O components
..
f (x)
x Square function
O
Fig. 7.1 Representation of a function in terms of sine components
7.6 FourIer serIes oF FunctIons oF PerIod 2l

Let f (x) be a periodic function with period 2l in the interval (c, c + 2l). Then the Fourier
series of f (x) is given by
•
np x • np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos + Â bn sin …(1)
n =1 l n =1 l
determination of a0
Integrating both the sides of Eq. (1) w.r.t. x in the interval (c, c + 2l),
c + 2l c + 2l c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ
Úc f ( x )dx = a0 Ú dx + Ú Á Â an cos l ˜ dx + Úc Á Â bn sin l ˜ dx
c c Ë n =1 ¯ Ë n =1 ¯
= a0(c + 2l – c) + 0 + 0
= 2la0
1 c + 2l
2l Úc
Hence, a0 = f ( x )dx …(2)
determination of an
np x
Multiplying both the sides of Eq. (1) by cos and integrating w.r.t. x in the interval
l
(c, c + 2l),
c + 2l np x c + 2l np x c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ np x
Úc f ( x ) cos
l
dx = a0 Ú
c
cos
l
dx + Ú
c Á Â
Ë n =1
an cos
l ¯ ˜ cos
l
dx
c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ np x
+Ú Á Â bn sin l ˜ cos l dx
c Ë n =1 ¯
= 0 + lan + 0
= l an
1 c + 2l np x
l Úc
Hence, an = f ( x ) cos dx …(3)
l
determination of bn
np x
Multiplying both the sides of Eq. (1) by sin and integrating w.r.t. x in the interval
(c, c + 2l ), l
c + 2l np x c + 2l np x c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ np x
Úc f ( x )sin
l
dx = a0 Ú
c
sin
l
dx + Ú
c Á Â
Ë n =1
an cos
l ¯ ˜ sin
l
dx
c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ np x
+Ú Á Â bn sin l ˜ sin l dx
c Ë n =1 ¯
= 0 + 0 + lbn
= l bn
1 c + 2l np x
Hence, bn =
l Úc
f ( x )sin
l
dx …(4)
The formulae (2), (3), and (4) are known as Euler’s formulae which give the values
of coefficients a0, an, and bn. These coefficients are known as Fourier coefficients.
Corollary 1 When c = 0 and 2l = 2p
∞ ∞
f ( x) = a0 + ∑ an cos nx + ∑ bn sin nx
n =1 n =1
1 2p
2p Ú0
where a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 2p
an = Ú f ( x ) cos nx dx
p 0
1 2p
bn = Ú f ( x )sin nx dx
p 0
Corollary 2 When c = –p and 2l = 2p

• •
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos nx + Â bn sin nx
n =1 n =1
1 p
where a0 =
2p Ú-p f ( x) dx
1 p
an =
p Ú-p f ( x) cos nx dx
1 p
bn =
p Ú-p f ( x)sin nx dx
Corollary 3 When c = 0
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
1 2l
where a0 = Ú f ( x ) dx
2l 0
1 2l np x
an = Ú f ( x ) cos dx
l 0 l
1 2l np x
bn = Ú f ( x )sin dx
l 0 l
Corollary 4 When c = – l
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
1 l
2l Ú - l
where a0 = f ( x )dx
1 l np x
l - l l
1 l np x
l - l l
Fourier series expansion with Period 2p
example 1
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x in the interval (0, 2p).
Solution
The Fourier series of f (x) with period 2p is given by
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p
=
2p Ú0 x dx
2p
1 x2
=
2p 2
0
1 Ê 4p 2 ˆ
= Á ˜
2p Ë 2 ¯
=p
1 2p
an =
p Ú0 f ( x ) cos nx dx
1 2p
=
p Ú0 x cos nx dx
2p
1 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= xÁ ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 Ê cos 2 np cos 0 ˆ
=
p ÁË n2
- 2 ˜ [Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
n ¯
=0 [Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
1 2p
p Ú0
bn = f ( x )sin nx dx
1 2p
= Ú x sin nx dx
p 0
2p
1 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= xÁ- ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1È Ê cos 2 np ˆ ˘
= Í -2p Á
pÎ Ë n ˜¯ ˚
˙ [Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
2
=-
n
[Q cos 2np = 1]
•
1
Hence, f ( x ) = p - 2Â sin nx
n =1 n
Ê 1 1 ˆ
x = p - 2 Á sin x + sin 2 x + sin 3 x + L˜
Ë 2 3 ¯
example 2
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x2 in the interval (0, 2p) and, hence,
p2 1 1 1
deduce that = 2 - 2 + 2 -L
12 1 2 3
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p
=
2p Ú0 x 2 dx
2p
1 x3
=
2p 3
0
1 Ê 8p 3 ˆ
= Á ˜
2p Ë 3 ¯
4p 2
=
3
1 2p
p Ú0
an = f ( x ) cos nx dx
1 2p
= Ú x 2 cos nx dx
p 0
2p
1 2 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= x Á - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á - 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È Ê cos 2 np ˆ ˘
= Í 4p
p Î ÁË n2 ˜¯ ˚
˙ [Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
1 Ê 4p ˆ
= Á 2˜
pËn ¯
[Q cos 2np = 1]
4
= 2
n
1 2p
bn =
p Ú0 f ( x )sin nx dx
1 2p
=
p Ú0 x 2 sin nx dx
2p
1 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= x2 Á - ˜ - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á 3 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1È 2 Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘

= Í4p ÁË - ˜¯ + 2 Á ˜ - 2Á 3 ˜˙
pÎ n Ë n 3 ¯ Ë n ¯˚
1 Ê 4p 2 ˆ
= Á-
pË n ¯
˜ [Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
4p
=-
n
• •
4p 2 1 1
Hence, f ( x) = + 4 Â 2 cos nx - 4p Â sin nx
3 n =1 n n =1 n
4p 2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
x2 = + 4 Á 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos3 x + L˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
Ê1 1 1 ˆ
- 4p Á sin x + sin x + sin 3 x + L˜ ... (1)
Ë1 2 3 ¯
Putting x = p in Eq. (1),
4p 2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
p2 = + 4 Á 2 cos p + 2 cos 2p + 2 cos 3p + L˜ + 0
3 Ë1 2 3 ¯
4p 2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= + 4 Á - 2 + 2 - 2 + K˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= - + -K
12 12 22 32
example 3
1
(p - x ) in the interval (0, 2p).
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) =
2
p 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = 1 - + - +K [Winter 2013]
4 3 5 7
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p 1
=
2p Ú0 2
(p - x )dx
2p
1 x2
= px-
4p 2
0
1
= (2p 2 - 2p 2 )
4p
=0
1 2p
an =
1 2p 1
=
p Ú0 2
(p - x ) cos nx dx
2p
= (p - x ) Á ˜ - (-1) Á - 2 ˜
2p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1È cos 2 np cos 0 ˘
= Í- + 2 ˙
2pÎ n2 n ˚
= 0 [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
1 2p 1
bn =
p Ú0 2
(p - x )sin nx dx
2p
= (p - x ) Á - - (-1) Á - 2 ˜
2p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘
= Í(-p ) ÁË - ˜¯ - p ÁË - ˜ ˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
2p Î n n ¯˚
1 Êp pˆ
= Á + ˜
2p Ë n n ¯
[Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
1
=
n
•
1
Hence, f ( x ) = Â sin nx
n =1 n
1 1 1 1 1
(p - x ) = sin x + sin 2 x + sin 3 x + sin 4 x + sin 5 x
2 2 3 4 5
1 1
+ sin 6 x + sin 7 x +L ...(1)
6 7
p
Putting x = in Eq. (1),
2
1Êpˆ p 1 1 3p 1 1 5p
Á ˜ = sin + sin p + sin + sin 2p + sin
Ë
2 2¯ 2 2 3 2 4 5 2
1 1 7p
+ sin 3p + sin +L
6 7 2
p 1 1 1
= 1 - + - +º
4 3 5 7
example 4 2
Ê p - xˆ
Obtain the Fourier series of f ( x ) = ÁË ˜ in the interval 0 £ x £ 2p.
2 ¯
p2 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = - + -L [Winter 2014]
12 12 22 32
Solution
The Fourier series of f(x) with period 2p is given by
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
2
1 2p Ê p - xˆ
=
2p Ú0 ÁË
2 ¯
˜ dx
2p
1 (p - x )3
=
8p -3 0
1
=- (-p 3 - p 3 )
24 p
p2
=
12
1 2p
p 0
2
1 2p Ê p - xˆ
=
p Ú0 ÁË
2 ¯
˜ cos nx dx
2p
1 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= (p - x )2 Á ˜ - 2(p - x )(-1) Á - 2 ˜ + 2(-1)(-1) Á - 3 ˜
4p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1È Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ï Ê cos 0 ˆ ¸˘
= Í2p Á ˜ - Ì-2p Á 2 ˜ ˝˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
ÍÎ Ë n ¯ Ó Ë n ¯ ˛˙˚
4p 2
1 Ê 2p 2p ˆ
= +
4p ÁË n2 n2 ˜¯
[Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
1
=
n2
1 2p
bn = Ú f ( x ) sin nx dx
p 0
2
1 2p Ê p - xˆ
=
p Ú0 ÁË
2 ¯
˜ sin nx dx
2p
= (p - x )2 Á - - 2(p - x )(-1) Á - 2 ˜ + 2(-1)(-1) Á 3 ˜
4p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 ÈÏ 2 Ê cos 2np ˆ 2 cos 2np ¸ Ï 2 Ê cos 0 ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ¸˘

= ÍÌp Á - ˜ + ˝ - Ìp Á - ˜ + 2 Á 3 ˜ ˝˙
ÍÎÓ Ë n ¯ ˛ Ó Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ ˛˙˚
4p 3
n
[Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0]
1 Ê p2 2 p2 2ˆ
= Á - + 3 + - 3˜ [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
4p Ë n n n n ¯
=0
•
p2 1
Hence, f ( x ) = + Â 2 cos nx
12 n = 1 n
2
Ê p - xˆ p2 1 1 1
ÁË 2 ˜¯ = 12 + 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3 x + L ....(1)
1 2 3
p2 1 1 1
0= - 2 + 2 - 2 +L
12 1 2 3
p2 1 1 1
= - + -L
12 12 22 32
example 5
Find the Fourier series for f(x) = eax in (0, 2p), a > 0. [Summer 2018]
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p ax
=
2p Ú0 e dx
2p
1 e ax
=
2p a
0
1
= (e2 ap - 1)
2 ap
1 2p
an =
1 2p ax
=
p Ú0 e cos nx dx
2p
1 e ax
= (a cos nx + n sin nx )
p a 2 + n2
0
1 È e2 ap a ˘ ÈQ sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ˘
= Í 2 (a cos 2 np ) - 2 ˙ Í ˙
Î cos 0 = 1
2
p ÍÎ a + n a + n2 ˙˚ ˚
a
= 2 2
(e2 ap - 1) [Q cos 2np = 1]
p (a + n )
1 2p
bn =
1 2p
=
p Ú0 a ax sin nx dx
2p
1 e ax
= (a sin nx - n cos nx )
p a 2 + n2
0
1È e2 ap n ˘ ÈQ sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ˘
= Í 2 (- n cos 2 np ) + 2 ˙ Í ˙
pÍÎ a + n
2
a + n2 ˙˚ Î cos 0 = 1 ˚
n
= 2 2
(1 - e2 ap ) [Q cos 2np = 1]
p (a + n )
1 a(e2 ap - 1) • 1
Hence, f ( x) = (e2 ap - 1) + Â a2 + n2 cos nx
2 ap p n =1
•
1 - e2 ap n
+
p
Â a2 + n2 sin nx
n =1
example 6
3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = in the interval (0, 2p)
12
p2 1 1
Hence, deduce that = 1 + 2 + 2 +K
6 2 3
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p 3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2
=
2p Ú0 12
dx
2p
1 Ê x3 ˆ Ê x2 ˆ
= 3 Á ˜ - 6p Á ˜ + 2p 2 x
24p Ë 3 ¯ Ë 2¯ 0
1 È Ê 8p 3 ˆ Ê 4p 2 ˆ ˘
= Í3 Á ˜ - 6p Á ˜ + 4p 3 ˙
24p Î Ë 3 ¯ Ë 2 ¯ ˚
=0
1 2p
an =
1 2p Ê 3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 ˆ
=
p Ú0 Á
Ë 12 ˜ cos nx dx
¯
2p
= (3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 ) Á - (6 x - 6p ) Á - 2 ˜ + 6 Á - 3 ˜
12p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È Ê cos 2np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘

= Í(6p ) ÁË ˜ - (-6p ) Á 2 ˜ ˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
12p Î n 2 ¯ Ë n ¯˚
1 Ê 6p 6p ˆ
= +
12p ÁË n2 n2 ˜¯
[Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
1
=
n2
1 2p
p 0
1 2p Ê 3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 ˆ
p Ú0 ÁË
= ˜ sin nx dx
12 ¯
2p
= (3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 ) Á - ˜ - (6 x - 6p ) Á - 2 ˜ + 6 Á 3 ˜
12p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È 2 2 2 Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ê cos 2 np ˆ 2 Ê cos 0 ˆ

= Í(12p - 12p + 2p ) ÁË - ˜¯ + 6 Á
Ë 3 ˜¯ - (2p ) ÁË - n ˜¯
12p Î n n
Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘
- 6 Á 3 ˜ ˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
Ë n ¯˚
=0 [Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
∞
1
Hence, f ( x) = ∑ 2
cos nx
n =1 n
3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 1 1
= cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3 x + L … (1)
12 2 3
Putting x = 0 in Eq. (1),
p2 1 1
= cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + L
6 2 3
1 1
= 1+ 2 + 2 + L
2 3
example 7
Find the Fourier series of f(x) = e–x in the interval (0, 2p).
p 1 • ( -1)n
Hence, deduce that = Â 2 . [Summer 2014]
2 sinh p n = 2 n + 1
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
2p Ú0
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 2p - x
2p Ú0
= e dx
1 2p
= -e- x
2p 0
-e -2p + e0
=
2p
1 - e -2p
=
2p
1 2p
p 0
1 2p
= Ú e - x cos nx dx
p 0
2p
1 e- x
= (- cos nx + n sin nx )
p n2 + 1
0
1 È e -2p 1 ˘
= Í 2
p Î n +1
(- cos 2 np ) - 2 (- cos 0)˙ [Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
n +1 ˚
1
= (1 - e -2p ) [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
p (n + 1)
2
1 2p
bn =
1 2p - x
=
p Ú0 e sin nx dx
2p
1 e- x
= (- sin nx - n cos nx )
p n2 + 1
0
Èe
1 -2p
1 ˘
= Í 2 (- n cos 2 np ) - 2 (- n cos 0)˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
ÍÎ n + 1
p n +1 ˙˚
n
= 2
(1 - e -2p ) [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
p (n + 1)
1 - e -2p 1 - e -2p •
1 1 - e -2p •
n
Hence, f ( x ) =
2p
+
p
Â n2 + 1 cos nx + p
Â n2 + 1 sin nx … (1)
n =1 n =1

1 - e -2p 1 - e -2p •
( -1)n
f (p ) =
2p
+
p
Â n2 + 1 ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n , sin np = 0 ˘˚
n =1
1- e -2p
1- e -2p È 1 • ( -1)n ˘
e -p = + Í- + Â 2 ˙
2p p ÍÎ 2 n = 2 n + 1 ˙˚
1 - e -2p •
( -1)n
=
p
Â n2 + 1
n=2
•
p (-1)n
p
e (1 - e -2p
)
= Â n2 + 1
n=2
•
p (-1)n
e -ep -p
= Â n2 + 1
n=2
•
p 1 (-1)n
Hence, =Â 2
2 sinh p n = 2 n + 1
example 8
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = 1 - cos x in the interval (0, 2p). Hence,
1 • 1
deduce that = Â 2
.
2 n= 1 4 n -1
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
x
f ( x ) = 1 - cos x = 2 sin
2
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p x
=
2p Ú0 2 sin dx
2
2p
2 x
= -2 cos
2p 2 0
2
= ( -2 cos p + 2 cos 0)
2p
2 2
= [Q cos p = -1, cos 0 = 1]
p
1 2p
an =
1 2p x
=
p Ú0
2 sin cos nx dx
2
2 2p È Ê 2 n + 1 ˆ Ê 2n - 1ˆ ˘
2p Ú0 Î ÁË 2 ˜¯
= Ísin x - sin Á
Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
x dx
2p
2 2 Ê 2n + 1ˆ 2 Ê 2n - 1ˆ
= - cos Á ˜ x+ cos Á
Ë 2 ˜¯ 0
x
2p 2 n + 1 Ë 2 ¯ 2n - 1
2 È 2 2 cos 0 2 2 cos 0 ˘
= Í - 2n + 1 cos(2 np + p ) + 2 n + 1 + 2 n - 1 cos(2 np - p ) - 2 n - 1 ˙
2p Î ˚
2È 4 4 ˘
= Í -
2p Î 2 n + 1 2 n - 1 ˙˚
[Q cos(2n + 1)p = cos(2n - 1)p = -1,cos 0 = 1]
4 2 1
=-
p 4n - 1
2
1 2p
bn =
1 2p x
=
p Ú02 sin sin nx dx
2
2 2p È Ê 2 n - 1 ˆ Ê 2n + 1ˆ ˘
2p Ú0 Î ÁË 2 ˜¯
= Ícos x - cos Á
Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
x dx
2p
2 2 Ê 2n - 1ˆ 2 Ê 2n + 1ˆ
= sin x- sin x
2p 2 n - 1 ÁË 2 ˜¯ 2 n + 1 ÁË 2 ˜¯ 0
= 0 [Q sin(2 n - 1)p = sin(2 n + 1)p = sin 0 = 0 ]
•
2 2 4 2 1
Hence, f ( x) =
p
-
p
Â 4n2 - 1 cos nx … (1)
n =1

•
2 2 4 2 1
f (0 ) = 0 =
p
-
p
Â 4n2 - 1
n =1
1 • 1
=Â 2
2 n =1 4 n - 1
example 9
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = -1 0< x<p
=2 p < x < 2p
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
2p Ú0
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 È p
(-1)dx + Ú 2dx ˘˙
2p
2p ÎÍ Ú0
=
p ˚
1 È p
- x 0 + 2 x p ˘˙
2p
=
2p ÎÍ ˚
1
=
2p
[(-p ) + (4p - 2p )]
1
=
2
1 2p
p Ú0
= ÈÍ Ú (-1) cos nx dx + Ú 2 cos nx dx ˘˙

1 p 2p
pÎ 0 p ˚
1 È sin nx
p
sin nx
2p ˘
= Í- +2 ˙
pÍ n 0 n p ˙
Î ˚
= 0 [Q sin 2 np = sin np = sin 0 = 0 ]
1 2p
p Ú0
= ÈÍ Ú ( -1)sin nx dx + Ú 2 sin nx dx ˘˙
1 p 2p
pÎ 0 p ˚
1 È cos nx 2 cos nx ˘
p 2p
= Í +- ˙
pÍ n 0 n p ˙
Î ˚
1 È cos np cos 0 2 cos 2 np 2 cos np ˘
= Í - - +
pÎ n n n n ˙˚
3 ÈÎQ cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1, cos np = ( -1)n ˘˚
= [( -1)n - 1]
np
• È ˘
Hence, f ( x ) = 1 + 3 Â Í (-1) - 1 ˙ sin nx
n
2 p n =1 ÍÎ n ˙˚
1 3Ê 2 2 ˆ
= + Á -2 sin x - sin 3 x - sin 5 x - L˜
2 pË 3 5 ¯
1 6Ê 1 1 ˆ
= - Á sin x + sin 3 x + sin 5 x + L˜
2 p Ë 3 5 ¯
example 10
2
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = x 0< x<p [Winter 2012]
=0 p < x < 2p
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
2p Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 È p 2
0 ◊ dx ˘˙
2p
2p ÍÎ Ú0 Úp
= x dx +
˚
p
1 x3
=
2p 3 0
1 Êp 3ˆ
=
2p ÁË 3 ˜¯
p2
=
6
1 2p
p 0
= ÈÍ Ú x 2 cos nx dx + Ú 0 ◊ cos nx dx ˘˙
1 p 2p
pÎ 0 p ˚
p
= x Á - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á - 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 Ê cos np ˆ
= 2p ˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p ÁË n2 ¯
2 ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
= 2 (-1)n
n
1 2p
p 0
= ÈÍ Ú x 2 sin nx dx + Ú 0 ◊ sin nx dx ˘˙
1 p 2p
pÎ 0 p ˚
p
1 2 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= x Á- ˜ - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á 3 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È 2 Ê cos np ˆ Ê cos np ˆ 2 cos 0 ˘

= Í-p ÁË ˜ + 2 ÁË ˜- ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
pÎ n ¯ n3 ¯ n3 ˚
1 È 2 (-1)n (-1)n 2 ˘ ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚

= Í-p +2 3 - 3 ˙
pÎ n n n ˚
p2 •
(-1)n 1 • È -p 2 (-1)n 2(-1)n 2 ˘
Hence, f ( x ) = + 2 Â 2 cos nx + Â ÍÎ n + n3 - n3 ˙˚ sin nx
6 n =1 n p n =1
example 11
Expand f(x) in Fourier series in the interval (0, 2p) if
Ï -p 0< x<p
f ( x) = Ì
Óx - p p < x < 2p
• 1 p2
and hence, show that Â = . [Winter 2016; Summer 2018]
n = 0 (2 n + 1)2 8
Solution
• •
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos nx Â bn sin nx
n =1 n =1
2p
1
a0 =
2p Ú f ( x ) dx
0
1 Èp 2p ˘
= Í Ú (- p )dx + Ú ( x - p ) dx ˙
2p ÍÎ 0 p ˙˚
È 2 p˘
1 Í p x2 ˙
= (- p ) x 0 + - px
2p ÍÎ 2 p ˙ ˚
1 È 2 p2 ˘
= Í-p + 2p - 2p -
2 2
+ p2˙
2p Î 2 ˚
p
=-
4
2p
1
an =
p Ú f ( x ) cos nx dx
0
1 Èp 2p ˘
p ÎÍ Ú0 Ú ( x - p ) cos nx dx ˙˙
= Í (-p ) cos nx dx +
p ˚
1 È sin nx
p
Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
2p ˘
= Í(-p ) + (x - p ) Á - (1) Á - 2 ˜ ˙
p ÍÎ n 0
Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ p ˙˚
È cos nx ˆ ˘
2p
Í0 + ( x - p ) ÁÊ sin nx ˜ˆ + ÁÊ
1
= ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
ÍÎ
p Ë n ¯ Ë n2 ˜¯ ˙
p ˚
1 È 1 (-1)n ˘ [Q sin 2np = sin np = 0]

= Í 2 - 2 ˙
p În n ˚ [cos 2 np = 1, cos np = (-1)n ]
1 È 1 - (-1)n ˘
= Í ˙
p Î n2 ˚
2p
1
bn =
p Ú f ( x ) sin nx dx
0
1 È ˘
p 2p
= Í Ú (-p ) sin nx dx + Ú ( x - p )sin nx dx ˙
p ÎÍ 0 p ˚˙
1È cos nx
p
Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ ˘˙
2p
= Í(-p ) - + (x - p ) Á - ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜
pÍ n Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ p ˙˚
Î 0
1 È ÏÔ (-1)n 1 ¸Ô
2p ˘
Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ ˙
= Íp Ì - ˝ + -( x - p ) Á + [Q cos np = (-1)n ]
p Í ÓÔ n n ˛Ô Ë n ˜¯ ÁË n2 ˜¯ ˙
Î p ˚
(-1)n 1 1
= - - [Q cos 2 np = 1, cos np = ( -1)n , sin 2 np = sin np = 0]
n n n
(-1)n 2
= -
n n
1
= [(-1)n - 2]
n
• •
p 1 È 1 - (-1)n ˘ 1
Hence, f ( x) = - +
4 p
ÂÍ 2 ˙ cos nx + Â [(-1)n - 2] sin nx
n =1Î n ˚ n =1 n
p 2È1 1 1 ˘
=- + cos x + 2 cos3 x + 2 cos 5 x + L˙
4 p ÍÎ 12 3 5 ˚
1
- 3sin x - sin 2 x - sin 3 x - L
2
• •
cos(2 n + 1) x È ˘
Â Í 2 - (n-1)
p 2 n
=- + Â (2 n + 1) 2
- ˙ sin nx ...(1)
4 p n=0 n =1Î ˚
•
p 2 (-1)
f (p ) = - +
4 p
Â (2 n + 1)2
-0
n=0
•
1 p 2 1
È lim f ( x ) + lim f ( x )˘ = - -
2 ÎÍ x Æ p -
Â (2n + 1)2
xÆp +
˚˙ 4 p n=0
•
1 2 1
Â (2n + 1)2
p
[ -p + 0] + = -
2 4 p n=0
•
2 1 p
p
Â (2 n + 1) 2
=
4
n=0
•
1 p2
Â (2 n + 1)2
=
8
n=0
example 12
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x + x2 in the interval (–p, p), and
hence, deduce that
p2 1 1 1
(i) = 2 - 2 + 2 -L
12 1 2 3
p2 1 1 1
(ii) = 2 + 2 + 2 +L [Winter 2017, 2012]
6 1 2 3
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 p
a0 =
2p Ú-p f ( x)dx
1 p
Ú- p ( x + x
2
= )dx
2p
p
1 x2 x3
= +
2p 2 3
-p
1 Êp p p2 p3 ˆ
2 3
= ÁË + - + ˜
2p 2 3 2 3¯
1 Ê 2p 3 ˆ
= Á ˜
2p Ë 3 ¯
p2
=
3
1 p
an =
1 p
Ú- p ( x + x
2
= ) cos nx dx
p
p
= ( x + x2 ) Á - (1 + 2 x ) Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á - 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ -p
1È Ê cos np ˆ Ï cos( - np ) ¸˘
= Í(1 + 2p ) ÁË 2 ˜
- (1 - 2p ) Ì ˝˙
pÎ n ¯ Ó n
2
˛˚
1 È Ê cos np ˆ ˘
= Í4p Á
p Î Ë n2 ˜¯ ˚
˙ [Q cos(- np ) = cos(np )]
4(-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
=
n2
1 p
bn =
1 p
= Ú- p ( x + x
2
)sin nx dx
p
p
= ( x + x2 ) Á - - (1 + 2 x ) Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ -p
1È 2 Ê cos np ˆ Ê cos np ˆ Ï cos( - np ) ¸ Ï cos(- np ) ¸˘

= Í(p + p ) ÁË - ˜¯ + 2 Á ˜ +(-p + p 2 ) Ì ˝-2Ì ˝˙
pÎ n Ë n ¯3
Ó n ˛ Ó n
3
˛˚
1 È 2p ˘
= Í- cos np ˙ [Q cos(- np ) = cos np ]
pÎ n ˚
-2(-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
=
n
• •
p2 ( -1)n ( -1)n
Hence, f ( x) = + 4Â 2 cos nx - 2Â sin nx
3 n =1 n n =1 n
p2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
x + x2 = + 4 Á - 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x - 2 cos3 x + L˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
- 2 Á - sin x + sin 2 x - sin 3 x + L˜ ...(1)
Ë 1 2 3 ¯
(i) Putting x = 0 in Eq. (1),
p2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
0= + 4 Á - 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 - 2 cos 0 + L˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
2
p 1 1 1
= 2 - 2 + 2 -K
12 1 2 3
(ii) Putting x = p in Eq. (1),

p2 È 1 1 1 ˘
p +p2 = + 4 Í- 2 cos p + 2 cos 2p - 2 cos 3p + L˙
3 Î 1 2 3 ˚
p2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= + 4 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜ … (2)
3 Ë1 2 3 ¯
Putting x = –p in Eq. (1),
p2 È 1 1 1 ˘
-p + p 2 = + 4 Í- 2 cos( -p ) + 2 cos(-2p ) - 2 cos( -3p ) + L˙
3 Î 1 2 3 ˚
p2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= + 4 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜ … (3)
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
Adding Eqs (2) and (3),
p2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 +K
6 1 2 3
example 13
Find the Fourier series expansion of the periodic function f(x) = x – x2
in the interval –p £ x £ p and show that
1 1 1 p2
- + -L=
12 22 32 12 [Summer 2017]
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
p
1
a0 =
2p Ú f ( x ) dx
-p
p
1
Ú (x - x
2
= ) dx
2p -p
p
1 x2 x3
= -
2p 2 3 -p
1 Èp 2 p 3 p 2 p 3 ˘
= Í - - - ˙
2p Î 2 3 2 3 ˚
1 Ê 2p 3 ˆ
= Á- ˜
2p Ë 3 ¯
p2
=-
3
p
1
an =
-p
p
1
Ú (x - x
2
= ) cos nx dx
p -p
p
= ( x - x2 ) Á ˜¯ - (1 - 2 x ) Á - 2 ˜ + (-2) Á - 3 ˜
p Ë n Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ -p
p
1 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ 2 sin nx
= ( x - x2 ) Á + (1 - 2 x ) Á 2 ˜ +
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ n3 -p
1È (-1)n (-1)n ˘ Èsin np = sin(- np ) = 0 ˘

= Í(1 - 2p ) 2 - (1 + 2p ) 2 ˙ Í ˙
pÎ n n ˚ Îcos np = 0 ˚
1 È (-1)n 2p (-1)n (-1)n 2p (-1)n ˘
= Í 2 - - 2 - ˙
p Î n n2 n n2 ˚
1 È 4p (-1)n ˘
= Í- ˙
p Î n2 ˚
4(-1)n
=-
n2
p
1
bn =
p Ú f ( x ) sin nx dx
-p
p
1
Ú (x - x
2
= ) sin nx dx
p -p
p
= ( x - x2 ) Á - ˜ - (1 - 2 x ) Á - 2 ˜ + (-2) Á 3 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ -p
p
1 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin x ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= - ( x - x2 ) Á ˜¯ + (1 - 2 x ) ÁË 2 ˜¯ - 2 ÁË 3 ˜¯
p Ë n n n -p
1 È 2 (-1) (-1) n
(-1)
n
(-1)n ˘ n
= Í(p - p ) - 2 3 + (-p - p 2 ) +2 3 ˙
p Î n n n n ˚
[Q cos np = (-1)n , sin np = sin( - np ) = 0]
1 È p 2 (-1)n p (-1)n p (-1)n p 2 (-1)n ˘
= Í - - - ˙
p Î n n n n ˚
1 È 2p (-1)n ˘
= Í- ˙
p Î n ˚
2(-1)n
=-
n
• •
p2 (-1)n (-1)n
Hence, f ( x) = - - 4 Â 2 cos nx - 2 Â sin nx
3 n =1 n n =1 n
p2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
x - x2 = - - 4 Á - 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x - 2 cos 3 x + L˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
-2 Á - sin nx + sin 2 x - sin 3 x + L˜ ...(1)
Ë 1 2 3 ¯
p2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
0=- - 4 Á - 2 + 2 - 2 + L˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
p2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= 4 Á 2 - 2 + 2 - L˜
3 Ë1 2 3 ¯
1 1 1 p2
- + -L=
12 22 32 12
example 14
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x + |x| in the interval –p < x < p.
[Winter 2015, 2014]
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 p
2p Ú-p
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 p
2p Ú-p
= ( x + | x |) dx
1 È p
| x | dx ˘˙
p
= Ú
2p ÎÍ -p
x d x + Ú -p ˚
ÈQ a f ( x ) dx = 2 a f ( x ) dx, if f ( x ) is even function ˘
1 È ˘ Í Ú- a Ú0 ˙
p
= 0 + 2 Ú | x | dx ˙
2p ÎÍ 0 ˚ Í = 0, if f ( x ) is odd function ˙˚
Î
1 p
= Ú x dx
p 0
p
1 x2
=
p 2 0
1 Ê p2 ˆ
= Á ˜
pË 2 ¯
p
=
2
1 p
an =
1 p
=
p Ú-p ( x + | x |) cos nx dx
1 È p x cos nx dx + p | x | cos nx dx ˘
ÎÍ Ú-p Ú- p
=
p ˚˙
1 È0 + 2 p | x | cos nx dx ˘ ÈQ x cos nx is odd function ˘
=
p ÎÍ Ú0 ˚˙ Í ˙
Î and | x | cos nx is even function ˚
2 p
=
p Ú0 x cos nx dx
p
2 sin nx Ê cos nx ˆ
= x - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p n Ë n ¯ 0
2 È cos np cos 0 ˘
= - 2 ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p ÍÎ n2 n ˚
2 È
= Î(-1) - 1˚˘ ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˚˘
n
p n2
1 p
p Ú- p
bn = f ( x ) sin nx dx
1 p
= Ú ( x + | x |)sin nx dx
p -p
= ÈÍ Ú x sin nx dx + Ú | x | sin nx dx ˘˙
1 p p
p Î -p -p ˚
1È p ÈQ x sin nx is an even function ˘
2 x sin nx dx + 0 ˘˙
p ÎÍ Ú0
= Í| x | sin x is an odd function ˙
˚ Î ˚
p
= xÁ- ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
È p cos np ˘
2
= ÍÎ - ˙˚ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p n
2
= - ( -1)n ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n ˘˚
n
p 2 •È (-1)n - 1 ˘ •
(-1)n
Hence, f ( x ) = +
2 p
Â ÍÎ n2 ˚
˙ cos nx - 2 Â sin nx
n =1 n =1 n
p 2 È 2 2 2 ˘
x + |x| = + Í - 2 cos x - 2 cos3 x - 2 cos 5 x - L˙
2 p Î 1 3 5 ˚
È 1 1 1 ˘
- 2 Í - sin x + sin 2 x - sin 3 x + L˙
Î 1 2 3 ˚
p 4Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= - Á 2 cos x + 2 cos3 x + 2 cos 5 x + L˜
Ë
2 p 1 3 5 ¯
Ê 1 1 ˆ
+ 2 Á sin x - sin 2 x + sin 3 x - L˜
Ë 2 3 ¯
example 15
Find the Fourier series of f(x) = eax in the interval (–p, p).
[Winter 2013]
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 p
a0 =
2p Ú-p f ( x) dx
1 p
= Ú- p e
ax
dx
2p
p
1 e ax
=
2p a
-p
1
= (e ap - e - ap )
2p a
sinh ap
=
pa
1 p
p -p
1 p
= Ú e ax cos nx dx
p -p
p
1 e ax
= (a cos nx + n sin nx )
p a 2 + n2
-p
1 È e ap e - ap ˘
= Í 2 2
( a cos np ) - 2 2
{a cos(- np )}˙ [Q sin np = sin(- np ) = 0 ]
p Îa + n a +n ˚
a cos np
= (e ap - e - ap ) [Q cos(- np ) = cos np ]
p (a 2 + n2 )
(-1)n 2 a sinh ap ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
=
p (a 2 + n2 )
1 p
p Ú- p
1 p
= Ú e ax sin nx dx
p -p
p
1 e ax
= (a sin nx - n cos nx )
p a 2 + n2
-p
1È e ap
e - ap ˘
= Í 2 2
( - n cos np ) + 2 2
{n cos( - np )}˙
p Îa + n a +n ˚
n cos np
=- 2 2
(e ap - e - ap ) [Q cos( - np ) = cos np ]
p (a + n )
2 n( -1)n sinh ap ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n ˘˚
=- 2 2
p (a + n )
•
sinh ap 2 a sinh ap (-1)n 2 sinh ap • n(-1)n
Hence, f ( x) =
ap
+
p
Â a 2 + n2 cos nx -
p
Â a2 + n2 sin nx
n =1 n =1
•
sinh ap 2 sinh ap (-1)n
=
ap
+
p
Â a2 + n2 (a cos nx - n sin nx)
n =1
example 16
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = 0 -p < x < 0
=x 0< x<p [Summer 2013]
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 p
2p Ú-p
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 È 0
0 dx + Ú x dx ˘˙
p
=
2p Í
Î Ú - p 0 ˚
p
1 x2
=
2p 2 0
1 Êp ˆ2
= ÁË - 0˜
2p 2 ¯
p
=
4
1 p
p -p
1 p
= Ú x cos nx dx
p 0
p
1 sin nx Ê cos nx ˆ
= x - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p n Ë n ¯ 0
= Í 2 - 2 ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
pÎ n n ˚
1 È ( -1)n 1 ˘ ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
= Í - 2˙
p Î n2 n ˚
1 p
p Ú- p
1 p
= Ú x sin nx dx
p 0
p
= xÁ- ˜¯ - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n Ë n ¯ 0
1 È p cos np ˘
= ÍÎ - ˙˚ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p n
1 È ( -1)n ˘ ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n ˘˚
= Í -p ˙
pÎ n ˚
( -1)n
=-
n
• È (-1)n 1 ˘ •
(-1)n
Hence, f ( x ) = p + 1 Â Î n2 n2 ˚
Í - ˙ cos nx - Â n sin nx
4 p n =1 n =1
p 1Ê 2 2 2 ˆ
= + - cos x - 2 cos3 x - 2 cos 5 x - L˜
4 p ÁË 12 3 5 ¯
Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
- Á - sin x + sin 2 x - sin 3 x + L˜
Ë 1 2 3 ¯
p 2Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= - cos x + 2 cos3 x + 2 cos 5 x + L˜
4 p ÁË 12 3 5 ¯
Ê 1 1 ˆ
+ Á sin x - sin 2 x + sin 3 x - L˜
Ë 2 3 ¯
example 17
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = -p -p < x < 0
=x 0< x<p
p2 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = + + +º . [Summer 2016, 2014]
8 12 32 52
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 p
2p Ú-p
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 È 0
(-p )dx + Ú x dx ˘˙
p
= Í
2p Î Ú - p 0 ˚
È p˘
1 Í 0 x2 ˙
= -p x -p +
2p Í 2 ˙
Î 0˚
1 È 2 p2 ˘
= Í-p + ˙
2p Î 2 ˚
p
=-
4
1 p
p Ú- p
= ÈÍ Ú (-p ) cos nx dx + Ú x cos nx dx ˘˙

1 0 p
p Î -p 0 ˚
1 È sin nx
0
Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ ˘
p
= Í -p + xÁ - - 2 ˜ ˙
p Í n -p Ë n ˜¯ ÁË n ¯ 0˙
Î ˚
= Í 2 - 2 ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0 ]
pÎ n n ˚
1 È
= 2 Î
( -1)n - 1˘˚ ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n , cos 0 = 1˚˘
pn
1 p
p Ú- p
= ÈÍ Ú ( -p )sin nx dx + Ú x sin nx dx ˘˙
1 0 p
pÎ - p 0 ˚
1È Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ ˘
0 p
cos nx
= Í -p - + xÁ- - - ˜ ˙
pÍ n -p Ë n ˜¯ ÁË n2 ¯ 0 ˙
Î ˚
1 È Ï cos 0 cos( - np ) ¸ Ê cos np ˆ ˘
= Íp Ì - ˝ + p ÁË - ˜ ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0 ]
pÎ Ó n n ˛ n ¯˚
1
= [1 - 2 cos np ] [Q cos 0 = 1, cos( - np ) = cos np ]
n
1
= [1 - 2( -1)n ] ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n ˘˚
n
p 1 • È (-1)n - 1 ˘ • È
1 - 2(-1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x) = - + ÂÍ 2 ˙ cos nx + Â Í ˙ sin nx ... (1)
4 p n =1 Í
Î n ˙˚ n =1 Í
Î n ˙˚
At x = 0,
1 -p + 0 p
f (0 ) = È lim f ( x ) + lim f ( x )˘ = =-
2 ÎÍ x Æ 0 -
xÆ0 +
˚˙ 2 2

p 1 • È ( -1)n - 1 ˘
Â ÍÍ n2 ˙˙
p
f (0 ) = - =- +
2 4 p n =1 Î ˚
p2 1 1 1
= + + +K
8 12 32 52
example 18
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = - x - p -p < x < 0
= x +p 0< x<p
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 p
2p Ú-p
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 È 0
(- x - p )dx + Ú ( x + p ) dx ˘˙
p
2p ÍÎ Ú-p
=
0 ˚
È 0 p˘
1 Í x2 x2
= - -px + +px ˙
2p Í 2 2 ˙
Î -p 0˚
1 ÈÊ p 2 ˆ Ê p2 ˆ˘
= ÍÁ -p2˜ +Á +p2˜˙
2p ÎË 2 ¯ Ë 2 ¯˚
p
=
2
1 p
p Ú- p
= ÍÈ Ú (- x - p ) cos nx dx + Ú ( x + p ) cos nx dx ˘˙
1 0 p
pÎ - p 0 ˚
1È
0
Í (- x - p ) ÊÁ
sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= - (-1) Á - 2 ˜
pÍ Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯
Î -p
Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
p ˘
+ (x + p )Á ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜ ˙
Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ ˙
0˚
ÈÏ cos 0 cos(- np ) ¸ Ê cos np cos 0 ˆ ˘ ÈQ sin np = sin(- np )˘

1
= ÍÌ- 2 + ˝+Á - 2 ˜˙ Í ˙
n2 ˛ Ë n n ¯˚ Î = sin 0 = 0 ˚
2
ÎÓ n
p
2
= 2
[(-1)n - 1] ÈÎQ cos( - np ) = cos np = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
pn
1 p
p Ú- p
= ÍÈ Ú (- x - p )sin nx dx + Ú ( x + p )sin nx dx ˘˙
1 0 p
pÎ - p 0 ˚
1È
0
Í (- x - p ) ÊÁ -
cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= - (-1) Á - 2 ˜
pÍ Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯
Î -p
Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
p ˘
+ (x + p )Á - - (1) Á - 2 ˜ ˙
Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ ˙
0 ˚
1 ÈÏ Ê cos 0 ˆ ¸ Ï Ê cos np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ¸˘
= ÍÌ(-p ) ÁË - ˜¯ ˝ + Ì(2p ) ÁË - ˜¯ + p ÁË ˜ ˝˙
p ÍÎÓ n ˛ Ó n n ¯ ˛˙˚
ÈQ sin np = sin(- np )˘
Í ˙
Î = sin 0 = 0 ˚
2 ÈÎQ cos 0 = 1,cos( np ) = (-1)n ˘˚
= [1 - (-1)n ]
n
p 2 È (-1)n - 1 ˘
• • È
1 - (-1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x ) = + ÂÍ ˙ cos nx + 2 Â Í ˙ sin nx
˚
n =1 Î
2
n =1 Í
2 p Î n ˙˚ n
p 4Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= - Á 2 cos x + 2 cos 3 x + 2 cos 5 x + L˜
2 p Ë1 3 5 ¯
Ê1 1 1 ˆ
+ 4 Á sin x + sin 3 x + sin 5 x + L˜
Ë1 3 5 ¯
example 19
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = 0 -p < x < 0
= sin x 0< x<p
1 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = + + +K
2 1◊ 3 3 ◊ 5 5 ◊ 7
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 p
a0 =
2p Ú - p f ( x ) dx
1 È 0 0 dx + p sin x dx ˘
=
2p ÍÎ Ú-p Ú0 ˙˚
1 p
= - cos x 0
2p
1
= ( - cos p + cos 0)
2p
1
= [Q cos p = -1, cos 0 = 1]
p
1 p
p Ú- p
an = f ( x ) cos nxdx
= ÈÍ Ú 0 ◊ cos nx dx + Ú sin x cos nx dx ˘˙

1 0 p
pÎ - p 0 ˚
1 p
2p Ú0
= [sin(n + 1) x - sin(n - 1) x ]dx
p
1 cos(n + 1) x cos(n - 1) x
= - + , n π1
2p n +1 n -1 0
1È cos(n + 1)p cos 0 cos(n - 1)p cos 0 ˘
= ÍÎ - + + -
2p n +1 n +1 n -1 n - 1 ˙˚
ÈQ cos(n + 1)p = ( -1)n +1 ˘
1 È ( -1) n +1
1 ( -1) n -1
1 ˘ Í n -1
˙
= Í- + + - ˙ , n π 1 Í cos(n - 1)p = ( -1) ˙
2p ÎÍ n + 1 n +1 n -1 n - 1 ˚˙ Í ˙
Î cos 0 = 1 ˚
1
=- [1 + ( -1)n ], n π 1
p (n2 - 1)
For n = 1,
1 p
p Ú0
a1 = sin x cos x dx
1 p
2p Ú0
= sin 2 x dx
p
1 cos 2 x
= -
2p 2 0
1 È cos 2p cos 0 ˘
= ÍÎ- 2 + 2 ˙˚
2p
=0 [Q cos 2p = cos 0 = 1]
1 p
p Ú- p
= ÈÍ Ú 0 ◊ sin nx dx + Ú sin x sin nx dx ˘˙

1 0 p
p Î -p 0 ˚
1 p
2p Ú0
= [cos(n - 1) x - cos( n + 1) x ] dx
p
1 sin(n - 1) x sin(n + 1) x
= - , n π1
2p n -1 n +1 0
= 0, n π 1 [Q sin(n - 1)p = sin(n + 1)p = sin 0 = 0 ]
For n = 1,
1 p
p Ú0
b1 = sin x sin x dx
1 p
2p Ú0
= (1 - cos 2 x ) dx
p
1 sin 2 x
= x-
2p 2 0
1
= (p ) [Q sin 2p = sin 0 = 0]
2p
1
=
2
1 1 • È 1 + (-1)n ˘ 1
Hence, f ( x) = - ÂÍ 2 ˙ cos nx + sin x
p p Í n - 1 ˚˙
n=2 Î 2
1 2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ 1
= - Á cos 2 x + cos 4 x + cos6 x + L˜ + sin x ... (1)
p p Ë3 15 35 ¯ 2
At x = 0,
1È ˘
f (0 ) = Í lim- f ( x ) + lim+ f ( x )˙ = 0
2 ÎxÆ0 xÆ0 ˚
1 2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
f (0 ) = 0 = - + + + K˜
p p ÁË 3 15 35 ¯
1 1 1 1
= + + +K
2 1◊ 3 3 ◊ 5 5 ◊ 7
example 20
Ï-p -p < x < 0
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = Ì
Óx - p 0< x<p
[Summer 2015]
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 p
a0 =
2p Ú-p f ( x) dx
1 È 0
( -p ) dx + Ú ( x - p ) dx ˘˙
p
=
2p Í
Î Ú - p 0 ˚
È p˘
1 Í x2
-px ˙
0
= ( -p ) x -p +
2p Í 2 ˙
Î 0˚
1 È Ê p2 ˆ˘
= Í( -p )[ -( -p )] + Á -p2˜˙
2p Î Ë 2 ¯˚
È 2 p2 ˘
1
= Í -p - ˙
Î
2p 2 ˚
1 Ê 3p 2 ˆ
= Á- ˜
2p Ë 2 ¯
3p
=-
4
1 p
an =
1È 0
(-p ) cos nx dx + Ú ( x - p ) cos nx dx ˘˙
p
p ÎÍ Ú-p
=
0 ˚
1 È sin nx
0
Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ ˘
p
= Í( -p ) + (x - p ) Á - - ˜ ˙
Ë n ˜¯
(1) ÁË
p ÍÎ n -p n2 ¯ 0 ˙˚
È p˘
Í(-p )(0) + ( x - p ) ÊÁ
1 sin nx ˆ cos nx
= ˜+ ˙ [Q sin(- np ) = sin 0 = 0]
ÍÎ Ë n ¯ n2 0˙
p ˚
1 È cos np 1 ˘
= - 2˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1]
p ÍÎ n2 n ˚
1 È ( -1)n 1 ˘
= Í - 2˙ [Q cos np = (-1)n ]
p Î n2 n ˚
1
= [( -1)n - 1]
n2p
1 p
bn =
1È 0
( -p )sin nx dx + Ú ( x - p ) sin nx dx ˘˙
p
=
p Í
Î Ú - p 0 ˚
1 È cos nx
0
Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ ˘
p
= Í( -p ) - + (x - p ) Á - ˜ - (1) ÁË - ˜ ˙
p ÍÎ n -p
Ë n ¯ n2 ¯ 0 ˙˚
1 È Ï 1 cos np ¸ Ê cos nx ˆ sin nx ˘˙

p
= Íp Ì - ˝ + - ( x - p ) ÁË ˜ + [∵ cos 0 = 1]
p ÎÍ Ó n n ˛ n ¯ n2 0 ˙˚
1 È Ê 1 cos np ˆ Ê 1ˆ˘ ÈQ sin np = sin 0 = 0 ˘

= Íp ÁË - ˜¯ + (-p ) ÁË ˜¯ ˙
p Î n n n ˚ ÎÍ cos 0 = 1 ˚˙
1 È p p (-1)n p ˘
= Í - - ˙ [Q cos np = (-1)n ]
p În n n˚
1 È (-1)n ˘
= Í-p ˙
pÎ n ˚
(-1)n
=-
n
(-1)n +1
=
n
3p 1 •
1 •
(-1)n +1
Hence, f ( x ) = - + Ân 2
[(-1)n - 1] cos nx + Â sin nx
4 p n =1 n =1 n
3p 2 Ê 1 1 ˆ Ê1 1 1 ˆ
=- - Á 2 cos x + 2 cos3 x + L˜ + Á sin x - sin 2 x + sin 3 x - L˜
4 p Ë1 3 ¯ Ë 1 2 3 ¯
example 21
p p
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = x - <x<
2 2
p 3p
=p -x <x<
2 2
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
3p
1
a0 =
2p Ú -
2
p f ( x )dx
2
1 È 2 ˘
p 3p
= Í Ú p x dx + Ú p2 (p - x )dx ˙
2p Í - ˙˚
Î 2 2
È p 3p ˘
1 Í x2 2 x2 2 ˙
= + px -
2p ÍÍ 2 p 2 p ˙˙
-
Î 2 2 ˚
1 ÈÊ p 2 p 2 ˆ Ê 3p 2 9p 2 ˆ Ê p 2 p 2 ˆ ˘
= ÍÁ - ˜ +Á - ˜ -Á - ˜˙
2p ÎË 8 8 ¯ Ë 2 8 ¯ Ë 2 8 ¯˚
=0
3p
1 2
p Ú- p
2
1È 2 ˘
p 3p
= Í Ú p x cos nx dx + Ú p2 (p - x ) cos nx dx ˙
pÍ - ˙˚
Î 2 2
È p 3p ˘
1 Í Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ 2 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ 2 ˙
= Í xÁ - (1) Á - 2 ˜ + (p - x ) Á - ( -1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ p ˙
ÍÎ -
2 2
˙˚
È p Ê
1 3np np ˆ 1 Ê 3np np ˆ ˘
= Í - ÁË sin + sin ˜ - 2 Á cos - cos ˜ ˙
Î 2n
p 2 2 ¯ n Ë 2 2 ¯˚
1È p np 2 np ˘
= Í - sin np cos + 2 sin np sin
pÎ n 2 n 2 ˙˚
È A+ B A-B ˘
ÍQ sin A + sin B = 2 sin 2 cos 2 ˙
Í ˙
Í cos A - cos B = 2 sin A + B sin B - A ˙
ÍÎ 2 2 ˙˚
=0 [Q sin np = 0]
3p
1
bn =
p Ú -
2
p f ( x )sin nx dx
2
1È 2 ˘
p 3p
= Í Ú p x sin nx dx + Ú p2 (p - x )sin nx dx ˙
pÍ - ˙˚
Î 2 2
È p 3p ˘
1 Í Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ 2 Ê coos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ 2 ˙
= Í xÁ- ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜ + (p - x ) Á - ˜ - (-1) Á - 2 ˜ ˙
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ -p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ p
Í ˙
Î 2 2 ˚
1È p np 3 np p 3np 1 3np ˘
= Í- cos + 2 sin + cos - 2 sin
p Î 2n 2 n 2 2n 2 n 2 ˙˚
1Èp Ê 3np np ˆ 3 np 1 3np ˘
= Í ÁË cos - cos ˜ + 2 sin - 2 sin ˙
p Î 2n 2 2 ¯ n 2 n 2 ˚
1È p np 3 np 1 3np ˘
= Í- sin np sin + 2 siin - 2 sin
pÎ n 2 n 2 n 2 ˙˚
1 È np 3np ˘
= 2 Í
3 sin - sin
2 ˙˚
[Q sin np = 0]
pn Î 2
•
1 1 È np 3np ˘
Hence, f ( x ) =
p
Â n2 ÍÎ3 sin 2
- sin
2 ˙˚
sin nx
n =1
Fourier series expansion with Period 2l
example 22
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x2 in the interval (0, 4). Hence, deduce
p2 1 1 1
that = 2 + 2 + 2 +K
6 1 2 3
Solution
The Fourier series of f (x) with period 2l = 4 is given by
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
•
np x • np x
= a0 + Â an cos + Â bn sin
n =1 2 n =1 2
1 2l
2l Ú0
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 4
= Ú x 2 dx
4 0
4
1 x3
=
4 3
0
1 Ê 64 ˆ
= Á ˜
4Ë 3 ¯
16
=
3
1 2l np x
l Ú0
an = f ( x ) cos dx
l
1 4 np x
= Ú x 2 cos dx
2 0 2
4
1 2Ê 2 np x ˆ Ê 4 np x ˆ Ê 8 np x ˆ
= x Á sin - (2 x ) Á - 2 2 cos + 2 Á - 3 3 sin
2 Ë np 2 ˜¯ Ë n p 2 ˜¯ Ë np 2 ˜¯ 0
1È Ê 4 ˆ˘
= Í8 ÁË 2 2 cos 2 np ˜¯ ˙
2Î n p
[Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
˚
1 È Ê 4 ˆ˘
= Í8 ˙ [Q cos 2 np = 1]
2 Î ÁË n2p 2 ˜¯ ˚
16
=
n2p 2
1 2l np x
bn = Ú
l 0
f ( x )sin
l
dx
1 4 np x
= Ú x 2 sin dx
2 0 2
4
1 2Ê 2 np x ˆ Ê 4 np x ˆ Ê 8 np x ˆ
= x Á- cos ˜ - 2 x Á - 2 2 sin ˜ + 2 Á 3 3 cos
2 Ë np 2 ¯ Ë n p 2 ¯ Ën p 2 ˜¯ 0
1È Ê 2 ˆ Ê 8 ˆ Ê 8 ˆ˘
= Í16 ÁË - coos 2 np ˜ + 2 Á 3 3 cos 2 np ˜ - 2 Á 3 3 cos 0˜ ˙
2Î np ¯ Ë np ¯ Ë np ¯˚
1 Ê 32 ˆ
= Á - ˜ [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
2 Ë np ¯
16
=-
np
•
16 16 1 np x 16 • 1 np x
Hence, f ( x) = +
3 p2
Â n2 cos 2
- Â sin
p n =1 n 2
n =1
16 16 Ê 1 px 1 1 3p x ˆ
x2 = + 2 Á 2 cos + 2 cos p x + 2 cos + L˜
3 p Ë1 2 2 3 2 ¯
16 Ê 1 px 1 1 3p x ˆ
- Á sin + sin p x + sin + L˜ ...(1)
p Ë1 2 2 3 2 ¯
16 16 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
0= + 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜
3 p Ë1 2 3 ¯
1 1 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
- = 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜ … (2)
3 p Ë1 2 3 ¯

Ê1
16 16 1 1 ˆ
16 = + ÁË 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜¯
3 p2 1 2 3
2 1 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= + + + K˜
3 p 2 ÁË 12 22 32
… (3)
¯

1 2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜
3 p Ë1 2 3 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 +K
6 1 2 3
example 23
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = 4 – x2 in the interval (0, 2). Hence,
p2 1 1 1
deduce that = 2 + 2 + 2 +K
6 1 2 3
Solution
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
• •
= a0 + Â an cos np x + Â bn sin np x
n =1 n =1
1 2l
2l Ú0
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 2
= Ú (4 - x 2 )dx
2 0
2
1 x3
= 4x -
2 3
0
1Ê 8ˆ
= 8- ˜
2 ÁË 3¯
8
=
3
1 2l np x
an = Ú
l 0
f ( x ) cos
l
dx
2
= Ú (4 - x 2 ) cos np x dx
0
2
Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ
= (4 - x 2 ) Á - (-2 x ) Á - 2 2 ˜ + (-2) Á - 3 3 ˜
Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯ Ë np ¯ 0
Ê cos 2 np ˆ
= -4 Á 2 2 ˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Ë n p ¯
4
=- [Q cos 2 np = 1]
n p2
2
1 2l np x
bn = Ú
l 0
f ( x )sin
l
dx
2
= Ú (4 - x 2 )sin np x dx
0
2
Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ
= (4 - x 2 ) Á - - (-2 x ) Á - 2 2 ˜ + (-2) Á 3 3 ˜
Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯ Ë np ¯ 0
Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ

= -2 Á 3 3 ˜ + 4 Á + 2Á 3 3 ˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Ë np ¯ Ë np ˜¯ Ën p ¯
4
= [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
np
• •
8 4 1 4 1
Hence, f ( x) = -
3 p2
Â n2 cos np x + p Â n sin np x
n =1 n =1
8 4 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
4 - x2 = - 2 ÁË 2 cos p x + 2 cos 2p x + 2 cos3p x + L˜¯
3 p 1 2 3
4 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
+ Á sin p x + sin 2p x + sin 2p x + L˜¯ ...(1)
p Ë1 2 3

8 4 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
4= - 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜
3 p Ë1 2 3 ¯
1 1 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= - 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜ … (2)
3 p 1Ë 2 3 ¯
Ê1
8 4 1 1 ˆ
0= -
ÁË 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜¯
3 p2
1 2 3
2 1 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
- = - 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜ … (3)
3 p Ë1 2 3 ¯
1 2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
- = - 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜
3 p Ë1 2 3 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 +K
6 1 2 3
example 24
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = 2x – x2 in the interval (0, 3). Hence,
p2 1 1 1
deduce that = 2 + 2 + 2 +º [Summer 2016]
6 1 2 3
Solution
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
•
2 np x • 2 np x
n =1 3 n =1 3
1 2l
2l Ú0
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 3
= Ú (2 x - x 2 )dx
3 0
3
1 x3
= x2 -
3 3
0
1Ê 27 ˆ
= Á9 - ˜
3Ë 3¯
=0
1 2l np x
l Ú0
an = f ( x ) cos dx
l
2 3 2 np x
= Ú (2 x - x 2 ) cos dx
3 0 3
2 Ê 3 2 np x ˆ Ê 9 2 np x ˆ
= (2 x - x 2 ) Á sin ˜ - (2 - 2 x ) Á - 2 2 cos
3 Ë 2 np 3 ¯ Ë 4n p 3 ˜¯
3
Ê 27 2 np x ˆ
+ (-2) Á - 3 3 sin
Ë 8n p 3 ˜¯ 0
2È Ê 9 ˆ Ê 9 ˆ˘
= Í4 ÁË - 2 2 cos 2 np ˜¯ + 2 ÁË - 2 2 cos 0˜¯ ˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0]
3Î 4n p 4n p ˚
2È 9 ˘
= (-4 - 2)˙ [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
3 ÍÎ 4 n2p 2 ˚
9
=-
n p2
2
1 2l np x
bn = Ú
l 0
f ( x )sin
l
dx
2 3 2 np x
= Ú (2 x - x 2 )sin dx
3 0 3
2 Ê 3 2 np x ˆ Ê 9 2 np x ˆ
= (2 x - x 2 ) Á - cos - (2 - 2 x ) Á - 2 2 sin
3 Ë 2 np 3 ˜¯ Ë 4n p 3 ˜¯
3
Ê 27 2 np x ˆ
+(-2) Á 3 3 cos
Ë 8n p 3 ˜¯ 0
2È Ê 3 ˆ Ê 27 ˆ
= Í(-3) ÁË - cos 2 np ˜ - (2) Á 3 3 cos 2 np ˜
3Î 2 np ¯ Ë 8n p ¯
Ê 27 ˆ˘
+ 2 Á 3 3 cos 0˜ ˙
Ë 8n p ¯˚
[Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
2Ê 9 ˆ
= Á ˜ [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
3 Ë 2 np ¯
3
=
np
•
9 1 2 np x 3 • 1 2 np x
Hence, f ( x) = -
p2
Â n2 cos
3
+ Â sin
p n =1 n 3
n =1
9 Ê1 2p x 1 4p x 1 6p x ˆ
2 x - x2 = - 2 Á
cos + 2 cos + 2 cos + L˜
p Ë1 2 3 2 3 3 3 ¯
3 Ê1 2p x 1 4p x 1 6p x ˆ
+ Á sin + sin + sin + L˜ … (1)
p Ë1 3 2 3 3 3 ¯
9 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
0=- 2 Á
+ 2 + 2 + K˜
p 1 Ë 2
2 3 ¯
1 1 1
0 = 2 + 2 + 2 +K … (2)
1 2 3
9 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
-3 = - 2 Á
+ 2 + 2 + K˜
p 1 Ë 2
2 3 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 +K … (3)
3 1 2 3
p2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= + + +K
6 12 22 32
example 25
Ï x 0£ x£2
For the function f(x) = Ì , find its Fourier series.
Ó4 - x 2 £ x £ 4
1 1 1 p2
Hence, show that + + +L = . [Winter 2015]
12 32 52 8
Solution
The Fourier series of f(x) with period 2l = 4 is given by
•
np x • np x
f(x) = a0 + Â an cos + Â bn sin
n =1 l n =1 l
•
np x • np x
n =1 2 n =1 2
c + 2l
1
a0 =
2l Ú f ( x ) dx
c
4
1
4 Ú0
= f ( x ) dx
1È ˘
2 4
= Í Ú x dx + Ú (- x + 4) dx ˙
4 ÍÎ 0 2 ˙˚
È 2 4˘
1 Í x2 - x2
= + + 4x ˙
4Í 2 2 ˙
Î 0 2˚
1
= È(2 - 0) + {( -8 + 16) - ( -2 + 8)}˘˚
4Î
1
=
4
[2 + (8 - 6)]
=1
c + 2l
1 np x
an =
l Ú f ( x ) cos
l
dx
c
4
1 np x
2 Ú0
= f ( x ) cos dx
2
1È np x ˘
2 4
np x
= Í Ú x cos dx + Ú (4 - x ) cos dx ˙
2 ÍÎ 0 2 2
2 ˙˚
È Ê
2
Í Ê sin np x ˆ np x ˆ
Á cos
1Í Á ˜
2 - (1) - 2 ˜
= Í ( x) Á ˜ Á ˜
2
Í ÁË
np
˜ Á n p2 ˜
2
2 ¯ ÁË ˜
ÍÎ 4 ¯ 0
4˘
Ê np x ˆ Ê np x ˆ ˙
sin cos
Á 2 ˜ Á ˜ ˙
+ (4 - x ) Á - (-1) Á - 2 22 ˜
np ˜ ˙
Á ˜ Á n p ˜ ˙
Ë 2 ¯ Ë 4 ¯ 2˙
˚
1 È 2x
2
Ê np x ˆ 4 Ê np x ˆ
= Í sin Á + cos Á
2 Í np Ë 2 ˜¯ n2p 2 Ë 2 ˜¯
Î 0
4˘
2(4 - x ) Ê np x ˆ 4 Ê np x ˆ
+ sin Á - cos Á ˙
np Ë 2 ˜¯ n2p 2 Ë 2 ˜¯ 2˙
˚
1È 4 4 4 4 ˘
= cos( np ) - 2 2 - 2 2 cos(2 np ) + 2 2 cos( np )˙
2 ÍÎ n2p 2 n p n p n p ˚
1È 8 8 ˘
= Í 2 2
cos np - 2 2 ˙ [Q cos 2 np = 1]
2 În p n p ˚
4 È
= (-1)n - 1˘˚ [Q cos np = (-1)n ]
n2p 2 Î
c + 2l
1 np x
bn =
l Ú f ( x ) sin
l
dx
c
4
1 np x
=
20Ú f ( x ) sin
2
dx
1È np x ˘
2 4
np x
= Í Ú x sin dx + Ú (4 - x )sin dx ˙
2 ÍÎ 0 2 2
2 ˙˚
È Ê
2
Í Ê cos np x ˆ np x ˆ
Á sin
1Í Á
= Í ( x) Á -
˜
2 - (1) - 2 ˜
˜ Á 2 2 ˜
2 np Á n p ˜
Í ÁË ˜
¯ ÁË ˜
ÍÎ 2 4 ¯ 0
4˘
Ê np x ˆ Ê np x ˆ ˙
cos Á sin
Á
+ (4 - x ) Á -
˜
2 - (-1) - 2 ˜ ˙
˜ Á 2 2 ˜ ˙
Á
np
˜ Á n p ˜ ˙
Ë ¯ ÁË ˜
2 4 ¯ 2˙
˚
1 È -2 x
2
Í Ê np x ˆ 4 Ê np x ˆ
cos Á +
Ë 2 ˜¯ n2p 2
sin Á
Ë 2 ˜¯
=
2 Í np
Î 0
4˘
-2(4 - x ) Ê np x ˆ 4 Ê np x ˆ
+ cos Á - ˙
Ë 2 ˜¯ n2p 2
sin Á
np Ë 2 ˜¯ 2˙
˚
1È 4 4 ˘
= Í - cos np + cos np ˙
2 Î np np ˚
=0
4 {
È (-1)n - 1
• } ˘˙ cos np x
Hence, f(x) = 1 + Â Í n2
p 2 n =1 Í ˙ 2
Î ˚
8 È1 px 1 3p x 1 5p x ˘
= 1- cos + 2 cos + 2 cos + L˙
2 Í 2
p Î1 2 3 2 5 2 ˚
•
8 1 (2 n + 1)p x
= 1-
p2
Â (2 n + 1) 2
cos
2
...(1)
n=0

• È ˘
8 1
2 = 1- 2 Â Í (2n + 1)2 ˙ cos (2n + 1)p
p n=0 Î ˚
•
8 1
2 = 1+
p 2 Â (2n + 1)2
n=0
•
8 1
1=
p2
Â (2n + 1)2
n=0
•
p2 1
8
= Â (2n + 1)2
n=0
1 1 1 p2
+ + +L =
12 32 52 8
example 26
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = p x 0 < x <1
=0 1< x < 2
Solution
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2l
2l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 1
( 2
= Ú p x dx + Ú 0 ◊ dx
2 0 1
)
1
1 p x2
=
2 2
0
1Êpˆ
=
2 ÁË 2 ˜¯
p
=
4
1 2l np x
l Ú0
an = f ( x ) cos dx
l
1 2
= Ú p x cos np x dx + Ú 0 ◊ cos np x dx
0 1
1
Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ
= pxÁ -p Á- 2 2 ˜
Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯ 0
È Ê cos np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘
= Íp Á 2 2 ˜ - p Á 2 2 ˜ ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Î Ë n p ¯ Ë n p ¯˚
1 ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
= 2 [(-1)n - 1]
n p
1 2l np x
l 0 l
1 2
= Ú p x sin np x dx + Ú 0 ◊ sin np x dx
0 1
1
Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ
= pxÁ- ˜ -p Á- 2 2 ˜
Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ 0
p cos np
=- [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
np
(-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
=-
n
p 1 • È (-1)n - 1 ˘ •
(-1)n
Hence, f ( x) = + Â n2 Í ˙ cos np x - Â n sin np x
4 p Í
n =1 Î ˚˙ n =1
p 1Ê 2 2 ˆ
= + - cos p x - 2 cos3p x - L˜
4 p ÁË 12 3 ¯
Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
- Á - sin p x + sin 2p x - sin 3p x + L˜
Ë 1 2 3 ¯
example 27
Find the Fourier series of the periodic function with a period 2 of
f ( x) = p 0 £ x £1
= p (2 - x ) 1£ x £ 2 [Summer 2013]
Solution
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2l
2l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
= ÈÍ Ú p dx + Ú p (2 - x ) dx ˘˙
1 1 2
2 Î 0 1 ˚
È 2 ˘
x2 ˙
= Í| x |10 + 2 x -
p
2 ÍÎ 2 1 ˙˚
pÈ Ê 1ˆ ˘
= Í(1) + ÁË 4 - 2 - 2 + ˜¯ ˙
2Î 2 ˚
3p
=
4
1 2l
an = Ú f ( x ) cos np x dx
l 0
1 2
= Ú p cos np x dx + Ú p (2 - x ) cos np x dx
0 1
1 2
Ê sin np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ
= pÁ + p (2 - x ) Á - (-p ) Á - 2 2 ˜
Ë np ˜¯ 0 Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯ 1
Ê cos 2 np cos np ˆ
= Á- + 2 ˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Ë n2p n p ¯
1
= 2 ÈÎ(-1)n - 1˘˚ ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n , cos 2 np = 1˘˚
n p
1 2l
bn = Ú f ( x ) sin np x dx
l 0
1 2
= Ú p sin np x dx + Ú p (2 - x )sin np x dx
0 1
1 2
Ê cos np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ
= p Á- ˜ + p (2 - x ) Á - ˜ - (-p ) Á - 2 2 ˜
Ë np ¯ 0 Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ 1
È Ê cos np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ Ê cos np ˆ ˘

= Íp Á - ˜¯ + p ÁË ˜¯ + p ÁË - ˜˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Î Ë np np np ¯ ˚
Ê 2 cos np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ
= Á- ˜ +Á ˜
Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯
1 - 2(-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
=
n
3p 1 • È ( -1)n - 1 ˘ • È
1 - 2( -1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x ) = + ÂÍ ˙ cos np x + Â Í ˙ sin np x
4 p n =1 ÎÍ n2 ˚˙ Í
n =1 Î n ˚˙
3p 2 Ê cos p x cos3p x cos 5p x ˆ
= - Á 2 + + + L˜
4 pË 1 32
5 2 ¯
Ê3 1 3 ˆ
+ Á sin p x - sin 2p x + sin 3p x - L˜
Ë1 2 3 ¯
example 28
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = p x 0 £ x <1
=0 x =1
= p ( x - 2) 1< x £ 2
p 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = - + -K
4 1 3 5
Solution
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2l
2l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
= ÈÍ Ú p x dx + Ú p ( x - 2) dx ˘˙
1 1 2
2Î 0 1 ˚
È 1 2˘
1 Í x2 x2
= p +p - 2x ˙
2Í 2 2 ˙
Î 0 1˚
=0
1 2l np x
an = Ú
l 0
f ( x ) cos
l
dx
1 2
= Ú p x cos np x dx + Ú p ( x - 2) cos np x dx
0 1
È Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ
1
Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ ˘˙
2
Í
= p xÁ ˜ - (1) ÁË - 2 2 ˜¯ + ( x - 2) ÁË np ˜¯ - (1) ÁË - 2 2 ˜¯
Í Ë np ¯ n p n p ˙
Î 0 1˚
È cos np cos 0 cos 2 np cos np ˘

= p Í 2 2 - 2 2 + 2 2 - 2 2 ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
În p n p n p n p ˚
= 0 [Q cos 0 = cos 2 np = 1]
1 2l np x
l Ú0
bn = f ( x )sin dx
l
1 2
= Ú p x sin np x dx + Ú p ( x - 2)sin np x dx
0 1
È Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ
1
Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ ˘
2
= p Í xÁ- - (1) - + ( x - 2) - - (1) - ˜ ˙
Í Ë np ˜¯ ÁË ˜
n2p 2 ¯ 0
ÁË np ˜¯ ÁË
n2p 2 ¯ 1 ˙
Î ˚
È cos np cos np ˘
= p Í- - [Q sin 2 np = sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Î np np ˙˚
2(-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
=-
n
• È
( -1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x ) = 2Â Í - ˙ sin np x
n =1 Í
Î n ˙˚
Ê1 1 1 1 1 ˆ
= 2 Á sin p x - sin 2p x + sin 3p x - sin 4p x + sin 5p x - L˜ … (1)
Ë1 2 3 4 5 ¯
1
2
Ê 1ˆ Ê1 p 1 1 3p ˆ
f Á ˜ = 2 Á sin - sin p + sin - L˜
Ë 2¯ Ë1 2 2 3 2 ¯
p Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= 2 Á - + - K˜
2 Ë 1 3 5 ¯
p 1 1 1
= - + -K
4 1 3 5
example 29
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = x -1 < x < 0
=2 0 < x <1 [Winter 2012]
Solution
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
• •
n =1 n =1
l
1
2l -Úl
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1Ê ˆ
0 1
= Á Ú x dx + Ú 2 dx ˜
2 Ë -1 0 ¯
È ˘0
1 x2
= Í + 2x 0 ˙
1
2 ÍÎ 2-1 ˙˚
1È 1 ˘
= Í- + 2 ˙
2Î 2 ˚
3
=
4
1 l np x
l Ú- l
an = f ( x ) cos dx
l
= ÈÍ Ú x cos np x dx + Ú 2 cos np x dx ˘˙
1 0 1
1 Î -1 0 ˚
0 1
Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ sin np x
= xÁ - (1) Á - 2 2 ˜ +2
Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯ np 0
-1
cos 0 cos np
= 2 2
- [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
n p n2p 2
1
= 2 2 ÈÎ1 - (-1)n ˘˚ ÈÎQ cos 0 = 1, cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
n p
1 l np x
bn =
l Ú - l
f ( x )sin
l
dx
1È 0 ˘
1
= Í Ú x sin np x dx + Ú 2 sin np x dx ˙
1 ÍÎ -1 0 ˙˚
0 1
Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ cos np x
= xÁ- ˜¯ - (1) Á - 2 2 ˜ +2 -
Ë np Ë n p ¯ np 0
-1
cos np 2 cos np 2 cos 0
=- - + [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
np np np
1 È
Î -3( -1) + 2 ˘˚ ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1) , cos 0 = 1˘˚
n n
=
np
1 È
Î2 - 3( -1) ˘˚
n
=
np
3 1 È 1 - ( -1)n ˘
•
1 • È 2 - 3( -1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x) = +
4 p2
Â ÍÍn2 ˙˚
˙ cos np x + Â Í n ˙˙ sin np x
p n =1 ÍÎ
n =1 Î ˚
3 1 Ê2 2 2 ˆ
= + 2 Á 2 cos p x + 2 cos 3p x + 2 cos 5p x + L˜
4 p 1Ë 3 5 ¯
1Ê5 1 5 1 ˆ
+ Á sin p x - sin 2p x + sin 3p x - sin 4p x + L˜
p Ë1 2 3 4 ¯
3 2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= + ÁË 2 cos p x + 2 cos 3p x + 2 cos 5nx + L˜¯
4 p2 1 3 5
5Ê 1 ˆ 1Ê1 1 ˆ
+ Á sin p x + sin 3p x + L˜¯ - ÁË sin 2p x + sin 4p x + L˜¯
pË 3 p 2 4
example 30
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = 4 - x 3< x< 4
= x-4 4< x<5
Solution
The Fourier series of f (x) with period 2l = 5 – 3 = 2 is given by
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
• •
n =1 n =1
1 c + 2l
2l Úc
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 5
= Ú f ( x )dx
2 3
= ÈÍ Ú (4 - x )dx + Ú ( x - 4)dx ˘˙
1 4 5
2Î 3 4 ˚
È 4 5 ˘
1 x2 x2
= Í 4x - + - 4x ˙
2Í 2 2 ˙
Î 3 4˚
1 ÈÏÊ 16 ˆ Ê 9 ˆ ¸ ÏÊ 25 ˆ Ê 16 ˆ ¸˘
= ÍÌÁË 16 - ˜¯ - ÁË 12 - ˜¯ ˝ + ÌÁË - 20˜¯ - ÁË - 16˜¯ ˝˙
2 ÎÍÓ 2 2 ˛ Ó 2 2 ˛˚˙
1
=
2
1 c + 2l np x
l c l
4 5
= Ú (4 - x ) cos np x dx + Ú ( x - 4) cos np x dx
3 4
4 5
Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ
= (4 - x ) Á - ( -1) Á - 2 2 ˜ + ( x - 4) Á - (1) Á - 2 2 ˜
Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯3 Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯ 4
1 1
=- (cos 4 np - cos3np ) + (cos 5np - cos 4 np ) [Q sin 3np = sin 5np = 0]
n2p 2 n2p 2
1
=- [( -1)4 n - ( -1)3n - ( -1)5n + ( -1)4 n ]
n2p 2
2
= 2 2 [( -1)n - 1]
n p
1 c + 2l np x
l c l
4 5
= Ú (4 - x )sin np x dx + Ú ( x - 4)sin np x dx
3 4
4
= (4 - x ) Á - - ( -1) Á - 2 2 ˜
Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯ 3
5
+ ( x - 4) Á - ˜ - ( -1) Á - 2 2 ˜
Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ 4
1 1
= cos 3np - cos 5np [Q sin 4 np = sin 3np = sin 5np = 0]
np np
= 0 ÈÎQ cos 3np = cos 5np = ( -1)n ˘˚
1 2 • È (-1)n - 1 ˘
Hence, f ( x ) = +
2 p2
Â ÍÎ n2 ˙˚ cos np x
n =1
1 2 Ê 2 2 2 ˆ
= + ÁË - 2 cos p x - 2 cos 3p x - 2 cos 5p x - L˜¯
2 p2 1 3 5
1 4 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= - 2 Á 2 cos p x + 2 cos 3p x + 2 cos 5p x + L˜
2 p Ë1 3 5 ¯
example 31
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = 0 -5< x < 0
=3 0< x<5
Solution
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
•
np x • np x
n =1 5 n =1 5
1 l
2l Ú - l
a0 = f ( x )dx
=
1 0
10 -5
(
Ú
5
0 dx + Ú 3dx
0
)
1 5
= 3x 0
10
1
= (15)
10
3
=
2
1 l np x
l -l l
1Ê 0 np x 5 np x ˆ
= Á Ú 0 ◊ cos dx + Ú 3cos dx ˜
5 Ë -5 5 0 5 ¯
5
3 5 np x
= sin
5 np 5 0
=0 [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
1 l np x
bn =
l Ú - l
f ( x )sin
l
dx
1Ê 0 np x 5 np x ˆ
= Á Ú 0 ◊ sin dx + Ú 3 sin dx ˜
5 Ë -5 5 0 5 ¯
5
3 5 Ê np x ˆ
= - cos
5 np ÁË 5 ˜¯ 0
3
= [ - cos np + cos 0]
np
3
= [1 - (-1)n ] ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ,cos 0 = 1˘˚
np
3 3 • È 1 - (-1)n ˘ np x
Hence, f ( x) = + ÂÍ ˙ sin
2 p Í
n =1 Î n ˚˙ 5
3 3Ê2 px 2 3p x ˆ
= + Á sin + sin + L˜
2 p Ë1 5 3 5 ¯
example 32
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = x -1 < x < 0
Solution = x+2 0 < x <1
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
• •
n =1 n =1
1 l
a0 = Ú f ( x ) dx
2l - l
= ÈÍ Ú xdx + Ú ( x + 2)dx ˘˙
1 0 1
2Î -1 0 ˚
È 2 0 1˘
1 x x2
= Í + + 2x ˙
2Í 2 2 ˙
Î -1 0˚
1È 1 Ê1 ˆ˘
= Í - + Á + 2˜ ˙
2Î 2 Ë 2 ¯˚
=1
1 l np x
an =
l Ú - l
f ( x ) cos
l
dx
= ÈÍ Ú x cos np x dx + Ú ( x + 2) cos np x dx ˙˘
0 1
Î - 1 0 ˚
0 1
Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ
= xÁ ˜ - (1) Á - 2 2 ˜ + ( x + 2) Á ˜ - (1) Á - 2 2 ˜
Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ -1
Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ 0
È Ï cos 0 cos( - np ) ¸ Ï cos np cos 0 ¸ ˘

= ÍÌ 2 2 - ˝+Ì - 2 2 ˝˙ [Q sin np = sin(- np ) = sin 0 = 0]
ÎÓ n p n2p 2 ˛ Ó n2p 2 n p ˛˚
=0 [Q cos(- np ) = cos np ]
1 l np x
bn =
l Ú - l
f ( x )sin
l
dx
= ÈÍ Ú x sin np x dx + Ú ( x + 2)sin np x dx ˘˙
0 1
Î - 1 0 ˚
0 1
Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ
= xÁ- ˜ - (1) Á - 2 2 ˜ + ( x + 2) Á - ˜ - (1) Á - 2 2 ˜
Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ -1
Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ 0
È Ï cos( - np ) ¸ Ï Ê cos np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ¸ ˘ ÈQ sin np = sin( - np )˘

= ÍÌ- ˝ + Ì3 ÁË - ˜¯ - 2 ÁË - ˜ ˝˙
ÍÎ Ó np ˛ Ó np np ¯ ˛ ˙˚ ÍÎ = sin 0 = 0 ˙˚
È -( -1)n 3( -1)n 2 ˘
=Í - + ˙ ÈÎQ cos( - np ) = cos np = ( -1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
ÍÎ np np np ˚˙
2
= [1 - 2( -1)n ]
np
2 • È 1 - 2(-1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x) = 1 + ÂÍ ˙ sin np x
p Í
n =1 Î n ˚˙
2 Ê3 1 3 ˆ
= 1+ ÁË sin p x - sin 2p x + sin 3p x - L˜¯
p 1 2 3
exercIse 7.1
Find the Fourier series of the following functions:
1. f (x) = ex 0 < x < 2p
È e 2p - 1 È 1 • cos nx - n sin nx ˘ ˘
Í ans. : Í +Â ˙˙
Î p Î 2 n =1 n2 + 1 ˚˚
2. f (x) = 1 0<x <p

=2 p < x < 2p
Hence, deduce that p = 1 - 1 + 1 - 1 + K

4 3 5 7
È 3 2 • È(-1)n - 1˘ ˘
Í ans. : + ÂÍ ˙ sin nx ˙
ÎÍ 2 p n =1 Î n ˚ ˚˙
3. f (x) = x 0<x <p

= 2p - x p < x < 2p
È p 2 • È(-1)n - 1˘ ˘
Í ans. : + ÂÍ 2 ˙ cos nx ˙
ÎÍ 2 p n =1 Î n ˚ ˚˙
4. f (x) = 1 -p < x £ 0
= -2 0<x £p
È 1 6 • sin(2n + 1)x ˘
Í ans. : - - Â ˙
Î 2 p n = 0 2n + 1 ˚
5. f (x) = - x -p < x £ 0
=0 0<x£p
È p 2 • cos(2n + 1)x •
(-1)n -1 ˘
Í ans. : - Â -Â sin nx ˙
Î 4 p n = 0 (2n + 1)2
n =1 n ˚
1
6. f (x) = -p < x < 0
2
x
= 0<x <p
p
È 1 2 •
cos(2n - 1)x 1 • 1 ˘
Í ans. : 2 - 2 Â (2 n - 1)2
- Â sin2nx ˙
2 n
Î p n =1 n =1 ˚
7. f (x) = x - p -p < x < 0
=p -x 0<x <p
p2 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = + + +K
8 12 32 52
È p 4 • 1 •
1 ˘
Í ans. : - 2 + p Â cos(2n + 1)x + 4 Â
+
sin(2n + 1)x ˙
Î n=0 (2 n + 1)2
n=0 2 n 1 ˚
8. f (x) = cos x -p < x < 0
= sin x 0<x <p
È 1 1 2 • 1 4 • n ˘
Í ans. : p + 2 (cos x + sin x) - p Â 2 cos 2nx - Â 2 sin2nx ˙
Î n =1 4 n - 1 p n =1 4 n - 1 ˚
x2
9. f (x) = 2 - 0£x£2
2
È 4 2 •
1 2 • 1 ˘
Í ans. : - 2
Î 3 p
Ân
n=0
2
cos np x + Â
p n =1 n
sin np x ˙
˚
1
10. f (x) = (p - x) 0<x<2
2
È 1 • 1 ˘
Í
Î
ans. : (p - 1) + Â
p n =1 n
sin np x ˙
˚
11. f (x) = 1 0 < x <1
=2 1< x < 2
È 2 • 1 ˘
Í ans. : 3 - Â
p n =1 (2n - 1)
sin(2n - 1)p x ˙
Î ˚
12. f (x) = x 0 < x <1
=0 1< x < 2
È 1 1 •
È(-1)n - 1˘ 1 • (-1)n -1 ˘
Í ans. : + 2
4
ÂÍ
n =1 Î n 2 ˙ cos np x + Â
n
sin np x ˙
Î p ˚ p n =1 ˚
13. f (x) = 2 -2< x < 0

=x 0<x<2
È 3 2 •
È(-1)n - 1˘ cos np x 2 • 1 np x ˘
Í ans. : + 2
2 p
Â Í
n =1 Î n 2 ˙
2
- Â sin
p n =1 n 2 ˚
˙
Î ˚
7.7 FourIer serIes oF even and odd FunctIons

A function f (x) is said to be even if f (–x) = f (x) and odd if f (–x) = – f (x) for all x,
(Fig. 7.2).
f (x) f (x)
x x
f (x) = cosx f (x) = x 2
Even functions
f (x) f (x)
x
x
f (x) = sinx
f (x) = x 3
Odd functions
Fig. 7.2 Even and odd functions
Properties of even and odd Functions

(i) The product of two even functions is even.
(ii) The product of two odd functions is even.
(iii) The product of an even function and an odd function is odd.
(iv) The sum or difference of two even functions is even.
(v) The sum or difference of two odd functions is odd.
l l
(vi) If f (x) is even, Ú-l f ( x) dx = 2 Ú0 f ( x) dx
l
(viii) If f (x) is odd, Ú-l f ( x) dx = 0
We know that the Fourier series of a function f (x) in the interval (–l, l) is given by
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
1 l
2l Úl
where a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 l np x
l -l l
1 l np x
l -l l
l l
case I When f (x) is an even function, Ú-l f ( x) dx = 2 Ú0 f ( x) dx
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
Since the product of two even functions is even,

2 l np x
an =
l Ú0
f ( x )cos
l
dx
Since the product of an even function and an odd function is odd,

bn = 0
Corollary The Fourier series of an even function f (x) in the interval (–p, p) is given
by
•
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos nx
n =1
1 p
where a0 = Ú f ( x ) dx
p 0
2 p
p 0
case II When f (x) is an odd function,

a0 = 0 and an = 0
2 l np x
bn =
l Ú0
f ( x )sin
l
dx
Corollary The Fourier series of an odd function f (x) in the interval (–p, p) is given
by
•
f ( x ) = Â bn sin nx
n =1
where a0 = 0 and an = 0
2 p
p Ú0
Thus, the Fourier series of an even function consists entirely of cosine terms while the
Fourier series of an odd function consists entirely of sine terms.
example 1
Find the Fourier series of f(x) = x in –p < x < p. [Summer 2014]
Solution
f (- x ) = - x -p < - x < p
f (- x ) = - f ( x ) p > x > -p or -p < x < p
f(x) = x is an odd function.
Hence, a0 = 0 and an = 0
The Fourier series of an odd function with period 2p is given by
•
n =1
2 p
bn =
2 p
=
p Ú0 x sin nx dx
p
= xÁ- ˜¯ - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n Ë n ¯ 0
2È cos np ˘
=
pÍÎ-p n ˙˚ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0 ]
2
= - (-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
n
•
2
Hence, f ( x ) = Â - (-1)n sin nx
n =1 n
Ê sin 2 x sin 3 x ˆ
x = 2 Á sin x - + - L˜
Ë 2 3 ¯
example 2
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x2 in the interval (–p, p). Hence, deduce
p2 1 1 1
that = 2 - 2 + 2 -K [Summer 2016]
12 1 2 3
Solution
f (x) = x2 is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
The Fourier series of an even function with period 2p is given by
•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 p
Ú0 x
2
= dx
p
p
1 x3
=
p 3
0
1 Êp 3ˆ
= Á ˜
pË 3¯
p2
=
3
2 p
p 0
2 p
= Ú x 2 cos nx dx
p 0
p
= x Á - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á - 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯0
4
= cos np [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
n2
4 ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
= (-1)n
n2
•
p2 (-1)n
Hence, f ( x) = + 4 Â 2 cos nx
3 n =1 n
p2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
x2 = + 4 Á - 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x - 2 cos3 x + L˜ … (1)
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
p2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
0= + 4 Á - 2 + 2 - 2 + K˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= 2 - 2 + 2 -K
12 1 2 3
example 3
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x3 in the interval (–p, p).
Solution
f (x) = x3 is an odd function.
•
n =1
2 p
bn =
2 p
Ú0 x
3
= sin nx dx
p
p
2 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= x3 Á - ˜ - 3x2 Á - 2 ˜ + 6 x Á 3 ˜ - 6 Á 4 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯0
2 Ê 3 cos np cos np ˆ
= -p + 6p [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p ÁË n n3 ¯
˜
Ê p2 6 ˆ
= 2(-1)n Á - + 3˜ ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
Ë n n ¯
• Ê p2 6 ˆ
Hence, f ( x ) = 2 Â (-1)n Á - + sin nx
n =1
Ë n n3 ˜¯
• •
(-1)n (-1)n
= -2p 2 Â sin nx + 6 Â 3 sin nx
n =1 n n =1 n
Ê 1 1 ˆ
x 3 = 2p 2 Á sin x - sin 2 x + sin 3 x - L˜
Ë 2 3 ¯
Ê 1 1 ˆ
- 6 Á sin x - 3 sin 2 x + 3 sin 3 x - L˜
Ë 2 3 ¯
example 4
p 2 x2
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = - in the interval ( –p, p ) and
12 4
p2 1 1 1
deduce that = 2 - 2 + 2 -K .
12 1 2 3
Solution
p 2 x2
f ( x) = - is an even function.
12 4
Hence, bn = 0

•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
pÊp x2 ˆ
2
1
=
p Ú0 ÁË 12 - 4 ˜¯
dx
p
1 p 2 x x3
= -
p 12 12
0
1 Êp p 3 3ˆ
= ÁË - ˜
p 12 12 ¯
=0
2 p
an =
pÊp x2 ˆ
2
2
=
p Ú0 ÁË 12 - 4 ˜¯
cos nx dx
p
2 Ê p 2 x 2 ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ Ê x ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê 1 ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= Á - - - - 2 ˜ +Á- ˜ Á- 3 ˜
p Ë 12 4 ˜¯ ÁË n ˜¯ ÁË 2 ˜¯ ÁË n ¯ Ë 2¯ Ë n ¯
0
2Ê p ˆ
= Á - 2 cos np ˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p Ë 2n ¯
-(-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
=
n2
•
-(-1)n
Hence, f ( x ) = Â n2
cos nx
n =1
p 2 x2 1 1 1
- = 2 cos x - 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos3 x -K … (1)
12 4 1 2 3
p2 1 1 1
= 2 - 2 + 2 -K
12 1 2 3
example 5
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = sin ax in the interval (–p, p).
Solution
f (–x) = sin a (–x) = – sin ax
f (–x) = –f (x)
f (x) = sin ax is an odd function.
•
n =1
2 p
bn =
2 p
=
p Ú0 sin ax sin nx dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 [cos(n - a) x - cos(n + a) x]dx
p
1 sin(n - a ) x sin(n + a ) x
= -
p n-a n+a 0
1 È sin( n - a) p sin(n + a)p ˘
= - [Q sin 0 = 0]
p ÍÎ n - a n + a ˙˚
1 Ê sin np cos ap - sin ap cos np sin np cos ap + sin ap cos np ˆ
= Á - ˜¯
pË n-a n+a
1 È -(-1)n sin ap (-1)n sin ap ˘
= Í - ˙ ÈÎQ sin np = 0, cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
p ÍÎ n-a n+a ˙˚
-(-1)n sin ap Ê 1 1 ˆ
= ÁË + ˜
p n - a n + a¯
2 n(-1)n sin ap
=
p (a 2 - n2 )
•
2 sin ap (-1)n n
Hence, f ( x ) =
p
Â a2 - n2 sin nx
n =1
2 sin ap È 1 2 3 ˘
sin ax = - Í 2 2 sin x - 2 2
sin 2 x + 2 2
sin 3 x - L˙
p Î a -1 a -2 a -3 ˚
example 6
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x sin x in the interval (–p, p). Hence,
p -1 1 1 1
deduce that = - + -K
4 1◊ 3 3 ◊ 5 5 ◊ 7
Solution
f (–x) = –x sin (–x)
= x sin x
= f (x)
f (x) = x sin x is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
•
n =1
1 p
p Ú0
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 p
= Ú x sin x dx
p 0
1 p
= x(- cos x ) - (- sin x ) 0
p
1
=
p
[p (- cos p )] [Q sin p = sin 0 = 0]
= 1 [Q cos p = -1]
2 p
an =
2 p
=
p Ú0 x sin x cos nx dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 x[sin(n + 1) x - sin(n - 1) x] dx
p
1 È cos( n + 1) x cos(n - 1) x ˘ È sin(n + 1) x sin(n - 1) x ˘
= x Í- + ˙ - Í- 2
+ ˙ ,n π 1
p Î n +1 n -1 ˚ Î (n + 1) (n - 1)2 ˚
0
1 È cos( n + 1)p cos(n - 1)p ˘

= Í-p +
+p
n - 1 ˙˚
,n π 1 [Q sin(n + 1)p = sin(n - 1)p = 0]
p Î n 1
(-1)n (-1)n ÈÎQ cos( n + 1)p = cos(n - 1)p = -(-1)n ˘˚
= -
n +1 n -1
-2(-1)n
=
n2 - 1
2(-1)n +1
= , n π1
n2 - 1
For n = 1,
2 p
a1 =
p Ú0 x sin x cos x dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 x sin 2 x dx
p
1 cos 2 x sin 2 x
= -x +
p 2 4 0
1Ê cos 2p ˆ
= Á -p ˜ [Q sin 2p = sin 0 = 0]
pË 2 ¯
1
=- [Q cos 2p = 1]
2
1 •
(-1)n +1
Hence, f ( x) = 1 - + 2Â 2 cos nx
2 n=2 n - 1
1 •
(-1)n +1
x sin x = + 2Â 2 cos nx
2 n=2 n - 1
1 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= - 2 Á cos 2 x - cos3 x + cos 4 x - L˜ … (1)
2 Ë3 8 15 ¯
p
2
p p 1 Ê 1 1 3p 1 ˆ
sin = + 2 Á - cos p + cos - cos 2p + L˜
2 2 2 Ë 3 8 2 15 ¯
p 1 2 2
= - cos p - cos 2p - K
2 2 3 15
p -1 1 1
= - +K
4 1◊ 3 3 ◊ 5
example 7
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = cosh ax in the interval (–p, p).
Solution
f (–x) = cosh a(–x)
= cosh ax
= f (x)
f (x) = cosh ax is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 cosh ax dx
1 pÊ e ax + e - ax ˆ
=
p Ú0 ÁË 2 ˜ dx
¯
p
1 e ax e - ax
= +
2p a -a
0
=
1
2p a
(
e ap - e - ap )
sinh ap
=
pa
2 p
an =
2 p
=
p Ú0 cosh ax cos nx dx
2 pÊ eax + e - ax ˆ
=
p Ú0 ÁË 2 ˜ cos nx dx
¯
1
cos nx + e - ax cos nx )dx
p
= Ú0 (e
ax
p
p
1 e ax e - ax
= ( a cos nx + n s i n nx ) + (- a cos nx + n sin nx )
p a 2 + n2 a 2 + n2 0
a cos np
= (e ap - e - ap ) [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p (a 2 + n2 )
a cos np
= 2 sinh ap
p (a 2 + n2 )
(-1)n 2 a sinh ap
=
p (a 2 + n2 )
•
sinh ap 2 a (-1)n
Hence, f ( x ) = + sinh ap Â 2 2
cos nx
pa p n =1 a + n
example 8
Find the Fourier series of f(x) = e–|x| in the interval (–p, p).
Solution
f (x) = e–|x|
f (–x) = e –|–x|
= e–|x| = f (x)
–|x|
f (x) = e is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
f (x) = e x –p < x < 0
= e– x 0<x<p
•
n =1
1 p
p Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 p -x
p Ú0
= e dx
1 p
= -e- x
p 0
1
= (1 - e -p )
p
2 p
an =
2 p -x
=
p Ú0 e cos nx dx
p
2 e- x
= (- cos nx + n sin nx )
p n2 + 1
0
2 Èe -p (- cos np ) + cos 0 ˘ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1]
=
p (n + 1) Î
2 ˚
2
= [1 - (-1)n e -p ]
p (n2 + 1)
1 2 • È 1 - (-1)n e -p ˘
Hence, f ( x ) = (1 - e -p ) + ÂÍ ˙ cos nx
Í n + 1 ˚˙
2
p p n =1 Î
example 9
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = |cos x| in the interval (–p, p).
Solution
f (x) = |cos x| is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
p
f (x) = cos x 0< x<
2
p
= –cos x < x<p
2
•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
1 È p p ˘
= Í Ú 2 cos x dx + Ú p (- cos x )dx ˙
p ÍÎ 0 2 ˙˚
1 È p ˘
Í sin x 2 - sin x p ˙
p
=
p ÍÎ 0
2˚
˙
1 È p Ê p ˆ˘
= Ísin - ÁË sin p - sin ˜¯ ˙
p Î 2 2 ˚
2 È p ˘
= ÍÎQ sin 2 = 1, sin p = 0 ˙˚
p
2 p
an =
2È 2 ˘
p
p
= Í Ú cos x cos nx dx + Ú p (- cos x ) cos nx dx ˙
p ÍÎ 0 2 ˙˚
È p
1 ˘
Í Ú 2 {cos( n + 1) x + cos(n - 1) x} dx - Ú p {cos(n + 1) x + cos( n - 1) x}dx ˙
p
=
-
ÍÎ
p 0
2 ˙˚
È p
p ˘
1 Í sin( n + 1) x sin(n - 1) x 2 sin(n + 1) x sin(n - 1) x ˙
= Í + - + , n π1
p n +1 n -1 0 n +1 n -1 p ˙
ÍÎ ˙
2˚
È ˘ È Ê np p ˆ np ˘
cos
np
cos
np
ÍQ sin ÁË + ˜ = cos ˙
2Í 2 - 2 ˙ Í 2 2¯ 2 ˙
= Í ˙, n π 1
p Î n +1 n -1 ˚ Í Ê np p ˆ np ˙
Í sin Á - ˜ = - cos ˙
ÍÎ Ë 2 2¯ 2 ˙˚
4 np
=- 2
cos , n π1
p (n - 1) 2
For n = 1,
2 È p p ˘
a1 = Í Ú 2 cos2 x dx + Ú p (- cos2 x )dx ˙
p ÍÎ 0 2 ˙˚
2 È p Ê 1 + cos 2 x ˆ p Ê 1 + cos 2 x ˆ ˘
= ÍÚ 2 Á ˜ dx - Ú p Á ˜¯ dx ˙
p ÍÎ 0 Ë 2 ¯ Ë 2 ˙˚
2
È p
p ˘
=
1 Í x + sin 2 x 2 - x + sin 2 x ˙
p Í 2 0 2 p˙
ÍÎ 2˙
˚
1 Èp Ê p ˆ˘
= Í - ÁË p - ˜¯ ˙ [Q sin p = sin 2p = 0]
p Î2 2 ˚
=0
2 4 • 1 np
Hence, f ( x) = - Â 2 cos cos nx
p p n=2 n - 1 2
2 4Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
| cos x | = - - cos 2 x + cos 4 x - cos 6 x + K˜
p p ÁË 3 15 35 ¯
2 4 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= + Á cos 2 x - cos 4 x + cos 6 x - K˜
p p Ë3 15 35 ¯
example 10
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = |x| in the interval [–p, p].
p2 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = 2 + 2 + 2 +K [Winter 2016]
8 1 3 5
Solution
f (x) = |x| –p < x < p
i.e., f ( x) = - x -p < x £ 0
=x 0£ x<p
f (x) = |x| is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 x dx
p
1 x2
=
p 2
0
1 Êp ˆ 2
= Á ˜
pË 2 ¯
p
=
2
2 p
p 0
2 p
= Ú x cos nx dx
p 0
p
2 Ê sin nx ˆ cos nx
= xÁ +
p Ë n ˜¯ n2 0
2 Ê cos np cos 0 ˆ
= Á - 2 ˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p Ë n2 n ¯
2 ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
= [(-1)n - 1]
p n2
•
p 2 (-1)n - 1
Hence, f ( x) = +
2 p
Â n2
cos nx
n =1
p 4Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
|x| = - cos x + 2 cos3 x + 2 cos 5 x + K˜
2 p ÁË 12 ¯ … (1)
3 5
p 4Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
0= - + + + K˜
2 p ÁË 12 32 52 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 +K
8 1 3 5
example 11
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = - k -p < x < 0
=k 0< x<p [Winter 2014]
Solution
f (- x ) = - k -p < - x < 0 or 0< x<p
=k 0 < - x < p or -p < x < 0
f (- x ) = - f ( x )
f(x) is an odd function.

•
n =1
2 p
bn =
2 p
=
p Ú0 k sin nx dx
p
2 k cos nx
= -
p n 0
2k
= (- cos np + cos 0)
np
2k È
Î-(-1) + 1˘˚ ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ,cos 0 = 1˘˚
n
=
np
2k È
Î1 - (-1) ˘˚
n
=
np
2k • 1 È
Hence, f ( x) = Â Î1 - (-1)n ˘˚ sin nx
p n =1 n
4k Ê 1 1 ˆ
= ÁË sin x + sin 3 x + sin 5 x + L˜¯
p 3 5
example 12
Ïp + x -p < x < 0
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = Ì
Óp - x 0< x<p
[Summer 2015]
Solution
f (x) = p – x 0<x<p
f (–x) = p + x –p < x < 0
f(–x) = f(x)
f (x) is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
•
n =1
1 p
p Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 p
p Ú0
= (p - x ) dx
p
1 x2
= px -
p 2
0
1 Ê 2 p2 ˆ
= p -
p ÁË ˜
2 ¯
1 Ê p2 ˆ
= Á ˜
pË 2 ¯
p
=
2
2 p
an =
2 p
=
p Ú0 (p - x)cos nx dx
n
= (p - x ) Á ˜¯ - ( -1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n Ë n ¯ 0
p
2 Ê sin nx ˆ cos nx
= (p - x ) Á -
p Ë n ˜¯ n2 0
= Í- + 2 ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p Î n2 n ˚
2 È 1 (-1)n ˘
= Í - 2 ˙ [Q cos np = (-1)n , cos0 = 1]
p Î n2 n ˚
2 È 1 - (-1)n ˘
= Í ˙
p Î n2 ˚
p 2 • È 1 - (-1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x) = +
2 p
Â ÍÎ n2
˙ cos nx
˚
n =1
p 4Ê1 1 1 ˆ
= + cos x + 2 cos3 x + 2 cos 5 x + L˜
2 p ÁË 12 3 5 ¯
example 13
Find the Fourier series of the function f(x) given by
Ï 2x
ÔÔ1 + p
-p £ x£0
f ( x) = Ì
Ô1 - 2x
0£ x£p
ÔÓ p
2
Hence, deduce that 1 + 1 + 1 + L = p . [Winter 2016]
12 32 52 8
Solution
2(- x )
f (- x ) = 1 + -p £ - x £ 0
p
2x
=1- 0£ x£p
p
2
f (- x ) = 1 -(- x ) 0 £ x £ p
p
2x
=1+ -p £ x £ 0
p
f (- x ) = f ( x )
f(x) is an even function.

Hence, bn = 0
•
n =1
p
1
a0 =
p Ú f ( x ) dx
0
p
1 Ê 2x ˆ
=
p Ú ÁË1 - p ¯
˜ dx
0
p
1 2 x2
= x- ◊
p p 2 0
p
2
1 x
= x-
p p 0
=0
p
2
an =
0
p
2 Ê 2x ˆ
p Ú0 Ë
= Á1 - ˜ cos nx dx
p ¯
p
2 Ê 2 x ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ Ê 2 ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= Á1 - ˜Á ˜ - Á- ˜ ÁË - 2 ˜¯
p Ë p ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë p¯ n 0
p
2 ÈÊ 2 x ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ 2 ˘
= ÍÁË 1 - ˜¯ ÁË ˜¯ - 2
cos nx ˙
p Î p n pn ˚0
2 È 2 2 ˘
= - cos np + ˙ [Q sinn p = sin 0 = 0]
p ÍÎ p n2 p n2 ˚
4
= 2 2 [1 - cos np ]
n p
4
= 2 2 [1 - (-1)n ] [Q cos np = (-1)]
n p
•
4 1
Hence, f ( x) = 0 + 2 Â [1 - (-1)n ] cos nx
p n =1 n2
4 • È 1 - (-1)n ˘
=
p2
Â Í
Î n2 ˚
˙ cos nx
n =1
4◊2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= Á cos x + 2 cos3 x + 2 cos5 x +L˜¯ ...(1)
p 2 Ë 12 3 5
At x = 0,
1
f (0) = È lim f ( x ) + lim+ f ( x )˘
2 ÍÎ x Æ 0- xÆ0 ˙˚
1 2
f (0) = [1 + 1] = = 1
2 2
8 È1 1 1 ˘
f (0) = 2 Í 2
cos(0) + 2 cos(0) + 2 cos(0) + L˙
p Î1 3 5 ˚
8 È1 1 1 ˘
1 = 2 Í 2 + 2 + 2 + L˙
p Î1 3 5 ˚
1 1 1 p2
+ + +L=
12 32 52 8
example 14
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = cos x -p < x < 0
= - cos x 0< x<p
Solution
f (–x) = cos (–x) –p < –x < 0
= – cos (–x) 0 < –x < p
f (–x) = cos x 0<x<p
= – cos x –p < x < 0
f (–x) = – f (x)
f (x) is an odd function.
•
n =1
2 p
bn =
2 p
=
p Ú0 (- cos x)sin nx dx
1 p
=-
p Ú0 [sin(n + 1) x + sin(n - 1) x]dx
p
1 cos( n + 1) x cos(n - 1) x
=- - - , n π1
p n +1 n -1 0
1 È cos( n + 1)p cos(n - 1)p 1 1 ˘

= + - - , n π1
p ÍÎ n + 1 n -1 n + 1 n - 1 ˙˚
p 1 + cos np ˆ
1 Ê 1 + cos np
=- Á + , n π 1 [Q cos( np + p ) = cos(np - p ) = - cos np ]
p Ë n +1 n - 1 ˜¯
2n
=- (1 + cos np ), n π 1
p (n2 - 1)
2n
=- [1 + (-1)n ], n π 1 ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
p (n2 - 1)
For n = 1,
2 p
b1 =
p Ú0 (- cos x)sin x dx
1 p
=-
p Ú0 sin 2 x dx
p
1 cos 2 x
=- -
p 2 0
1
= (cos 2p - cos 0)
2p
= 0 [Q cos 2p = cos 0 = 1]
•
2 n
Hence, f ( x) = -
p
Â n2 - 1 [1 + (-1)n ]sin nx
n=2
2Ê2 4 6 ˆ
=- ÁË 2 sin 2 x + 2 sin 4 x + 2 sin 6 x + L˜¯
p 3 15 35
8 Ê1 2 3 ˆ
= - Á sin 2 x + sin 4 x + sin 6 x + L˜
p 3Ë 15 35 ¯
example 15
Obtain the Fourier series of periodic function f (x) = 2x, where
–1 < x< 1. [Winter 2016]
Solution
f(x) = 2x
f(–x) = – 2x = –f(x)
f(–x) = –f(x)
f(x) is an odd function.
The Fourier series of an odd function f (x) with period 2l = 2 is given by

•
np x
f ( x) = Â bn sin l
n =1
•
= Â bn sin np x
n =1
l
2 np x
bn = Ú
l 0
f ( x ) sin
l
dx
l
= 2 Ú 2 x sin np x dx
0
1
= 2 2x Á - ˜¯ - (2) Á - 2 2 ˜
Ë np Ë n p ¯ 0
1
2x 2
=2- cos np x + 2 2 sin np x
np n p 0
Ê 2 ˆ
= 2Á- cos np ˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Ë np ¯
4
=- (-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
np
4
= (-1)n +1
np
•
4
Hence, f ( x) = Â (-1)n +1 sin np x
n =1 np
example 16
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = 1 – x2 in the interval (–1, 1).
Solution
f (–x) = 1 – (– x)2 = 1 – x2 = f (x)
2
f (x) = 1 – x is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
The Fourier series of an even function with period 2l = 2 is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
•
= a0 + Â an cos np x
n =1
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1
= Ú (1 - x 2 ) dx
0
1
x3
= x-
3
0
1
= 1-
3
2
=
3
2 l np x
l Ú0
an = f ( x ) cos dx
l
l
= 2 Ú (1 - x 2 ) cos np x dx
0
1
Ê sin np x ˆ
2 Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ
= 2 (1 - x ) Á - (-2 x ) Á - 2 2 ˜ + (-2) Á - 3 3 ˜
Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯ Ë np ¯ 0
Ê cos np ˆ
= 2 Á -2 2 2 ˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Ë n p ¯
-4(-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
=
n2p 2
•
2 4 (-1)n
Hence, f ( x) = -
3 p2
Â n2
cos np x
n =1
2 4 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
1 - x2 = - ÁË - 2 cos p x + 2 cos 2p x - 2 cos3p x + L˜¯
3 p2 1 2 3
example 17
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x2 – 2 in –2 £ x £ 2. [Winter 2014]
Solution
f (x) = x2 – 2 is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
•
np x
= a0 + Â an cos
n =1 2
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 2
= Ú ( x 2 - 2) dx
2 0
2
1 x3
= - 2x
2 3 0
1Ê8 ˆ
= - 4˜
2 ÁË 3 ¯
2
=-
3
2 l np x
an =
l Ú0
f ( x ) cos
l
dx
2 2 np x
= Ú ( x 2 - 2) cos dx
2 0 2
2
2 Ê 2 np x ˆ Ê 4 np x ˆ Ê 8 np x ˆ
= ( x - 2) Á sin ˜¯ - (2 x ) Á - 2 2 cos ˜ + (2) Á - 3 3 sin
Ë np 2 Ë n p 2 ¯ Ë np 2 ˜¯ 0
Ê 4 ˆ
= - (4) Á - 2 2 cos np ˜
Ë n p ¯
16
= cos np [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
n2p 2
16 ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n ˘˚
= ( -1)n
n2p 2
•
2 16 1 np x
Hence, f ( x) = - +
3 p2
Â n2 (-1)n cos 2
n =1
2 16 Ê px 1 1 3p x ˆ
x 2 - 2 = - - 2 Á cos - cos p x + cos - L˜
3 p Ë 2 4 9 2 ¯
example 18
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x|x| in the interval (–1, 1).
Solution
f (x) = x|x|
f (–x) = –x |–x|
= – x |x| = – f (x)
f (x) = x|x| is an odd function.
f (x) = –x2 –1 < x < 0

= x2 0<x<1
The Fourier series of an odd function with period 2 l = 2 is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
•
= Â bn sin np x
n =1
2 l np x
bn =
l Ú0
f ( x )sin
l
dx
1
= 2 Ú x 2 sin np x dx
0
1
Ê cos np x ˆ
2 Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ
= 2 x Á- ˜ - 2x Á - 2 2 ˜ + 2 Á 3 3 ˜
Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ Ë np ¯ 0
È cos np 2 cos np 2 cos 0 ˘

= 2 Í- + 3 3 - 3 3 ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Î np np np ˚
È (- 1) n
2(- 1) n
2 ˘
= 2 Í- + 3 3 - 3 3˙ ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
ÍÎ np np n p ˙˚
• È
(- 1)n 2 (- 1)n 2 ˘
Hence, f (x) = 2 Â Í- + 3 3 - 3 3 ˙ sin np x
n =1 Í
Î np np n p ˙˚
example 19
Find the Fourier series of f(x) = x – x3 in –1 < x < 1. [Winter 2013]
Solution
f(–x) = –x + x3 –1 < x < 1
= –(x – x3)
= –f(x)
f(x) = x – x3 is an odd function.
The Fourier series of an odd function with period 2l = 2 is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
•
= Â bn sin np x
n =1
2 l np x
l Ú0
bn = f ( x )sin dx
l
1
= 2 Ú ( x - x 3 )sin np x dx
0
1
Ê np x ˆ 2 Ê sin np x ˆ Ê cos np x ˆ Ê sin np x ˆ
= 2 ( x - x 3 ) Á - cos ˜ - (1 - 3 x ) Á - 2 2 ˜ + (-6 x ) Á 3 3 ˜ - (-6) Á 4 4 ˜
Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ 0
È cos np ˘
= 2 Í-6 3 3 ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Î np ˚
(-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
= -12
n 3p 3
•
12 (-1)n
Hence, f ( x) = -
p3
Â n3
sin np x
n =1
12 Ê sin 2p x sin 3p x ˆ
x - x3 = 3 Á
sin p x - + - L˜
p Ë 2 3
33 ¯
example 20
1 1
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = +x - <x<0
2 2
1 1
= -x 0< x<
2 2
Solution
1 1 1
f (- x ) = -x - < - x < 0 or 0< x<
2 2 2
1 1 1
= +x 0 < -x < or - < x < 0
2 2 2
f (− x) = f ( x)
f (x) is an even function.
Hence, bn = 0
•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
•
= a0 + Â an cos 2 np x
n =1
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x )dx
1
1 Ê 1 ˆ
=
1 Ú 2
0 ÁË 2
- x ˜ dx
¯
2
1
x x2 2
=2 -
2 2
0
Ê 1 1ˆ
= 2Á - ˜
Ë 4 8¯
1
=
4
2 l np x
l 0 l
1
2 Ê 1 ˆ
=
1 Ú 2
0 ÁË 2
- x ˜ cos 2np x dx
¯
2
1
Ê1 ˆ Ê sin 2 np x ˆ Ê cos 2 np x ˆ 2
= 4 Á - x˜ Á - (-1) Á -
Ë2 ¯ Ë 2 np ˜¯ Ë 4 n2p 2 ˜¯ 0
ÈÊ cos np cos 0 ˆ ˘
= 4 ÍÁ - 2 2 + 2 2 ˜ ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
ÎË 4 n p 4n p ¯ ˚
1È1 - (-1)n ˘ ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
=
n p2 Î
2 ˚
1 1 • È 1 - (-1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x) = +
4 p2
Â Í n2 ˙ cos 2np x
Í
n =1 Î ˚˙
exercIse 7.2
Find the Fourier series of the following functions:
x(p 2 - x 2 ) -p < x < p
1. f (x) = È •
(-1)n +1 ˘
12 Í ans. : Â sin nx ˙
Î n =1 n ˚
2. f (x) = cos ax -p < x < p
È sin ap 2a sin ap •
(-1)n ˘
Í ans. :
Î p
+
p
Â
n =1 a - n
2 2
cos nx ˙
˚
3. f (x) = x cos x -p < x < p

È 1 •
(-1)n ˘
Í ans. : - sin x + Â 2 sin nx ˙
Î 2 n=2 n - 1 ˚
4. f (x) = |sin x| -p < x < p
È 2 4 • 1 ˘
Í ans. : - Â 2 cos 2nx ˙
Î p p n =1 4 n - 1 ˚
5. f (x) = 1 - cos x -p < x < p

È 2 2 4 2 • 1 ˘
Í ans. :
Î p
- Â
p n =1 4 n - 1
2
cos nx ˙
˚
6. f (x) = sinh ax -p < x < p
È 2 •
(-1)n +1 n ˘
Í
Î
ans. :
p
sinh ap Â
n =1 a + n
2 2
sin nx ˙
˚
-(p + x)
7. f (x) = -p < x < 0
2
p -x
= 0<x<p
2 È •
1 ˘
Í ans. : Â sin nx ˙
Î n =1 n ˚
p -p < x < 0
8. f (x) = x +
2
p
= -x 0<x <p
2 È •È1 - (-1)n ˘ ˘
Í ans. : 2 Â Í ˙ cos nx ˙
Í p2 n =1 Í n2 ˙ ˙
Î Î ˚ ˚
9. f (x) = |x| -2 < x < 2
È 4 •
È(-1)n - 1˘ ˘
Í ans. : 1 - 2 Â Í 2 ˙ cos np x ˙
ÎÍ p n =1 Î n ˚ ˚˙
10. f (x) = a 2 - x 2 -a < x < a
È 2a 2 4 a 2 •
(-1)n np x ˘
Í ans. :
Î 3
- 2
p
Â
n =1 n
2
cos
a ˚
˙
11. f (x) = sin ax -l < x < l

È •
(-1)n +1 np x ˘
Í
Î
ans. : sin al Â
n =1 n p - a l
2 2 2 2
sin
l ˚
˙
7.8 halF-range FourIer serIes

Any arbitrary function f (x) with period 2l which is defined in half of the interval (0, l)
can also be represented in terms of sine and cosine functions. A half-range expansion
containing only cosine terms is known as a half-range cosine series. Similarly, a half-
range expansion containing only sine terms is known as a half-range sine series.
To represent any function f (x) in the half-range cosine series in the interval (0, l), we
extend the function by reflecting it in the vertical axis (i.e., y axis ) so that f (–x) = f (x).
The extended function is an even function in (–l, l ) and is periodic with period 2l. The
half-range cosine series of such a function is given by
•
np x
f ( x) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
1 l
where a0 =
l Ú0 f ( x) dx
2 l np x
an =
l Ú0 f ( x)cos l
dx
Corollary If any function with period 2p is defined in the interval (0, p ) then the
half-range cosine series of such a function is given by
•
n =1
1 p
where a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
2 p
an =
Similarly, to represent any function f (x) in the half-range sine series in the interval
(0, l), we extend the function by reflecting it in the origin so that f (–x) = –f (x). The
extended function is an odd function in (–l, l ) and is periodic with period 2l. The half-
range sine series of such a function is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
2 l np x
where bn =
l Ú0 f ( x)sin l
dx
Corollary If any function with period 2p is defined in the interval (0, p) then the
half-range sine series of such a function is given by
•
n =1
2 p
where bn =
example 1
Find the half-range cosine series of f (x) = x in the interval (0, p).
Solution
The half-range cosine series of f (x) with period 2p is given by
•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 x dx
p
1 x2
=
p 2
0
1 Ê p2 ˆ
= Á ˜
pË 2 ¯
p
=
2
2 p
an =
2 p
=
p Ú0 x cos nx dx
p
= xÁ ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
= Í 2 - 2 ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p Î n n ˚
2
= 2
[(-1)n - 1] ÈÎQ cosn p = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
pn
p 2È (-1)n - 1 ˘•
Hence, f ( x) = + 2 ÂÍ˙ cos nx
n =1 Í
2 pÎ n ˙˚
p 2Ê 2 2 ˆ
x = + Á - 2 cos x - 2 cos3 x - L˜
2 pË 1 3 ¯
example 2
Find the Fourier cosine series of f (x) = x2 0 < x < p. [Summer 2015]
Solution
The Fourier cosine series of f(x) with period 2p is given by
•
n =1
1 p
p Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 p
= Ú x 2 dx
p 0
p
1 x3
a0 =
p 3 0
1 Êp 3ˆ
=
p ÁË 3 ˜¯
p2
=
3
2 p
an =
2 p
Ú0 x
2
= cos nx dx
p
p
= x Á - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á - 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
p
2 2 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê 2 sin nx ˆ
= x Á ˜ + 2 x ËÁ 2 ¯˜ - ËÁ ˜
p Ë n ¯ n n3 ¯ 0
2 È cos np ˘
= Í2p ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p Î n2 ˚
4 cos np
=
n2
4(-1)n
= [Q cos np = (-)n ]
n2
•
p2 (-1)n
Hence, f ( x) = + 4 Â 2 cos nx
3 n =1 n
•
p2 (-1)n
x2 = + 4 Â 2 cos nx
3 n =1 n
example 3
Find the half-range sine series of f (x) = x2 in the interval (0, p).
Solution
The half-range sine series of f (x) with period 2p is given by
•
n =1
2 p
p Ú0
2 p
= Ú x 2 sin nx dx
p 0
p
2 2 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= x Á- - (2 x ) Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
2 È 2 Ê cos np ˆ Ê cos np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘

= Í -p ÁË ˜¯ + 2 Á ˜ - 2 Á 3 ˜ ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
pÎ n Ë n ¯3 Ë n ¯˚
2 È -p 2 ( -1)n 2( -1)n 2 ˘
= Í + 3
- 3 ˙ ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
p ÍÎ n n n ˙˚
2 • È -p 2 (-1)n 2(-1)n 2˘
Hence, f ( x ) = ÂÍ + 3
- ˙ sin nx
n3 ˙˚
p n =1 Í
Î n n
example 4
Find the half-range sine series of f ( x ) = x 3 in 0 £ x £ p.
[Summer 2017]
Solution
The half-range sine series of f(x) with period 2p is given by
•
f ( x) = Â bn sin nx
n =1
p
2
bn =
p Ú f ( x ) sin x dx
0
p
2
Úx
3
= sin nx dx
p 0
p
2 3 Ê cos nx ˆ 2 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= x Á- ˜ - (3 x ) Á - 2 ˜ + (6 x ) Á 3 ˜ - (6) Á 4 ˜
p Ë x ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
p
2 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= - x3 Á ˜ + 3x2 Á 2 ˜ + 6 x Á 3 ˜ - 6 Á 4 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
2 È 3 (-1)n (-1)n ˘ ÈQ sin np = sin = 0 ˘

= Í-p + 6p 3 ˙ Í ˙
p Î n n ˚ Î cos np = (-1) ˚
2 È 6 p2 ˘
= ◊p Í 3 - ˙ (-1)
n
p În n ˚
2(-1)n
= (6 - n2p 2 )
n3
•
1
Hence, f ( x ) = 2 Â 3
(-1)n (6 - n2p 2 ) sin nx
n =1 n
example 5
Find the cosine series for f (x) = p – x in the interval 0 < x < p.
[Winter 2017]
Solution
The cosine series of f (x) with period 2p is given by
•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 (p - x) dx
p
1 x2
= px-
p 2
0
1Ê 2 p ˆ 2
= p -
p ÁË 2 ˜¯
p
=
2
2 p
an =
2 p
=
p Ú0 (p - x) cos nx dx
p
= (p - x ) Á - (-1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ 0
È cos np 1 ˘ ÈQ sin np = sin 0 = 0 ˘

2
= Í- + 2˙ Í ˙
Î p n2 n ˚ Î cos 0 = 1 ˚
2 È 1 - (-1)n ˘ È
= Í ˙ ÎQ cos np = (-1) ˘˚
n
p ÍÎ n2 ˙˚
p 2 • È 1 - (-1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x ) = + Â Í n2 ˙ cos nx
2 p n =1 Í
Î ˙˚
example 6
Find the half-range cosine series of f(x) = x(p – x) in the interval (0, p)
and, hence, deduce that
p2 1 1 1 p2 1 1 1
(i) = 2 + 2 + 2 +K (ii) = 2 - 2 + 2 -K
6 1 2 3 12 1 2 3
Solution
•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 x(p - x) dx
p
1 x2 x3
= p -
p 2 3
0
1 Ê p2 p3 ˆ
= Áp - ˜
pË 2 3¯
p2
=
6
2 p
an =
2 p
Ú0 (p x - x
2
= ) cos nx dx
p
p
= (p x - x 2 ) Á - (p - 2 x ) Á - 2 ˜ + (-2) Á - 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
È2 cos np p cos 0 ˘
= Í(p - 2p ) - ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Îp n2 n2 ˚
2 ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
= - 2 [1 + (-1)n ]
n
• È
p2 1 + (-1)n ˘
Hence, f ( x) = - 2Â Í 2 ˙ cos nx
6 n =1 Í
Î n ˙˚
p2 Ê 2 2 2 ˆ
x(p - x ) = - 2 Á 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 4 x + 2 cos6 x + L˜ … (1)
6 Ë2 4 6 ¯
p2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
0= - 4 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜
6 Ë 2 4 6 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 +K
6 1 2 3
p
2
pÊ p ˆ p2 Ê 2 2 2 ˆ
Á p - ˜ = - 2 Á 2 cos p + 2 cos 2p + 2 cos 3p + L˜
2Ë 2¯ 6 Ë2 4 6 ¯
p2 p2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= - 4 Á - 2 + 2 - 2 + K˜
4 6 Ë 2 4 6 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= 2 - 2 + 2 -K
12 1 2 3
example 7
Find the Fourier sine series of f (x) = ex in 0 < x < p. [Summer 2015]
Solution
•
n =1
2 p
p Ú0
2 p
= Ú0 e
x
sin nx dx
p
p
2 ex
= (sin nx - n cos nx )
p 1 + n2
0
2 È ep e0 ˘
= Í (- n cos np ) - (- n cos0)˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p Î1 + n 2
1+ n 2
˚
2 È ep 1 ˘
= Í (-1)n (- n) + n ◊ ˙ [Q cos np = (-1)n , cos0 = 1]
p Î1 + n 2
1 + n2 ˚
2 n
= ◊ [ep (-1)n +1 + 1]
p (1 + n2 )
•
2 n
Hence, f ( x ) =
p
Â (1 + n2 ) [ep (-1)n+1 + 1] sin nx
n =1
•
2 n
ex =
p
Â 1 + n2 [ep (-1)n+1 + 1] sin nx
n =1
example 8
Find the Fourier cosine series of f(x) = e–x, where 0 £ x £ p.
[Winter 2015]
Solution
The Fourier cosine series of f(x) with period 2p is given by
•
f(x) = a0 + Â an cos nx
n =1
p
1
p Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
p
1 -x
p Ú0
= e dx
p
1 e- x
=
p -1
0
1 È -p
= - e - e -0 ˘˚
pÎ
1 È -p ˘
= - e - 1˚
pÎ
1
= (1 - e -p )
p
p
2
an =
p Ú f ( x) cos nx dx
0
p
2 -x
p Ú0
= e cos nx dx
p
2 e- x
=
p 1 + n2
{(-1) cos nx + n sin x}
0
p
2 e- x
= ( - cos nx + n sin nx )
p 1 + n2
0
2 È e -p e0 ˘
= Í ( - cos np ) - ( -1) ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p ÍÎ 1 + n2 1 + n2 ˙˚
2 È -e -p ( -1)n 1 ˘
= Í + ˙ [Q cos np = (-1)n ]
ÍÎ 1 + n 1 + n2 ˙˚
p 2
2 1 È
= ◊ 1 - ( -1)n e -p ˘˚
p 1 + n2 Î
1 2 • [1 - ( -1)n ep ]
Hence, f(x) = (1 - e -p ) + Â cos nx
p p n =1 1 + n2
example 9
Find the half-range cosine series of f (x) = sin x in the interval (0, p) and
p 1 1 1
hence, deduce that = 1 - + - +K .
4 3 5 7
Solution
•
n =1
1 p
p Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 p
p Ú0
= sin x dx
1 p
= - cos x 0
p
1
= (- cos p + cos 0)
p
2
= [Q cos p = - 1, cos 0 = 1]
p
2 p
an =
2 p
=
p Ú0 sin x cos nx dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 [sin(n + 1) x - sin(n - 1) x] dx
p
1 cos(n + 1) x cos(n - 1) x
= - + , n π1
p n +1 n -1 0
È cos(n + 1)p cos( n - 1)p cos 0 cos 0 ˘
1
= Í- + + - , n π1
Îp n +1 n -1 n + 1 n - 1 ˙˚
2
=- 2
[1 + (-1)n ], n π 1
p (n - 1)
ÈÎQ cos( np + p ) = cos(np - p ) = - cos np = -(-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
For n = 1,
2 p
a1 =
p Ú0 sin x cos x dx
1 p
=
p Ú0 sin 2 x dx
p
1 cos 2 x
= -
p 2 0
1
= (- cos 2p + cos 0)
2p
= 0 [Q cos 2p = cos 0 = 1]
2 2 È 1 + (-1)n ˘
•
Hence, f ( x) = - ÂÍ
2 ˙ cos nx
Î n - 1 ˙˚
n=2 Í
p p
2 2Ê2 2 ˆ
sin x = - Á cos 2 x + cos 4 x + L˜ … (1)
p p 3 Ë 15 ¯
p
2
p 2 2Ê2 2 ˆ
sin = - Á cos p + cos 2p + L˜
2 p p 3 Ë 15 ¯
2 2Ê 2 2 ˆ
1 = - Á - + - K˜
p p Ë 3 15 ¯
2 2 ÈÊ 1 ˆ Ê 1 1 ˆ ˘
1= + Í 1- - - + K˙
p p ÎÁË 3 ˜¯ ÁË 3 5 ˜¯ ˚
2Ê 2 2 ˆ
1 = Á 2 - + - K˜
pË 3 5 ¯
p 1 1
= 1- + -K
4 3 5
example 10
For the function f(x) = cos 2x, find the Fourier sine series over (0, p).
[Winter 2015]
Solution
The Fourier sine series of f(x) with period 2p is given by
•
f(x) = Â bn sin nx
n=1
p
2
bn =
p Ú f ( x) sin nx dx
0
p
2
p Ú0
= cos 2 x sin nx dx
p
1
p Ú0
= 2 cos 2 x sin nx dx
p
1
=
p Ú [sin(2 + n) x - sin(2 - n) x ] dx
0
p
1 Ê cos(n + 2) x ˆ Ê cos(2 - n) x ˆ
=
p ÁË - n + 2 ˜¯ ÁË
- -
2 - n ˜¯
0
1 È cos(2p + np ) cos(2p - np ) 1 1 ˘
= Í- - + + ˙
p Î n+2 n-2 n+2 n-2˚
1 È cos np cos np 1 1 ˘
= Í - - + +
p Î n+2 n - 2 n + 2 n - 2 ˙˚
1 È n +1 Ï 1 1 ¸ Ï 1 1 ¸˘
= Í(-1) Ì + ˝+Ì + ˝˙
p ÍÎ Ó n + 2 n - 2 ˛ Ó n + 2 n - 2 ˛˙˚
[Q cos np = (-1)n )]
1 È ( -1)n +1 + 1{(n - 2 + n + 2)} ˘

= Í ˙
p ÍÎ ( n + 2) ( n - 2) ˙˚
2 n ÈÎ( -1)n + 1 + 1˘˚

= , if n π 2
n2 - 4
p
1
p Ú0
b2 = 2 cos 2 x sin 2 x dx
p
1
p Ú0
= sin 4 x dx
p
1 cos 4 x
=
p 4 0
1
= (-1 + 1)
4p
=0
Hence,
•
f(x) = 2 Â Í
{ } ˘˙ sin nx
È n (-1)n + 1 + 1
n =1
Í n2 - 4 ˙
nπ2Î ˚
example 11
Find the half-range cosine series of f (x), where
p
f ( x) = x 0< x<
2
p
=p -x < x<p
2
Solution
•
n =1
1 p
a0 = Ú f ( x ) dx
p 0
1È ˘
p
p
= Í Ú 2 x dx + Ú p (p - x )dx ˙
p ÍÎ 0
2 ˙˚
È p
p ˘
1 Í x2 2 x2 ˙
= Í + px -
pÍ 2 2 p ˙˙
0
Î 2˚
1 Èp 2 Ê 2 p 2 ˆ Ê p 2 p 2 ˆ ˘
= Í + Áp - ˜ -Á - ˜˙
pÎ 8 Ë 2 ¯ Ë 2 8 ¯˚
p
=
4
2 p
p 0
È p
2 p ˘
= Í Ú 2 x cos nx dx + Ú p (p - x ) cos nx dx ˙
ÍÎ 0
p 2 ˙˚
È p
p ˘
2 Í Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ 2 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ ˙
= Í xÁ ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜ + (p - x ) Á ˜ - (-1) Á - 2 ˜ ˙
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0 Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯
Í
p
˙
Î 2˚
ÈÊ np np ˆ Ê np np ˆ ˘
2 ÍÁ p sin 2 cos
2 - cos 0 ˜ Á cos n p p
sin
2 +
cos
2 ˜ ˙˙
= ÍÁ ◊ + ˜ +Á- - ˜
p ÍÎË 2 n n 2
n ¯ Ë
2
n 2 2 n n ¯ ˙˚
2
[Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
2 È np ˘ ÈÎQ cos 0 = 1, cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
= 2 Í
2 cos - 1 - (-1)n ˙
pn Î 2 ˚
•
p 2 1 È np ˘
Hence, f ( x) = +
4 p
Â n2 ÍÎ2 cos 2
- 1 - (-1)n ˙ cos nx
˚
n =1
p 2È1 1 1 ˘
= + (-4) cos 2 x + 2 (-4) cos 6 x + 2 (-4) cos 10 x + K˙
4 p ÍÎ 22 6 10 ˚
p 2Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= - Á 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 6 x + 2 cos 10 x + K˜
4 p Ë1 3 5 ¯
example 12
Find the half-range sine series of f (x), where
p p
f ( x) = 0£ x<
3 3
p 2p
=0 £x<
3 3
p 2p
=- £ x£p
3 3
Solution
•
n =1
2 p
p Ú0
2È p ˘
2p
p Ê pˆ
p
= Í Ú 3 sin nx dx + Ú p3 0 ◊ sin nx dx + Ú 2p Á - ˜ sin nx dx ˙
pÍ 0 3 Ë 3¯ ˙˚
Î 3 3
È p
p ˘
2 Í cos nx 3 - cos nx ˙
= Í- -
3 n 0 n 2p ˙
ÍÎ 3 ˙
˚
2 È np 2 np ˘
= - cos + cos 0 + cos np - cos
3n ÍÎ 3 3 ˙˚
ÈQ cos 0 = 1, cos np = ( -1)n ˘
2 È n np np ˘ Í ˙
= 1 + ( -1) - 2 cos cos ˙
3n ÍÎ 2 6 ˚ Ícos A + cos B = 2 cos A + B cos A - B ˙
ÍÎ 2 2 ˙˚
2 • 1È np np ˘
Hence, f ( x) = Â Í
3 n =1 n Î
1 + (-1)n - 2 cos
2
cos ˙ sin nx
6 ˚
example 13
Find the half-range sine series of f (x) = lx – x2 in the interval (0, l ) and,
hence, deduce that
p3 1 1
= 1 - 3 + 3 -º
32 3 5
Solution
The half-range sine series of f (x) with period 2l is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
2 l np x
bn =
l Ú0
f ( x )sin
l
dx
2 l np x
= Ú (lx - x 2 )sin dx
l 0 l
l
2 l È np x ˘ l2 È np x ˘ È l3 np x ˘
= (lx - x 2 ) ÍÎ - co s - (l - 2 x ) - sin + Í( -2 ) cos ˙
l np l ˙˚ n2p 2 ÍÎ ˙
l ˚ Î 3 3
np l ˚
0
2 È 2l 3 ˘
= Í- 3 3 (cos np - cos 0)˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
l ÍÎ n p ˙˚
4l 2
= 3 3
[1 - (-1)n ] [Q cos np = (-1)n ]
np
È 1 - (-1)n ˘
4l 2 •
np x
3 ÂÍ
Hence, f ( x) = 3 ˙ sin
p n =1 ÍÎ n ˙˚ l
8l È 1 px 1 3p x 1 5p x ˘
lx - x 2 = 3 Í 3 sin + 3 sin + 3 sin + L˙ … (1)
p Î1 l 3 l 5 l ˚
l
2
l 2 l 2 8l 2 Ê 1 p 1 3p 1 5p ˆ
- = 3 Á 3 sin + 3 sin + 3 sin + L˜
2 4 p Ë1 2 3 2 5 2 ¯
l 2 8l 2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= 3 Á 3 - 3 + 3 - K˜
4 p Ë1 3 5 ¯
p3 1 1
= 1 - 3 + 3 -K
32 3 5
example 14
Find the Fourier cosine series of f(x) = x in 0 < x < l. [Winter 2013]
Solution
The half-range cosine series of f(x) with period 2l is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 l
= Ú x dx
l 0
l
1 x2
=
l 2 0
1Ê l ˆ 2
= Á ˜
lË 2¯
l
=
2
2 l np x
l 0 l
2 l np x
= Ú x cos dx
l 0 l
l
2 Ê l np x ˆ Ê l2 np x ˆ
= xÁ sin ˜ - (1) Á - 2 2 cos
l Ë np l ¯ Ë n p l ˜¯ 0
2 Ê l2 l2 ˆ
= Á 2 2 cos np - 2 2 cos 0˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
l Ën p n p ¯
2l
= 2 2 [( -1)n - 1] ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
n p
l 2l È ( -1)n - 1 ˘
•
np x
Hence, f ( x) = +
2 p2
Â ÍÍ
n 2 ˙ cos
˙˚ l
n =1 Î
l 4l È 1 Ê pxˆ 1 Ê 3p x ˆ 1 Ê 5p x ˆ ˘
x = - 2 Í 2 cos Á ˜ + 2 cos Á ˜¯ + 2 cos ÁË ˜¯ + L˙
2 p Î1 Ë l ¯ 3 Ë l 5 l ˚
example 15
Find the Fourier cosine series of f(x) = x2 in 0 < x < l. [Summer 2013]
Solution
•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 l
= Ú x 2 dx
l 0
l
1 x3
=
l 3 0
1Ê l 3ˆ
= Á ˜
lË 3¯
1
= l2
3
2 l np x
l 0 l
2 l np x
= Ú x 2 cos dx
l 0 l
l
2 Ê l np x ˆ Ê l2 np x ˆ Ê l3 np x ˆ
= x2 Á sin ˜ - (2 x ) Á - 2 2 cos ˜ + 2 Á 3 3 sin
l Ë np l ¯ Ë n p l ¯ Ën p l ˜¯ 0
2 È 2l 3 ˘
= Í 2 2 cos np ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
l În p ˚
4l 2 ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
= (-1)n
n2p 2
•
1 2 4l 2 (-1)n np x
Hence, f ( x) =
3
l + 2
p
Â n2
cos
l
n =1
1 2 4l 2
È1 Ê pxˆ 1 Ê 2p x ˆ 1 Ê 3p x ˆ ˘
x2 = l - 2 Í 2 cos ÁË ˜¯ - 2 cos ÁË ˜¯ + 2 cos ÁË ˜¯ - L˙
3 p Î1 l 2 l 3 l ˚
example 16
Obtain the Fourier cosine series of the function f(x) = ex in the range
(0, l). [Winter 2014]
Solution
•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 l
= Ú e x dx
l 0
1 l
= ex 0
l
1 l
= (e - 1)
l
2 l np x
an =
l Ú0
f ( x ) cos
l
dx
2 l np x
= Ú e x cos dx
l 0 l
l
2 Ï Ê np x ˆ np
ex Ê np x ˆ ¸
= 2 2 Ì ˜¯ + Ë l ˜¯ ˝˛
cos Á sin Á
l n p Ó Ë l l
1+ 2
l 0
2l
= 2 (el cos np - e0 cos 0) [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
l +n p
2 2
2l
= [el ( -1)n - 1] [Q cos np = ( -1)n , cos 0 = 1]
l 2 + n2p 2
•
1 2l Èel (-1)n - 1˘˚ cos np x
Hence, f ( x ) = (el - 1) + Â 2 2 2 Î
l n =1 l + n p l
example 17
Find the half-range cosine series of f (x), where
l
f ( x ) = kx 0£ x£
2
l
= k (l - x ) £ x£l
2
p2 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = 2 + 2 + 2 +K. [Summer 2016]
8 1 3 5
Solution
The half-range cosine series of f (x) with period 2l is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1È ˘
l
l
= Í Ú 2 kx dx + Ú l k (l - x ) dx ˙
l ÍÎ 0
2 ˙˚
È l
l ˘
1 Í x2 2 x2 ˙
= Ík + k lx -
lÍ 2 2 l ˙˙
0
Î 2˚
k È l2 Ê l2 ˆ Ê l2 l2 ˆ ˘
= Í + Á l2 - ˜ - Á - ˜ ˙
l Î8 Ë 2 ¯ Ë 2 8 ¯˚
kl
=
4
2 l np x
an =
l Ú0
f ( x ) cos
l
dx
2È np x ˘
l
np x l
= Í Ú 2 kx cos dx + Ú l k (l - x ) cos dx ˙
l ÍÎ 0 l 2 l ˙˚
È l
np x ˆ Ê l 2 ˆ
2
2k Í Ê np x ˆ Ê l ˆ Ê
= x Á sin ˜ ◊ Á ˜ - Á - cos ˜◊
l Í Ë l ¯ Ë np ¯ Ë l ¯ ÁË n2p 2 ˜¯
ÍÎ 0
l ˘
Ê np x ˆ Ê l ˆ Ê np x ˆ Ê l 2 ˆ ˙
+ (l - x ) Á sin ◊ Á ˜ - ( -1) - cos ◊
Ë l ˜¯ Ë np ¯ ÁË l ˜¯ ÁË n2p 2 ˜¯ 2l ˙
˚
2 kl È np n˘
= 2 2 Í
2 cos - {1 + ( -1)} ˙ ÈÎQ sin np = 0, cos np = ( -1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
n p Î 2 ˚
kl 2 kl • 1
Hence, f ( x) = + Â
4 p 2 n =1 n2
È np
{ n ˘ np x
Í2 cos 2 - 1 + (-1) ˙ cos l
Î ˚
} … (1)
kl 2 kl Ê 4 4 4 ˆ
0= + 2 Á - 2 - 2 - 2 - K˜
4 p Ë 2 6 10 ¯
kl 2 kl Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
0 = - 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜ … (2)
4 p Ë1 3 5 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= + + +K
8 12 32 52
example 18
2x l
Find the half-range sine series of f ( x ) = 0£ x£
l 2
2(l - x ) l
= £ x£l
l 2
Solution
The half-range sine series of f (x) with period 2l is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
2 l np x
bn =
l Ú0
f ( x )sin
l
dx
2 È 2 2x np x ˘
l
np x l 2 (l - x )
= ÍÚ sin dx + Ú l sin dx ˙
l ÍÎ 0 l l 2
l l ˙˚
È l
4Í Ê np x ˆ l Ê np x ˆ l 2 2
= 2 Í x Á - cos ˜ - Á - sin ˜
l Í Ë l ¯ np Ë l ¯ n2p 2 0
Î
l ˘
Ê np x ˆ l Ê np x ˆ l 2 ˙
+ (l - x ) Á - cos ˜ - (-1) Á - sin ˜
Ë l ¯ np Ë l ¯ n2p 2 l ˙
2 ˙˚
4l2 Ê np ˆ
= 2 2 2 Á
2 sin ˜
l n p Ë 2 ¯
8 np
= 2 2 sin
n p 2
•
8 1 np np x
Hence, f ( x ) =
p 2 Â n2 sin 2
sin
l
n =1
example 19
Express f(x) = x as a
(i) half-range sine series in 0 < x < 2
(ii) half-range cosine series in 0 < x < 2 [Summer 2014]
Solution
(i) The half-range sine series of f(x) with period 2l = 4 is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
•
np x
= Â bn sin
n =1 2
2 l np x
bn =
l Ú0
f ( x ) sin
l
dx
2 2 np x
= Ú x sin dx
2 0 2
2
Ê 2 np x ˆ Ê 4 np x ˆ
= xÁ- cos ˜ - (1) Á - 2 2 sin
Ë np 2 ¯ Ë n p 2 ˜¯ 0
Ê 2 ˆ
= 2 Á - ˜ cos np [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
Ë np ¯
4(-1)n ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚

=-
np
4 • (-1)n np x
Hence, f ( x) = - Â
p n =1 n
sin
2
4 Ê px 1 1 3p x ˆ
x= Á sin - sin p x + sin - L˜
pË 2 2 3 2 ¯
(ii) The half-range cosine series of f(x) with period 2l = 4 is given by

•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
•
np x
= a0 + Â an cos
n =1 2
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 2
= Ú x dx
2 0
2
1 x2
=
2 2 0
1
= (2 )
2
=1
2 l np x
an = Ú
l 0
f ( x ) cos
l
dx
2 2 np x
= Ú x cos dx
2 0 2
2
= xÁ sin ˜¯ - (1) Á - 2 2 cos
Ë np 2 Ë n p 2 ˜¯ 0
4 4
= cos np - 2 2 cos 0 [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
n2p 2 n p
4
= 2 2 ÈÎ(-1)n - 1˘˚ ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n , cos 0 = 1˘˚
n p
4 È ( -1)n - 1 ˘
•
np x
2 ÂÍ
Hence, f ( x ) = 1 + 2 ˙ cos
p n =1 ÍÎ n ˙˚ 2
8 È1 px 1 3p x 1 5p x ˘
x = 1 - 2 Í 2 cos + 2 cos + 2 cos + L˙
p Î1 2 3 2 5 2 ˚
example 20
Find the Fourier sine series of f (x) = 2x in 0 < x < 1. [Summer 2015]
Solution
The Fourier sine series of f(x) with period 2l = 2 is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
•
= Â bn sin np x
n =1
2 l np x
bn =
l Ú0
f ( x )sin
l
dx
1
= 2 Ú (2 x ) sin np x dx
0
1
= 4 ( x) Á - ˜ - (1) Á - 2 2 ˜
Ë np ¯ Ë n p ¯ 0
1
Ê cos np x ˆ sin np x
= 4 -x Á + 2 2
Ë np ˜¯ n p 0
È cos np ˘
= 4 Í- [Q sinn p = sin 0 = 0]
Î np ˙˚
4(-1)n
=- [Q cos np = (-1)n ]
np
4
= (-1)n +1
np
4 • (-1)n +1
Hence, f ( x) = Â
p n =1 n
sin np x
example 21
Find the half-range cosine series of f(x) = (x – 1)2 in 0 < x < 1.
[Summer 2015]
Solution
The half-range cosine series of f(x) with period 2l = 2 is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
•
= a0 + Â an cos np x
n =1
1 l
l Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1
= Ú ( x - 1)2 dx
0
1
( x - 1)3
=
3 0
È ( -1) ˘
= Í0 -
Î 3 ˙˚
1
=
3
2 l cos np x
l Ú0
an = f ( x) dx
l
1
= 2 Ú ( x - 1)2 cos np x dx
0
1
= 2 ( x - 1)2 Á - 2( x - 1) Á - 2 2 ˜ + 2 Á - 3 3 ˜
Ë np ˜¯ Ë n p ¯ Ë np ¯ 0
1
= 2 ( x - 1)2 Á + 2( x - 1) Á 2 2 ˜ - 2 Á 3 3 ˜
Ë np ˜¯ Ë np ¯ Ë np ¯ 0
4 cos0
= [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
n 2p 2
4
= 2 2 [Q cos0 = 1]
np
•
1 4 1
Hence, f ( x) = +
3 p2
Â n2 cos np x
n =1
•
1 4 1
( x - 1)2 = + Â n2 cos np x
3 p2 n =1
example 22
Find the half-range sine series of f (x) = x 0<x<1
=2–x 1<x<2
p2 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = 2 + 2 + 2 +K
8 1 3 5
Solution
The half-range sine series of f (x) with period 2l = 4 is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
•
np x
= Â bn sin
n =1 2
2 l np x
l Ú0
bn = f ( x )sin dx
l
1 np x 2 np x
= Ú x sin dx + Ú (2 - x )sin dx
0 2 1 2
1
= xÁ- cos ˜ - (1) Á - 2 2 sin
Ë np 2 ¯ Ë n p 2 ˜¯ 0
2
+ (2 - x ) Á - cos ˜ - ( -1) Á - 2 2 sin
Ë np 2 ¯ Ë n p 2 ˜¯ 1
8 np
= 2 2 sin
n p 2
•
8 1 np np x
Hence, f ( x ) =
p2
Â n2 sin 2
sin
2
n =1
8 È1 p px 1 3p 3p x 1 5p 5p x ˘
= 2 Í 2 sin sin + 2 sin sin + 2 sin sin + L˙
p Î1 2 2 3 2 2 5 2 2 ˚
8 È1 px 1 3p x 1 5p x ˘
= 2 Í 2 sin - sin + 2 sin - L˙ ...(1)
p Î1 2 32 2 5 2 ˚
At x = 1,
1È ˘ 1 + (2 - 1)
f (1) = Í lim- f ( x ) + lim+ f ( x )˙ = =1
2 Î x Æ1 x Æ1 ˚ 2

8 Ê1 p 1 3p 1 5p ˆ
f (1) = 2 Á
sin - 2 sin + 2 sin - L˜
p 1 Ë 2 2 3 2 5 2 ¯
8 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
1 = 2 Á 2 + 2 + 2 + K˜
p Ë1 3 5 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 +K
8 1 3 5
example 23
Find the half-range cosine series of f ( x ) = 1 0 £ x £1
=x 1£ x £ 2
Solution
The half-range cosine series of f (x) with period 2l = 4 is given by
•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
•
np x
= a0 + Â an cos
n =1 2
1 l
a0 = Ú f ( x )dx
l 0
= Í Ú 1dx + Ú xdx ˘˙
1È 1 2
2Î 0 1 ˚
È 2 ˘
1 x2 ˙
= Íx0 +
1
2Í 2 ˙
Î 1˚
5
=
4
2 l np x
l 0 l
1 np x 2 np x
= Ú 1 ◊ cos dx + Ú x cos dx
0 2 1 2
È Ê 2 np x ˆ ˘
1 2
2 np x np x ˆ Ê 4
= sin + Í xÁ sin - (1) - cos ˙
np 2 0 ÎÍ Ë np 2 ˜¯ ÁË 2 2
n p 2 ˜¯ 1 ˙˚
Ê 2 np ˆ Ê 4 2 np 4 np ˆ
=Á sin ˜ + Á 2 2 cos np - sin - 2 2 cos ˜
Ë np 2 ¯ Ën p np 2 n p 2 ¯
4 Ê np ˆ
= 2 ÁË cos np - cos 2 ˜¯
2
n p
4 È np ˘
= 2 Í( -1) - cos 2 ˙
2
n
[Q cos np = ( -1)n ]
n p Î ˚
•
5 4 1 È np ˘ np x
Hence, f ( x) = +
4 p2
Â n2 ÍÎ(-1)n - cos 2 ˙˚
cos
2
n =1
exercIse 7.3
1. Find the half-range cosine series of f (x) = x sin x in 0 < x < p.
È 1 •
(-1)n -1 ˘
Í ans. : 1 - cos x + 2Â 2 cos nx ˙
Î 2 n =1 n - 1 ˚
2. Find the half-range cosine series of f (x) = (x – 1)2 in 0 < x < 1.
È 1 4 •
1 ˘
Í ans. : + 2
Î 3 p
Ân
n =1
2
cos np x ˙
˚
x
3. Find the half-range cosine series of f (x) = e in 0 < x < 1.
È •
1 ˘
Í ans. : (e - 1) + 2Â [e(-1)n - 1]cos np x ˙
n =1 1 + n p
2 2
Î ˚
4. Find the half-range sine series of
f (x) = x 0£x£2
=4–x 2£x£4
È 16 • Ê 1 np ˆ np x ˘
2 ÂÁ 2
Í ans. : sin ˜ sin ˙
Î p n =1 Ë n 2 ¯ 4 ˚
5. Find the half-range sine and cosine series of f (x) = x – x2 in 0 < x < 1.
È 8 •
1 1 4 •
1 ˘
Í ans. : 3 Â (2n + 1) 3
sin(2n + 1)p x, -
6 p2
Â (2n) 2
cos 2np x ˙
Î p n=0 n =1 ˚
Ê xˆ
6. Find the half-range sine and cosine series of f (x) = a Á 1 - ˜ in 0 < x < l.
Ë l¯
È 2a • 1 np x a 4 a • 1 (2n + 1)p x ˘
Í ans. : Â
p n =1 n
sin
l
, + 2Â
2 p n = 0 (2n + 1)2
cos
l
˙
Î ˚
7. Find the half-range sine series of f (x) = sin2 x in 0 < x < p.

È 8 • sin(2n - 1)x ˘
Í ans. : - Â
p n =1 (2n - 1)(2n + 1)(2n + 3) ˙˚
Î

2x p
f ( x) = 0£x£
3 3
p -x p
= £x £p
3 3
È 2 • 1 np ˘
Í ans. : p Â 2 sin 3 sin nx ˙
Î n =1 n ˚

f (x) = x 0 £ x <1
=1 1£ x < 2
=3–x 2£x£3
È 6 •
È1 Ê np 2np ˆ ˘ np x ˘
Í ans. : 2 Â Ín
n =1 Î
2 Á
Ë
sin
3
+ sin ˜
3 ¯˚
˙ sin
3 ˚
˙
Î p
Points to remember
Fourier Series in the Interval (0, 2p)
∞ ∞
f ( x) = a0 + ∑ an cos nx + ∑ bn sin nx
n =1 n =1
1 2p
2p Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 2p
p 0
1 2p
p 0
Fourier Series in the Interval (c, c + 2l)

•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
1 c + 2l
a0 = Ú f ( x ) dx
2l c
1 c + 2l np x
an =
l Úc
f ( x ) cos
l
dx
1 c + 2l np x
l c l
where 2l is the length of the interval.
Fourier Series of Even Function in the Interval (–p, p)
•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
2 p
an =
bn = 0
Fourier Series of Even Function in the interval (–l, l)

•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
1 l
a0 = Ú f ( x ) dx
l 0
2 l np x
l 0 l
bn = 0
Fourier Series of Odd Function in the Interval (–p, p)

•
n =1
a0 = 0
an = 0
2 p
bn =
Fourier Series of Odd Function in the Interval (–l, l)

•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
a0 = 0
an = 0
2 l np x
l Ú0
bn = f ( x )sin dx
l
Half-Range Cosine Series in the Interval (0, p)

•
n =1
1 p
a0 =
p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
2 p
an =
Half-Range Cosine Series in the Interval (0, l)

•
np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos
n =1 l
1 l
a0 = Ú f ( x ) dx
l 0
2 l np x
l 0 l
Half-Range Sine Series in the Interval (0, p)

•
n =1
2 p
bn =
Half-Range Sine Series in the Interval (0, l)

•
np x
f ( x ) = Â bn sin
n =1 l
2 l np x
l Ú0
bn = f ( x )sin dx
l

Ï-1 -1 < x < 0
1. If f(x) = Ì
Ó 1 0 < x <1
then f(x) is a/an _______ function in (–1 , 1).
(a) even (b) odd (c) constant (d) none of these
Ï- x -p < x < 0
2. If f(x) = Ì
Ó x 0< x<p
then f(x) is a/an _____ function in (–p, p).
Ï 2x
ÔÔ1 + p -p £ x £ 0
3. If f(x) = Ì
Ô1 - 2 x 0£ x£p
ÔÓ p
then f(x) is a/an _____ function in (–p , p).
Ï- x 2 -p < x £ 0
4. The Fourier series expansion of f(x) = ÔÌ contains no
ÔÓ x
2
0£ x£p
______ terms.
(a) sine (b) cosine (c) constant (d) none of these
Ï- x -4 £ x £ 0
5. The Fourier series expansion of f(x) = Ì contains no ______
Ó x 0£ x£4
terms.
6. If f(x) is an even function in (–p , p), then the graph of f(x) is symmetrical about
the ______.
(a) x-axis (b) y-axis (c) origin (d) none of these
7. If f(x) is an odd function in (–l, l), then the graph of f(x) is symmetrical about the
______
(a) x-axis (b) y-axis (c) origin (d) none of these
8. If f(x) is an even function in the interval (–l, l), then the value of bn is
p
(a) (b) p (c) 1 (d) 0
2
9. If f(x) is an odd function in (–l, l) , then the values of a0 and a1 are
p
(a) 0, 0 (b) p, p (c) ,p (d) 1, 1
2
10. If f(x) = x in (–p, p), then the Fourier coefficient a2 is
(a) p (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) –1
11. If f(x) = cos x in (–p, p), then the Fourier coefficient bn is
(a) 0 (b) p (c) 1 (d) none of these
12. In the Fourier series expansion of f(x) = x sin x in (–p, p), the ____ terms are
absent.
13. If f(x) = x cos x in (–p, p), then b1 is

(a) 0 (b) p (c) 1 (d) none of these
14. Which of the following is neither an even function nor an odd function?
(a) x sin x (b) x2 (c) e–x (d) x cos x
15. Fundamental period of sin 2x is
p p
(a) (b) (c) 2p (d) p
4 2
16. Fundamental period of tan 3x is
p p p
(a) (b) (c) p (d)
2 3 4
17. If f(x + nT) = f(x) where n is any integer, then the fundamental period of f(x) is
T
(a) 2T (b) (c) T (d) 3T
2
18. For half-range sine series of f(x) = cos x, 0 £ x £ p and period 2p, Fourier series
•
is represented by Â bn sin nx, then Fourier coefficient b1 is
n =1
1 2 2
(a) (b) 0 (c) (d) –
p p p
19. A function f(x) is said to be periodic of period T if
(a) f(x + T) = f(x) for all x (b) f(x + T) = f(T) for all x
(c) f(–x) = f(x) for all x (d) f(–x) = –f(x) for all x
20. Fourier series representation of a periodic function f(x) with period 2p which
satisfies Dirichlet’s conditions is
•
(a) a0 + Â (an cos nx + bn sin nx)
n =1
•
(b) a0 + Â (an cos np x + bn sin np x)
n =1
•
(c) a0 + Â (an cos nx)(bn sin nx)
n =1
(d) a0 + an cos nx + bn sin nx

21. A function f(x) is said to be even if
(a) f(–x) = f(x) (b) f(–x) = –f(x)
(c) f(x + 2p) = f(x) (d) f(–x) = [f(x)]2
22. A function f(x) is said to be odd if
(a) f(–x) = f(x) (b) f(–x) = –f(x)
(c) f(x + 2p) = f(x) (d) f(–x) = [f(x)]2

23. Which of the following is an odd function?
(a) sinx (b) ex + e–x (c) e| x | (d) p2 – x2
24. Which of the following is an even function?
(a) sinx (b) ex – e–x (c) x cosx (d) cosx
25. For an even function f(x) defined in the interval -p £ x £ p and f ( x + 2p ) = f ( x ),
the Fourier series is
• •
np x
(a) Â bn sin x (b) a0 + Â an cos l
n =1 n =1
• •
np x
(c) a0 + Â an cos nx (d) Â bn sin l
n =1 n =1
26. For an odd function f(x) defined in the interval -p £ x £ p and f(x + 2p) = f(x),
the Fourier series is
• •
np x
(a) Â bn sin nx (b) a0 + Â an cos l
n =1 n =1
• •
np x
(c) a0 + Â an cos nx (d) Â bn sin l
n =1 n =1
27. Half-range Fourier cosine series for f(x) defined in the interval (0, p) is
• •
nx
(a) a0 + Â an cos nx (b) an + Â an cos l
n =1 n =1
• •
(c) Â an cos nx (d) an + Â (an cos nx + bn sin nx)
n =1 n =1
28. Half-range Fourier sine series for f(x) defined in the interval (0, p) is
• •
np x
(a) Â bn sin nx (b) Â bn sin l
n =1 n =1
• •
np x
(b) a0 + Â an cos l
(d) a0 + Â (an cos nx + bn sin nx)
n =1 n =1
29. The Fourier series of an odd periodic function contains only

(a) odd harmonics (b) even harmonics
(c) cosine terms (d) sine terms
30. The trigonometric Fourier series of an even function does not have
(a) constant (b) cosine terms (c) sine terms (d) odd harmonic terms
Ï- k -p < x < 0
31. For the function f ( x ) = Ì , the value of a0 in the Fourier series
Ók 0< x<p
expansion will be
(a) k (b) 2k (c) 0 (d) –k

32. The value of a0 in Fourier series expansion of f(x) = x2, –1 < x < 1 is
1 1
(a) (b) 3 (c) (d) 1
3 2
answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (d)
9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (b)
17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (a) 21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d)
25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (c) 31. (c) 32. (a)
UNIT-4
Chapter 8. Partial Derivatives

CHAPTER
Partial
8
Derivatives
Chapter Outline
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Functions of Two or More Variables
8.3 Limit and Continuity of Functions of Several Variables
8.4 Partial Derivatives
8.5 Higher-Order Partial Derivatives
8.6 Total Derivatives
8.7 Implicit Differentiation
8.8 Gradient and Directional Derivative
8.9 Tangent Plane and Normal Line
8.10 Local Extreme Values (Maximum and Minimum Values)
8.11 Extreme Values with Constrained Variables
8.12 Method of Lagrange Multipliers
8.1 INTRODUCTION
We often come across functions which depend on two or more variables. For example,
area of a triangle depends on its base and height, hence we can say that area is the
function of two variables, i.e., its base and height. u is called a function of two variables
x and y, if u has a definite value for every pair of x and y. It is written as u = f (x, y). The
variables x and y are independent variables while u is dependent variable. The set of
all the pairs (x, y) for which u is defined is called the domain of the function. Similarly,
we can define function of more than two variables.
8.2 Chapter 8 Partial Derivatives
8.2 FUNCTIONs OF TwO OR mORe vaRIables
The function f (x, y) is called a real-valued function of two or more variables if

there are two or more independent variables, e.g., total surface area of a rectangular
parallelepiped is 2(xy + yz + zx) which is a function of three variables.
8.3 lImIT aND CONTINUITy OF FUNCTIONs OF

seveRal vaRIables
8.3.1 limits
If f (x, y) is a function of two variables x, y then
lim f ( x, y ) = l
( x , y )→ ( a , b )
if and only if for any chosen number e > 0 however small, there exists a number d > 0
such that
f ( x, y ) − l < e
for all values of (x, y) for which, x - a < d and y - b < d | | | |
8.3.2 Test for Non-existence of a limit
1. Evaluate limits
{ }
(i) lim lim f ( x, y ) and (ii) lim lim f ( x, y )
x→a y →b y →b { x→ a }
If both the limit values are equal, then lim f ( x, y ) exists.
( x , y )→ ( a , b )
2. If a = 0, b = 0, evaluate limit along different paths say y = mx or y = mx n, etc.

If all limit values are equal, then lim f ( x, y ) exists.
( x , y )→ ( a , b )
8.3.3 Theorems on limit

If lim f ( x, y ) = l and lim g ( x, y ) = m,
( x , y )→ ( a , b ) ( x , y )→ ( a , b )
(i) lim [ f ( x, y ) + g ( x, y )] = lim f ( x, y ) + lim g ( x, y )

( x , y )→ ( a , b ) ( x , y )→ ( a , b ) ( x , y )→ ( a , b )
=l+m
(ii) lim [ f ( x, y ) − g ( x, y )] = lim f ( x, y ) − lim g ( x, y )
( x , y )→ ( a , b ) ( x , y )→ ( a , b ) ( x , y )→ ( a , b )
= l−m
(iii) lim [ f ( x, y ) ⋅ g ( x, y )] = lim f ( x, y ) ⋅ lim g ( x, y )
( x , y )→ ( a , b ) ( x , y )→ ( a , b ) ( x , y )→ ( a , b )
= lm
 f ( x, y )  lim f ( x, y ) l
( x , y )→ ( a , b )
(iv) lim
( x , y )→ ( a , b )
 g ( x, y )  = lim g ( x, y )
=
m
, provided m ≠ 0
  ( x , y )→ ( a , b )
8.3.4 Continuity
Let f (x, y) be a function of x and y defined at (a, b) as well as in the neighbourhood of it.
The function f (x, y) is continuous at (a, b) if the following three conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (a, b) exists, i.e., f (x, y) is defined at (a, b).
(ii) lim f ( x, y ) exists.
( x , y )→ ( a , b )
(iii) lim f ( x, y ) = f ( a , b ) .
( x , y )→ ( a , b )
A function f (x, y) is continuous in a domain if it is continuous at each point of that

domain.
f
Note: If f (x, y) and g (x, y) are continuous at (a, b), then f + g , f − g , f g , (provided
g π 0) are continuous at (a, b). g
example 1
x2 + y
Find lim .
( x , y )Æ(1, 2 ) 3 x + y2
Solution
x2 + y 12 + 2
lim =
( x , y )Æ(1, 2 ) 3 x + y2 3(1) + 22
3
=
7
example 2
x− y
Find lim .
( x , y )→ ( 0 , 0 ) x + y
Solution
 x − y
lim  lim = lim 1 = 1
x→0  y→0 x + y 
 x→0
 x − y
lim  lim = lim( −1) = −1
y→0  x→0 x + y 
 y→0
Since both the limits are different, the limit does not exist.
example 3
By considering different paths of approach, show that the function
x4 − y 2
f ( x, y ) = 4 has no limit as ( x, y ) → (0, 0). [Winter 2015]
x + y2
Solution Ê x 4 - y2 ˆ x4
lim Á lim 4 ˜ = lim = lim 1 = 1
x Æ0 Ë yÆ0 x + y2 ¯ x Æ0 x 4 x Æ0
Ê x 4 - y2 ˆ Ê - y2 ˆ
lim Á lim 4
yÆ0 Ë x Æ0 x + y2 ¯
˜ yÆ0 Á 2 ˜ = ylim(
= lim -1) = -1
Ë y ¯ Æ0
Since both the limits are different, f (x, y) has no limit as (x, y) Æ (0, 0).
example 4
xy
Find lim .
( x , y )Æ( 0, 0 ) y - x2
2
Solution
 xy 
lim  lim 2 = lim 0 = 0
x→0  y→0 y − x 2 
 x→0
 xy 
lim  lim 2 = lim 0 = 0
y→0  x→0 y − x 2 
 y→0
Putting y = mx and taking limit x Æ 0,
x(mx) m m
lim 2 2
= lim 2 = 2
x→0 (mx) − x x → 0 m −1 m −1
Since the last limit depends on m and m is not fixed, the limit does not exist.
example 5
x2 y
lim
Find ( x , y )→( 0, 0 ) 4 .
x + y2
Solution  x2 y 
lim  lim 4 = lim 0 = 0
x→0  y→0 x + y 2 
 x→0
 x2 y 
lim  lim 4 = lim 0 = 0
y→0  x→0 x + y 2 
 y→0
x 2 (mx) mx
lim = lim =0
x→0 x + (mx) 2 x→0 x 2 + m 2
4
Putting y = mx2 and taking limit x Æ 0,

x 2 (mx 2 ) m m
lim 4 2 2
= lim 2
=
x→0 x + (mx ) x → 0 1+ m 1 + m2
example 6
Show that f (x, y) = x2 + 2y is continuous at (1, 2).
Solution
lim f ( x, y ) = lim ( x 2 + 2 y ) = 12 + 2(2) = 5
( x , y )→ (1, 2 ) ( x , y )→ (1, 2 )
f (1, 2) = 12 + 2(2) = 5
lim f ( x, y ) = f (1, 2)
( x , y )→ (1, 2 )
Hence, f (x, y) is continuous at (1, 2).
example 7
Show that f ( x, y ) = 2 x 2 + y, ( x, y ) ≠ (1, 2)
= 0, ( x, y ) = (1, 2)
is discontinuous at (1, 2).
Solution
lim f ( x, y ) = lim (2 x 2 + y ) = 2(12 ) + 2 = 4
( x , y ) → (1, 2 ) ( x , y ) → (1, 2 )
f (1, 2) = 0
lim f ( x, y ) ≠ f (1, 2)
( x , y ) → (1, 2 )
Hence, f ( x, y ) is discontinuous at (1, 2).
example 8
x2 − y 2
Discuss the continuity of f ( x, y ) = , ( x, y ) ≠ (0, 0)
x2 + y 2
= 0, ( x, y ) = (0, 0)
at (0, 0).
Solution
 x2 − y 2 
lim lim f ( x, y )  = lim  lim 2
 y→0
x→0   x → 0  y → 0 x + y 2 
x2
= lim 1 = 1
= lim
x→0 x 2 x→0
 x2 − y 2 
y→0  x→0  y → 0  x → 0 x + y 2 
 y2 
= lim  − 2  = lim( −1) = −1
y→0  y  y→0
Since both the limits are not equal, f ( x, y ) is discontinuous at (0, 0).
example 9
Determine the set of points at which the given function is continuous:
Ï 3x2 y
Ô , ( x, y) π (0, 0)
f ( x, y ) = Ì x 2 + y 2
Ô 0, ( x, y) = (0, 0)
Ó [Winter 2013]
Solution
3x2 y
For (x, y) π (0, 0), the function f ( x, y) = is a rational function and hence, it
x 2 + y2
is continuous.
For (x, y) = (0, 0), f(x, y) = 0

È ˘ Ê 3x2 y ˆ
lim Í lim f ( x, y)˙ = lim Á lim 2 ˜
x Æ0 Î yÆ0 ˚ x Æ0 Ë yÆ0 x + y 2 ¯
= lim 0 = 0
x Æ0
Ê 3x2 y ˆ
lim È lim f ( x, y)˘ = lim Á lim 2
Í x Æ0
yÆ0 Î ˚˙ yÆ0 Ë x Æ0 x + y 2 ˜¯
= lim 0 = 0
yÆ 0

3 x 2 (mx ) 3x3 m 3mx
lim 2 2 2
= lim 2 2
= lim =0
x Æ0 x +m x x Æ0 x (1 + m ) x Æ0 1 + m 2
Hence, the limit exists at (0, 0).

lim f ( x, y) = f (0, 0)
( x , y ) Æ ( 0 ,0 )
Hence, f(x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).
example 10
2 xy
Show that f ( x, y ) = , ( x, y ) ≠ (0, 0)
x + y2 2
= 0, ( x, y ) = (0, 0)
is continuous at every point except at the origin. [Summer 2017]
Solution
 2 xy 
 y→0
x→0   x → 0  y → 0 x + y 2 
= lim 0 = 0
x→0
 2 xy 
y→0  x→0  y → 0  x → 0 x + y 2 
= lim 0 = 0
y→0

2 x(mx) 2m 2m
lim 2 2
= lim 2
=
x→0 x + (mx) x → 0 1+ m 1 + m2
Hence, f ( x) is discontinuous at the origin, i.e., (0, 0).
Let ( x, y) = (a, b) π (0, 0) be an arbitrary point in xy-plane, where a and b are real
numbers.
2 xy
lim f ( x, y ) = lim
( x , y )→ ( a , b ) ( x , y )→ ( a , b ) x 2 + y 2
2ab
= 2
a + b2
2ab
f ( a, b) = 2
a + b2
which is finite for real values of a and b.
lim f ( x, y ) = f (a, b)
( x, y )→ ( a, b)
This shows that f ( x, y ) is continuous at (a, b).

Hence, f ( x, y ) is continuous at every point except at the origin.
example 11
Ï 2 x2 y
Ô ( x, y ) π 0
Show that f ( x, y) = Ì x 3 + y3
Ô 0 ( x, y ) = 0
Ó
is not continuous at the origin. [Winter 2016]
Solution
È ˘ Ê 2 x2 y ˆ
xÆ0 ÎyÆ0 ˚ x Æ 0 Ë y Æ 0 x + y3 ¯
= lim (0) = 0
xÆ0
È ˘ Ê 2 x2 y ˆ
yÆ0 ÎxÆ0 ˚ y Æ 0 Ë x Æ 0 x + y3 ¯
= lim (0) = 0
yÆ0

2 x 2 (mx ) 2 mx 3
lim 3 3
= lim 3
xÆ0 x + (mx ) x Æ 0 x (1 + m 3 )
2m
=
1 + m3
Hence, f(x) is discontinuous at the origin.
example 12
Determine the continuity of the function
Ï 2 Ê 1 ˆ
Ô( x + y )sin Á 2 ( x, y) π (0,0)
2
,
f ( x, y ) = Ì Ë x + y 2 ˜¯
Ô
Ó0, ( x, y) = (0,0)
at origin. [Summer 2016]
Solution
È ˘ È Ê 1 ˆ˘
lim Í lim f ( x, y)˙ = lim Í lim ( x 2 + y 2 )sin Á 2 ˜˙
x Æ0 Î yÆ0 ˚ x Æ0 ÍÎ yÆ0 Ë x + y 2 ¯ ˚˙
È Ê 1 ˆ˘
= lim Í x 2 sin Á 2 ˜ ˙
x Æ0 Î Ë x ¯˚
È Ê 1 ˆ˘
Í sin ÁË 2 ˜¯ ˙
x ˙
= lim Í
x Æ0 Í 1 ˙
Í x2 ˙
Î ˚
=1
È Ê 1 ˆ˘
lim È lim f ( x, y)˘ = lim Í lim ( x 2 + y 2 )sin Á 2 ˜˙
Í x Æ0
yÆ0 Î ˚˙ yÆ0 ÎÍ x Æ0 Ë x + y 2 ¯ ˚˙
È Ê 1 ˆ˘
= lim Í y 2 sin Á 2 ˜ ˙
yÆ0 Í
Î Ë y ¯ ˚˙
È Ê 1 ˆ˘
Í sin Á 2 ˜ ˙
Í Ëy ¯˙
= lim Í ˙
yÆ0 1
Í 2
˙
Í y ˙
Î ˚
=1

Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
lim ( x 2 + m 2 x 2 ) sin Á 2 = (1 + m 2 ) sin Á
x Æ0 Ë x + m 2 x 2 ˜¯ Ë 1 + m 2 ˜¯
Since the last limit depends on m and m is not fixed, the limit does not exist. Hence,
f (x) is discontinuous at origin (0, 0).
Let (x, y) = (a, b) be an arbitrary point in xy-plane, where a and b are real numbers.
Ê 1 ˆ
lim f ( x, y ) = lim ( x 2 + y 2 )sin Á 2 ˜
( x , y )Æ ( a , b ) ( x , y )Æ ( a , b ) Ë x + y2 ¯
Ê 1 ˆ
= (a 2 + b2 )sin Á 2
Ë a + b2 ˜¯
Ê 1 ˆ
f (a, b) = (a 2 + b2 )sin Á 2
Ë a + b2 ˜¯
which is finite for real values of a and b.

lim f ( x, y) = f (a, b)
( x , y )Æ ( a , b )
This shows that f (x, y) is continuous at (a, b).

Hence, f(x, y) is continuous at every point except at the origin.
example 13
xy
Show that f ( x, y) = , ( x, y) π (0, 0)
x + y2
2
= 0, ( x, y) = (0, 0)
is continuous at the origin. [Summer 2014]
Solution
xy
For (x, y) π (0, 0), the function f ( x, y) = is a rational function and hence,
x + y2
2
it is continuous.
For (x, y) = (0, 0), f(x, y) = 0

È ˘ Ê xy ˆ
lim lim f ( x, y)˙ = lim lim
x Æ0 Í
Î yÆ0 ˚ Æ Á Æ ˜
x 0
Ë
y 0 2 2
x +y ¯
= lim 0 = 0
x Æ0
Ê ˆ
lim È lim f ( x, y)˘ = lim lim
xy
Í x Æ0
yÆ0 Î ˚˙ yÆ0 ÁË x Æ0 x 2 + y 2 ˜¯
= lim 0 = 0
yÆ0
x(mx ) mx 2Ê m ˆ
lim = lim = lim Á ˜x=0
x Æ0 x Æ0
x 2 + m2 x 2 x 1 + m 2 x Æ0 Ë 1 + m 2 ¯
The limit exists at the origin.
Hence, f(x, y) is continuous at the origin.
exeRCIse 8.1
1. Evaluate the following limits:
3x 2 y xy + 4 x+y
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim
( x , y )→(1, 2) x 2 + y 2 + 5 ( x , y )→( ∞, 2) x 2 + 2y 2 ( x , y )→( 0, 0) x + 2y
1
−
x 2 ( y −1)2 2x − y
(iv) lim e (v) lim
( x , y )→( 0, 1) ( x , y )→( 0, 0) x2 + y2
 3 
 Ans. : (i) 5 (ii) 0 (iii) does not exist 
 
 (iv) 0 (v) does not exist 
2x − y
2. Show that for f (x, y ) = , lim lim f (x, y ) ≠ lim lim f (x, y )
2 x + y x →0  y →0  y →0  x →0 
3. Check the continuity of the following functions:

x
(i) f (x, y ) = at (0, 0)
3 x + 5y
xy
(ii) f (x, y ) = , (x, y ) ≠ (0, 0)
x2 + y2
= 0, (x, y ) = (0, 0)
at origin.
x 2y 2
(iii) f (x, y ) = at (0, 0).
x4 + y4
 Ans.: (i) Discontinuous (ii) Discontinuous
 
 (iii) Discontinuous 
8.4 PaRTIal DeRIvaTIves

A partial derivative of a function of several variables is the ordinary derivative w.r.t.
one of the variables, when all the remaining variables are kept constant. Consider a
function u = f (x, y). Here, u is the dependent variable and x and y are independent
variables. The partial derivative of u = f (x, y) w.r.t. x is the ordinary derivative of u

∂u ∂f
w.r.t. x, keeping y constant. It is denoted by or or ux or fx and is known as
∂x ∂x
first-order partial derivative of u w.r.t. x.
∂u  f ( x + ∆ x, y ) − f ( x, y ) 
= lim  
∂x ∆ x → 0
 ∆x 
Similarly, the partial derivative of u = f (x, y) w.r.t. y is the ordinary derivative of u w.r.t.
∂u ∂f
y treating x as constant. It is denoted by or or uy or fy and is known as first-
∂y ∂y
order partial derivative of u w.r.t. y.
∂u  f ( x, y + ∆y ) − f ( x, y ) 
= lim
∂y ∆y → 0  ∆y 

8.5 HIgHeR-ORDeR PaRTIal DeRIvaTIves

Partial derivatives of higher order, of a function u = f (x, y), are obtained by partial dif-
ferentiation of first-order partial derivative. Thus, if u = f (x, y) then
∂ 2 u ∂  ∂u 
=  
∂x 2 ∂x  ∂x 
∂2u ∂  ∂u 
=  
∂y ∂ x ∂y  ∂x 
∂ 2 u ∂  ∂u 
=
∂y 2 ∂y  ∂y 
∂ 2u ∂  ∂u 
=
∂x ∂y ∂x  ∂y 
are called second-order partial derivatives. Similarly, other higher-order derivatives

can also be obtained.
Mixed Derivative Theorem
∂2u ∂2u
If u = f (x, y) possesses continuous second-order partial derivatives and
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂2u ∂2u
then = . This is also called commutative property.
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Note: Standard rules for derivatives of sum, difference, product and quotient are also
applicable for partial derivatives.
example 1
If f(x, y) = x2y + xy2 then find fx(1, 2) and fy(1, 2) by definition.
[Summer 2017]
Solution
f(x, y) = x2y + xy2
∂f È f ( x + Dx, y) - f ( x, y) ˘
fx = = lim
∂x Dx Æ 0 ÍÎ Dx ˙
˚
[( x + Dx )2 y + ( x + Dx ) y 2 ] - x 2 y - xy 2
= lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
x 2 y + 2 x Dxy + ( Dx )2 y + xy 2 + Dxy 2 - x 2 y - xy 2
= lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
2 x Dxy + ( Dx )2 y + Dxy 2
= lim
Dx Æ 0 Dx
= lim (2 xy + y 2 ) + Dxy
Dx Æ 0
∂f
fx = = 2 xy + y 2
∂x
f x (1, 2) = 2(1)(2) + (2)2 = 4 + 4 = 8
∂f È f ( x, y + Dy) - f ( x, y) ˘
fy = = lim Í ˙
∂y Dy Æ 0 Î Dy ˚
[ x 2 ( y + Dy) + x( y + Dy)2 ] - x 2 y - xy 2
= lim
Dy Æ 0 Dy
x 2 y + x 2 Dy + xy 2 + 2 xy Dy + x( Dy)2 - x 2 y - xy 2
= lim
Dy Æ 0 Dy
2 xy( Dy) + x 2 ( Dy) + x( Dy)2
= lim
Dy Æ 0 Dy
= lim (2 xy + x 2 ) + x( Dy)
Dy Æ 0
∂f
fy = = 2 xy + x 2
∂y
fy(1, 2) = 2(1)(2) + (1)2 = 4 +1 = 5
example 2
1
2
− ∂u ∂u
If u = (1 − 2 xy + y ) 2
then show that x −y = u3 y2.
∂x ∂y
Solution
1
−
u = (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. x and y,

3
∂u 1 −
= − (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 ( −2 y )
∂x 2
3
∂u 1 −
= − (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 ( −2 x + 2 y )
∂y 2
3
∂u ∂u −
Hence, x −y = (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 ( xy − xy + y 2 )
∂x ∂y
3
 − 
1
= (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2  y 2
= u3 y2
example 3
If u = log (tan x + tan y + tan z) then show that
∂u ∂u ∂u
sin 2 x + sin 2 y + sin 2 z = 2.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution
u = log (tan x + tan y + tan z)
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. x, y and z,
∂u 1
= ⋅ sec2 x
∂x tan x + tan y + tan z
∂u 1
= ⋅ sec2 y
∂y tan x + tan y + tan z
∂u 1
= ⋅ sec2 z
∂z tan x + tan y + tan z
Hence,
∂u ∂u ∂u
sin 2 x + sin 2 y + sin 2 z
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 sin x cos x sec 2 x + 2 sin y cos y sec 2 y + 2 sin z cos z sec 2 z
=
tan x + tan y + tan z
2(tan x + tan y + tan z )
=
tan x + tan y + tan z
=2
example 4
e x+ y+ z ∂u ∂u ∂ u
If u = , show that + + = 2u. [Summer 2017]
x
e +e +e y z
∂x ∂y ∂ z
Solution
ex+ y+ z
u=
ex + e y + ez
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. x,
∂u ex+ y+ z ex+ y+ z
= x − ⋅ ex
∂x e + e y + e z ( e x + e y + e z ) 2
ex+ y+ z  ex 
= 1 −
 e x + e y + e z  …(1)
ex + e y + ez
∂u ex+ y+ z  ey 
Similarly, = x 1 −
 e x + e y + e z  …(2)
∂y e + e y + e z
∂u ex+ y+ z  ez 
= x 1 −
 e x + e y + e z  …(3)
∂z e + e y + e z
Adding Eqs (1), (2) and (3),
∂u ∂u ∂u ex+ y+ z  ex + e y + ez 
+ + = x  3 −
∂x ∂y ∂z e + e y + e z e x + e y + e z 
ex+ y+ z
= (3 − 1)
e + e y + ez
x
= 2u
example 5
2
x2 + y 2  ∂u ∂u   ∂u ∂u 
If u = , show that  −  = 4 1 − − .
x+ y  ∂x ∂y   ∂x ∂y 
Solution
x2 + y 2
u=
x+ y
u( x + y) = x2 + y 2 …(1)
Differentiating Eq. (1) partially w.r.t. x,
∂u
u + ( x + y) = 2x
∂x
∂u 2 x − u
=
∂x x+ y
Differentiating Eq. (1) partially w.r.t. y,
∂u
u + ( x + y) = 2y
∂y
∂u 2 y − u
=
∂y x+ y
2 2
 ∂u ∂u   2x − u 2 y − u 
LHS =  −  =  −
 ∂x ∂y   x+ y x + y 
2
 2( x − y ) 
=  …(2)
 ( x + y) 
 ∂u ∂u   2x − u 2 y − u 
RHS = 4 1 − −  = 4 1 − −
 ∂x ∂y   x+ y x + y 
 2x − u + 2 y − u 
= 4 1 − 
 x+ y
 2( x + y ) 2u 
= 4 1 − +
 ( x + y ) ( x + y ) 
  x2 + y 2 
= 4 1 − 2 + 2  2 
  ( x + y) 
 −( x + y )2 + 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 
= 4 
 ( x + y)2 
4( x 2 + y 2 − 2 xy )
=
( x + y)2
2
 2( x − y ) 
=  …(3)
 ( x + y) 
2
 ∂u ∂u   ∂u ∂u 
 ∂x − ∂y  = 4 1 − ∂x − ∂y 
example 6  2 
1 − x 
−  na 2t 
Find the value of n for which u = kt e 2
satisfies the equation
∂u ∂ 2u
= a2 2 .
∂t ∂x
Solution
 x2 
−
1 − 2 
 na t 
u = kt e 2
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. t,

 x2   x2 
∂u 1 − 3 − 2  2   x2 
1 −
−
= − kt 2 e  na t  + kt 2 e  na t   2 2 
∂t 2  na t 
1 x2
= − t −1u + u 2 2
2 na t
 x 2
1
= u 2 2 −  ...(1)
 na t 2t 
 x2 
∂u −
1 −
2   2x 
= kt 2 e  na t   − 2 
∂x na t
∂u
Differentiating partially w.r.t. x,
∂x
1
kt 2  
−  x2   x2 
∂2u − 2 
 na t   2x  − 2 
 na t 

= − 2 x ⋅ e  −  + e ( 2 )
∂x 2 na 2 t   na 2 t  
 
2  2x 2

= − 2  − 2 u + u
na t  na t 
 4x2 2 
= u 2 4 2 − 2 
n a t na t 
∂ 2u  4x2 2
a2 = u 2 2 2 −  …(2)
∂x 2 n a t nt 
n=4
example 7
Find the value of n for which v = Ae − gx sin(nt − gx) satisfies the partial
2
differential equation ∂v = ∂ v2 where g, A are constants.
∂t ∂x
Solution
v = Ae − gx sin(nt − gx)
Differentiating v partially w.r.t. t,
∂v
= Ae − gx [cos(nt − gx)] ⋅ n
∂t
Differentiating v partially w.r.t. x,
∂v
= − Age − gx sin(nt − gx) + [ Ae − gx cos(nt − gx)]( − g )
∂x
= − Age − gx [sin(nt − gx) + cos(nt − gx)]
∂v
∂x
∂2v
= Ag 2 e − gx [sin(nt − gx) + cos( nt − gx)]
∂x 2
− Age − gx [ − g cos(nt − gx) + g sin(nt − gx)]
= Ag 2 e − gx ⋅ 2 cos( nt − gx)
∂v ∂ 2 v
Also, =
∂t ∂x 2
n ⋅ A ⋅ e − gx cos(nt − gx) = 2 Ag 2 e − gx cos(nt − gx)
∴ n = 2g 2
example 8
x y ∂ 2u
If u = e , find .
∂y ∂x
Solution
y
u = ex
∂u y ∂ y
= ex (x )
∂x ∂x
y
= e x ⋅ yx y −1
∂u
Differentiating partially w.r.t. y,
∂x
∂  ∂u  xy ∂ ∂
  = e ( x y ) ⋅ yx y −1 + e x x y −1 + e x y ( x y −1 )
y y
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂2u
= e x x y log x ⋅ yx y −1 + e x x y −1 + e x yx y −1 log x
y y y
∂y ∂x
= e x x y −1 ( yx y log x + 1 + y log x)
y
example 9
∂2 z
If z 3 − zx − y = 0, find .
∂x ∂y
Solution
z 3 − zx − y = 0 ...(1)
∂z ∂z
3z 2 − x −1 = 0
∂y ∂y
∂z 1
=
∂y 3 z 2 − x
∂z ∂z
3z 2 −x −z=0
∂x ∂x
∂z z
= 2
∂x 3 z − x
∂z
∂y
∂2 z 1  ∂z 
=− 2 
6 z − 1
∂x ∂y (3 z − x)  ∂x 
2
1  6z2 
=− −1
(3 z − x)  3 z 2 − x 
2 2 
3z 2 + x
=−
(3 z 2 − x)3
example 10
 xy  ∂ 2u 1
−1
If u = tan   , show that = 3
.
 1+ x + y 
2 2 ∂ x ∂ y 2 2
(1 + x + y ) 2
Solution
 xy 
u = tan −1  
 1+ x + y 
2 2
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. y,
∂u 1 ∂  xy 
=  
∂x x2 y 2 ∂x  1 + x 2 + y 2 
1+
1 + x2 + y 2
 1 
1 + x 2 + y 2 y − xy ⋅ 2x
1+ x + y 2  2
2 1+ x + y
2 2 
=  
1+ x + y + x y 
2 2 2 2
1+ x + y
2 2

1 + x2 + y 2  (1 + x 2 + y 2 − x 2 ) y 
=  
1 + x 2 + y 2 (1 + x 2 )  (1 + x 2 + y 2 ) 1 + x 2 + y 2 

(1 + y ) y
2
=
(1 + x 2 )(1 + y 2 ) 1 + x 2 + y 2
y
=
(1 + x )
2
1 + x2 + y 2
Differentiating ∂u partially w.r.t. y,

∂x
∂ 2u ∂  y 
=  
∂x ∂y ∂y  (1 + x ) 1 + x + y 
2 2 2
 
1 ∂  y 
=  
1 + x ∂y  1 + x + y 
2 2 2
 2y 
 1 + x + y (1) − y
2 2
2 
1  2 1 + x 2
+ y 
=
1 + x 2  1 + x2 + y 2 
1 È 1 + x 2 + y2 - y2 ˘
= Í ˙
1 + x 2 Í (1 + x 2 + y 2 ) 1 + x 2 + y 2 ˙
Î ˚
1
= 3
(1 + x 2 + y 2 ) 2
example 11
∂3u
If u = exyz, show that = (1 + 3 xyz + x 2 y 2 z 2 )e xyz .
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution
u = e xyz
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. z,
∂u
= e xyz ⋅ xy
∂z
∂u
∂z
∂  ∂u  ∂ 2u
  = = xe xyz + x 2 yze xyz
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
∂2u
∂y ∂z
∂  ∂ 2u 
= e xyz + xyze xyz + 2 xyze xyz + x 2 y 2 z 2 e xyz
∂x  ∂y ∂z 
∂ 3u
= (1 + 3 xyz + x 2 y 2 z 2 )e xyz
∂x ∂y ∂z
example 12
∂ 3u
If u = e3xyz, show that = (3 + 27 xyz + 27 x 2 y 2 z 2 )e3 xyz .
∂x∂y∂z
[Summer 2014]
Solution
u = e3xyz
∂u
= 3 xy e3 xyz
∂z
∂u
∂z
∂2 u
∂ y∂ z
(
= 3 x e3 xyz + ye3 xy ◊ 3 xz )
= e3 xyz (3 x + 9 x 2 yz )
∂2 u
∂ y∂ z
∂3u
= e3 xyz (3 + 18 xyz ) + (3 x + 9 x 2 yz )e3 xyz ◊ 3 yz
∂ x ∂ y∂ z
= e3 xyz (3 + 18 xyz + 9 xyz + 27 x 2 y 2 z 2 )
= e3 xyz (3 + 27 xyz + 27 x 2 y 2 z 2 )
example 13
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
If u = log( x 2 + y 2 ), verify that = .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Solution
u = log( x 2 + y 2 )
∂u 1 2x
= 2 2
(2 x) = 2
∂x x + y x + y2
∂u 1 2y
= (2 y ) = 2
∂y x 2 + y 2 x + y2
∂u
∂x
∂ 2u  1  4 xy
= 2x − 2 2 2
2y = − 2 …(1)
∂y ∂x  (x + y )  ( x + y 2 )2
∂u
∂y
∂ 2u  1  4 xy
= 2 y − 2 2 2
2x = − 2 …(2)
∂x ∂y  ( x + y )  ( x + y 2 )2
∂2u ∂ 2u
=
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
example 14
xy 2 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
3
If u = x y + e , prove that = .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Solution
2
u = x 3 y + e xy
∂u 2
= x 3 + e xy ⋅ 2 xy
∂y
∂u
∂y
∂  ∂u  2 2
  = 3 x 2 + 2 ye xy + 2 xye xy ⋅ y 2
∂x  ∂y 
∂2u 2
= 3 x 2 + 2 ye xy (1 + xy 2 ) …(1)
∂x ∂y
∂u 2
= 3 x 2 y + e xy ⋅ y 2
∂x
∂u
∂x
∂  ∂u  xy 2 2 xy 2
  = 3 x + 2 ye + y e ⋅ 2 xy
2
∂y  ∂x 
∂2u 2
= 3 x 2 + 2 ye xy (1 + xy 2 ) ...(2)
∂y ∂x
∂2u ∂ 2u
=
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
example 15
2 2
If z = x + y x, prove that ∂ z = ∂ z . [Winter 2013]
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Solution
z = x + yx
Differentiating z partially w.r.t. x,
∂z
= 1 + y x log y
∂x
Differentiating z partially w.r.t. y,
∂z
= xy x -1
∂y
∂z
∂x
∂2 z 1
= y x ◊ + log y ◊ xy x -1
∂y ∂x y
= y x -1 + x log y( y x -1 )
= y x -1 (1 + x log y) ...(1)
∂z
∂y
∂2 z
= y x -1 ◊1 + xy x -1 log y
∂x ∂y
= y x -1 (1 + x log y) ...(2)
∂2 z ∂2 z
=
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
example 16
∂2 z ∂2 z
If z = xy + y x, prove that = .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Solution
z = xy + yx
y x
z = elog x + elog y
= e y log x + e x log y
∂z x
= e y log x ⋅ log x + e x log y ⋅
∂y y
∂z
∂y
∂  ∂z  y 1 1 x
  = e y log x ⋅ log x + e y log x ⋅ + e x log y ⋅ + e x log y log y ⋅
∂x  ∂y  x x y y
∂2 z e y log x e x log y
= ( y log x + 1) + (1 + x log y ) …(1)
∂x ∂y x y
∂z y
= e y log x ⋅ + e x log y ⋅ log y
∂x x
∂z
∂x
∂  ∂z  1 y log x x 1
  = (e + e y log x y log x) + e x log y ⋅ log y + e x log y ⋅
∂y ∂x x y y
∂2 z e y log x e x log y
= (1 + y log x) + ( x log y + 1) …(2)
∂y ∂x x y
∂2 z ∂2 z
=
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
example 17
3
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
If u = (3 xy − y 3 ) − ( y 2 − 2 x) 2 , show that ∂x ∂y = ∂y ∂x .
Solution
3
u = (3 xy − y 3 ) − ( y 2 − 2 x) 2
1
∂u 3
= 3x − 3 y 2 − ( y 2 − 2 x) 2 (2 y )
∂y 2
∂u
∂y
∂  ∂u  3y 2 −
1
= 3 − ( − 2 ) 2
( −2)
∂x  ∂y 
y x
2
∂2u 3y
= 3+ …(1)
∂x ∂y y − 2x
2

1
∂u 3
= 3 y − ( y 2 − 2 x) 2 ( −2)
∂x 2
1
= 3 y + 3( y 2 − 2 x) 2
∂u
∂x
∂  ∂u  3 2 −
1
  = 3 + ( y − 2 x) (2 y )
2
∂y ∂x 2
∂ 2u 3y
= 3+ …(2)
∂y ∂x y − 2x
2

∂2u ∂2u
=
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
example 18
 y  x 2 2 2 2
If z = x 2 tan −1   − y 2 tan −1   , prove that ∂ z = ∂ z = x 2 − y 2 .
 x  y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x x + y
Solution
 y  x
z = x 2 tan −1   − y 2 tan −1  
 x  y

∂z 1  1 1  x −1  x 
= x2  −y  − y 2  − 2 y tan  y 
2
∂y y2  x  x2
1+ 2 1+ 2
x y
x3 xy 2  x
= + − 2 y tan −1  
x +y
2 2
y +x
2 2
 y
 x
= x − 2 y tan −1  
 y
∂z
∂y
∂  ∂z  1  1
= 1− 2y
∂x  ∂y  x 2  y 
1+ 2
y
∂2 z 2 y2 y 2 + x2 − 2 y 2
= 1− 2 =
∂x ∂y y + x2 y 2 + x2
x2 − y 2
= …(1)
x2 + y 2
∂z  y 1  y y2  1 
= 2 x tan −1   + x 2 ⋅ 2 
− 2 −
∂y  x y  x  x 2  y 
1+ 2 1+ 2
x y
 y x2 y y3
= 2 x tan −1   − 2 −
 x  x + y2 x2 + y2
 y
= 2 x tan −1   − y
 x
∂z
∂x
∂  ∂z  1  1
  = 2x ⋅   −1
∂y  ∂x  y2  x 
1+ 2
x
∂2 z 2x2
= −1
∂y ∂x x 2 + y 2
2x2 − x2 − y2
=
x2 + y 2
x2 − y 2
= …(2)
x2 + y 2

∂2 z ∂2 z x2 − y 2
= = 2
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x x + y 2
example 19
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
If u = log (x2 + y2 + z2), prove that x =y =z .
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Solution
u = log (x2 + y2 + z2)
∂u 1
= ⋅2y
∂y x 2 + y 2 + z 2
∂u
Differentiating partially w.r.t. z,
∂y
∂  ∂u  2y
  =− 2 ⋅ 2z
∂z  ∂y  ( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
∂2u 4 xyz
x =− 2
∂z ∂y ( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
∂2u 4 xyz
or x =− 2 …(1)
∂y ∂z ( x + y 2 + z 2 )2

∂u 1
= ⋅ 2x
∂x x 2 + y 2 + z 2
∂u
∂x
∂  ∂u  2x
 =− 2 ⋅ 2z
∂z  ∂x  ( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
∂2u 4 xyz
y =− 2 …(2)
∂z ∂x ( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
∂u
∂x
∂  ∂u  2x
 =− 2 ⋅2y
∂y  ∂x  ( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
∂2u 4 xyz
z =− 2 …(3)
∂x ∂y ( x + y 2 + z 2 )2
From Eqs (1), (2) and (3),
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
x =y =z
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
example 20
3
∂2 z 2
2 ∂ z
If z = tan( y + ax) + ( y − ax) 2 , find the value of − a .
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Solution
3
z = tan( y + ax) + ( y − ax) 2
1
∂z 3
= a sec 2 ( y + ax) − a ( y − ax) 2
∂x 2
∂z
∂x
1
∂2 z 2 2 3 2 −
= 2 a sec ( y + ax ) tan( y + ax ) + a ( y − ax ) 2
…(1)
∂x 2 4
1
∂z 3
= sec 2 ( y + ax) + ( y − ax) 2
∂y 2
∂z
∂y
1
∂2 z 2 3 −
= 2 sec ( y + ax ) tan( y + ax ) + ( y − ax ) 2
…(2)
∂y 2 4
∂2 z 2
2 ∂ z
− a =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
example 21
1 ∂2 z 1 ∂2 z
If a2 x2 + b2 y2 = c2 z2, evaluate + .
a 2 ∂x 2 b 2 ∂y 2
Solution
a2 x2 + b2 y2 = c2 z2
∂z
2a 2 x = 2c 2 z ⋅
∂x
∂z a 2 x
=
∂x c 2 z
∂z
∂x
∂ 2 z a 2  1 x ∂z 
=  − ⋅ 
∂x 2 c 2  z z 2 ∂x 
a2  x a2 x 
= 1− ⋅ 2 
c 2 z  z c z
1 ∂2 z 1  a2 x2 
= 1−
a 2 ∂x 2 c 2 z  c 2 z 2 
1 ∂2 z 1  b2 y 2 
Similarly, = 2 1 − 2 2 
b ∂y
2 2
c z c z 
1 ∂2 z 1 ∂2 z 1  a 2 x2 + b2 y 2 
Hence, + = 2 −
a 2 ∂x 2 b 2 ∂y 2 c 2 z  c2 z 2 
1  c2 z 2 
= 2 −
c 2 z  c 2 z 2 
1
= (2 − 1)
c2 z
1
= 2
c z
example 22
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 4
3 3 2 2
If u = log (x + y – x y – xy ), prove that 2 + 2 + 2 =− .
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ( x + y)2
Solution
u = log (x3 + y3 – x2y – xy2)
= log [(x + y)(x2 – xy + y2) – xy(x + y)]
= log [(x + y)(x2 – xy + y2 – xy)]
= log [(x + y)(x – y)2]
= log (x + y) + 2log (x – y)
∂u 1 2
= +
∂x x + y x − y
∂u
∂x
∂ 2u 1 2
2
=− 2
−
∂x ( x + y) ( x − y)2

∂u 1 2
= −
∂y x + y x − y
∂u
∂y
∂2u 1 2
=− −
∂y 2 ( x + y)2 ( x − y)2
∂u
∂y
∂2u 1 2
=− 2
+
∂x ∂y ( x + y) ( x − y)2
∂2u ∂2u ∂2u 4
+ 2 + =−
∂x 2 ∂x ∂ y ∂y 2 ( x + y)2
example 23
2
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 9
If u = log (x + y + z – 3xyz), prove that  + +  u = −
3 3 3 .
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ( x + y + z )2
Solution
2
 ∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂u ∂u ∂u 
 ∂x + ∂y + ∂z  u =  ∂x + ∂y + ∂z   ∂x + ∂y + ∂z 
 ∂ ∂ ∂
= + + v
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂u ∂u ∂u
where v= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
u = log( x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz )
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. x, y, and z,

∂u 3x 2 − 3 yz
= 3
∂x x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz
∂u 3 y 2 − 3 xz
= 3
∂y x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz
∂u 3 z 2 − 3 xy
= 3
∂z x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz
∂u ∂u ∂u
v= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
3( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 3( xy + yz + zx)
=
x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz
3( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx) ( x + y + z )
= ⋅
x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz ( x + y + z)
3( x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz )
=
( x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz )( x + y + z )
3
3
=
x+ y+ z
2
 ∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ ∂ 3 
Hence,  ∂x + ∂y + ∂z  u =  ∂x + ∂y + ∂z   x + y + z 
3 3 3
=− − −
( x + y + z )2 ( x + y + z )2 ( x + y + z )2
9
=−
( x + y + z )2
example 24
If u = 3 (ax + by + cz)2 – (x2 + y2 + z2) and a2 + b2 + c2 = 1, show that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ + = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Solution
u = 3 (ax + by + cz)2 – (x2 + y2 + z2)
∂u
= 6(ax + by + cz )a − 2 x
∂x
∂u
∂x
∂2u
= 6a ⋅ a − 2
∂x 2
= 6a 2 − 2

∂u
= 6(ax + by + cz )b − 2 y
∂y
∂u
∂y
∂2u
= 6b ⋅ b − 2
∂y 2
= 6b 2 − 2
∂u
= 6(ax + by + cz )c − 2 z
∂z
∂u
∂z
∂2u
= 6c ⋅ c − 2
∂z 2
= 6c 2 − 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂2u
Hence, + + = 6( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) − 6
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
= 6(1) − 6 [Q a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = 1]
=0
example 25
1 2 2 2
If u = , find the value of ∂ u2 + ∂ u2 + ∂ u2 .
x2 + y 2 + z 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution
1
u=
x + y2 + z2
2

∂u 1
=− 3
⋅ 2x
∂x 2 2 2 2
2( x + y + z )
x
=− 3
( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
∂u
∂x
 
∂2u  1 3x ⋅ 2 x 
=− −
∂x 2  2 3 5 
 ( x + y + z ) 2( x + y + z ) 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
=− 5
( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 3x 2 )
2 2 2 2
(x + y + z )
( −2 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
=− 5
( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
∂2u ( x2 − 2 y 2 + z 2 )
Similarly, 2
=− 5
∂y
( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
∂2u ( x2 + y 2 − 2z 2 )
and = −
∂z 2 5
( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ( −2 x 2 + 2 y 2 + 2 z 2 + 2 x 2 − 2 y 2 − 2 z 2 )
Hence, 2
+ 2+ 2 =− 5
∂x ∂y ∂z
( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
=0
example 26
 x 2 2 2
If u = z tan −1   , find the value of ∂ u + ∂ u + ∂ u .
 y ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Solution
 x
u = z tan −1  
 y
∂u 1 1
=z ⋅
∂x x2 y
1+ 2
y
zy
=
y + x2
2
∂u
∂x
∂ 2u yz ⋅ 2 x
=− 2
∂x 2 ( x + y 2 )2
2 xyz
=− 2
( x + y 2 )2

∂u z  x
= −
∂y x 2  y 2 
1+ 2
y
xz
=− 2
y + x2
∂u
∂y
∂2u xz ⋅ 2 y
=
∂y 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2
2 xyz
= 2
( x + y 2 )2
∂u  x
= tan −1  
∂z  y
∂u
∂z
∂2u
=0
∂z 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2 xyz 2 xyz
Hence, + + =− 2 +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ( x + y 2 )2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
=0
example 27
−
1
∂  ∂v  ∂  ∂v 
2 2
If v = (1 − 2 xy + y ) , find the value of  (1 − x 2 )  +  y 2  .
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y 
Solution 1
−
v = (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2

3
∂v 1 −
= − (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 ( −2 y )
∂x 2
3
∂v −
(1 − x 2 ) = y (1 − x 2 )(1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2
∂x
∂  2 ∂v  ∂  − 
3
(1 − ) = 
 (1 − 2
)(1 − 2 + 2
) 2

∂x  ∂x 
x y x xy y
∂x
 −
3
3 −
5

= y ( −2 x)(1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 − (1 − x 2 )(1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 ( −2 y ) 
 2 
5
−
= y (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 [ −2 x(1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) + 3 y (1 − x 2 )]
5
−
= y (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 ( −2 x + 4 x 2 y − 2 xy 2 + 3 y − 3 x 2 y )
5
−
= y (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 ( −2 x + x 2 y − 2 xy 2 + 3 y ) …(1)
Differentiating v partially w.r.t. y,
3
∂v 1 −
= − (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 ( −2 x + 2 y )
∂y 2
3
∂v −
y2 = − y 2 ( − x + y )(1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2
∂y
∂  2 ∂v  −
3
−
3
= −2 ( − + )(1 − 2 + 2
) 2
− 2
(1 − 2 + 2
) 2
∂y  ∂y 
y y x y xy y y xy y
5
3y2 −
+ ( − x + y )(1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 ( −2 x + 2 y )
2
5
−
= y (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 [2( x − y )(1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) − y (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) + 3 y ( − x + y ) 2 ]
5
−
= y (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 (2 x − 4 x 2 y + 2 xy 2 − 2 y + 4 xy 2 − 2 y 3 − y
+ 2 xy 2 − y 3 + 3 yx 2 + 3 y 3 − 6 xy 2 )
5
−
= y (1 − 2 xy + y 2 ) 2 (2 x − x 2 y + 2 xy 2 − 3 y ) …(2)
∂  ∂v  ∂  ∂v 
 (1 − x 2 )  +  y 2  = 0.
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y 
example 28
∂ 2 u 1 ∂u 1 ∂ 2 u
If u = (ar + br )(cos nq + sin nq ), show that 2 +
n –n + = 0.
∂r r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2
Solution
u = (arn + br–n)(cos nq + sin nq )
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. r,
∂u
= (nar n −1 − bnr − n −1 )(cos nθ + sin nθ )
∂r
∂u
Differentiating partially w.r.t. r,
∂r
∂2u
= n[a (n − 1)r n − 2 + b(n + 1)r − n − 2 ](cos nθ + sin nθ )
∂r 2
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. q,
∂u
= (ar n + br − n )( − n sin nθ + n cos nθ )
∂θ
∂u
Differentiating partially w.r.t. q,
∂θ
∂ 2u
= (ar n + br − n )( − n 2 cos nθ − n 2 sin nθ )
∂θ 2
= − n 2 (ar n + br − n )(cos nθ + sin
n nθ )
∂ 2 u 1 ∂u 1 ∂ 2 u
+ + = n[a (n − 1)r n − 2 + b(n + 1)r − n − 2 ](cos nθ + sinn nθ )
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2
n2
+ n(ar n − 2 − br − n − 2 )(cos nθ + sin nθ ) − 2 (ar n + br − n )(cos nθ + sin nθ )
r
n −2
= (cos nθ + sin nθ )r (an − an + bn 2 + bn + an − bn − an 2 − bn 2 )
2
=0
example 29 2 2
 ∂r   ∂r 
If x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ , show that   +   = 1.
 ∂x   ∂y 
Solution
x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ
x + y2 = r 2
2
…(1)
∂r
2 x = 2r
∂x
∂r x
=
∂x r
∂r
2 y = 2r
∂y
∂r y
=
∂y r
2 2
 ∂r   ∂r  x2 y 2 x2 + y 2 r 2
Hence,   +   = 2 + 2 = = 2 =1
∂x  ∂y  r r r2 r
example 30
If x = cos q - r sin q , y = sin q + r cos q , show that
∂r x ∂θ cos θ
(i) = (ii) =− .
∂x r ∂x r
Solution
(i) x = cos θ − r sin θ …(1)
y = sin θ + r cos θ …(2)
2 2 2 2
x = cos θ − 2r cos θ sin θ + r sin θ
y 2 = sin 2 θ + 2r sin θ cos θ + r 2 cos 2 θ
x2 + y 2 = 1 + r 2 …(3)
∂r
2 x = 2r
∂x
∂r x
=
∂x r
(ii) Multiplying Eq. (1) by cos q and Eq. (2) by sin q,
x cos θ = cos 2 θ − r sin θ cos θ …(4)
2
y sin θ = sin θ + r cos θ sin θ …(5)
x cos θ + y sin θ = 1
x cot θ + y = cosec θ …(6)
∂θ ∂θ
cot θ − x cosec 2θ = − cot θ cosecθ
∂x ∂x
∂θ ∂θ
cot θ + cot θ cosecθ = x cosec 2θ
∂x ∂x
∂q
= (cos q - r sin q )cosec 2q
∂x
∂q ∂q
= cos q cosec 2q - r sin q cosec 2q
∂x ∂x
∂q ∂q
= cot q cosecq - r cosecq
∂x ∂x
∂q
cot q = -r cosec q
∂x
∂q cot q cos q
=- =-
∂x r cosec q r
example 31
∂x 1 ∂y ∂y 1 ∂x
Show that = and =− and hence, show that
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
∂ 2 x 1 ∂x 1 ∂ 2 x
+ + = 0 if x = e rcos q cos (r sin q ) and y = e rcos q sin (r sin q ).
∂ r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2
Solution
x = e rcosq cos (r sin q )
Differentiating x partially w.r.t. r,
∂x
= e r cos θ ⋅ cos θ cos(r sin θ ) + e r cos θ [ − sin(r sin θ )]sin θ
∂r
= e r cos θ [cos θ cos(r sin θ ) − sin θ sin(r sin θ )]
= e r cos θ cos(θ + r sin θ ) …(1)
r cos θ
Now, y=e sin(r sin θ )
Differentiating y partially w.r.t. r,
∂y
= e r cos θ cos θ sin(r sin θ ) + e r cos θ cos(r sin θ ) sin θ
∂r
= e r cos θ sin(r sin θ + θ ) …(2)
Differentiating x partially w.r.t. q,
∂x
= e r cos θ ( − r sin θ ) cos(r sin θ ) + e r cos θ [ − sin(r sin θ )] ⋅ (r cos θ )
∂θ
= − re r cos θ sin(θ + r sin θ ) …(3)
Differentiating y partially w.r.t. q,
∂y
= e r cos θ ( − r sin θ ) sin(r sin θ ) + e r cos θ cos(r sin θ ) ⋅ r cos θ
∂θ
= re r cos θ cos(θ + r sin θ ) …(4)

∂x 1 ∂y
= ...(5)
∂r r ∂ θ
∂y 1 ∂x
=−
∂r r ∂θ
∂x ∂y
= −r ...(6)
∂θ ∂r
Differentiating Eq. (5) partially w.r.t. r,

∂ 2 x ∂  1 ∂y 
=  
∂r 2 ∂r  r r∂θ 
−1 ∂y 1 ∂ 2 y
= +
r 2 ∂θ r ∂r∂θ
Differentiating Eq. (6) partially w.r.t. q,
∂2 x ∂  ∂y 
=  −r 
∂θ 2 ∂θ  ∂r 
∂2 y
= −r
∂θ ∂r
∂2 y
= −r
∂r ∂θ
Hence, ∂ x + 1 ∂x + 1 ∂ x = −1 ∂y + 1 ∂ y + 1 ∂y − 1 ∂ y
2 2 2 2
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2 r 2 ∂θ r ∂r∂θ r 2 ∂θ r ∂r∂θ
=0
example 32
−r2
1 ∂  2 ∂θ  ∂θ
=
n
If θ = t e 4t
then find n so that r .
r 2 ∂r  ∂r  ∂t
Solution
−r2
θ = t n e 4t
Differentiating q partially w.r.t. t,
2 2
−r −r
∂θ  r2 
= nt n −1e 4t + t n e 4t  2 
∂t  4t 
2
−r
 1 
= e 4t  nt n −1 + r 2 t n − 2 
 4 
Differentiating q partially w.r.t. r,
2
−r
∂θ  −2r 
= t n e 4t 
∂r  4t 
∂  2 ∂θ  ∂  t n −1 3 −4rt 
2
r  = − re 
∂r  ∂r  ∂r  2 
t n −1  2 −4rt  −2r  
2 2
−r
=− 3r e + r e 4t 
3

2   4t  

2
−r
1 ∂  2 ∂θ   3 n −1 r 2 n − 2 
 = e  − t + t 
4t
 r
r ∂r
2
∂r  2 4 
1 ∂  2 ∂θ  ∂θ
Given r = ,
r 2 ∂r  ∂r  ∂t
2 2
−r −r
 3 r2   1 
e 4t  − t n −1 + t n − 2  = e 4t  nt n −1 + r 2 t n − 2 
 2 4   4 
3
− t n −1 = nt n −1
2
3
n=−
2
example 33
Find the value of n so that v = r n (3 cos2 q – 1) satisfies the equation
∂  2 ∂v  1 ∂  ∂v 
 r  +  sin θ  = 0.
∂r ∂r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
Solution
v = rn (3 cos2 q – 1)
Differentiating v partially w.r.t. r,
∂v
= nr n −1 (3 cos 2 θ − 1)
∂r
∂  2 ∂v  ∂ n +1
 = [nr (3 cos θ − 1)]
2
r
∂r  ∂r  ∂r
= n(n + 1)r n (3 cos 2 θ − 1) …(1)
Differentiating v partially w.r.t. q,
∂v
= r n ⋅ 6 cos θ ( − sin θ )
∂θ
= −3r n sin 2θ
∂  ∂v  ∂
 sin θ  = n θ ⋅ sin 2θ )
( −3r n sin
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
= −3r n (cos θ sin 2θ + 2 sin θ cos 2θ )
= −3r n [cos θ ⋅ 2 sin θ cos θ + 2 sin θ (2 cos 2 θ − 1)]
1 ∂  ∂v 
 sin θ  = −3r (2 cos θ + 4 cos θ − 2)
n 2 2
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
= − 6r n (3 cos 2 θ − 1)
∂  2 ∂v  1 ∂  ∂v 
Given  r  +  sin θ  = 0,
∂r ∂r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
n(n + 1) r n (3 cos2 q – 1) – 6r n (3 cos2 q – 1) = 0
n(n + 1) – 6 = 0
n2 + n – 6 = 0
(n + 3)(n – 2) = 0
n = –3, 2
example 34
If xx yy zz = c, show that at x = y = z,
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z 2( x 2 − 2)
(i) = − ( x log ex) −1 (ii) 2 − 2 xy + = .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 x(1 + log x)
Solution
(i) xx yy zz = c
Taking logarithm on both the sides,
log x x + log y y + log z z = log c
x log x + y log y + z log z = log c …(1)

1 ∂z 1 ∂z
x ⋅ + log x + ⋅ log z + z ⋅ =0 [Q z = f ( x, y )]
x ∂x z ∂x
∂z 1 + log x
=−
∂x 1 + log z
∂z
∂x
∂  ∂z   1 1 ∂z 
  = − (1 + log x)  − ⋅ 
∂y ∂x  (1 + log z ) z ∂x 
2
∂2 z (1 + log x)  1 + log x 
= −
∂y ∂x z (1 + log z ) 2  1 + log z 
∂2 z (1 + log x) 2
=−
∂x ∂y z (1 + log z )3
At x = y = z,
∂2 z (1 + log x) 2
=−
∂x ∂y x(1 + log x)3
1
=−
x(1 + log x)
= −[ x(log e + log x)]−1 [Q log e = 1]
−1
= − ( x log ex) .
∂z
(ii) Differentiating partially w.r.t. x,
∂x
∂ 2 z ∂  1 + log x 
= −
∂x 2 ∂x  1 + log z 
(1 + log x) 1 ∂z 1
= ⋅ −
(1 + log z ) 2 z ∂x x(1 1 + log z )
(1 + log x) (1 + log x) 1
=− ⋅ −
z (1 + log z ) 2 (1 + log z ) x(1 + log z )
At x = y = z,
∂2 z 2
=−
∂x 2 x(1 + log x)
∂ 2 z −(1 + log y ) 2 1
Similarly, 2
= 3
−
∂y z (1 + log z ) y (1 + log z )
At x = y = z,
∂2 z 2
2
=−
∂y x(1 + log x)
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z 2  1   2 
Hence, − 2 xy + 2 =− − 2 xy  −  +  − x(1 + log x) 
∂x 2
∂x ∂y ∂y x(1 + log x)  x (1 + log x )   
2( xy − 2)
=
x(1 + log x)
2( x 2 − 2 )
= [Q x = y = z ]
x(1 + log x)
example 35
x2 y2 z2
If 2 + + = 1, prove that
a + u b2 + u c2 + u
2 2 2
 ∂u   ∂u   ∂u   ∂u ∂u ∂u 
  +   +   = 2  x + y +z .
∂x  ∂y  ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Solution
x2 y2 z2
+ + =1 ...(1)
a 2 + u b2 + u c2 + u

2x x2 ∂u y2 ∂u z2 ∂u
− − − =0
a 2 + u (a 2 + u ) 2 ∂x (b 2 + u ) 2 ∂x (c 2 + u ) 2 ∂x
∂u  x 2 y2 z2  2x
 2 + + 2
= 2
∂x  ( a + u ) 2
(b + u )
2 2
(c + u )  a + u
2
∂u 2x
⋅p= 2
∂x (a + u )
x2 y2 z2
where p= 2 2
+ 2 2
+ 2
(a + u ) (b + u ) (c + u ) 2
∂u 2x
=
∂x ( a 2 + u ) p
∂u 2y
Similarly, =
∂y (b 2 + u ) p
∂u 2z
= 2
∂z ( c + u ) p
2 2 2
 ∂u   ∂u   ∂u  4  x2 y2 z2 
  +   +   = 2  2 + 2 + 2 
∂x  ∂y  ∂z p  (a + u ) 2
(b + u ) 2
(c + u ) 2 
4
= 2 ( p)
p
4
= …(2)
p
∂u ∂u ∂u 2  x 2 y2 z2 
x +y +z =  2 + 2 + 2
∂x ∂y ∂z p  a + u b + u c + u 
2
= (1)
p
2
= …(3)
p
2 2 2
 ∂u   ∂u   ∂u   ∂u ∂u ∂u 
  +   +   = 2  x +y +z 
∂x  ∂y  ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
example 36
∂z ∂z
If z = e ax + by f (ax − by ), prove that b + a = 2abz.
∂x ∂y
Solution
z = e ax + by f (ax − by )
∂z
= ae ax + by f (ax − by ) + ae ax + by f ′ (ax − by )
∂x
= az + ae ax + by f ′ (ax − by )
∂z
= be ax + by f (ax − by ) − be ax + by f ′ (ax − by )
∂y
= bz − be ax + by f ′ (ax − by )
∂z ∂z
Hence, b +a = abz + abe ax + by f ′ (ax − by ) + abz − abe ax + by f ′ (ax − by )
∂x ∂y
= 2abz
example 37
∂ 2u 2
2 ∂ u
If u = f (x + ky) + y (x – ky), show that = k .
∂y 2 ∂x 2
Solution
u = f (x + ky) + y (x – ky)
∂u
= φ' ( x + ky ) ⋅1 + ψ' ( x − ky ) ⋅1
∂x
∂u
∂x
∂2u
= φ'' ( x + ky ) + ψ'' ( x − ky ) …(1)
∂x 2
∂u
= φ' ( x + ky ) ⋅ k + ψ' ( x − ky ) ⋅ ( − k )
∂y
∂u
∂y
∂2u
= φ'' ( x + ky ) ⋅ k 2 + ψ'' ( x − ky )( − k ) 2
∂y 2
= k 2 [φ'' ( x + ky ) + ψ'' ( x − ky )] …(2)

∂ 2u ∂2u
2
= k2 2
∂y ∂x
example 38
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
If u = xf (x + y) + yf (x + y), show that − 2 + = 0.
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
Solution
u = xf (x + y) + y f (x + y),
∂u
= f ( x + y ) + xf' ( x + y ) + yφ' ( x + y )
∂x
∂u
∂x
∂ 2u
= f' ( x + y ) + f' ( x + y ) + xf'' ( x + y ) + yφ'' ( x + y )
∂x 2
= 2 f' ( x + y ) + xf'' ( x + y ) + yφ'' ( x + y )
∂u
∂x
∂ 2u
= f ' ( x + y ) + xf '' ( x + y ) + yφ'' ( x + y ) + φ' ( x + y )
∂x ∂y
∂u
= xf' ( x + y ) + φ ( x + y ) + yφ' ( x + y )
∂y
∂u
∂y
∂ 2u
= xf'' ( x + y ) + φ' ( x + y ) + φ' ( x + y ) + yφ'' ( x + y )
∂y 2
= xf'' ( x + y ) + 2φ' ( x + y ) + yφ'' ( x + y )
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂2u
Hence, 2
−2 +
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
= 2 f' ( x + y ) + xf'' ( x + y ) + yφ'' ( x + y ) − 2 f' ( x + y ) − 2 xf'' ( x + y )

− 2 yφ'' ( x + y ) − 2φ' ( x + y ) + xf'' ( x + y ) + 2φ' ( x + y ) + yφ'' ( x + y )
=0
example 39
If u = f ( )
x 2 + y 2 , prove that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+
∂x 2 ∂y 2
=
2
1
2
f′ ( x 2 + y 2 + f ′′ ) ( x2 + y 2 . )
x +y
Solution
Let x2 + y 2 = r
u = f(r)
∂u ∂
= f (r )
∂x ∂x
∂f ∂r
= ⋅
∂r ∂x
∂
= f ′(r ) ⋅ x2 + y 2
∂x
1
= f ′(r ) ⋅ ⋅ 2x
2 x + y2
2
∂u
∂x
∂2 u ∂r x f ¢(r ) 1
2
= f ¢¢(r ) ◊ + - xf ¢(r ) 3
◊ 2x
∂x ∂x x 2 + y 2 x 2 + y2 2
2( x + y2 ) 2
x x f ¢(r ) x 2 f ¢(r )
= f ¢¢(r ) ◊ + - 3
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
( x 2 + y2 ) 2
x2 f ¢(r ) x 2 f ¢(r )
= f ¢¢(r ) 2 2
+ - 3
x +y x 2 + y2
( x 2 + y2 ) 2
∂2 u y2 f ¢(r ) y 2 f ¢(r )
= f ¢¢(r ) + -
Similarly, ∂y 2 x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
3
( x 2 + y2 ) 2
∂2 u ∂2 u ( x 2 + y2 ) 2 f ¢(r ) ( x 2 + y 2 ) f ¢(r )
Hence, + = f ¢¢(r ) + -
∂x 2 ∂y 2 x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
3
(xx 2 + y 2 ) 2
2 f ¢(r ) f ¢(r )
= f ¢¢(r ) + -
2 2
x +y x 2 + y2
f ¢(r )
= f ¢¢(r ) +
x 2 + y2
= f ¢¢ ( x 2 + y2 +) f¢ ( x 2 + y2 )
2 2
x +y
example 40
 x2  ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
If u = f   , show that x 2 2 + 3 xy + 2 y 2 2 = 0.
 y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Solution
 x2 
u= f 
 y
∂u  x2  ∂  x2 
= f'   
∂x  y  ∂x  y 
 x2   2 x 
= f'   
 y y 
∂u
∂x
∂2u 2  x 2   x2  ∂  x2   2x 
= f ′ + f ′′  y  ⋅ ∂x  y  ⋅  y 
∂x 2 y  y 
2
2  x2   x2   2x 
= f ′   + f ′′   ⋅  
y  y  y  y
∂u  x2  ∂  x2 
= f ′  ⋅  
∂y  y  ∂y  y 
 x2   x2 
= f ′  ⋅ − 2 
 y  y 
∂u
∂y
∂2u 2 x 2  x 2   x 2   x2  ∂  x2 
= 3 f ′   +  − 2  f ′′   ⋅  
∂y 2
y  y  y   y  ∂y  y 
2
2x2  x2   x2   x2 
= f ′ +
 y   y 2  f ′′  y 
y3
∂u
∂x
∂ 2u 2x  x2  2x  x2   x2 
= − 2 f ′  + f ′′   ⋅  − 2 
∂x ∂y y  y y  y  y 
∂2u ∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2
2x2  x2  4x4  x2  6x2  x2 
x2 + 3 xy + 2 y = f ′ +
 y  y 2 f ′′  y  − y f ′  y 
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 y
6x4  x2  4x2  x2  2x4  x2 
− f ′′  y  + f ′ +
 y  y 2 f ′′  y 
y2 y
=0
example 41
 xy  ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
If u = e xyz f   , prove that x + z = 2 xyzu and y +z = 2 xyzu
 z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
and hence, show that x =y .
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
Solution
 xy 
u = e xyz f  
 z
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. x, y and z,
∂u  xy    xy    y 
= e xyz yz ⋅ f   + e xyz  f ′     
∂x  z   z  z
∂u  xy    xy    x 
= e xyz xz ⋅ f   + e xyz
 f ′  z    z 
∂y  z  
∂u  xy    xy    − xy 
= e xyz xy ⋅ f   + e xyz  f ′     2 
∂z  z   z  z 
∂u ∂u
(i) x +z
∂x ∂z
 xy  xy  xy   xy  xy  xy 
= e xyz xyz ⋅ f   + e xyz f ′   + e xyz xyz ⋅ f   − e xyz f ′  
 z z  z  z z  z
 xy 
= 2 xyze xyz ⋅ f  
 z
= 2 xyzu.
∂u ∂u
(ii) y +z
∂y ∂z
 xy  xy  xy   xy  xy  xy 
= e xyz xyz ⋅ f   + e xyz f ′   + e xyz xyz ⋅ f   − e xyz f ′  
 z z  z  z z  z
 xy 
= 2 xyze xyz f  
 z
= 2 xyzu
∂u
(iii) Differentiating w.r.t. x,
∂z
∂2u  xy   xy    xy    y
= e xyz yz ⋅ xy ⋅ f   + e xyz y ⋅ f   + e xyz xy  f ′     
∂z ∂x  z   z    z  z
  xy    − xy    xy    y   − xy 
+ e xyz yz  f ′     2  + e xyz  f ′′       2 
  z    z    z  z  z 
  xy    y 
+ e xyz  f ′     − 2 
  z  z 
∂ 2u   xy 
2 2
 xy  x y  xy  xy  xy  
x = e xyz  x 2 y 2 z ⋅ f   + xy ⋅ f   − 3 f ′′   − 2 f ′    …(1)
∂z ∂x   z  z z  z z  z 
∂u
Differentiating w.r.t. y,
∂z
∂ 2u Ê xy ˆ Ê xy ˆ È Ê xy ˆ ˘ Ê x ˆ
= e xyz xz ◊ xy ◊ f Á ˜ + e xyz x ◊ f Á ˜ + e xyz xy Í f ¢ Á ˜ ˙ Á ˜
∂z ∂y Ë z¯ Ë z¯ Î Ë z ¯˚Ë z¯
È Ê xy ˆ ˘ Ê - xy ˆ È Ê xy ˆ ˘ Ê x ˆ Ê - xy ˆ
+ e xyz xz Í f ¢ Á ˜ ˙ Á 2 ˜ + e xyz Í f ¢¢ ÁË ˜¯ ˙ ÁË ˜¯ ÁË 2 ˜¯
Î Ë z ¯˚Ë z ¯ Î z ˚ z z
È Ê xy ˆ ˘ Ê x ˆ
+ e xyz Í f ¢ ÁË ˜¯ ˙ ÁË - 2 ˜¯
Î z ˚ z
∂ 2u   xy   xy  x y
2 2
 xy  xy  xy  
y = e xyz  x 2 y 2 z ⋅ f   + xy ⋅ f   − 3 f ′′   − 2 f ′    …(2)
∂z ∂y   z  z z  z z  z 

∂2u ∂2u
x =y
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
example 42
2 2 2 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ 2 + 2 = m(m + 1)r m − 2 .
m
If u = r , r = x + y + z , show that 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution
u = rm
∂u ∂r
= mr m −1 ...(1)
∂x ∂x
But r= x2 + y 2 + z 2
r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
Differentiating r 2 partially w.r.t. x,
∂r
2r = 2x
∂x
∂r x
=
∂x r
∂u x
= mr m −1
∂x r
= mr m − 2 x
∂u
∂x
∂2u  ∂r 
= m  r m − 2 + ( m − 2) r m − 3
∂x 
x
∂x 2

 x 
= m  r m − 2 + ( m − 2) r m − 3 x 
 r 
= m[r m − 2 + (m − 2)r m − 4 x 2 ] ...(2)
2
∂u
Similarly, = m[r m − 2 + (m − 2)r m − 4 y 2 ] …(3)
∂y 2
∂2u
= m[r m − 2 + (m − 2)r m − 4 z 2 ] …(4)
∂z 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ + = 3mr m − 2 + m(m − 2)r m − 4 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
= 3mr m − 2 + m(m − 2)r m − 4 ⋅ r 2
= r m − 2 (3m + m 2 − 2m)
= r m − 2 (m + m 2 )
= m(m + 1)r m − 2
example 43
If u = f (r) and r 2 = x2 + y2 + z2, prove that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2
+ 2 + 2 = f ′′ (r ) + f ′ (r ). [Summer 2015]
∂x ∂y ∂z r
Solution
u = f (r)
∂u ∂
= f (r )
∂x ∂x
∂ ∂r
= f (r ) ⋅
∂r ∂x
∂r
= f ′ (r ) ⋅ ...(1)
∂x
But r 2 = x2 + y2 + z2
∂r
2r = 2x
∂x
∂r x
=
∂x r
Subsituting in Eq. (1),
∂u x
= f ′(r ) ⋅
∂x r
∂u
∂x
∂2u ∂  x
=  f ′(r ) 
∂x 2
∂x  r
∂r x f ′ ( r )  1  ∂r
= f ′′ (r ) ⋅ + + xf ′ (r )  − 2  ⋅
∂x r r  r  ∂x
x x f ′(r ) x x
= f ′′ (r ) + − 2 f ′(r ) ⋅
r r r r r
x 2 f ′(r ) x 2
= f ′′ (r ) 2 + − 3 f ′(r ) …(2)
r r r
∂2u y 2 f ′(r ) y 2
Similarly, 2
= f ′′ (r ) 2 + − 3 f ′(r ) …(3)
∂y r r r
∂2u z 2 f ′(r ) z 2
and 2
= f ′′ (r ) 2 + − 3 f ′(r ) …(4)
∂z r r r
∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u f ′′ (r ) 2 2 2 3 f ′(r ) ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
+ + = ( x + y + z ) + − f ′ (r )
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 r2 r r3
f ′′ (r ) 2 3 f ′ (r ) r 2
= ⋅r + − 3 f ′ (r )
r2 r r
2 f ′ (r )
= f ′′ (r ) +
r
example 44
If u = f (r 2) where r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z2, prove that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
2
+ 2 + 2 = 4r 2 f ′′ (r 2 ) + 6 f ′ (r 2 ).
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution
u = f (r 2)
∂u ∂
= f (r 2 )
∂x ∂x
∂
= f (l ), where r 2 = l
∂x
∂ ∂l
= f (l ) ⋅
∂l ∂x
∂l
= f ′ (l )
∂x
∂r 2
= f ′ (r 2 )
∂x
∂u ∂r
∴ = f ′ ( r 2 ) ⋅ 2r ...(1)
∂x ∂x
But r 2 = x2 + y2 + z2
∂r
2r = 2x
∂x
∂r x
=
∂x r
∂u x
= f ′ ( r 2 ) ⋅ 2r
∂x r
= 2 x f ′(r 2 )
∂u
∂x
∂ 2u ∂f ′ ( r 2 )
2
= 2 f ′ (r 2 ) + 2 x
∂x ∂x
∂r
= 2 f ′ (r 2 ) + 2 x f ′′ (r 2 ) ⋅ 2r
∂x
x
= 2 f ′ (r 2 ) + 2 x f ′′ (r 2 ) ⋅ 2r
r …(2)
2 2 2
= 2 f ′ (r ) + 4 x f ′′ (r )
∂2u
Similarly, = 2 f ′ (r 2 ) + 4 y 2 f ′′ (r 2 ) …(3)
∂y 2
∂ 2u
and = 2 f ′ (r 2 ) + 4 z 2 f ′′ (r 2 ) …(4)
∂z 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ + = 6 f ′ (r 2 ) + 4( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) f ′′ (r 2 )
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
= 6 f ′ (r 2 ) + 4r 2 f ′′ (r 2 )
example 45
∂ 2v ∂ 2v 1
If v = x log(x + r) – r where r = x + y , prove that 2 + 2 =
2 2 2
.
∂x ∂y x+r
Solution
v = x log(x + r) – r
∂v x  ∂r  ∂r
= log( x + r ) + 1 +  −
∂x x + r  ∂x  ∂x
But r 2 = x2 + y 2
∂r
2r = 2x
∂x
∂r x
=
∂x r
∂r y
Similarly, =
∂y r
∂v x  x x
∴ = log( x + r ) + 1 + −
∂x x+r  r r
x (r + x) x
= log( x + r ) + ⋅ −
(x + r) r r
x x
= log( x + r ) + −
r r
= log( x + r )
∂v
∂x
∂2v 1  ∂r 
= 1 + 
∂x 2
x + r  ∂x 
1  x
= 1 + 
x+r  r
1
=
r
Differentiating v partially w.r.t. y,
∂v x ∂r ∂r
= ⋅ −
∂y x + r ∂y ∂y
x y y
= ⋅ −
x+r r r
y  x − x − r
=  
r  x+r 
y
=−
x+r
∂v
∂y
∂2v 1 y ∂r
=− + ⋅
∂y 2 x + r ( x + r ) 2 ∂y
1  y y
=−  1 − ⋅ 
x+r x+r r
1  rx + r 2 − y 2 
=−  
x + r  r(x + r) 
1  rx + x 2 
=−  
x + r  r(x + r) 
x
=−
r(x + r)
∂2v ∂2v 1  x 
Hence, + 2 = 1 − 
∂x 2
∂y r  x + r
1  x + r − x
=  
r  x+r 
1
=
x+r
exeRCIse 8.2
∂u ∂u 1
1. If u = cos ( )
x + y , prove that x
∂x
+y +
∂y 2
( ) (
x + y sin )
x + y = 0.
∂2u ∂2u
2. If u = 2(ax + by )2 − k(x 2 + y 2 ) and a 2 + b 2 = k, find the value of + .
∂x 2 ∂y 2
[ans. : 0]
∂u ∂u
3. If e u = tan x + tan y , show that sin 2 x + sin 2y = 2.
∂x ∂y
4. If z 3 − 3yz − 3x = 0, show that
∂z ∂z  ∂ 2 z  ∂z  2  ∂ 2 z
(i) z = (ii) z  +   = 2
∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂y  ∂x   ∂y
∂ 2 z ∂ 2 z 2 z(x − 1)
5. If z(z 2 + 3x) + 3y = 0, prove that + = .
∂x 2 ∂y 2 (z 2 + x)3
y ∂2u ∂2u

6. If u = log(x 2 + y 2 ) + tan−1   , show that + = 0.
 x ∂x 2 ∂y 2
1 ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u

7. If u(x, y , z) = , find the value of + + .
x 2 + y 2 + z2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2 
 Ans.: 2 2 2 
 (x + y + z ) 
2
8. If x = e r cos θ cos(r sin θ) and y = e r cos θ sin(r sin θ), prove that
∂x 1 ∂y ∂y 1 ∂x
= , =−
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
∂ 2 x 1 ∂x 1 ∂ 2 x
Hence, deduce that + + = 0.
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2
∂2v ∂2v
9. If v = (x 2 − y 2 )f (x, y ), prove that + = (x 4 − y 4 )f ′′(x, y ).
∂x 2 ∂y 2
10. If u = f (ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 ) and v = φ(ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 ), show that

∂  ∂v  ∂  ∂v 
 u  =
∂y  ∂x  ∂x  ∂y 
u .
r θ r  ∂x   ∂r 
11. If x = (e + e −θ ), y = (eθ − e −θ ), prove that   =   .
2 2  ∂r  θ  ∂x  y
Hint : x = r cos h θ, y = r sin h θ, x 2 − y 2 = r 2 
∂ 2θ θ(x 2 + ry 2 )
12. If loge θ = r − x, r 2 = x 2 + y 2 , show that = .
∂y 2 r3
 r − x ∂r y
Hint : θ = e , ∂y = r 
 
∂2u ∂2u
13. If u = eax sin by, prove that = .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
 xy  ∂2u 1
14. If u = tan−1   , prove that = 3
.
 1+ x + y 
2 2 ∂x ∂y 2 2 2
(1 + x + y )
( x − a )2
1 − ∂2u ∂2u
15. If u = e 4y
, prove that = .
y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
3
∂2u ∂2u
16. If u = tan(y + ax) − (y − ax) 2 , prove that = .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
xy ∂3u ∂3u
17. If u = , prove that = .
2x + y ∂y ∂ z 2 ∂z 2 ∂y
∂3u ∂3u
18. If u = xmyn, prove that = .
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x 2
∂u ∂u
19. Find and for the following functions:
∂x ∂y
3
(i) x + y − 1 (ii) 1 − x 2 − y 2 (iii) yx (iv) log10 (ax + by ) (v) (y − ax) 2
 1 1 −x −y 
 Ans. : (i) , (ii) , 
 x + y −1 x + y −1 1− x − y
2 2
1− x − y
2 2

 x −1 a b 

x
(iii) y log y , xy (iv) , 
 (loge 10)(ax + by ) (loge 10)(ax + by ) 
 3a 1
3 1 
 (v) − (y − ax) 2 , (y − ax) 2 
 2 2 
∂z ∂z
20. If x 4 − xy 2 + yz 2 − z 4 = 6, find and .
∂x ∂y
 y 2 − 4 x 3 2 xy − z 2 
 Ans. : , 
 2yz − 4 z 3 2yz − 4 z 3 
∂z ∂z
21. If z 3 + xy − y 2 z = 6, find and at (0, 1, 2).
∂x ∂y
 1 4
 Ans. : − 11, 11
 
r2
−
22. Find the value of for which u = t n e 4 kt satisfies the partial differential
∂u  ∂ 2 u 2 ∂u 
equation = k 2 + .
∂t  ∂r r ∂r   3
 Ans. : n = − 2 
 
∂r ∂θ
23. If x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ,find , in terms of r, q, f.
∂x ∂x
 y x2 + y2 
Hint : r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , φ = tan−1 , θ = tan−1 
 x z 
 cos θ cos φ − sin φ 
 Ans. : sin θ cos φ, ,
r sin θ 
 r
∂u ∂u ∂u
24. If u = x2 (y – z) + y2 (z – x) + z2 (x – y), prove that + + = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2u ∂2u
25. If u = e x (x cos y − y sin y ), prove that + = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2
y ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
26. For the function f (x, y , z) = z tan−1 , prove that 2 + 2 + 2 = 0 .
x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂z
27. If z(x + y ) = x 2 + y 2 , prove that x 2
+ y =2 .
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x
2 2
x2 y2  ∂u   ∂u   ∂u ∂u 
28. If + = 1, prove that   +   = 2  x +y 
a+u b+u  ∂x   ∂y   ∂x ∂y 
∂3u ∂3u
29. If u = xy, prove that 2
=
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
x2 y2 z2
30. If + + = 1, prove that
2+u 4+u 6+u
2 2 2
 ∂u   ∂u   ∂u   ∂u ∂u ∂u 
 ∂x  +  ∂y  +  ∂z  = 2  x ∂x + y ∂y + z ∂z  .
31. If u = (x2 – y2) f(r), where r = xy, show that

∂2u
= (x 2 − y 2 )[3 f ′(r) + rf ′′(r)].
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
32. If z = f (x2, y), prove that x = 2y .
∂x ∂y
1
33. Prove that z = [ f (ct + r) + φ(ct − r)] satisfies the partial differential
r
∂ 2 u c 2 ∂  2 ∂u 
equation = r  where is constant.
∂ t 2 r 2 ∂r  ∂r 
∂2u ∂2u ∂2v ∂2v

34. If u + iv = f (x + iy ), prove that + = 0, + = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2
Hint : u + iv = f (x + iy ), u − iv = f (x − iy ) 
 
 1 1
u = [ f (x + iy ) + f (x − iy )], v = [ f (x + iy ) − f (x − iy )]
 2 2i 
35. If u, v, w are function of x, y, z given as x = u + v + w, y = u2 + v2 + w2,

∂u vw(w − v )
z = u 3 + v 3 + w 3 , prove that = .
∂x (u − v )(v − w )(w − u)
[Hint : Differentiate x, y, z w.r.t. x and solve the equations using Cramer’s rule.]
n
36. If u = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 , find the value of which satisfies the equation
∂2u ∂2u ∂2u
+ + = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
[ans. : 0, –1]
2
 ∂2u   ∂2u   ∂2u 
37. If u = log(e x + e y ), show that  2   2  −  = 0.
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂x ∂y 
 ∂z   ∂z  xy
38. If z = yf (x 2 − y 2 ), show that y   + x   =
 ∂x   ∂y 
.
y
8.6 TOTal DeRIvaTIves

8.6.1 Chain Rule
If z = f (u), where u is again a function of two variables x and y, i.e., z
u = f (x, y) then
∂z dz ∂u df ∂ u ∂u u
= ⋅ or ⋅ or f ′ (u )
∂ x du ∂ x du ∂ x ∂x
∂ z dz ∂ u df ∂ u ∂u x y
= ⋅ or ⋅ or f ′ (u ) Fig. 8.1
∂ y du ∂ y du ∂ y ∂y
8.6.2 Composite Function of One variable

u
If u = f (x, y), where x = f (t), y = y (t) then u is a
function of t and is called the composite function of a
single variable t and x y
du ∂u dx ∂u dy u
= ⋅ + ⋅
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
t
is called the total derivative of u. x y z
If u = f (x, y, z) and x = f (t), y = y (t), z = x (t) then Fig. 8.2
total derivative of u is given as
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz t
= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt Fig. 8.3
example 1
du
If u = y 2 – 4ax, x = at 2, y = 2at, find .
dt u
Solution
u = y 2 – 4ax, x = at 2, y = 2at
du ∂u dx ∂u dy x y
= ⋅ + ⋅
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= ( − 4a )2at + (2 y )2a t
du
Substituting y, = −8a 2 t + 2(2at )(2a ) Fig. 8.4
dt
= −8a 2 t + 8a 2 t
=0
example 2
 x du
.
If u = sin   where x = et, y = t2, find
 y dt
Solution u
 x
u = sin   , x = et , y = t 2
 y
du ∂u dx ∂u dy x y
= ⋅ + ⋅
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
1  x  x  x
= cos   ⋅ et +  − 2  cos   ⋅ 2t t
y  y  y   y
Substituting x and y, Fig. 8.5
du 1 e  t
e e  t t
= 2 cos  2  ⋅ et − 2 2 cos  2  ⋅ 2t
dt t t  (t ) t 
1 t  et   2 
= e cos  t 2  1 − t 
t2
example 3
du u
If u = x2y3, x = log t, y = e t, find .
dt
Solution
u = x2y3, x = log t, y = e t x y
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
= ⋅ + ⋅
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
t
1
= (2 xy 3 ) + (3x 2 y 2 )et
t Fig. 8.6
Substituting x and y,
du 1
= 2(log t )e3t ⋅ + 3(log t ) 2 e 2t ⋅ et
dt t
2
= log t e3t + 3(log t ) 2 e3t
t
example 4
1 du
If u = xy + yz + zx where x = , y = et , z = e − t , find .
t dt
Solution u
1
u = xy + yz + zx, x = , y = et , z = e − t
t
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz x y z
= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
 1
= ( y + z )  − 2  + ( x + z ) et + ( y + x)( −e − t ) t
 t  Fig. 8.7
Substituting x, y and z,
du 1 1   1
= − 2 (e t + e − t ) +  + e − t  e t −  e t +  e − t
dt t t   t
1 1
= − 2 (e t + e − t ) + (e t − e − t )
t t
example 5
dz
If z = xy 2 + x 2 y, x = at 2 , y = 2at , find .
dt
Solution z
z = xy 2 + x 2 y, x = at 2 , y = 2at
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy x y
= ⋅ + ⋅
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= ( y 2 + 2 xy )2at + (2 xy + x 2 )2a
t
Substituting x, y and z, Fig. 8.8
dz
= (4a 2 t 2 + 2at 2 ⋅ 2at )2at + (2at 2 ⋅ 2at + a 2 t 4 )2a
dt
= 4a 2 t 2 (1 + t )2at + a 2 t 3 (4 + t )2a
= 8a 3t 3 (1 + t ) + 2a 3t 3 (4 + t )
= 2a 3t 3 (8 + 5t )
example 6
dz 3
If z = sin −1 ( x − y ), x = 3t , y = 4t 3 , prove that = .
dt 1− t2
[Summer 2015]
Solution
z = sin −1 ( x − y ), x = 3t , y = 4t 3
z
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= ⋅ + ⋅
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
1 1( −1) x y
= ⋅3+ ⋅12t 2
2
1 − ( x − y) 1 − ( x − y)2
3 − 12t 2
= t
1 − x 2 − y 2 + 2 xy Fig. 8.9
Substituting x and y,
dz 3(1 − 4t 2 )
=
dt 1 − 9t 2 − 16t 6 + 24t 4
3(1 − 4t 2 )
=
1 − 8t 2 − t 2 − 16t 6 + 16t 4 + 8t 4
3(1 − 4t 2 )
=
1 − 8t 2 + 16t 4 − t 2 − 16t 6 + 8t 4
3(1 − 4t 2 )
=
(1 − 4t 2 ) 2 − t 2 (1 + 16t 4 − 8t 2 )
3(1 − 4t 2 )
=
(1 − 4t 2 ) 2 − t 2 (1 − 4t 2 ) 2
3(1 − 4t 2 )
=
(1 − 4t 2 ) 1 − t 2
3
=
1− t2
example 7
 y du
If u = tan −1   , x = et − e − t , y = et + e − t , find .
 x dt
Solution
 y
u = tan −1   , x = et − e − t , y = et + e − t
 x
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
= . + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
u
1  y t −t 1  1 t −t
=  − 2  (e + e ) +   (e − e )
y2 x y2 x
1+ 2 1+ 2
x x
x y
y x
=− ⋅y+ 2 ⋅x
x2 + y 2 x + y2
x2 − y 2
=
x2 + y 2 t
(e t − e − t ) 2 − (e t + e − t ) 2 Fig. 8.10
=
(e t − e − t ) 2 + (e t + e − t ) 2
4
=−
2(e + e −2t )
2t
2
= − 2t
e + e −2t
example 8
Ê xˆ ∂z ∂z
For z = tan -1 Á ˜ , x = u cos v, y = u sin v, evaluate and at the
Ë y¯ ∂u ∂v
Ê pˆ
point Á 1.3, ˜ . [Winter 2015]
Ë 6¯
Solution z
Ê xˆ
z = tan -1 Á ˜ , x = u cos v, y = u sin v
Ë y¯
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂ z ∂y
= ◊ + ◊ x y
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂ y ∂u
1 Ê 1ˆ 1 Ê xˆ
= ÁË y ˜¯ ◊ cos v +
2 Á - 2 ˜ ◊ sin v
x x2 Ë y ¯
1+ 2 1+ 2 u
y y Fig. 8.11
y cos v x sin v
= 2 -
y + x 2 y2 + x 2
u sin v cos v - u cos v sin v
=
x 2 + y2
=0
z
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= ◊ + ◊
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
1 Ê 1ˆ 1 Ê xˆ
= Á ˜ ( - u sin v ) + Á - ˜ (u cos v)
x2 Ë y ¯ x 2 Ë y2 ¯ x y
1+ 2 1+ 2
y y
yu sin v xu cos v
=- 2 -
y + x 2 y2 + x 2 v
Fig. 8.12
( y2 + x 2 )
=-
y2 + x 2
= -1
example 9
du
If u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , where x = et , y = et sin t , z = et cos t , find .
dt
Solution u
u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , x = et , y = et sin t , z = et cos t
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz y
= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ x z
= 2 xet + 2 y (et sin t + et cos t ) + 2 z (et cos t − et sin t )

= 2et ⋅ et + 2et sin t ⋅ et (sin t + cos t ) + 2et cos t ⋅ et (cos t − sin t ) t
2t 2 2
= 2e (1 + sin t + sin t cos t + cos t − cos t sin t ) Fig. 8.13
= 4e 2t
example 10
If z = e xy , x = t cos t , y = t sin t , find dz at t = .
π
z
dt 2
Solution
z = e xy , x = t cos t , y = t sin t x y
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= . + .
dt ∂ x dt ∂ y d t
= e xy y (cos t − t sin t ) + e xy x(sin t + t cos t ) t
π π Fig. 8.14
At t = , x = 0, y =
2 2
dz π  π 
Hence, = e0   0 −  + 0
dt t = π
2
2 2 
p2
=-
4
example 11
dz
If z = x2y + 3xy4 where x = sin 2t and y = cos t, find when t = 0.
dt
[Winter 2013]
Solution z
z = x2y + 3xy4, x = sin 2t, y = cos t
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= ◊ + ◊
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
x y
= (2 xy + 3 y 4 )(2 cos 2t ) + ( x 2 + 12 xy3 )( - sin t )
At t = 0, x = 0, y = 1
dz t
Hence, = (0 + 3)[2(1)] + 0 = 6
dt t =0 Fig. 8.15
example 12
dx dy dz
If u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 xyz = 1, show that + + = 0.
1 − x2 1 − y2 1 − z2
Solution
u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 xyz = 1
∂u ∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy + dz = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
(2 x − 2 yz )dx + (2 y − 2 xz )dy + (2 z − 2 xy )dz = 0

( x − yz )dx + ( y − xz )dy + ( z − xy )dz = 0 …(1)
We have, x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 xyz = 1
x 2 − 2 xyz = 1 − y 2 − z 2
x 2 − 2 xyz + y 2 z 2 = 1 − y 2 − z 2 + y 2 z 2
( x − yz ) 2 = (1 − y 2 )(1 − z 2 )
x − yz = 1 − y 2 ⋅ 1 − z 2
Similarly, y − xz = 1 − x 2 ⋅ 1 − z 2
and z − xy = 1 − x 2 ⋅ 1 − y 2
1 − y 2 ⋅ 1 − z 2 dx + 1 − x 2 ⋅ 1 − z 2 dy + 1 − x 2 ⋅ 1 − y 2 dz = 0
 dx dy dz 
1 − x2 1 − y 2 1 − z 2  + +  =0
 1− x 1− y 1 − z2 
2 2
dx dy dz
Hence, + + =0
2 2
1− x 1− y 1 − z2
8.6.3 Composite Function of Two variables

z
If z = f (x, y), where x = f (u, v), y = y (u, v) then
z
z is a function of u, v and is called the composite
function of two variables u and v.
x y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅ x y
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅ u
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v v
Fig. 8.16
Fig. 8.17
example 1
y
If z = f (u , v), u = log( x 2 + y 2 ), v = , show that
x
∂z ∂z ∂z
x − y = (1 + v 2 ) .
∂y ∂x ∂v
z
Solution
y
z = f (u , v), u = log( x 2 + y 2 ), v = ,
x u v
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x
∂z ∂z  y 
x
1
= ⋅ ⋅ 2x +  − 2 
∂u x 2 + y 2 ∂v  x  Fig. 8.18
∂z 2 xy ∂z y ∂z 2
y = 2 ⋅ − ⋅ ...(1)
∂x x + y 2 ∂u x 2 ∂v
z
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
u v
∂z 2y ∂z 1
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂u x 2 + y 2 ∂v x
∂z 2 xy ∂z ∂z y
x = ⋅ + ...(2)
∂y x 2 + y 2 ∂u ∂v
Fig. 8.19

∂z ∂z ∂z y 2 ∂z
Hence, x −y = +
∂y ∂x ∂v x 2 ∂v
∂z
= (1 + v 2 )
∂v
example 2
∂w
If w = φ (u , v), u = x 2 − y 2 − 2 xy, v = y, prove that = 0 is equivalent
∂w ∂w ∂ v
to ( x + y ) + ( x − y) = 0.
∂x ∂y
w
Solution
w = φ (u , v), u = x 2 − y 2 − 2 xy, v = y
∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v u v
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x
∂w ∂w
= (2 x − 2 y ) + ⋅0
∂u ∂v x
∂w ∂w Fig. 8.20
= (2 x − 2 y )
∂x ∂u w
∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
u v
∂w ∂w
= ( −2 y − 2 x) + ⋅1
∂u ∂v
∂w ∂w ∂w y
= −2( x + y ) +
∂y ∂u ∂v Fig. 8.21
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
( x + y) + ( x − y) = ( x + y ) 2( x − y ) − ( x − y ) 2( x + y ) + ( x − y)
∂x ∂y ∂u ∂u ∂v
∂w
= ( x − y)
∂v
∂w ∂w ∂w
If = 0 then ( x + y ) + ( x − y) = 0.
∂v ∂x ∂y
∂w ∂w ∂w
Hence, = 0 is equivalent to ( x + y ) + ( x − y) = 0.
∂v ∂x ∂y
example 3
If z = f ( x, y ) and x = eu + e − v and y = e − u − ev , show that
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
− =x −y . [Summer 2014]
∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y
Solution
z
z = f ( x, y ), x = eu + e − v , y = e − u − ev
∂z ∂ z ∂ x ∂z ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂u ∂ x ∂ u ∂y ∂u x y
∂z ∂z
= eu + ( − e − u ) ...(1)
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y u
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v Fig. 8.22
∂z ∂z
= ( −e − v ) + ( −ev ) ...(2)
∂x ∂y z
Hence, ∂z ∂z ∂z u ∂z x y
− = (e + e − v ) − (e − u − e v )
∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
=x −y v
∂x ∂y
Fig. 8.23
example 4
If z = f (u , v) and u = x cos θ − y sin θ , v = x sin θ + y cos θ , show that
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
x +y =u +v .
∂x ∂y ∂u ∂v
Solution
z = f (u , v), u = x cos θ − y sin θ , v = x sin θ + y cos θ z
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
= +
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x
∂z ∂z u v
= cos θ + sin θ
∂u ∂v
∂z ∂z ∂z
x = x cos θ + x sin θ ...(1) x
∂x ∂u ∂v
Fig. 8.24
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
= +
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
z
∂z ∂z
= ( − sin θ ) + cos θ
∂u ∂v
∂z ∂z ∂z
y = ( − y sin θ ) + ( y cos θ ) ...(2) u v
∂y ∂u ∂v
y
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
x +y = ( x cos θ − y sin θ ) + ( x sin θ + y cos θ ) Fig. 8.25
∂x ∂y ∂u ∂v
∂z ∂z
=u +v
∂u ∂v
example 5
u+v ∂z ∂z ∂z
If z = f (x, y), x = uv, y = , prove that u + v = 2x .
u−v ∂u ∂v ∂x
Solution
u+v
z = f(x, y), x = uv, y = ,
u−v
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u z
∂z ∂z  (u − v) − (u + v) 
= v+  
∂x ∂y  (u − v) 2 
x y
∂z 2v ∂z
= v−
∂x (u − v) 2 ∂y
u
∂z ∂z 2uv ∂z
u = uv − ...(1) Fig. 8.26
∂u ∂x (u − v) 2 ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
and = ⋅ + ⋅ z
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
∂z ∂z  (u − v) − (u + v)( −1) 
= u+  
∂x ∂y  (u − v) 2  x y
∂z ∂z 2u ∂z
= u+ ⋅
∂v ∂x (u − v) 2 ∂y
v
∂z ∂z 2uv ∂z
v = uv + ⋅ ...(2) Fig. 8.27
∂v ∂x (u − v) 2 ∂y

∂z ∂z ∂z
u + v = 2uv
∂u ∂v ∂x
∂z
= 2x ⋅
∂x
example 6
If z = f ( x, y ), x = u cosh v, y = u sinh v, prove that
2 2 2 2
 ∂z  1  ∂z   ∂z   ∂z 
  − 2   =   −   .
∂u u ∂v ∂x  ∂y 
z
Solution
z = f ( x, y ), x = u cosh v, y = u sinh v
x y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
∂z ∂z u
= cosh v + sinh v ...(1)
∂x ∂y
Fig. 8.28
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y z
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
∂z ∂z
= u sinh v + u cosh v x y
∂x ∂y
1 ∂z ∂z ∂z
⋅ = sinh v + cosh v ...(2)
u ∂v ∂x ∂y v
Squaring and subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1), Fig. 8.29
2 2 2 2
 ∂z  1  ∂z   ∂z   ∂z  ∂z ∂z
  − 2   =   cosh v +   sinnh v + 2
2 2
cosh v sinh v
∂u u ∂v ∂x  ∂y  ∂x ∂y
2 2
 ∂z   ∂z  ∂z ∂z
−   sinh 2 v −   cosh 2 v − 2 cosh v sinh v
 ∂x   ∂y  ∂x ∂y
2 2
 ∂z   ∂z 
=   (cosh 2 v − sinh 2 v) −   (cosh 2 v − sinh 2 v)
 ∂x   ∂y 
2 2
 ∂z   ∂ z 
=   − 
 ∂x   ∂y 
example 7
If x = r cosh θ , y = r sinh θ , show that ( x − y )( z x − z y ) = r zr − zθ .
Solution u
z = f ( x, y ), x = r cosh θ , y = r sinh θ
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r x y
∂z ∂z
= ⋅ cosh θ + ⋅ sinh θ
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y r
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂θ ∂x ∂θ ∂y ∂θ
Fig. 8.30
∂z ∂z
=⋅ r sinh θ + ⋅ r cosh θ
∂x ∂y z
∂z ∂z ∂ z ∂z ∂z ∂z
r − = ⋅ r cosh θ + ⋅ r sinh θ − ⋅ r sinh θ − ⋅ r cosh θ
∂r ∂θ ∂ x ∂y ∂x ∂y
x y
∂z ∂z
= (r cosh θ − r sinh θ ) + (r sinh θ − r cosh θ )
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z q
= ( x − y) − ( x − y)
∂x ∂y Fig. 8.31
 ∂z ∂z 
= ( x − y)  − 
 ∂x ∂y 
Hence, ( x − y )( z x − z y ) = r zr − zθ
example 8
If z = f (x, y) where x2 = au + bv, y2 = au – bv then prove that
∂z ∂z 1  ∂z ∂z
u +v = x +y 
∂u ∂v 2  ∂ x ∂ y
Solution z
z = f ( x, y ), x 2 = au + bv, y 2 = au − bv
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y x y
= +
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
∂z a ∂z a
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂x 2 x ∂y 2 y u
Fig. 8.32
∂z ∂z au ∂z au
u = ⋅ + ⋅ ...(1)
∂u ∂x 2 x ∂y 2 y
∂z ∂ z ∂ x ∂ z ∂ y z
= +
∂v ∂ x ∂ v ∂ y ∂ v
∂z b ∂z  b 
= ⋅ + − x y
∂x 2 x ∂y  2 y 
∂z ∂z bv ∂z bv
v = ⋅ − ⋅ ...(2) v
∂v ∂x 2 x ∂y 2 y
Adding Eqs (1) and (2), Fig. 8.33
∂z ∂z ∂z au ∂z au ∂z bv ∂z bv
u +v = + + −
∂u ∂v ∂x 2 x ∂y 2 y ∂x 2 x ∂y 2 y
∂z  au + bv  ∂z  au − bv 
=  +
∂x  2xx  ∂y  2 y 
∂z  x 2  ∂z  y 2 
= +
∂x  2 x  ∂y  2 y 
1  ∂z ∂z 
=  x +y 
2  ∂x ∂y 
example 9
If u = f (x, y) where x = r cos q and y = r sin q, prove that
2 2 2 2
 ∂u  1  ∂u   ∂u   ∂u 
  + 2   =   +   .
∂r r ∂θ ∂x  ∂y 
Solution
u = f (x, y), x = r cos q, y = r sin q u
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r
∂u ∂u x y
= cos θ + sin θ …(1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
and = ⋅ + ⋅ r
∂θ ∂x ∂θ ∂y ∂θ
∂u ∂u Fig. 8.34
= ( − r sin θ ) + r cos θ
∂x ∂y
1 ∂u ∂u ∂u
= − sin θ + cos θ …(2)
r ∂θ ∂x ∂y
Squaring and adding Eqs (1) and (2), u
2 2 2 2
 ∂u  1  ∂u   ∂u   ∂u  ∂u ∂u
  + 2   = cos θ   + sin θ   + 2 sin θ cos θ
2 2
∂r r ∂θ ∂x  ∂y  ∂x ∂y x y
2 2
 ∂u   ∂u  ∂u ∂u
+ sin 2 θ   + cos 2 θ   − 2 sin θ cos θ
 ∂x   ∂y  ∂x ∂y q
2 2
 ∂u   ∂u 
=   +  Fig. 8.35
 ∂x   ∂y 
example 10
If z = f (u , v) where u = x 2 + y 2 , v = 2 xy, show that
∂z ∂z  ∂z 
x −y = 2 u 2 − v2   .
∂x ∂y  ∂u 
Solution
z = f (u , v), u = x 2 + y 2 , v = 2 xy
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x
∂z ∂z z
= ⋅ 2x + ⋅ 2 y
∂u ∂v
∂z 2 ∂z ∂z
x = 2x + 2 xy ...(1)
∂x ∂u ∂v u v
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
x
∂z ∂z Fig. 8.36
= ⋅ 2 y + ⋅ 2x
∂u ∂v z
∂z ∂z ∂z
y = 2 y2 + 2 xy
∂y ∂u ∂v ...(2)
u v
Substracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1),
∂z ∂z ∂z
x −y = 2( x 2 − y 2 ) y
∂x ∂y ∂u
 ∂z  Fig. 8.37
= 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2 − 4 x 2 y 2  
 ∂u 
 ∂z 
= 2 (u 2 − v 2 )  
 ∂u 
example 11
If z = f (u , v), and u = x 2 − y 2 , v = 2 xy, show that
2 2 1  2 2

 ∂z   ∂z  2 2  ∂z   ∂z 
+
    = 4(u 2
+ v )   +   .
∂x  ∂y   ∂u   ∂v  
Solution z
z = f (u , v), and u = x 2 − y 2 , v = 2 xy
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x u v
∂z ∂z
= ⋅ 2x + ⋅ 2 y
∂u ∂v
 ∂z ∂z 
= 2 x + y  ...(1) x
 ∂u ∂v 
Fig. 8.38
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂ z ∂ v
and = ⋅ + ⋅ u
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂ v ∂ y
∂z ∂z
= ( −2 y ) + (2 x)
∂u ∂v
x z y
 ∂z ∂z 
= 2 −y +x  ...(2)
 ∂u ∂v 
Squaring and adding Eq. (1) and Eq. (2),
2
t
2 2 2
 ∂z   ∂z   ∂z ∂z   ∂z ∂z 
  +   = 4  x + y  + 4 −y +x 
∂x  ∂y  ∂u ∂v   ∂u ∂v  Fig. 8.39
  ∂z  2  ∂z 
2
∂z ∂z
= 4  x 2   + y 2   + 2 xy ⋅
  ∂ u   ∂ v  ∂ u ∂v
∂z ∂z 
2 2
 ∂z   ∂z 
+ y 2   + x 2   − 2 xy ⋅ 
 ∂u   ∂v  ∂u ∂v 
  ∂z  2  ∂z  2 
= 4( x 2 + y 2 )   +   
 ∂u   ∂v  
1 
 ∂z   ∂ z  
2 2
= 4 ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2  2   +   
  ∂u   ∂v  
1 
 ∂z   ∂z  
2 2
= 4 ( x 2 − y 2 ) 2 + 4 x 2 y 2  2   +   
  ∂u   ∂v  
1 
 ∂z   ∂z  
2 2
= 4(u 2 + v 2 ) 2   +   
  ∂u   ∂v  
example 12
If x = eu cosec v, y = eu cot v then show that
 
2 2 2 2
 ∂z   ∂z  −2 u  ∂z  2  ∂z 
  −   = e   − sin v    .
∂x  ∂y   ∂u ∂v 
z
Solution
y
z = f ( x, y ), x = eu cosec v, y = eu cot v x
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u u
∂z ∂z Fig. 8.40
= eu cosec v + eu cot v
∂x ∂y z
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
x y
∂z ∂z
= ( −eu cosec v cot v) + ( −eu cosec 2 v)
∂x ∂y
  ∂z  2  ∂z  
2
  ∂z  2  ∂z 
2 v
e −2u   − sin 2 v    = e −2u   e 2u cosec 2 v +   e 2u cot 2 v
 ∂u   ∂v    ∂x   ∂y  Fig. 8.41
∂z ∂z
+ 2 ⋅ e 2u cosec v cot v
∂x ∂y
2
 ∂z 
+ ( − sin 2 v)   (e 2u cosec 2 v cot 2 v)
 ∂x 
2
 ∂z 
+ ( − sin 2 v)   e 2u cosec 4 v
 ∂y 
∂z ∂z 2 u 
+ ( − sin 2 v)2 ⋅ e cosec3 v cot v 
∂x ∂y 
2 2
 ∂z   ∂z 
=   (cosec 2 v − cot 2 v) +   (cot 2 v − cosec 2 v)
 ∂x   ∂y 
2 2
 ∂z   ∂z 
=   − 
 ∂x   ∂y 
example 13
If z = f ( x, y ), x = eu cos v, y = eu sin v, prove that
  ∂z  
2 2 2 2
∂z ∂z 2 u ∂z  ∂z   ∂z  −2 u  ∂z 
(i) x +y =e (ii)   +   = e    +  
∂v ∂u ∂y  ∂x   ∂y   ∂u   ∂v  
Solution
z = f ( x, y ), x = eu cos v, y = eu sin v
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
(i) = ⋅ + ⋅
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u z
∂z ∂z
= ⋅ eu cos v + eu sin v
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z x y
=x +y
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂z
y = xy + y 2 ...(1) u
∂u ∂x ∂y
Fig. 8.42
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
∂z ∂z
= ( −eu sin v) + eu cos v
∂x ∂y z
∂z ∂z
= −y + x
∂x ∂y
x y
∂z ∂z ∂z
x = − xy + x 2 ...(2)
∂v ∂x ∂y
Adding Eqs (1) and (2), v
∂z ∂z ∂z Fig. 8.43
x +y = ( y 2 + x2 )
∂v ∂u ∂y
∂z
= e 2u
∂y
−2 u
  ∂z  2  ∂z  2  −2 u
 2  ∂z  2 2  ∂z 
2
∂z ∂z 
(ii) e   +    = e  x   + y   + 2 xy ⋅ 
 ∂u   ∂v     ∂x   ∂y  ∂x ∂y 
 2  ∂z  2 2  ∂z 
2
∂z ∂z 
+  y   + x   − 2 xy ⋅ 
  ∂x   ∂y  ∂x ∂y 
−2 u
 2 2  ∂z 
2
2  ∂z 
2

=e ( x + y )   + ( x + y )   
2
  ∂x   ∂y  
  ∂ z  2  ∂ z  2   ∂z  2  ∂z 
2
= e −2u e 2u   +    =   +  
  ∂ x   ∂ y    ∂x   ∂y 
example 14
 y − x z − x ∂u ∂u ∂u
If u = f   , show that x 2 + y2 + z2 = 0.
 xy xz 
,
∂x ∂y ∂z
[Summer 2016]
Solution
y−x 1 1 z−x 1 1
Let l= = − ,m= = −
xy x y xz x z
∂l 1 ∂m 1
=− 2, =− 2,
∂x x ∂x x
∂l 1 ∂m
= 2, = 0,
∂y y ∂y
∂l ∂m 1
= 0, =
∂z ∂z z 2
 y − x z − x
u= f , = f (l , m) u
 xy xz 
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m
= ◊ + ◊
∂x ∂l ∂x ∂m ∂x
l m
∂u Ê 1 ˆ ∂u Ê 1 ˆ
= - + -
∂l ÁË x 2 ˜¯ ∂m ÁË x 2 ˜¯
∂u  ∂u ∂u  x
x2 = − + …(1)
∂x  ∂l ∂m 
Fig. 8.44
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m
Also, = ⋅ + ⋅ u
∂y ∂l ∂y ∂m ∂y
∂u  1  ∂u
= + ⋅0
∂l  y 2  ∂m l m
∂u ∂u
y2 = …(2)
∂y ∂l y
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m Fig. 8.45
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂z ∂l ∂z ∂m ∂z u
∂u ∂u  1 
= ⋅0 +  
∂l ∂m  z 2 
l m
2∂u ∂u
z = …(3)
∂z ∂m
z
Fig. 8.46
∂u ∂u ∂u  ∂u ∂u  ∂u ∂ u
x2 + y2 + z2 = − + + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂l ∂m  ∂l ∂m
example 15
∂u ∂u ∂ u
If u = f ( x − y, y − z , z − x) then show that + + = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂ z
Solution
Let x − y = l, y − z = m, z− x = n
∂l ∂m ∂n
= 1, = 0, = −1,
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂l ∂m ∂n
= −1, = 1, = 0,
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂l ∂m ∂n
=0 = −1 =1
∂z ∂z ∂z
u
u = f ( x − y, y − z , z − x) = f (l , m, n)
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n
= + + n
∂x ∂l ∂x ∂m ∂x ∂n ∂x l m
∂u ∂u ∂u
= ⋅1 + ⋅0 + ( −1)
∂l ∂m ∂n
x
∂u ∂u
= −
∂l ∂ n ... (1) Fig. 8.47
u
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n
also, = + +
∂y ∂l ∂y ∂m ∂y ∂n ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u l m n
= ( −1) + (1) + ⋅ 0
∂l ∂m ∂n
∂u ∂u ... (2)
=− + y
∂l ∂m
Fig. 8.48
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n
and = + + u
∂z ∂l ∂z ∂m ∂z ∂n ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u
= ⋅0 + ( −1) + (1) l m n
∂l ∂m ∂n
∂u ∂u
=− + ... (3)
∂m ∂n z
Fig. 8.49

∂u ∂u ∂u
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
example 16
∂w ∂w r
Find , in terms of r and s if w = x + 2y + z2, where x = ,
∂r ∂s s
y = r2 + log s, z = 2r. [Winter 2014]
Solution
r
x= , y = r 2 + log s, z = 2r
s
∂x 1 ∂y ∂z
= , = 2r , =2
∂r s ∂r ∂r
∂x r ∂y 1 ∂z
=- 2, = , =0
∂s s ∂s s ∂s w
2
w = x + 2y + z
∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y ∂w ∂z
= ◊ + ◊ + ◊ x y z
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂z ∂r
Ê 1ˆ
= (1) Á ˜ + (2)(2r ) + (2 z )(2)
Ë s¯ r
1 Fig. 8.50
= + 4r + 4 z w
s
1
= + 4r + 4(2r )
s
x y z
1
= + 12 s
s
∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y ∂w ∂z s
= ◊ + ◊ + ◊
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s ∂z ∂s
Fig. 8.51
Ê rˆ Ê 1ˆ
= (1) Á - 2 ˜ + (2) Á ˜ + (2 z )(0)
Ë s ¯ Ë s¯
r 2
=- +
s2 s
example 17
 x y z ∂u ∂u ∂u
If u = f  , ,  , prove that x + y +z = 0. [Winter 2013]
 y z x ∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution
x y z
Let = l, = m, =n
y z x
∂l 1 ∂m ∂n z
= , = 0, =- 2,
∂x y ∂x ∂x x
∂l - x ∂m 1 ∂n
= , = = 0,
∂y y 2 ∂y z ∂y
∂l ∂m - y ∂n 1 u
=0 = 2 , =
∂z ∂z z ∂z x
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n
= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ l m n
∂x ∂l ∂x ∂m ∂x ∂n ∂x
∂u 1 ∂u ∂u  − z 
= ⋅ + ⋅0 +  
∂l y ∂m ∂n  x 2  x
∂u x ∂u z ∂u
x = ⋅ − ⋅ ...(1) Fig. 8.52
∂x y ∂l x ∂n
u
∂ u ∂ u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n
Also, = ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂ y ∂ l ∂y ∂m ∂y ∂n ∂y
m n
∂u  − x  ∂u 1 ∂u l
= + ⋅ + ⋅0
∂l  y 2  ∂m z ∂n
∂u x ∂u y ∂u y
y =− ⋅ + ⋅ ...(2)
∂y y ∂l z ∂m Fig. 8.53
u
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n
and = ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂z ∂l ∂z ∂m ∂z ∂n ∂z
∂u ∂u  − y  ∂u 1 l m n
= ⋅0 +  + ⋅
∂l ∂m  z 2  ∂n x
∂u − y ∂u z ∂u
z = + ⋅ z
∂z z ∂m x ∂n ...(3)
Fig. 8.54
∂u ∂u ∂u
Hence, x +y +z =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
example 18
1 ∂u 1 ∂u 1 ∂u
If u = f ( x 2 − y 2 , y 2 − z 2 , z 2 − x 2 ) , prove that + + = 0.
x ∂x y ∂y z ∂z
Solution u
Let l = x2 − y 2 , m = y 2 − z 2 , n = z 2 − x2
∂l ∂m ∂n
= 2 x, = 0, = −2 x
∂x ∂x ∂x l m n
∂l ∂m ∂n
= −2 y, = 2 y, =0
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂l ∂m ∂n x
= 0, = −2 z , = 2z
∂z ∂z ∂z Fig. 8.55
u = f (x2 – y2, y2 – z2, z2 – x2) = f (l, m, n)
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂ u ∂m ∂u ∂n
= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂x ∂l ∂x ∂ m ∂x ∂n ∂x
∂u ∂u ∂u
= ⋅ 2x + ⋅ 0 + ⋅ ( −2 x)
∂l ∂m ∂n
1 ∂u ∂u ∂u u
= 2 −2 ...(1)
x ∂x ∂l ∂n
∂ u ∂ u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n l m n
Also, = ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂ y ∂ l ∂y ∂m ∂y ∂n ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u
= ( −2 y ) + ( 2 y ) + ( 0) y
∂l ∂m ∂n
1 ∂u ∂u ∂u Fig. 8.56
= −2 + 2 ...(2)
y ∂y ∂l ∂m
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n u
and = ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂z ∂l ∂z ∂m ∂z ∂n ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u
=
⋅0 + ( −2 z ) + (2 z ) l m n
∂l ∂m ∂n
1 ∂u ∂u ∂u
= −2 +2 ...(3)
z ∂z ∂m ∂n z
Adding Eqs (1), (2) and (3), Fig. 8.57
1 ∂u 1 ∂u 1 ∂u
+ + =0
example 19
If u = f ( x 2 + 2 yz , y 2 + 2 zx), prove that
∂u ∂u ∂u
( y 2 − zx) + ( x 2 − yz ) + ( z 2 − xy ) = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution
Let x 2 + 2 yz = l , y 2 + 2 zx = m u
∂l ∂l ∂l
= 2 x, = 2 z, = 2y
∂x ∂y ∂z
l m
∂m ∂m ∂m
= 2 z, = 2 y, = 2x
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m x
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂x ∂l ∂x ∂m ∂x
Fig. 8.58
∂u ∂u
= ⋅ 2x + ⋅ 2z
∂l ∂m
∂u ∂u ∂u
( y 2 − zx) = (2 xy 2 − 2 x 2 z ) + (2 y 2 z − 2 z 2 x) ... (1)
∂x ∂l ∂m
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m u
Also, = ⋅ + ⋅
∂y ∂l ∂y ∂m ∂y
∂u ∂u
= ⋅ 2z + ⋅2y
∂l ∂m l m
∂ u ∂ u ∂ u
( x 2 − yz ) = (2 x 2 z − 2 yz 2 ) + (2 x 2 y − 2 y 2 z ) ... (2)
∂y ∂l ∂m y
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m
and = ⋅ + ⋅ Fig. 8.59
∂z ∂l ∂z ∂m ∂z
∂u ∂u
= ⋅2y + ⋅ 2x u
∂l ∂m
∂u ∂u ∂u
( z 2 − xy ) = (2 yz 2 − 2 xy 2 ) + (2 z 2 x − 2 x 2 y ) ... (3)
∂z ∂l ∂m
l m
∂u ∂u ∂u
Hence, ( y 2 − zx) + ( x 2 − yz ) + ( z 2 − xy ) =0
z
∂x ∂y ∂z
Fig. 8.60
example 20
∂u ∂u ∂ u
If u = f (e y − z , e z − x , e x − y ), show that + + = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂ z
Solution
Let l = ey−z , m = ez − x , n = ex− y
∂l ∂m ∂n
= 0, = −e z − x = − m, = ex− y = n
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂l ∂m ∂n
= e y − z = l, = 0, = −e x − y = − n
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂l ∂m ∂n
= − e y − z = −l , = e z − x = m, =0
∂z ∂z ∂z
u
u = f (e y − z , e z − x , e x − y ) = f (l , m, n).
∂ u ∂ u ∂ l ∂ u ∂m ∂u ∂ n
= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂ x ∂ l ∂ x ∂ m ∂x ∂n ∂ x
l m n
∂u ∂u ∂u
= ⋅0 + ⋅ ( − m) + ⋅ n
∂l ∂m ∂n
∂u ∂u
= −m +n ...(1) x
∂m ∂n
Fig. 8.61
∂ u ∂ u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n u
= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂ y ∂ l ∂y ∂m ∂y ∂n ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u
= ⋅l + ⋅ 0 + ⋅ ( − n)
∂l ∂m ∂n
l m n
∂u ∂u
=l −n ...(2)
∂l ∂n
Fig. 8.62
∂u ∂u ∂l ∂u ∂m ∂u ∂n u
and = ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂z ∂l ∂z ∂m ∂z ∂n ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u
= ( −l ) + ⋅m + ⋅0
∂l ∂m ∂n l m n
∂u ∂u ...(3)
= −l +m
∂l ∂m
Adding Eqs (1), (2) and (3), z
Fig. 8.63
∂u ∂u ∂u
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
example 21
If x = vw , y = wu , z = uv and f is a function of x, y and z, prove
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
that x +y +z =u +v +w .
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂u ∂v ∂w
Solution
x = vw , y = wu , z = uv
∂x ∂y 1 w ∂z 1 v
= 0, = , =
∂u ∂u 2 u ∂u 2 u
∂x 1 w ∂y ∂z 1 u
= , = 0, =
∂v 2 v ∂v ∂v 2 v
f
∂x 1 v ∂y 1 u ∂z
= , = , =0
∂w 2 w ∂w 2 w ∂w
∂ φ ∂ φ ∂x ∂ φ ∂y ∂φ ∂z
= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ x y z
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂z ∂u
∂φ ∂φ 1 w ∂φ 1 v
= ⋅0 + ⋅ + ⋅ u
∂x ∂ y 2 u ∂z 2 u
∂φ 1  ∂φ ∂φ  Fig. 8.64
u =  uw + uv 
∂u 2  ∂y ∂z 
1  ∂φ ∂φ 
= +z  ...(1)
2  ∂y
y
∂z 
∂φ ∂φ ∂x ∂φ ∂y ∂φ ∂z
Also, = ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂v ∂ x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂z ∂v
f
∂φ 1 w ∂φ ∂φ 1 u
= ⋅ + ⋅0 +
∂x 2 v ∂y ∂z 2 v
∂φ 1  ∂φ ∂φ 
v =  vw + uv  x y z
∂v 2  ∂x ∂z 
1  ∂φ ∂φ 
= x +z  ...(2) v
2  ∂x ∂z 
Fig. 8.65
∂φ ∂φ ∂x ∂φ ∂y ∂φ ∂z
and = ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y ∂w ∂z ∂w f
∂φ 1 v ∂φ 1 u ∂φ
= ⋅ + + ⋅0
∂x 2 w ∂y 2 w ∂z x y z
∂φ 1  ∂φ ∂φ 
w =  vw + uw 
∂w 2  ∂x ∂y 
w
1  ∂φ ∂φ 
= +y  ...(3) Fig. 8.66
2  ∂x
x
∂y 
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
u +v +w =x +y +z
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂x ∂y ∂z
example 22
∂z ∂z
If f ( xy 2 , z − 2 x) = 0, show that 2 x −y = 4 x.
∂x ∂y
Solution
Let l = xy 2 , m = z − 2 x, f
f (l , m) = 0
∂f ∂f ∂l ∂f ∂m l m
= . + .
∂x ∂l ∂x ∂m ∂x
∂f 2 ∂f  ∂z 
0= (y ) +  − 2 Q f ( xy 2 , z − 2 x) = 0 x y x z
∂l ∂m  ∂x
∂f ∂z x y
2−
∂l = ∂x …(1)
∂f y2 Fig. 8.67
∂m
∂ f ∂f ∂l ∂f ∂m
and = ⋅ + ⋅ =0
∂ y ∂l ∂y ∂m ∂y
∂f ∂f  ∂z 
(2 xy ) + =0
∂l ∂m  ∂y 
∂f ∂z
∂l = − ∂y …(2)
∂f 2 xy
∂m
∂z ∂z
2−
∂
∂x = − y
2
y 2 xy
∂z ∂z
4x − 2x = − y
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
Hence, 2x −y = 4x
∂x ∂y
example 23
 z y ∂z ∂z
If f  3 ,  = 0, prove that x + y = 3 z.
 x x ∂x ∂y
f
Solution
 z y
Let l =  3, m = l m
x  x
f (l , m) = 0.
z x x y
∂f ∂f ∂l ∂f ∂m x y
= ◊ + ◊
∂x ∂l ∂x ∂m ∂x
Fig. 8.68
∂f Ê -3 z 1 ∂z ˆ ∂f Ê y ˆ È Ê z yˆ ˘
0= Á + 3 ˜+ Á- ˜ ÍQ f ÁË 3 , ˜¯ = 0˙
∂l Ë x 4 x ∂x ¯ ∂m Ë x 2 ¯ Î x x ˚
∂f  3 z 1 ∂z  ∂f  y 
 − 4 + 3  =  
∂l x x ∂x ∂m  x 2 
∂f  ∂z  ∂ f 2
 −3 z + x  = ( x y) …(1)
∂l ∂x ∂m
∂f ∂f ∂l ∂f ∂m
= . + .
∂y ∂l ∂y ∂m ∂y
∂f  1 ∂z  ∂f  1 
and 0= +  
∂l  x 3 ∂y  ∂m  x 
∂f  1 ∂z  ∂f  1 
  =−  
∂l  x ∂y 
3
∂m  x 
∂f  ∂z  ∂f 2
=− (x )
∂l  ∂y 
...(2)
∂m
Dividing Eq. (1) by Eq. (2),
∂z
−3 z + x 2
∂x = x y
∂z − x2
∂y
∂z ∂z
−3 z + x = − y
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
Hence, x +y = 3z
∂x ∂y
example 24
If f (lx + my + nz , x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 0, prove that
∂z ∂z
(ly − mx) + (ny − mz ) + (lz − nx) = 0.
∂x ∂y
f
Solution
Let u = lx + my + nz , v = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
f (u , v) = 0 u v
∂f ∂f ∂u ∂f ∂v
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x x, z
∂f  ∂z  ∂f  ∂z 
0=  l + n  +  2 x + 2 z 
x y
∂u  ∂x ∂v ∂x
Fig. 8.69
∂f  ∂z ∂f  ∂z
 l + n  = −  2 x + 2 z 
∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x …(1)
∂f ∂f ∂u ∂f ∂v
and = ⋅ + ⋅
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
∂f  ∂z  ∂f  ∂z 
0=  m + n  +  2 y + 2z 
∂u  ∂y  ∂v  ∂y 
∂f  ∂z  ∂f  ∂z  f
 m + n  = −  2 y + 2z  …(2)
∂u  ∂y  ∂v  ∂y 
Dividing Eq. (1) by Eq. (2),

u v
∂z ∂z
x+ z l+n
∂x = ∂x
∂z ∂z
m+n y+z
∂y ∂y y, z
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
ly + lz + ny + nz . = mx + nx + mz + nz ⋅ x y
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
Fig. 8.70
∂z ∂z
Hence, (ly − mx) + (ny − mz ) + (lz − nx) =0
∂x ∂y
example 25
If u is a function of x and y and x and y are functions of r and q given by
x = er cos q, y = er sin q, show that
 
2 2 2 2
 ∂u   ∂u  −2 r  ∂u   ∂u 
  +   = e   +   
∂x  ∂y   ∂r ∂θ 
u
Solution
u = f (x, y), x = er cos q, y = er sin q x y
∂ u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂ r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r
r
∂u r ∂u r
= e cos θ + e sin θ
∂x ∂y Fig. 8.71
∂u ∂u u
=x +y …(1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
Again, = ⋅ + ⋅ x y
∂θ ∂x ∂θ ∂y ∂θ
∂u ∂u r
= ( −e r sin θ ) + e cos θ q
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u Fig. 8.72
= −y +x …(2)
∂x ∂y
Squaring and adding Eqs (1) and (2),
2 2 2 2 2
 ∂u   ∂u  2  ∂u  ∂u ∂u  ∂u   ∂u 
  +   = x   + 2 xy + y2   + y2  
 ∂x 
∂r ∂θ ∂x ∂x ∂y  ∂y 
2
∂u ∂u  ∂u 
− 2 xy + x2  
∂x ∂y  ∂y 
  ∂u  2    ∂u  2 
= ( x 2 + y 2 )    + ( x 2 + y 2 )   
  ∂x    ∂y  
  ∂u  2  ∂u  2 
= ( x 2 + y 2 )   +   
 ∂x   ∂y  
  ∂u  2  ∂u  2 
= e2 r   +   
 ∂x   ∂y  
  ∂u  2  ∂u  2    ∂ u  2  ∂u  2 
  +    = e −2 r   +   
 ∂x   ∂y     ∂ r   ∂θ  
example 26
If x + y = 2eθ cos φ and x − y = 2ieθ sin φ , prove that
∂v ∂v ∂v
+i = 2y
∂θ ∂φ ∂y v
Solution
x + y = 2eθ cos φ , x − y = 2ieθ sin φ y
x
θ
2 x = 2e (cos φ + i sin φ )
x = eθ eiφ = eθ + iφ
q
∂x
= eθ + iφ = x
∂θ Fig. 8.73
∂x
= ieθ + iφ = ix v
∂φ
And 2 y = 2eq ( cos q - i sin f )
y = eq e - i f = eq - i f x y
∂y
= eθ − iφ = y
∂θ f
∂y Fig. 8.74
= −ieθ − iφ = −iy
∂φ
Let v = f (x, y)
∂v ∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂θ ∂ x ∂θ ∂ y ∂θ
∂v ∂v
= x+ y …(1)
∂x ∂y
∂ v ∂ v ∂ x ∂ v ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂ φ ∂ x ∂φ ∂ y ∂φ
∂v ∂v
= (ix) + ( −iy )
∂x ∂y
 ∂v ∂v 
= ix − y  …(2)
 ∂x ∂y 
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v  ∂v ∂v 
+i = x + y + i2  x − y 
∂θ ∂φ ∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂y 
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
=x +y −x +y
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂v
= 2y
∂y
example 27
∂2 z ∂2 z
If z = f ( x, y ) where x = log u , y = log v, show that = uv .
∂x ∂y ∂u ∂v
Solution
z
z = f ( x, y ), x = log u , y = log v
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u x y
∂z 1 ∂z
= ⋅ + ⋅0
∂x u ∂y
u
1 ∂z
=
u ∂x
Fig. 8.75
∂z ∂ z ∂ x ∂ z ∂y
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂v ∂ x ∂ v ∂ y ∂v
z
∂z ∂z 1
= ⋅0 +
∂x ∂y v
1 ∂z x y
=
v ∂y
∂ 1 ∂
≡ v
∂v v ∂ y
Fig. 8.76
∂  ∂z   1 ∂   1 ∂z 
 =  
∂v  ∂u   v ∂y   u ∂x 
Now, ∂2 z 1 ∂2 z
=
∂v∂u uv ∂y∂x
∂2 z ∂2 z
= uv
∂ x∂ y ∂u ∂v
exeRCIse 8.3
 x dz 2
1. If z = tan−1   , where x = 2t, y = 1 – t2, prove that = .
y d t 1 + t2
du
2. If u = x3 + y3, where x = a cos t, y = b sin t, find .
dt
[ans. : −3a 3 cos2 t sin t + 3b 2 sin2 t cos t ]
3. If u =xeyz, where y = a 2 − x 2 , z = sin3 x, find du .

dx
 y  x2 
 Ans. : e z  1 − + 3x cot x  
  y 
r −x
4. If u = e l
, where r2 = x2 + y2 and l is a constant, show that
∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u 2 ∂u u
+ + ⋅ = .
∂x 2 ∂y 2 l ∂x lr
∂2u ∂2u
5. If u = log r and r = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 , prove that + = 0 if a, b
∂x 2 ∂y 2
are constants.
∂2u ∂2u ∂2u
6. If u2 (x2 + y2 + z2) = 1, prove that + + = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 1
Hint : Let x + y + z = r , u = r 
2 2 2 2
 
∂2u ∂2u ∂2u
7. If u = rm, where r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , find the value of + + .
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
[ans. : m (m + 1) rm– 2]
8. If u = f (r), where is given by the relation x = r cos q, y = r sin q, prove
∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u d 2 f 1 df
that + = + .
∂x 2 ∂y 2 dr 2 r dr
9. If z = f (u,v ), where u = x2 + y2, y = 2 then show that
∂z ∂z  ∂z 
x −y = 2 u2 + v 2   .
∂x ∂y  ∂u 
10. If z = f (u,v ), where u = x2 + y2, v = x2 – y2 then show that

∂z ∂z ∂z
(i) y +x = 4 xy .
∂x ∂y ∂u
 ∂z 
2
 ∂z 
2
  ∂z  2  ∂z  2  ∂z ∂z
(ii)   +   = 4u   +    + 8v ⋅
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂u   ∂v   ∂u ∂v

y
11. If w = z sin−1   , where x = 3u2 + 2v, y = 4u – 2v3, z = 2u2 – 3v2, find
 x
∂w ∂w
and .
∂u ∂v
12. If w = (x2 +y –2)4 + (x – y +2)3, where x = u – 2v + 1 and y = 2u + v – 2,
∂w
find at u = 0, v = 0.
∂v
[ans. : – 882]
u
13. If w = x + 2y + z 2 , x = , y = u2 + ev, z = 2u, show that
v
∂w ∂w
u +v = 12u 2 + 2ve v .
∂u ∂v
14. If F is a function of x, y, z then show that
∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F
u +v +w =x + 2y + 3z , where x = u + v + w, y = uv
∂u ∂v dw ∂x ∂y dz
+ vw + wu, z = uvw.
u
15. If z = f (x,y ), x = uv, y =
, prove that
v
∂z 1 ∂z 1 ∂z ∂z v ∂z v 2 ∂z
= + and = − .
∂x 2v ∂u 2u ∂u ∂y 2 ∂u 2u ∂v
16. If x = u + v, y = uv and F is a function of x, y, prove that
∂2 F ∂2 F ∂2 F ∂2 y ∂v
2
−2 + 2 = (x 2 − 4 y ) 2 − 2 .
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂y ∂y
  ∂ ∂   ∂F ∂F  
Hint: LHS =  −  − 
 ∂u ∂v   ∂u ∂v  
17. If u = f(xn – yn, yn – zn, zn – xn), prove that
1 ∂u 1 ∂u 1 ∂u
n −1
+ n −1 + n −1 = 0.
18. If z = f (x, y ), where x = u − av , y = u + av , prove that

∂2 z ∂2 z 2
2 ∂ z
a2 − = 4 a .
∂u 2 ∂v 2 ∂x ∂y
19. If z = f (u, v ), where u = lx + my , v = ly − mx, prove that

∂2 z ∂2 z 2  ∂ z ∂2 z 
2
+ = (l 2
+ m ) +
 ∂u 2 ∂v 2  .
∂x 2 ∂y 2
20. If x = u + av and y = u + bv , transform the equation
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
2 2
−5 + 3 2 = 0 into the equation = 0, find the values
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂u ∂v
of a and b.  2
 Ans. : a = 1, b = 3 
 
∂2 z ∂2 z
21. If z = f (x, y ), y = e x , v = e y , prove that = uv .
∂x ∂y ∂u ∂v
cos u sin u
22. If z = f (x, y ), x = ,y = , prove that
v v
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
v − = (y − x ) − (y + x ) .
∂v ∂u ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u
23. If u = f (2 x − 3y , 3y − 4 z, 4 z − 2 x), prove that 6 +4 +3 = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
24. If u = f(x2 + 2yz, y2 + 2zx), prove that

∂u ∂u ∂u
(y 2 − zx) + (x 2 − yz) + (z 2 − xy ) = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
25. If u = f(ax2 + 2hxy + by2) v = f (ax2 + 2hxy + by2) show that
∂  ∂v  ∂  ∂v 
 u  =
∂y  ∂x  ∂x  ∂y 
u .
∂v ∂v ∂v
26. If x + y = 2eq cos f and x – y = 2ieq sin f, prove that +i = 2y .
∂θ ∂φ ∂y
27. Find the values of the constants and such that u = x + y and v = x + by
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
transform the equation 9 2 − 9 + 2 2 = 0 into = 0, where
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂u ∂v
f is a function of x and y.
 3 
 Ans. : a = 2 , b = 3
 
28. If x = y cosh q, y = r sinh q and z = f(x,y ), prove that
 ∂z ∂z  ∂z ∂z
(i) (x − y )  − =r −
 ∂x ∂y  ∂ r ∂θ
2  ∂ z ∂2 z  2 ∂ z ∂z ∂ 2 z
2 2
(ii) (x − y )  2 − 2  = r + −
2
r
 ∂x ∂y  ∂r 2 ∂ r ∂θ 2
29. If x = e v sec u, y = e v tan u and z = f (x, y ), prove that

 ∂2 z ∂z   ∂2 z ∂2 z  ∂2 z
cos u  −  = xy  2 + 2  + (x 2 + y 2 ) .
 ∂u ∂v ∂u   ∂x ∂y  ∂ x ∂y
∂z ∂z
30. If f (x 2 y 3, z − 3x) = 0, prove that 3x − 2y = 9 x.
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
31. If f (y + z, x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 0, prove that (y − z) −x = x.
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
32. If f (cx − az, cy − bz) = 0, prove that a −b = c.
∂x ∂y
cos θ sin θ  ∂x   ∂u 
33. If x = ,y = , prove that     = cos2 θ.
u u  ∂u  θ  ∂x  y
34. If x 2 = au + bv , y 2 = au − bv , prove that

 ∂u   ∂x  1  ∂v   ∂y 
 ∂x   ∂u  = 2 =  ∂y   ∂v  .
y v x u
35. If u = ax + by , v = bx − ay , prove that

 ∂y   ∂v  a 2 + b2  ∂u   ∂x  a2
(i)     = (ii)     = 2
 ∂v  x  ∂y  u a2  ∂x  y  ∂u  v a + b 2
8.7 ImPlICIT DIFFeReNTIaTION

Any function of the type f (x, y) = c is called an implicit function, where y is a function
of x and c is a constant. ∂f
dy ∂x
If f (x, y) = c then =−
dx ∂f
∂y
Proof If f (x, y) is a function of x and y, where y is a function of x then total differential
coefficient of f w.r.t. x is given by
d f ∂ f d x ∂ f dy f
= ⋅ + ⋅
d x ∂x d x ∂y d x
But f ( x, y ) = c
df x y
=0
dx
∂f dx ∂f dy x
⋅ + ⋅ =0
∂x dx ∂y dx
Fig. 8.77
∂f
dy ∂x
=−
dx ∂f
∂y
example 1
dy
If y log(cos x) = x log(sin y ), find .
dx
Solution
Let f ( x, y ) = y log(cos x) − x log(sin y )
∂f
dy
= − ∂x
dx ∂f
∂y
1
y ( − sin x) − log(sin y )
=− cos x
x
log cos x − ⋅ cos y
sin y
y tan x + log sin y
=
log cos x − x cot y
example 2
dy
If x3 + y 3 = 3axy, find .
dx
Solution
Let f (x, y) = x 3 + y 3 − 3axy
∂f
dy
= − ∂x
dx ∂f
∂y
3x 2 − 3ay
=−
3 y 2 − 3ax
x 2 − ay
=−
y 2 − ax
ay − x 2
=
y 2 − ax
example 3
If y sin x = x cos y, find
dy
.
dx
Solution
Let f (x, y) = y sin x – x cos y
∂f
dy
= − ∂x
dx ∂f
∂y
y cos x − cos y
=−
sin x + x sin y
cos y − y cos x
=
sin x + x sin y
example 4
If x y + y x = c, find dy .
dx
Solution
Let f (x, y) = x y + y x − c
∂f
dy
= − ∂x
dx ∂f
∂y
yx y −1 + y x log y
=−
x y log x + xy x −1
example 5
dy
If (cos x) y = (sin y ) x , find . [Winter 2014]
dx
Solution
(cos x) y = (sin y ) x
Taking logarithm of both the sides,
y log cos x = x log sin y
Let f ( x, y ) = y log cos x − x log sin y
∂f
dy
= − ∂x
dx ∂f
∂y
y
( − sin x) − log sin y
= − cos x
x
log cos x − (cos y )
sin y
y taan x + log sin y
=
log cos x − x cot y
example 6
dy
If ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0, find .
dx
Solution
Let f ( x, y ) = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c
∂f
dy
= − ∂x
dx ∂f
∂y
2(ax + hy + g )
=−
2(hx + by + f )
ax + hy + g
=−
hx + by + f
example 7
du
If u = sin( x 2 + y 2 ) and a 2 x 2 + b 2 y 2 = c 2 , find .
dx
Solution
u = sin( x 2 + y 2 ) and a 2 x 2 + b 2 y 2 = c 2
∂u
= cos( x 2 + y 2 ) ⋅ 2 x
∂x
∂u
= cos( x 2 + y 2 ) ⋅ 2 y
∂y
Let f ( x, y ) = a 2 x 2 + b 2 y 2 − c 2
∂f
dy
= − ∂x
dx ∂f
∂y
2a 2 x
=−
2b 2 y
a2 x
=−
b2 y
d u ∂ u d x ∂ u dy
= ⋅ + ⋅
dx ∂ x d x ∂ y d x
 a2 x 
= 2 x cos( x 2 + y 2 ) + 2 y cos( x 2 + y 2 )  − 2 
 b y
 a2 
= 2 x cos( x 2 + y 2 ) ⋅ 1 − 2 
 b 
example 8
du
If u = x log( xy ) where x3 + y 3 + 3 xy = 1, find .
dx
Solution
u = x log (xy)
= x(log x + log y )
∂u 1
= x ⋅ + (log x + log y )
∂x x
= 1 + log x + log y
∂u 1 x
=x =
∂y y y
Let f (x, y ) = x 3 + y 3 + 3 xy − 1
∂f
dy
= − ∂x
dx ∂f
∂y
2
3x + 3 y
=− 2
3 y + 3x
x2 + y
=−
y2 + x
d u ∂ u d x ∂ u dy
= ⋅ + ⋅
x  x2 + y 
= 1 + log x + log y + −
y  y 2 + x 
x  x2 + y 
= 1 + lo
og( xy ) −
y  y 2 + x 
example 9
 x du
If u = tan −1   where x 2 + y 2 = a 2 , find .
 y dx
Solution
 x
u = tan −1  
 y
∂u 1 1 y
= ⋅ = 2
∂x x y x + y2
2
1+ 2
y
∂u 1  x x
=  − y 2  = − x 2 + y 2
∂y x2
1+ 2
y
Let f (x, y) = x 2 + y 2 – a2
∂f
= − ∂x
dy
dx ∂f
∂y
2x x
=− =−
2y y
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
= . + .
dx ∂x dx ∂y dx
y x  x
= − 2  − y 
x +y
2 2
x + y2
y x2
= +
x2 + y 2 y( x2 + y 2 )
y 2 + x2
=
y( x2 + y 2 )
1
=
y
example 10
φ f − φy fx
If u = φ ( x, y ) and f ( x, y ) = 0, prove that du = x y .
dx fy
Solution
f ( x, y ) = 0
∂f
dy f
= − ∂x = − x
dx ∂f fy
∂y
u = φ ( x, y )
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
= ⋅ + ⋅
dy
= φx + φ y
dx
 fx 
= φx + φ y  − 
 fy 
φx f y − φ y f x
=
fy
example 11
∂ φ ∂ f dy ∂ f ∂ φ
If f (x, y) = 0, f (x, z) = 0, show that ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ .
∂ x ∂ y dz ∂ x ∂ z
Solution
f ( x, y ) = 0 and φ ( x, z ) = 0
∂f ∂φ
dy ∂x dz
=− and = − ∂x
dx ∂f dx ∂φ
∂y ∂z
∂f ˆ
Ê
Á
∂x ˜
Á-˜
dy ∂f ˜
Á
dx ÁË
∂y ˜¯
=
dz Ê ∂f ˆ
d x Á ∂x ˜
Á- ˜
Á ∂f ˜
ÁË ∂z ˜¯
Ê ∂f ˆ
Á ∂x ˜
Á ˜
Á ∂f ˜
dy ÁË ∂y ˜¯
=
dz Ê ∂f ˆ
Á ∂x ˜
Á ˜
Á ∂f ˜
ÁË ∂z ˜¯
∂f ∂f dy ∂f ∂f
Hence, ◊ ◊ = ◊
∂x ∂y dz ∂x ∂z
example 12
 ∂z   ∂x   ∂y 
If φ ( x, y, z ) = 0, prove that       = −1.
 ∂y  x  ∂z  y  ∂z  z
Solution
φ ( x, y , z ) = 0
∂φ
 dz   ∂z  ∂y
 dy  =  ∂y  =−
∂φ
...(1)
x x
∂z
∂φ
 dx   ∂x 
  =   = − ∂z ...(2)
dz y ∂z y ∂φ
∂x
∂φ
 dy   ∂y 
  =   = − ∂x ...(3)
dx z ∂x z ∂φ
∂y
From Eqs (1), (2) and (3),
 ∂φ   ∂φ   ∂φ 
 ∂z   ∂x   ∂y   ∂y   ∂z   ∂x 
 ∂y   ∂z   ∂x  =  − ∂φ   − ∂φ   − ∂φ 
x y z    
 ∂z   ∂x   ∂y 
= −1
exeRCIse 8.4
dy
1. If x3 + y3 – 3axy = 0, find .
dx  ay − x 2 
 Ans. : 
 y 2 − ax 
dy
2. If x 3 + 3x 2 + 6 xy 2 + y 3 = 1, find .
dx
 (x 2 + 2 x + 2y 2 ) 
 Ans. : − 
 (4 xy + y 2 ) 
dy y(y − x log y )
3. If xy = yx, prove that = .
dx x(x − y log x)
dy
4. If f (x, y) = x sin (x – y) – (x + y) = 0, find .
dx
 [sin(x − y )](1 + x) − 1
 Ans.: x cos(x − y ) + 1 
 
y dy
5. If y x = sin x, find .
dx
 ∂z ∂z 
Hint: f = x log y − log sin x, let x = z, log z = y log x find ∂x , ∂y 
y y
 
 ∂f ∂f 
 and the en and 
 ∂x ∂y 
 −(yx log y − cot x) 
y −1
 Ans.: y 
 x log x log y + x y y −1 
d2 y
6. If x 5 + y 5 = 5a 3 x 2 , find 2 .  6a 3 x 2 (a 3 + x 3 ) 
dx
 Ans. : 
 y9 
7. If xy3 – yx3 = 6 is the equation of curve, find the slope of the tangent at
the point (1, 2).
 dy 
Hint : Find dx at (1, 2)
 2
 Ans. : − 11
d2 y
8. Find , if x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 = a.  a 
dx 2  Ans. : 3 
 (1 − x 2 ) 2 
du
9. If u = x log xy and x 3 + y 3 + 3xy − 1 = 0, find .
dx
 ∂f 
 du ∂u d x ∂u dy dy 
Hint : = ⋅ + ⋅ = − ∂x 
 dx ∂x d x ∂y dx d x ∂f 
 ∂y 
 x  x 2 + ay  
 Ans. : 1 + log xy −  2 
 y  y + ax  
d2 y m x
m−2
10. If xm + ym = bm, show that = −(m − 1)b .

dx 2 y 2 m −1
du
11. If u = x2y and x 2 + xy + y 2 = 1, find .
dx
3 3 2 d2 y  2a 2 x 2 
12. If x + y = 3ax , find .  Ans.: − 
dx 2  y5 
8.8 gRaDIeNT aND DIReCTIONal DeRIvaTIve
8.8.1 gradient
The gradient of a function z = f(x, y) is written as grad f and is defined as
∂f ˆ ∂f ˆ ∂f
grad f = —f = iˆ + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
grad f is a vector function.
If f(x, y, z) is a function of three independent variables, its total differential df is given
as
∂f ∂f ∂f
df = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ê ∂f ˆ ∂f ˆ ∂f ˆ ˆ
= Á iˆ + j + k ˜ ◊ (idx + ˆjdy + kˆdz )
Ë ∂x ∂y ∂z ¯
ÈQ r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ ˘
= —f ◊ d rÍ ˙
ÍÎ dr = iˆdx + ˆjdy + kˆdz ˙˚
= —f dr cos q
where q is the angle between the vectors —f and dr . If dr and —f are in the same
direction, then q = 0.
df = —f dr
cos q = 1 is the maximum value of cos q. Hence, df is maximum at q = 0.
8.8.2 Directional Derivative

The rate of change of a function of several variables in the direction of the coordinate
axes is called as directional derivative.
∂f ∂f ∂f
For a function z = f(x, y, z), , , are the directional derivative of f in the
∂x ∂y ∂z
direction of coordinate axes.
The directional derivative of a function f(x, y, z) in the direction of vector a is the
component of —f in the direction of a . If â is the unit vector in the direction of a ,
the directional derivative of f in the direction of a is given by
a
Da f = —f ◊ aˆ = —f ◊
a
example 1
Find —f at (1, –2, 1) if f = 3x2y – y3z2.
Solution
—f = iˆ + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= i (6 xy - 0) + j (3 x 2 - 3 y 2 z 2 ) + kˆ(0 - 2 y3 z )
ˆ ˆ
At x = 1, y = –2, z = 1,
—f = iˆ(-12) + ˆj (3 - 12) + kˆ(16)
—f at (1, - 2, 1) = - 12iˆ - 9 ˆj + 16 kˆ
example 2
Find the directional derivatives of f = xy2 + yz2 at the point (2, –1, 1) in
the direction of the vector iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2 kˆ .
Solution
—f = iˆ + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= iy + j (2 xy + z ) + kˆ(2 yz )
ˆ 2 ˆ 2
At the point (2, –1, 1),

—f = iˆ + ˆj (-4 + 1) + kˆ(-2)
= iˆ - 3 ˆj - 2 kˆ
Directional derivative in the direction of the vector a = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2 kˆ is
a
Da f = —f ◊
a
(iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2 kˆ )
= (iˆ - 3 ˆj - 2 kˆ ) ◊
1+ 4 + 4
(1 - 6 - 4)
=
3
= -3
example 3
1
Find the directional derivatives of f = 1
at the point
2 2 2 2
(x + y + z )
P(1, –1, 1) in the direction of a = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ .
Solution
—f = iˆ + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
È ˘ È ˘ È ˘
ˆ Í 2x ˙ ˆj Í - 2y ˙ ˆÍ 2z ˙
= i Í- 3 ˙+ Í 3 ˙ + k Í- 3 ˙
Í 2( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 ˙ Í 2( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 ˙ Í 2( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 ˙
Î ˚ Î ˚ Î ˚
( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ )
=- 3
( x 2 + y2 + z2 ) 2
At the point (1, –1, 1),
(iˆ - ˆj + kˆ )
Df = - 3
(3) 2
Directional derivative in the direction of a = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ is
a
Da f = —f ◊
a
(iˆ - ˆj - kˆ ) ◊ (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ )
=- 3
(3) 2 1 + 1 + 1
-1 + 1 + 1
=
32
1
=-
9
example 4
2
Evaluate —er , where r2 = x2 + y2 + z2.
Solution
r2 = x2 + y2 + z2
Differentiating partially w.r.t. x, y, and z respectively,
∂r ∂r x
2r = 2 x, =
∂x ∂x r
∂r ∂r y
2r = 2 y, =
∂y ∂y r
∂r ∂r z
2r = 2 z, =
∂z ∂z r
2 2 2
2 ∂er ∂er ∂er
—er = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2
∂e r ∂r ˆ ∂e r ∂r ˆ ∂e r ∂r
= iˆ ◊ +j ◊ +k ◊
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂z
( 2
= iˆ er ◊ 2r ) rx + ˆj (e ◊ 2r ) ry + kˆ (e ◊ 2r ) rz
r2 r2
2
= 2er ( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ )
example 5
Prove that —r n = nr n - 2 r , r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ, r = r .
Solution
r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ, r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
∂r x ∂r y ∂r z
= , = , =
∂x r ∂y r ∂z r
∂r n ˆ ∂r n ˆ ∂r n
—r n = iˆ + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂r n ∂r ˆ ∂r n ∂r ˆ ∂r n ∂r
= iˆ + j +k
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂z
ˆ n -1 x + ˆjnr n -1 y + knr
= inr ˆ n -1 z
r r r
= nr n - 2 ( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ )
= nr n - 2 r
exeRCIse 8.5
1. Find —f if
(i) f = log(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
x 2 + y 2 + z2
(ii) f = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )e −  2r 
 Ans. : (i) r 2 (ii) (2 − r)e − r r 
 
 where r = xiˆ + yiˆ + zkˆ, r = r 
2. Find —f and |—f | if
(i) f = 2 xz 4 − x 2 y at (2, − 2, − 1)
(ii) f = 2 xz 2 − 3xy − 4 x at (1, − 1, 2)
 Ans. : (i) 10ˆi − 4 ˆj − 16kˆ, 2 93 
 
 i − 3 ˆj + 8kˆ,
(ii) 7ˆ 2 29 
3. Find the directional derivative of f = xy + yz + zx at (1, 2, 0) in the

i + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ .
direction of vector ˆ
 10 
 Ans. : 3 
4. Find the directional derivative of f = x 2 yz + 4 xz 2 at (1, –2, –1) in the

i − ˆj − 2kˆ .
direction of 2ˆ
 37 
 Ans. : 
 3
5. Find the directional derivative of f = x 2 yz 2 along the curve x = e–t,

y = 2 sin t + 1, z = t – cos t at t = 0.
 1 
 Ans. : − 
 6
8.9 TaNgeNT PlaNe aND NORmal lINe

Let P be any point on the surface y
f (x, y, z) = 0 or z = f (x, y) and let Q be
any other point on it. Any curve is taken
on the surface joining Q to P. As Q Tangent line
tends to P along this curve, the chord
PQ tends, in general, to a definite P Part of surface
Q
straight line. This straight line is called
a tangent line to the surface at P. Since
different curves can be obtained by
joining Q to P, different tangent lines O x
are obtained at P. All these tangent
lines lie in a plane called the tangent
z
plane to the surface at P.
The equation of the tangent plane at Fig. 8.78
P(x0, y0, z0) to the surface f (x, y, z) = 0 is
(x − x0) fx(x0, y0, z0) + (y − y0) fy (x0, y0, z0) + (z − z0) fz (x0, y0, z0) = 0
∂f
where f x ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) =
∂x ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
∂f
f y ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) =
∂y ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
∂f
f z ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) =
∂z ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
The line through P, perpendicular to the tangent plane is called the normal to the
surface at P. The equations of the normal line to the surface at P(x0, y0, z0) are
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
f x ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) f y ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) f z ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
example 1
Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal line to the surface
xyz = 6 at (1, 2, 3). [Winter 2014]
Solution
Let f (xyz) = xyz − 6
f x ( x, y, z ) = yz, f x (1, 2, 3) = 6
f y ( x, y, z ) = xz, f y (1, 2, 3) = 3
fz ( x, y, z ) = xy, fz (1, 2, 3) = 2
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane at (1, 2, 3) is
6( x - 1) + 3( y - 2) + 2( z - 3) = 0
6 x - 6 + 3y - 6 + 2z - 6 = 0
6 x + 3 y + 2 z = 18
The set of equations of the normal line is

x -1 y - 2 z - 3
= =
6 3 2
example 2
x2 + y2 + z – 9 = 0 at the point (1, 2, 4). [Winter 2016]
Solution
Let f(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z – 9
fx(x, y, z) = 2x, fx(1, 2, 4) = 2
fy(x, y, z) = 2y, fy(1, 2, 4) = 4
fz(x, y, z) = 1, fz(1, 2, 4) = 1
2(x – 1) + 4(y – 2) + 1(z – 4) = 0
2x – 2 + 4y – 8 + z – 4 = 0
2x + 4y + z – 14 = 0
2x + 4y + z = 14
x -1 y - 2 z - 4
= =
2 4 1
example 3
x2 + y2 + z2 = 3 at the point (1, 1, 1).
Solution
Let f (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 − 3
f x ( x, y, z ) = 2 x, f x (1, 1, 1) = 2
f y ( x, y, z ) = 2 y, f y (1, 1, 1) = 2
fz ( x, y, z ) = 2 z, fz (1, 1, 1) = 2
2( x − 1) + 2( y − 1) + 2( z − 1) = 0
2x − 2 + 2 y − 2 + 2z − 2 = 0
2x + 2 y + 2z = 6
x+ y+ z = 3
x −1 y −1 z −1
= =
2 2 2
x −1 = y −1 = z −1
example 4
2x2 + y + 2z = 3 at (2, 1, – 3). [Summer 2017]
Solution
Let f(x, y, z) = 2x2 + y2 + 2z – 3
fx(x, y, z) = 4x, fx(2, 1, –3) = 8
fy(x, y, z) = 2y, fy(2, 1, –3) = 2
fz(x, y, z) = 2, fz(2, 1, –3) = 2
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane at (2, 1, –3) is
8(x – 2) + 2(y – 1) + 2(z + 3) = 0
8x – 16 + 2y – 2 + 2z + 6 = 0
8x + 2y + 2z – 12 = 0
8x + 2y + 2z = 12
4x + y + z = 6
x - 2 y -1 z + 3
= =
8 2 2
x-2
= y -1= z + 3
4
example 5
Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal line at the point
x2 z2
(−2, 1, −3) to the ellipsoid + y2 + = 3 .
4 9
Solution
x2 z2
Let f ( x, y , z ) = + y2 + − 3
4 9
x
f x ( x, y , z ) = , f x (-2, 1, - 3) = -1
2
f y ( x, y , z ) = 2 y , f y (-2, 1, - 3) = 2
2z 2
f z ( x, y , z ) = , f z (-2, 1, - 3) = -
9 3
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane at (−2, 1, −3) is
2
−1( x + 2) + 2( y − 1) − ( z + 3) = 0
3
3( x + 2) − 6( y − 1) + 2( z + 3) = 0
3x + 6 − 6 y + 6 + 2 z + 6 = 0
3 x − 6 y + 2 z = −18
x + 2 y −1 z + 3
= =
−1 2 −2
3
example 6
z = 2 x 2 + y 2 at the point (1, 1, 3).
Solution
Let f ( x, y , z ) = 2 x 2 + y 2 − z
f x ( x, y , z ) = 4 x, f x (1, 1, 3) = 4
f y ( x, y , z ) = 2 y , f y (1, 1, 3) = 2
f z ( x, y, z ) = -1, f z (1, 1, 3) = -1

4( x − 1) + 2( y − 1) − 1( z − 3) = 0
4x − 4 + 2 y − 2 − z + 3 = 0
4x + 2 y − z = 3

x −1 y −1 z − 3
= =
4 2 −1
example 7
x 2 yz + 3 y 2 = 2 xz 2 − 8 z at the point (1, 2, −1).
Solution
Let f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 yz + 3 y 2 − 2 xz 2 + 8 z
f x ( x, y, z ) = 2 xyz − 2 z 2 , f x (1, 2, − 1) = 2(1)(2)( −1) − 2( −1) 2 = −6

f y ( x, y , z ) = x 2 z + 6 y , f y (1, 2, − 1) = (1) 2 ( −1) + 6(2) = 11
f z ( x, y, z ) = x 2 y − 4 xz + 8, f z (1, 2, − 1) = (1) 2 (2) − 4(1)( −1) + 8 = 14
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane at (1, 2, −1) is
−6( x − 1) + 11( y − 2) + 14( z + 1) = 0
−6 x + 6 + 11 y − 22 + 14 z + 14 = 0
6 x − 11 y − 14 z + 2 = 0

x −1 y − 2 z +1
= =
−6 11 14
example 8
2xz2 – 3xy – 4x = 7 at the point (1, –1, 2). [Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f(x, y, z) = 2xz2 – 3xy – 4x = 7
f x ( x, y, z ) = 2 z 2 - 3 y - 4, f x (1, - 1, 2) = (2)2 - 3( -1) - 4 = 7
f y ( x, y, z ) = -3 x, f y (1, - 1, 2) = -3(1) = - 3
fz ( x, y, z ) = 4 xz, fz (1, - 1, 2) = 4(1)(2) = 8
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane at (1, –1, 2) is

7( x - 1) + ( -3)( y + 1) + 8( z - 2) = 0
7 x - 7 - 3 y - 3 + 8 z - 16 = 0
7 x - 3 y + 8 z = 26

x -1 y +1 z - 2
= =
7 -3 8
example 9
Find the equation of the tangent plane and normal line to the surface
z + 8 = xe y cos z at the point (8, 0, 0).
Solution
Let f ( x, y, z ) = xe y cos z − z − 8
f x ( x, y, z ) = e y cos z f x (8, 0, 0) = 1
f y ( x, y, z ) = xe y cos z f y (8, 0, 0) = 8
f z ( x, y, z ) = sin z − 1 f z (8, 0, 0) = −1
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane at (8,0,0) is
1( x − 8) + 8( y − 0) − 1( z − 0) = 0
x − 8 + 8y − z = 0
x + 8y − z − 8 = 0
x −8 y −0 z −0
= =
1 8 −1
y
x − 8 = = −z
8
example 10
cos px – x2y + exz + yz = 4 at the point P(0, 1, 2). [Winter 2015]
Solution
Let f(x, y, z) = cos px – x2y + exz + yz = 4
f x ( x, y, z ) = -p sin p x - 2 xy + ze xz , f x (0, 1, 2) = 2
2
f y ( x, y, z ) = - x + z, f y (0, 1, 2) = 2
fz ( x, y, z ) = xe xz + y, fz (0, 1, 2) = 1
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane at P(0, 1, 2) is

2( x - 0) + 2( y - 1) + 1( z - 2) = 0
2x + 2y - 2 + z - 2 = 0
2x + 2y + z = - 4
x y -1 z - 2
= =
2 2 1
example 11
Show that the plane tangent to the surface z = x 2 + y 2 at the point (a, b, c)
intersects the z-axis at a point where z = −c.
Solution
Let f ( x, y , z ) = x 2 + y 2 − z
f x ( x, y , z ) = 2 x, f x (a, b, c) = 2a
f y ( x, y , z ) = 2 y , f y (a, b, c) = 2b
f z ( x, y, z ) = -1, f z (a, b, c) = -1
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane at (a, b, c) is
2a ( x − a ) + 2b( y − b) − 1( z − c) = 0
2ax − 2a 2 + 2by − 2b 2 − z + c = 0
2ax + 2by − z − 2a 2 − 2b 2 + c = 0 …(1)
The point of intersection of tangent plane with the z-axis is obtained by putting x = 0,
y = 0 in Eq. (1),
− z − 2a 2 − 2b 2 + c = 0
z = c − 2a 2 − 2b 2
= c − 2( a 2 + b 2 ) …(2)
2 2
Since the point (a, b, c) lies on the surface x + y = z , …(3)
a 2 + b2 = c
Substituting Eq. (3) in Eq. (2),
z = c − 2c = −c
example 12
Show that the plane 4 x − 6 y − z + 14 = 0 touches the surface
x 2 + 3 y 2 + 2 z = 0 and find the point of contact.
Solution
Let f ( x, y , z ) = x 2 + 3 y 2 + 2 z
f x ( x, y , z ) = 2 x
f y ( x, y , z ) = 6 y
f z ( x, y , z ) = 2
Let P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) be a point on the surface
f x ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 2 x0
f y ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 6 y0
f z ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 2
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane at (x0, y0, z0) is
2 x0 ( x − x0 ) + 6 y0 ( y − y0 ) + 2( z − z0 ) = 0
2 xx0 − 2 x02 + 6 yy0 − 6 y02 + 2 z − 2 z0 = 0
xx0 + 3 yy0 + z + z0 = 0
Comparing with the plane equation 4x − 6y − z + 14 = 0
x0 3 y0 1 z
= = = 0
4 −6 −1 14
\ x0 = − 4, y0 = 2, z0 = −14
The point (− 4, 2, −14) satisfies the equation of the surface and the tangent plane.
Hence, the point of contact is (−4, 2, −14).
example 13
Show that the surfaces z = xy − 2 and x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 3 have the same
tangent plane at (1, 1, −1). [Summer 2014]
Solution
For the surface f (x, y, z) = xy – z −2,
f x ( x, y , z ) = y , f x (1, 1, - 1) = 1
f y ( x, y , z ) = x, f y (1, 1, - 1) = 1
f z ( x, y, z ) = -1, f z (1, 1, - 1) = -1
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane is

1( x − 1) + 1( y − 1) − 1( z + 1) = 0
x −1+ y −1− z −1 = 0
x+ y − z −3= 0
For the surface f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 - 3,

f x ( x, y , z ) = 2 x f x (1, 1, - 1) = 2
f y ( x, y , z ) = 2 y f y (1, 1, - 1) = 2
f z ( x, y , z ) = 2 z f z (1, 1, - 1) = -2
Hence, the equation of the tangent plane is
2( x − 1) + 2( y − 1) − 2( z + 1) = 0
2x − 2 + 2 y − 2 − 2z − 2 = 0
x+ y − z −3= 0
Hence, the surfaces z = xy − 2 and x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 3 have the same tangent plane at

(1, 1, −1).
example 14
Find equations of the normal line of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 6 at the
point ( a, b, c). Show that the normal line passes through the origin.
Solution
Let f(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 − 6
f x ( x, y , z ) = 2 x, f x (a, b, c) = 2a
f y ( x, y , z ) = 2 y , f y (a, b, c) = 2b
f z ( x, y , z ) = 2 z , f z (a, b, c) = 2c
Hence, the set of equations of the normal line at (a, b, c) is

x−a y −b z −c
= =
2a 2b 2c
At the origin, x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.
0−a 0−b 0−c 1
= = =−
2a 2b 2c 2
The point (0,0,0) satisfies the equation of the normal line.
Hence, the normal line passes through the origin (0, 0, 0).
exeRCIse 8.6
1. Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal line to the
following surfaces at indicated points.
(a) z = 4 − x 2 − 2y 2 , (1, − 1, 1)
 2 2 1
(b) z = 1 − x − y
2 2
,  3 , 3 , 3 
 1
(c) z = 1 −
10
(
1 2
x + 4y 2 ) ,  1, 1, 2 
(d) x 2 y 2 + xz − 2y 3 = 10 , (2, 1, 4)
 x −1 y +1 z −1 
 Ans. : (a) x − 2y + z − 4 = 0 ,
1
=
−2
=
1 
 
 3x − 2 3y − 2 3z − 1
(b) 2 x + 2y + z − 3 = 0 , = =
 2 2 1 
 
 1 
z−
 x −1 y −1 2 
(c) 2 x + 8y + 10 z − 15 = 0 , = =
 2 8 10 
 
 x − 2 y −1 z − 4 
(d) 4 x + y + z = 13 = 0 , = =
 4 1 1 
2. Show that the tangent plane to the surface x2 = y(x + z) at any point
passes through the origin.
3. Show that the plane 3x + 12y – 6z – 17 = 0 touches the surface 3x2 – 6y2 +
9z2 + 17 = 0. Find also the point of contact.
  2 
 Ans. :  −1, 2,  
 3 
4. Show that the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 touches the surface
a 2 b2
px 2 + 9y 2 + 2 z = 0, if + + 2cd = 0
p q
8.10 lOCal exTReme valUes (maxImUm

aND mINImUm valUes)
Let u = f (x, y) be a continuous function of x and y. u will be maximum at x = a,

y = b, if f (a, b) > f (a + h, b + k) and will be minimum at x = a, y = b,
if f (a, b) < f (a + h, b + k) for small positive or negative values of h and k.
The point at which function f (x, y) is either maximum or minimum is known as

stationary point. The value of the function at stationary point is known as extreme
(maximum or minimum) value of the function f (x, y).
Working Rule to determine extreme values of a function f (x, y)
∂f ∂f
Step I Solve = 0 and = 0 simultaneously for x and y.
∂x ∂y
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
Step II Obtain the values of r = 2
,s= ,t = 2 .
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Step III
(i) If rt – s2 > 0 and r < 0 (or t < 0) at (a, b) then f (x, y) is maximum at (a, b) and
the maximum value of the function is f (a, b).
(ii) If rt – s2 > 0 and r > 0 (or t > 0) at (a, b) then f (x, y) is minimum at (a, b) and
the minimum value of the function is f (a, b).
(iii) If rt – s2 < 0 at (a, b) then f (x, y) is neither maximum nor minimum at
(a, b). Such a point is known as saddle point.
(iv) If rt – s2 = 0 at (a, b) then no conclusion can be made about the extreme val-
ues of f (x, y) and further investigation is required.
example 1
Discuss the maxima and minima of the function x 2 + y 2 + 6 x + 12.
Solution
Let f (x, y) = x2 + y2 + 6x + 12
Step I For extreme values,
∂f
=0
∂x
2x + 6 = 0
2( x + 3) = 0
x+3= 0
x = −3
∂f
and =0
∂y
2y = 0
y=0
Stationary point is (– 3, 0).

∂2 f
Step II r= =2
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= =0
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= =2
∂y 2
Step III At (–3, 0)
rt – s2 = 2(2) – 0 = 4 > 0 and r > 0
Hence, f (x, y) is minimum at (–3, 0).
fmin = (– 3)2 + 0 + 6 (– 3) + 12 = 3
example 2
a3 a3
Show that the minimum value of f ( x, y ) = xy + + is 3a2.
x y
Solution 3 3
a a
f ( x, y ) = xy + +
x y
∂f
=0
∂x
a3
y− 2 =0
x
x 2 y = a3 …(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
a3
x− =0
y2
xy2 = a3 …(2)
Solving Eqs (1) and (2),
x=y
x3 = a3
x=a
\ y=a
Stationary point is (a, a).
Step II
∂ 2 f 2a 3
r= = 3
∂x 2 x
2
∂ f
s= =1
∂x ∂y
∂ 2 f 2a 3
t= = 3
∂y 2 y
Step III At (a, a), r = 2, s = 1, t =2
rt – s2 = (2) (2) – (1)2 = 3 > 0
Also, r=2>0
Hence, f (x, y) is minimum at (a, a).
 1 1
f min = a 2 + a 3  +  = 3a 2 .
 a a
example 3
Discuss the maxima and minima of the function 3x2 – y2 + x3.
Solution
Let f ( x, y ) = 3 x 2 − y 2 + x 3
Step I For extreme values, ∂f
=0
∂x
6 x + 3x 2 = 0
3x( x + 2) = 0
x = 0, −2
∂f
and =0
∂y
−2 y = 0
y=0
Stationary points are (0, 0), (–2, 0).
∂2 f
Step II r= = 6 + 6x
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= =0
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = −2
∂y 2
Step III
(x,y) r s t rt – s2 Conclusion
(0, 0) 6 0 –2 –12 < 0 neither maximum nor minimum
(–2, 0) –6 0 –2 12 > 0 and r < 0 maximum
Hence, f (x, y) is maximum at (–2, 0)

fmax = 3(–2)2 – 0 + (–2)3 = 4
example 4
Find the stationary value of x3 + y3 – 3axy, a > 0.
Solution
Let f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3axy
∂f
=0
∂x
3 x 2 − 3ay = 0
x 2 − ay = 0 …(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
3 y 2 − 3ax = 0
y 2 − ax = 0 …(2)
From Eq. (1),
x2
y=
a
x 4 − a3 x = 0
x( x − a )( x 2 + ax + a 2 ) = 0
x = 0, x = a
\ y = 0, y = a.
Hence, stationary points are (0, 0) and (a, a).
Step II ∂2 f
r= = 6x
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = −3a
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 6y
∂y 2
Step III At (0, 0), r = 0, s = –3a, t = 0

rt – s2 = (0) (0) – (–3a)2 = –9a2 < 0
Hence, f (x, y) is neither maximum nor minimum at (0, 0).
At (a, a), r = 6a, s = –3a, t = 6a
rt – s2 = (6a) (6a) – (–3a)2 = 27a2 > 0
Also, r = 6a > 0
Hence, f (x, y) is minimum at (a, a).
fmin = a3 + a3 – 3a3 = – a3.
example 5
Find the extreme values of the function x3 + 3xy2 – 3x2 – 3y2 + 4, if any.
[Summer 2017]
Solution
Let f (x, y) = x3 + 3xy2 − 3x2 − 3y2 + 4
∂f
=0
∂x
3x 2 + 3 y 2 − 6 x = 0
x2 + y 2 − 2x = 0 …(1)
and ∂f
=0
∂y
6 xy − 6 y = 0
6 y ( x − 1) = 0
y = 0, x = 1
Putting y = 0 in Eq. (1),
x2 – 2x = 0,
x = 0, 2
Stationary points are (0, 0), (2, 0).
1 + y2 – 2 = 0,
y2 = 1, y = ± 1
Stationary points are (1, 1), (1, –1).
Step II
∂2 f
r= = 6 x − 6 = 6( x − 1)
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = 6y
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 6 x − 6 = 6( x − 1)
∂y 2
Step III
(x, y) r s t rt – s2 Conclusion
(0, 0) –6 < 0 0 –6 36 > 0 and r < 0 maximum
(2, 0) 6>0 0 6 36 > 0 and r > 0 minimum

(1, 1) 0 6 0 –36 < 0 neither maximum nor
minimum
(1, –1) 0 –6 0 –36 < 0 neither maximum nor
minimum
Hence, f (x, y) is maximum at (0, 0) and minimum at (2, 0).

fmax = 0 + 4 = 4
and fmin = 23 + 3(2)(0)2 – 3(2)2 – 3(0)2 + 4
= 8 + 0 – 12 + 4
=0
example 6
Find the extreme values of the function x3 + y3 – 63 (x + y) + 12xy.
Solution
Let f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 63x − 63y + 12xy

∂f
=0
∂x
3 x 2 − 63 + 12 y = 0,
3 x 2 + 12 y = 63
x 2 + 4 y = 21 …(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
3 y 2 − 63 + 12 x = 0,
12 x + 3 y 2 = 63
4 x + y 2 = 21 …(2)
Equating Eqs (1) and (2),
x2 + 4 y = 4x + y 2
x 2 − y 2 − 4( x − y ) = 0
( x + y )( x − y ) − 4( x − y ) = 0
( x − y )( x + y − 4) = 0
x − y = 0, x + y − 4 = 0
y = x, y = 4 − x
Putting y = x in Eq. (1),

x 2 + 4 x − 21 = 0,
( x + 7)( x − 3) = 0
x = −7, 3
∴ y = −7, 3
Stationary points are (–7, –7), (3, 3).
Putting y = 4 – x in Eq. (1),
x 2 + 4(4 − x) = 21
x 2 − 4 x − 5 = 0,
( x + 1)( x − 5) = 0
x = −1, 5
∴ y = 5, −1
Stationary points are (–1, 5), (5, –1).
Step II
∂2 f
r= = 6x
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = 12
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 6y
∂y 2
Step III
(–7, –7) –42 12 – 42 1620 > 0 and r < 0 maximum
(3, 3) 18 12 18 180 > 0 and r > 0 minimum
(–1, 5) –6 12 30 –324 < 0 neither maximum nor
minimum
(5, –1) 30 12 –6 –324 < 0 neither maximum nor
minimum
Hence, f (x, y) is maximum at (–7, –7).

f max = ( −7)3 + ( −7)3 − 63( −7 − 7) + 12( −7)( −7) = 784.
and f (x, y) is minimum at (3, 3).
f min = 33 + 33 − 63(3 + 3) + 12(3)(3) = −216.
example 7
Find the extreme value of xy (a – x – y).
Solution
Let f (x, y) = xy (a − x − y)
= axy – x2y – xy2
∂f
=0
∂x
ay − 2 xy − y 2 = 0 …(1)
y (a − 2 x − y ) = 0
y = 0, a − 2 x − y = 0
∂f
and =0
∂y
…(2)
ax − x 2 − 2 xy = 0
x(a − x − 2 y ) = 0
x = 0, a − x − 2 y = 0
Considering four pairs of equations of Eqs (1) and (2),
y=0 x=0
y=0 a − x − 2y = 0
a − 2x − y = 0 x=0
a − 2x − y = 0 a − x − 2y = 0
Solving these equations, the following pairs of values of stationary points are
 a a
obtained: (0, 0), (a, 0), (0, a ),  , 
 3 3
Step II
∂2 f
r= = −2 y
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = a − 2x − 2 y
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = −2 x
∂y 2
Step III
2
(0, 0) 0 a 0 –a < 0 neither maximum nor minimum
2
(a, 0) 0 –a –2a –a < 0 neither maximum nor minimum
2
(0, a) –2a –a 0 –a < 0 neither maximum nor minimum
a a −2a −a −2a a2
 ,  >0 maximum or minimum
3 3 3 3 3 3
a a
Hence, f (x, y) is maximum or minimum at  ,  depending on whether a > 0 or a < 0.
3 3
3
a a a a a
f extreme = ⋅ a − −  = .
3 3 3 3  27
example 8
Examine the function x3 y2(12 – 3x – 4y) for extreme values.
Solution
Let f (x, y) = 12x3y2 − 3x4y2 − 4x3y3
∂f
=0
∂x
36 x 2 y 2 − 12 x 3 y 2 − 12 x 2 y 3 = 0
12 x 2 y 2 (3 − x − y ) = 0
x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 3 …(1)
and ∂f
=0
∂y
24 x3 y − 6 x 4 y − 12 x 3 y 2 = 0
6 x3 y (4 − x − 2 y ) = 0
x = 0, y = 0, x + 2 y = 4 …(2)
Considering six pairs of equations of Eqs (1) and (2),
x=0 y=0
x=0 x + 2y = 4
y=0 x + 2y = 4
x+ y = 3 x=0
x+ y = 3 y=0
x+ y = 3 x + 2y = 4
Solving these equations, the following pairs of stationary points are obtained:
(0, 0), (0, 2), (4, 0), (0, 3), (3, 0), (2, 1)
Step II
∂2 f
r= = 72 xy 2 − 36 x 2 y 2 − 24 xy 3 = 12 xy 2 (6 − 3 x − 2 y )
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = 72 x 2 y − 24 x 3 y − 36 x 2 y 2 = 12 x 2 y (6 − 2 x − 3 y )
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 24 x 3 − 6 x 4 − 24 x 3 y = 6 x 3 (4 − x − 4 y )
∂y 2
Step III
(0, 0) 0 0 0 0 no conclusion
(2, 1) – 48 – 48 –96 2304 > 0 and r < 0 maximum
Hence, f (x, y) is maximum at (2, 1).
f max = (23 )(12 )(12 − 6 − 4) = 16.
example 9
Find the maxima and minima of x 4 + y 4 − 2 x 2 + 4 xy − 2 y 2 .
Solution
Let f ( x, y ) = x 4 + y 4 − 2 x 2 + 4 xy − 2 y 2
∂f
=0
∂x
4 x3 − 4 x + 4 y = 0
4( x 3 − x + y ) = 0
x3 − x + y = 0 …(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
4 y3 + 4 x − 4 y = 0
4( y 3 + x − y ) = 0
y3 + x − y = 0 …(2)
x3 + y 3 = 0
y = −x
Substituting y = − x in Eq. (2),
− x3 + x + x = 0
x3 − 2 x = 0
x ( x 2 − 2) = 0
x = 0, ± 2
y = 0, m 2
Stationary points are (0, 0), ( 2 , − 2 ) , ( − 2 , 2 ) .
Step II
∂2 f
r= = 12 x 2 − 4
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= =4
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 12 y 2 − 4
∂y 2
Step III
(0, 0) –4 4 –4 0 no conclusion
( 2, − 2) 20 4 20 384 > 0 and r > 0 minimum
(− 2 , 2 ) 20 4 20 384 > 0 and r > 0 minimum
Hence, f (x, y) is minimum at the point ( 2 , − 2 ) and ( − 2 , 2 ).
At ( 2 , − 2 ), f min = ( 2 ) 4 + ( − 2 ) 4 − 2( 2 ) 2 + 4 2 ( − 2 ) − 2( − 2 ) 2 = −8
example 10
Find the extreme values of the function
f ( x, y ) = x 3 + y 3 − 3 x − 12 y + 20. [Summer 2014]

Solution
f ( x, y ) = x 3 + y 3 − 3 x − 12 y + 20
∂f
=0
∂x
3x 2 − 3 = 0
3( x 2 − 1) = 0
x2 − 1 = 0
x2 = 1
x = ±1
∂f
and =0
∂y
3 y 2 − 12 = 0
3( y 2 − 4) = 0
y2 − 4 = 0
y2 = 4
y=±2
Stationary points are (1, 2), (1, –2), (–1, 2), (–1, –2).
Step II
∂2 f
r= = 6x
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= =0
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 6y
∂y 2
Step III
(1, 2) 6 0 12 72 > 0 and r > 0 minimum
(1, –2) 6 0 –12 –72 < 0 neither maximum nor
minimum
(–1, 2) –6 0 12 –72 < 0 neither maximum nor
minimum
(–1, –2) –6 0 –12 72 > 0 and r < 0 maximum
Hence, f (x, y) is maximum at (–1, –2) and minimum at (1, 2).

fmax = ( −1)3 + ( −2)3 − 3( −1) − 12( −2) + 20 = 38
fmin = (1)3 + (2)3 − 3(1) − 12(2) + 20 = 2
example 11
Find the extreme values of the function x 3 + xy 2 + 21x − 12 x 2 − 2 y 2 .
Solution
Let f ( x, y ) = x 3 + xy 2 + 21x − 12 x 2 − 2 y 2
∂f
= 0,
∂x
3 x 2 + y 2 − 24 x + 21 = 0 …(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
2 xy − 4 y = 0
2 y ( x − 2) = 0
y = 0, x = 2

3 x 2 − 24 x + 21 = 0, x 2 − 8 x + 7 = 0
( x − 1)( x − 7) = 0
x = 1, 7
12 + y 2 − 48 + 21 = 0
y 2 = 15, y = ± 15
(
Stationary points are 2, 15 , 2, − 15 . )( )
Hence, all stationary points are (1, 0), (7, 0), 2, 15 , 2, − 15 .( )( )
∂2 f
Step II r= = 6 x - 24 = 6( x - 4)
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = 2y
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 2 x - 4 = 2( x - 2 )
∂y 2
Step III
(1, 0) –18 0 –2 36 > 0 and r < 0 maximum
(7, 0) 18 0 10 180 > 0 and r > 0 minimum
neither maximum nor
(2, 15 ) –12 2 15 0 –60 < 0
minimum
neither maximum nor
(2, - 15 ) –12 −2 15 0 –60 < 0
minimum
Hence, f (x, y) is maximum at (1, 0) and minimum at (7, 0).
f max = 13 + (1 × 02 ) + 21 − (12 × 12 ) − (2 × 02 ) = 10,
f min = 73 + (7 × 02 ) + (21 × 7) − (12 × 7 2 ) − (2 × 02 ) = −98
example 12
Find all the stationary points of the function
x3 + 3 xy 2 − 15 x 2 − 15 y 2 + 72 x
after examining whether the function is maximum or minimum at those
points. [Summer 2016]
Solution
Let f ( x, y ) = x 3 + 3 xy 2 − 15 x 2 − 15 y 2 + 72 x

∂f
=0
∂x
3 x 2 + 3 y 2 − 30 x + 72 = 0 …(1)
∂f
=0
∂y
6xy – 30y = 0 …(2)
6y (x – 5) = 0
y = 0, x = 5
3x2 – 30x + 72 = 0
x = 4, x = 6
3y2 – 3 = 0
y=±1
Stationary points are (5, 1) and (5, –1).
Hence, all stationary points are (5, 1) (5, –1), (4, 0) and (6, 0).
Step II
∂2 f
r= = 6 x − 30
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = 6y
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 6 x − 30
∂y 2
Step III
(4, 0) –6 0 –6 36 > 0 and r < 0 maximum
(6, 0) 6 0 6 36 > 0 and r > 0 minimum
(5, 1) 0 6 0 –36 < 0 neither maximum
nor minimum
(5, –1) 0 –6 0 – 36 < 0 neither maximum
nor minimum
Hence, f (x, y) is maximum at (4, 0) and f (x, y) is minimum at (6, 0).

fmax = (4)3 + 0 – 15 (4)2 – 0 + 72 (4) = 112
fmin = (6)3 + 0 – 15 (6)2 – 0 + 72 (6) = 108
example 13
Find the extreme values of sin x + sin y + sin(x + y).
Solution
Let f (x, y) = sin x + sin y + sin(x + y)

∂f
=0
∂x
cos x + cos( x + y ) = 0 …(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
cos y + cos( x + y ) = 0 …(2)
cos x + cos( x + y ) = cos y + cos( x + y )
cos x = cos y
x= y
Substituting y = x in Eq. (1),
cos x + cos 2 x = 0,
cos x = − cos 2 x
= cos(π − 2 x) or cos(π + 2 x)
x = π − 2 x or π + 2 x
π
x = , −π
3
π
y = , −π
3
π π
Stationary points are  ,  , ( −π , − π ) .
 3 3
Step II
∂2 f
r= = − sin x − sin( x + y )
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = − sin( x + y )
∂x∂y
∂2 f
t= = − sin y − siin( x + y )
∂y 2
Step III
π π − 3 3 − 3
9
> 0 and r < 0 maximum
 ,  −
4
3 3 2
(– p, – p) 0 0 0 0 no conclusion
π π
Hence, f (x, y) is maximum at  ,  .
 3 3
p p 2p 3 3 3 3 3
fmax = sin + sin + sin = + + =
3 3 3 2 2 2 2
example 14
Find the extreme values of sin x sin y sin (x + y).
Solution
Let f (x, y) = sin x sin y sin (x + y)
∂f
=0
∂x
sin y [cos x sin( x + y ) + sin x cos( x + y )] = 0
sin y sin(2 x + y ) = 0
1
[coos 2 x − cos(2 x + 2 y )] = 0
2
cos 2 x − cos(2 x + 2 y ) = 0 ...(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
sin x [cos y sin( x + y ) + sin y cos( x + y )] = 0
sin x sin( x + 2 y ) = 0
1
[cos 2 y − cos(2 x + 2 y )] = 0
2
cos 2 y − cos(2 x + 2 y ) = 0 ...(2)
cos 2 x = cos 2 y
x= y
Substituting x = y in Eq. (1),

cos 2 x − cos(2 x + 2 x) = 0
cos 2 x = cos 4 x = 2 cos 2 2 x − 1
2 cos 2 2 x − cos 2 x − 1 = 0
1± 1+ 8
cos 2 x =
4
1
= 1, −
2
1 2π
cos 2 x = 1 = cos 0, cos 2 x = − = cos
2 3
π
x = 0, x=
3
π
y = 0, y=
3
π π
Stationary points are (0, 0),  ,  .
 3 3
Step II
∂2 f
r= = − sin 2 x + sin 2( x + y ) = 2 sin y cos(2 x + y )
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = sin 2( x + y )
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = − sin 2 y + sin 2( x + y ) = 2 sin x cos( x + 2 y )
∂y 2
Step III
π π − 3 3 − 3
9
> 0 and r < 0 maximum
 ,  −
4
3 3 2
π π
 3 3
p p 2p 3 3 3 3 3
fmax = sin sin sin = ◊ ◊ =
3 3 3 2 2 2 8
8.11 exTReme valUes wITH CONsTRaINeD vaRIables

Sometimes we have to find the extreme values of a function of three (or more)
variables, say f (x, y, z), which are not independent but are connected by some given
relation φ ( x, y, z ) = 0. The extreme values of f (x, y, z) in such a situation are called
constrained extreme values.
In such situations, we use φ ( x, y, z ) = 0 to eliminate one of the variables, say z,
from the given function, thus converting the function as a function of only two
variables and then find the extreme values of the function.
example 1
Find the minimum value of x2 + y2 + z2 with the constraint x + y + z = 3a .
Solution
Let f = x2 + y2 + z2
x + y + z = 3a
z = 3a − x − y …(1)
Substituting the value of z in Eq. (1),
f = x2 + y2 + (3a − x − y)2
∂f
=0
∂x
2 x − 2(3a − x − y ) = 0
4 x − 6a + 2 y = 0
2 x + y = 3a …(2)
and
∂f
=0
∂y
2 y − 2(3a − x − y ) = 0
2 y − 6a + 2 x + 2 y = 0
x + 2 y = 3a …(3)
x=y=a
The stationary point is (a, a).
Step II
∂2 f
r= =4
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= =2
∂x∂y
∂2 f
t= =4
∂y 2
Step III At (a, a), r = 4, s = 2, t = 4
rt − s2 = (4)(4) − (2)2 = 12 > 0
Also, r = 4 > 0
Hence, f (x, y) is minimum at (a, a)
fmin = a2 + a2 + (3a − a − a)2
= 3a2
example 2
Find the minimum value of x3y2z subject to the condition x + y + z = 1.
Solution
Let f = x3y2z
x+y+z=1
z=1−x−y ...(1)
Substituting the value of z in Eq. (1),
f = x3y2(1 − x − y)
= x3y2 − x4y2 − x3y3
∂f
=0
∂x
3x2y2 − 4x3y2 − 3x2y3 = 0
x2y2(3 – 4x − 3y) = 0
x = 0, y = 0, 4x + 3y = 3 …(2)
∂f
and =0
∂y
2x3y − 2x4y − 3x3y2 = 0
x3y(2 − 2x −3y) = 0
x = 0, y = 0, 2x + 3y = 2 …(3)
Considering six pairs of Eqs (2) and (3),

x=0 y=0
x=0 2x +3y = 2
y=0 2x +3y = 2
4x + 3y = 3 x=0
4x + 3y = 3 y=0
4x + 3y = 3 2x + 3y = 2
Solving these equations, the following pairs of stationary points are formed:
 2  3   1 1
(0, 0),  0,  , (1, 0), (0, 1),  , 0 ,  , 
 3  4   2 3
Step II
∂2 f
r= = 6 xy 2 − 12 x 2 y 2 − 6 xy 3 = 6 xy 2 (1 − 2 x − y )
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = 6 x 2 y − 8 x 3 y − 9 x 2 y 2 = x 2 y (6 − 8 x − 9 y )
∂x∂y
∂2 f
t= = 2 x3 − 2 x 4 − 6 x 3 y = 2 x3 (1 − x − 3 y )
∂y 2
Step III
 2
 0,  0 0 0 0 no conclusion
3
3  0 0 27 0 no conclusion
 , 0 128
4
 1 1 1 1 1 1 maximum
 ,  − − − > 0 and r < 0
2 3 9 12 8 144
 1 1
 2 3
3 2
 1   1  1 1
f max =     1 − − 
 2   3  2 3
1
=
432
example 3
Divide 120 into three parts so that the sum of their products taken two
at a time shall be maximum.
Solution
Step I Let x, y, z be three numbers.
Let x + y + z = 120
f = xy + yz + zx
= xy + y (120 − x − y ) + (120 − x − y ) x
= xy + 120 y − xy − y 2 + 120 x − x 2 − xy
= 120 x + 120 y − xy − x 2 − y 2
For extreme values,
∂f
=0
∂x
120 − y − 2 x = 0 ...(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
120 − x − 2 y = 0 ...(2)
x = 40
y = 40
Stationary point is (40, 40).
Step II
∂2 f
r= = −2
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = −1
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = −2
∂y 2
Step III At (40, 40).
rt – s2 = (–2) (–2) – (–1)2 = 3 > 0
and r=–2<0
f (x, y) is maximum at (40, 40).
Hence, three parts are 40, 40 and 40.
example 4
Find a point on the plane 2x + 3y – z = 5 which is nearest to the origin.
[Summer 2017]
Solution
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the plane 2x + 3y – z = 5.
Its distance from the origin is given by
d = x 2 + y2 + z2
d2 = x2 + y2 + z2
Since P lies on the plane z = 2x + 3y – 5,
d2 = x2 + y2 + (2x + 3y – 5)2
Let f(x, y) = x2 + y2 + 4x2 + 9y2 + 25 + 12xy – 30y – 20x
= 5x2 + 10y2 + 12xy – 30y – 20x + 25
∂f
=0
∂x
10x + 12y = 20
5x + 6y = 10 ...(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
20y + 12x = 30
10y + 6x = 15 ...(2)
5 15
x= ,y=
7 14
Ê 5 15 ˆ
Stationary point is Á , ˜ .
Ë 7 14 ¯
∂2 f
Step II r= = 10
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= =6
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 10
∂y 2
Ê 5 15 ˆ
Step III At Á , ˜ , r = 10, s = 6, t = 10
Ë 7 14 ¯
rt – s2 = 100 – 36 = 64 > 0
Also, r = 10 > 0
Ê 5 15 ˆ Ê 5 15 ˆ
f(x, y) i.e. d2 is minimum at Á , ˜ and hence d is minimum at Á , ˜ .
Ë 7 14 ¯ Ë 7 14 ¯
Ê 5 15 ˆ
At ÁË 7 , 14 ˜¯ ,
Ê 5ˆ Ê 15 ˆ 5
z = 2 x + 3y - 5 = 2 Á ˜ + 3 Á ˜ - 5 = -
Ë 7¯ Ë 14 ¯ 14
Ê 5 15 5ˆ
Hence, d is minimum at Á , , - ˜ .
Ë 7 14 14 ¯
The point ÊÁ 5 , 15 , - 5 ˆ˜ on the plane 2x + 3y – z = 5 is nearest to the origin.

Ë 7 14 14 ¯
example 5
Find the points on the surface z2 = xy + 1 nearest to the origin. Also find
that distance.
Solution
Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the surface z2 = xy + 1.
Its distance from the origin is given by
d = ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
d 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
Since P lies on the surface z2 = xy + 1,
d 2 = x 2 + y 2 + xy + 1
Let f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 + xy + 1
∂f
=0
∂x
2x + y = 0 …(1)
∂f
and =0
∂y
2y + x = 0 …(2)
x = 0, y = 0
Stationary point is (0, 0).
Step II
∂2 f
r= =2
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= =1
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= =2
∂y 2
Step III At (0, 0), r = 2, t = 2, s = 1
rt – s2 = (2) (2) – (1)2 = 3 > 0
Also, r=2>0
2
f (x, y), i.e., d is minimum at (0, 0) and hence d is minimum at (0, 0).
At (0, 0),
z 2 = xy + 1 = 1
z = ±1
Hence, d is minimum at (0, 0, 1) and (0, 0, –1).
The points (0, 0, 1) and (0, 0, –1) on the surface z2 = xy + 1 are nearest to the origin.
Minimum distance = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1.
example 6
A rectangular box open at the top is to have a volume of 108 cubic metres.
Find the dimensions of the box if its total surface area is minimum.
Solution
Let x, y and z be the dimensions of the box. Let V and S be its volume and surface area
respectively.
V = xyz
S = xy + 2 xz + 2 yz
V
Substituting z = ,
xy
V V
S = xy + 2 x ⋅ + 2 y ⋅
xy xy
2V 2V
= xy + +
y x
∂S
=0
∂x
2V
y− 2 =0 …(1)
x
∂S
and =0
∂y
2V
x− =0 …(2)
y2
2V
Substituting y = from Eq. (1) in Eq. (2),
x2
 x4 
x − 2V  2  = 0
 4V 
 x3 
x 1 − =0
 2V 
1
x = (2V ) 3
1
2V 2V 3
∴ y= = = ( 2V ) [Since x ≠ 0 being the side of the box]
x2 2
(2V ) 3
 1 1

Stationary point is (2V ) 3 , (2V ) 3  .
Step II ∂ 2 S 4V
r= = 3
∂x 2 x
2
∂ S
s= =1
∂x ∂y
∂ 2 S 4V
t= = 3
∂y 2 y
 1 1
 4V 4V
Step III At (2V ) 3 , (2V ) 3  , r = = 2 > 0, s = 1, t = =2
2V 2V
rt – s 2 = (2)(2) – (1)2 = 3 > 0 and r = 2 > 0
1
Hence, S is minimum at x = y = (2V ) 3 .
Putting V = 108 m3,
1
x = y = (2 × 108) 3 = 6
V 108
and z= = =3
xy 6 × 6
Hence, dimensions of the box which make its total surface area S minimum are x = 6,
y = 6, z = 3.
example 7
Show that the rectangular solid of maximum volume that can be inscribed
in a given sphere is a cube.
Solution
Let x, y, z be the length, breadth and height of the rectangular solid and V be its
volume.
V = xyz …(1)
Let the given sphere be
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2
z 2 = a2 − x2 − y 2
V = xy a 2 − x 2 − y 2
V 2 = x 2 y 2 (a 2 − x 2 − y 2 )
Let f ( x, y ) = V 2 = x 2 y 2 ( a 2 − x 2 − y 2 ) …(2)

∂f
=0
∂x
y 2 [ 2 x(a 2 − x 2 − y 2 ) + x 2 ( −2 x)] = 0
2 xy 2 (a 2 − 2 x 2 − y 2 ) = 0
x = 0, y = 0, 2 x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ...(3)
∂f
and =0
∂y
x 2 [ 2 y (a 2 − x 2 − y 2 ) + y 2 ( −2 y )] = 0
2 x 2 y (a 2 − x 2 − 2 y 2 ) = 0
x = 0, y = 0, x 2 + 2 y 2 = a 2 …(4)
But x and y are the sides of the rectangular solid, and therefore cannot be zero.
Solving 2 x 2 + y 2 = a 2 and x 2 + 2 y 2 = a 2 ,
a2 2 a2
x2 = ,y =
3 3
a a
x= ,y= [Qside cannot be negative]
3 3
a2 a2 a
z = a2 − − =
3 3 3
 a a a 
Stationary points are  , , .
 3 3 3 
Step II
∂2 f
r= = 2a 2 y 2 − 12 x 2 y 2 − 2 y 4
∂x 2
∂2 f
s= = 4a 2 xy − 8 x 3 y − 8 xy 3
∂x ∂y
∂2 f
t= = 2a 2 x 2 − 2 x 4 − 12 x 2 y 2
∂y 2
 a a  2a 4 4a 4 2a 4 8a 4
Step III At  , , r = − − =−
 3 3 3 3 9 9
4a 4 8a 4 8a 4 4a 4
s= − − =−
3 9 9 9
2a 4 2a 4 12a 4 8a 4
t= − − =−
3 9 9 9
8 8 8
64 a 1 6 a 48 a
rt − s 2 = − = >0
81 81 81
rt – s2 > 0 and r < 0
f (x, y), i.e. V 2 is maximum at x = y = z and hence, V is maximum when
x = y = z, i.e. the rectangular solid is a cube.
exeRCIse 8.7
1. Examine maxima and minima of the following functions and find their
extreme values:
(i) 2 + 2x + 2y − x2 − y 2 (ii) x 2y 2 − 5x 2 − 8xy − 5y 2
(iii) x 2 + y 2 + xy + x − 4y + 5 (iv) x 2 + y 2 + 6x = 12
(v) x 3y 2 (1 − x − y) (vi) xy (3a − x − y)
(vii) x 3 + 3xy 2 − 3x 2 − 3y 2 + 4 (viii) x4 + y4 − 2 (x − y)2
(ix) x 4 + x2y + y2 (x) x 4 + y 4 − 4a2 xy
(xi) y 4 − x 4 + 2(x 2 − y 2) (xii) x 3 + 3x2 + y2 + 4xy
(xiii) x 2y − 3x 2 − 2y 2 − 4y + 3 (xiv) x4 − y4 − x2 − y 2 + 1.
 
 Ans.: (i) Max. at (1, 1); 4 (ii) Max. at (0, 0); 0 
 (iii) Min. at (−2, 3); −2 (iv) Min. at ( − 3, 0); 3 
 
  1 1 1 
(v) Max. at  ,  ; (vi) Max. at (a, a); a 3
  2 3  432 
 


(vii) Max. at (0, 0); 4 ( )
(viii) Min. at 2, − 2 and − 2, 2 ; −8 ( )


 (ix) Min. at (0, 0); 0 (x) Min. at (a, a) and (−a, a); a 4 
 
 (xi) No extreme values (xii) No extreme values 
  1 
 (xiii) 1  1
Max. at (0, − 1);5 (xiv) Max. at (0, 0);1,min at  ± ,±  ;
  2 2  2 

2. A rectangular box, open at the top, is to have a volume of 32 cc. Find the
dimensions of the box requiring least materials for its construction.
[ans. : 4, 4, 2]
3. Divide 120 into three parts so that the sum of their products taken two
at a time shall be maximum.
[Hint: f = xy + yz + zx where x + y + z = 120]
[ans. : 40, 40, 40]
4. The sum of three positive numbers is ‘a’. Determine the maximum value
of their product.
 a3  a a a 
 Ans.: at  , ,  
 27  3 3 3 
5. Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that can be
inscribed in an ellipsoid
x 2 y 2 z2
+ + = 1.
a 2 b2 c 2
Hint : Let 2 x, 2y , 2 z be the sides of the parallelepiped; then its volume 
 
 x2 y2 
 v = 8 xyz = 8 xy 1 − − 
a 2 b2
 8abc 
 Ans. : 
 3 3
6. Prove that area of a triangle with constant perimeter is maximum when
the triangle is equilateral.
Hint : Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) 

 
 where 2s = a + b + c, c = 2s − a − b, s is constant 
7. Find the shortest distance from the origin to the surface xyz2 = 2.
[ans. : 2]
8. Find the shortest distance from the origin to the plane x − 2y − 2z = 3.
[ans. : 1]
x −3 y −5 z −7
9. Find the shortest distance between the lines = = and
1 −2 1
x +1 y +1 z +1
= = .
7 −6 1
 Ans.: 2 29 
10. Find the maximum value of cos A cos B cos C, where A, B, C are angles
of a triangle.
È Ê p p p ˆ 1˘
Í Ans.: max. at ÁË , , ˜¯ ; ˙
Î 3 3 3 8˚
8.12 meTHOD OF lagRaNge mUlTIPlIeRs

Let f (x, y, z) be a function of three variables x, y, z, and the variables be connected by
the relation
f (x, y, z) = 0 …(1)
Suppose we wish to find the values of x, y, z, for which f (x, y, z) is stationary (maxi-
mum and minimum).
For this purpose, we construct an auxiliary equation
f (x, y, z) + lf (x, y, z) = 0 …(2)
Differentiating Eq. (2) partially w.r.t. x, y, z,
∂f ∂φ
+λ =0 …(3)
∂x ∂x
∂f ∂φ
+λ =0 …(4)
∂y ∂y
∂f ∂φ
+λ =0 …(5)
∂z ∂z
Eliminating l from Eqs (3), (4) and (5), the values of x, y, and z are obtained for which
f (x, y, z) has stationary value. This method of obtaining stationary values of f (x, y, z) is
called Lagrange’s method of undetermined multipliers, and equations (3), (4) and (5)
are called Lagrange’s equations. The term l is called undetermined multiplier.
example 1
Find the minimum value of x2 + y 2, subject to the condition ax + by = c.
Solution
Let f (x, y) = x2 + y2 …(1)
ax + by = c …(2)
Let f (x, y) = ax + by – c = 0
Let the auxiliary equation be
( x 2 + y 2 ) + λ (ax + by − c) = 0 ...(3)
Differentiating Eq. (3) partially w.r.t x,
2x + λa = 0
2x
λ=− …(4)
a
Differentiating Eq. (3) partially w.r.t y,
2 y + λb = 0
2y
λ=− …(5)
b

2x 2 y
=
a b
b
y= x
a
Substituting y in Eq. (2),
b 
ax + b  x = c
a 
b2
ax + x=c
a
(a 2 + b 2 ) x = ac
ac
x=
a + b2 2
b  ac  bc
∴ y=  2 2
= 2

a a +b  a + b2
2 2 a2c2 b2c2
Minimum value of x + y = 2 2 2
+
(a + b ) (a + b 2 )2
2
example 2
Find the minimum values of x2 yz3, subject to the condition 2x + y + 3z = a.
[Summer 2014]
Solution
Let f (x, y, z) = x2 yz3 …(1)
2 x + y + 3z = a …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = 2x + y + 3z – a = 0
x 2 yz 3 + λ (2 x + y + 3 z − a ) = 0 ...(3)
2 xyz 3 + 2λ = 0
λ = − xyz 3 …(4)
x2 z3 + λ = 0
λ = −x 2 z 3 …(5)
Differentiating Eq. (3) partially w.r.t z,
3 x 2 yz 2 + 3λ = 0
λ = −x 2 yz 2 …(6)
From Eqs (4), (5), and (6),
xyz 3 = x 2 z 3 = x 2 yz 2
yz = xz = xy
∴ y = x and z = y
Substituting y = z = x in Eq. (2),
2 x + x + 3x = a
6x = a
a
x=
6
a a
∴ y= ,z=
6 6
2 3 6
 a  a  a  a
Minimum value of x2 yz3 =       =  
 6  6  6  6
example 3
Find the maximum value of f = x 2y 3z 4, subject to the condition x + y + z = 5.
Solution
Let f (x, y, z) = x 2y 3z 4 …(1)
x+y+z=5 …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = x + y + z – 5 = 0
x2y3z4 + l (x + y + z – 5) = 0 ...(3)
2 xy 3 z 4 + λ = 0
λ = −2 xy 3 z 4 …(4)
3x 2 y 2 z 4 + λ = 0
λ = −3 x 2 y 2 z 4 …(5)
4 x2 y3 z3 + λ = 0
λ = − 4 x2 y3 z3 …(6)
From Eqs (4), (5), and (6),

2 xy 3 z 4 = 3 x 2 y 2 z 4 = 4 x 2 y 3 z 3
2 yz = 3 xz = 4 xy
3
∴ y = x and z = 2 x
2
Substituting y and z in Eq. (2),
3
x+ x + 2x = 5
2
9 x = 10
10
x=
9
3 3  10  5
∴ y= x=   =
2 2 9  3
 10  20
and z = 2x = 2   =
 9 9
2 3 4
 10   5   20  (210 )(59 )
Maximum value of x 2 y 3 z 4 =       =
 9   3  9  315
example 4
Find the maximum value of x my nz p when x + y + z = a.
Solution
Let f (x, y, z) = x m y n z p …(1)
x+y+z=a …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = x + y + z – a = 0
x m y n z p + λ ( x + y + z − a) = 0 ...(3)
mx m −1 y n z p + λ = 0
λ = − mx m −1 y n z p …(4)
ny n −1 x m z p + λ = 0
λ = − ny n −1 x m z p …(5)
px m y n z p −1 + λ = 0
λ = − px m y n z p −1 …(6)
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
mx m −1 y n z p = nx m y n −1 z p = px m y n z p −1
m n p
= =
x y z
n p
∴ y = x and z= x
m m
n p
x+ x+ x = a
m m
am
x=
m+n+ p
n an
∴ y= x=
m m+n+ p
p ap
and z= x=
m m+n+ p
a m + n + p mm nn p p
Maximum value of x m y n z p =
(m + n + p) m + n + p
example 5
Find the minimum value of x2 + y2 + z2 with the constraint xy + yz + zx = 3a2.
Solution
Let f (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 …(1)
2
xy + yz + zx = 3a …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = xy + yz + zx – 3a2
( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + λ ( xy + yz + zx − 3a 2 ) = 0 ...(3)
2x + λ ( y + z) = 0
2x
l=- …(4)
y+z
2y + l (x + z) = 0
2y
l=- …(5)
z+x
Differentiating Eq. (3) partially w.r.t. z,
2z + l (y + x) = 0
2z
l=- …(6)
x+y
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
2x 2y 2z 2 x + 2 y + 2z
= = = =1
y+z z+x x+y y+z+z+x+x+y
2x - y - z = 0
-x + 2y - z = 0
- x - y + 2z = 0
Solving these equations,
x=y=z
Substituting y = z = x in Eq. (2),
3 x 2 = 3a 2
x = ±a
x = y = z = ±a
Minimum value of x2 + y2 + z2 = 3a2
example 6
Using Lagrange’s method of multipliers, show that the stationary
1 1 1
value of a3x2 + b3y2 + c3z2 where + + = 1 occur at
x y z
a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c
x= ,y= ,z= .
a b c
Solution
Let f (x, y, z) = a3x2 + b3y2 + c3z2 …(1)
1 1 1
+ + =1 …(2)
x y z
1 1 1
Let φ ( x, y , z ) = + + −1 = 0
x y z
1 1 1 
(a x
3 2
+ b3 y 2 + c 3 z 2 ) + λ  + + − 1 = 0 ...(3)
x y z 

λ
2a 3 x − =0
x2
2a 3 x 3 − λ = 0
λ = 2a 3 x 3 ...(4)
λ
2b3 y − =0
y2
2b3 y 3 − λ = 0
λ = 2b3 y 3 …(5)
λ
2c 3 z − =0
z2
2c 3 z 3 − λ = 0
λ = 2c 3 z 3 …(6)
From Eqs (3), (4) and (5),
2a 3 x 3 = 2b3 y 3 = 2c 3 z 3
ax = by = cz
ax ax
∴y= and z=
b c
1 b c
+ + =1
x ax ax
a+b+c
=1
ax
a+b+c
x=
a
ax a + b + c
∴y= =
b b
ax a + b + c
and z= =
c c
Hence, the stationary value of a3x2 + b3y2 + c3z2 occurs at
a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c
x= ,y= ,z=
a b c
example 7
Find the point on the plane ax + by + cz = p at which the function
f = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 has a minimum value and find this minimum value of f.
[Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 …(1)
ax + by + cz = p …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = ax + by + cz – p = 0
(x2 + y2 + z2) + l (ax + by + cz – p) = 0 …(3)
2x + λa = 0
2x ...(4)
λ=−
a
2 y + λb = 0
2y ...(5)
λ=−
b
2z + λc = 0
2z ...(6)
λ=−
c
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
2x 2 y 2z
= =
a b c
bx cx
y= and z =
a a
b2 x c2 x
ax + + = p
a a
ap
x= 2
a + b2 + c2
bp
∴y= 2
a + b2 + c2
cp
and z= 2
a + b2 + c2
 ap bp cp 
Thus, (x2 + y2 + z2) is minimum at  2 , , 
a + b2 + c2 a 2 + b2 + c2 a 2 + b2 + c2 
2 2 2 a2 p2 b2 p 2 c2 p2
Minimum value of x + y + z = + 2 + 2
(a + b + c ) (a + b + c ) (a + b 2 + c 2 ) 2
22 2 2 2 2 2
p 2 (a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) p2
= =
(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) 2 a 2 + b2 + c2
example 8
 25 
Find the length of the shortest line from the point  0, 0,  to the sur-
 9
face z = xy.
Solution
Let (x, y, z) be a point on the surface z = xy.
 25 
The distance d between (x, y, z) and  0, 0,  is
 9
2
 25 
d= x2 + y 2 +  z − 
 9
2
 25 
d 2 = x2 + y 2 +  z − 
 9
2
 25 
Let f ( x, y , z ) = d 2 = x 2 + y 2 +  z −  …(1)
 9
z = xy …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = z – xy = 0

 2  25  
2
 x + y +  z −   + λ ( z − xy ) = 0
2
...(3)
 9 
2 x + λ (− y) = 0
2x
λ= …(4)
y

2 y + λ ( − x) = 0
2y
λ= …(5)
x
 25 
2 z −  + λ = 0
 9
 25 
λ = −2  z − 
 9 ...(6)

2x 2 y
=
y x
x2 = y 2
x = ±y …(6)
Substituting x = y, in Eq. (4),

l=2
Substituting l = 2 in Eq. (6),
 25 
2 = −2  z − 
 9
25
−1 = z −
9
25 16
z = −1 + =
9 9
16
Substituting y = x and z = in Eq. (2),
9
16
= x2
9
4
x=±
3
4
∴y=±
3
34
Similarly, when x = –y, z = . But this gives a complex value of x and y.
9
2 4 4 16
Thus f (x, y, z), i.e., d is minimum when x = ± , y = ± , z = .
3 3 9
2 2 2
 4   4   16 25  41
Minimum distance d =   +  + −  =
 3  3  9 9 3
 25  41
Hence, the length of the shortest line from  0, 0,  to the surface z = xy is .
 9 3
example 9
Show that the rectangular solid of maximum volume that can be inscribed
in a sphere is a cube. [Summer 2016]
Solution
Let 2x, 2y, 2z be the length, breadth and height of the rectangular solid.
Let r be the radius of the sphere.

Volume of solid, V = 8xyz …(1)
Equation of the sphere, x + y + z2 = r2
2 2
…(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 – r2 = 0
8 xyz + λ ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − r 2 ) = 0 ...(3)
8 yz + λ ⋅ 2 x = 0
4 yz
λ=− …(4)
x
8 xz + λ ⋅ 2 y = 0
4 xz
λ=−
y …(5)
8 xy + λ ⋅ 2 z = 0
4 xy
λ=−
z …(6)
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),

4 yz 4 xz 4 xy
= =
x y z
y 2 = x2 and z2 = y2
x2 = y 2 = z 2
x= y=z
Hence, the rectangular solid is a cube.
example 10
Find the minimum and maximum distance from the point (1, 2, 2) to the
sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 36.
Solution
Let (x, y, z) be any point on the sphere. Its distance D from the point (1, 2, 2) is
D = ( x − 1) 2 + ( y − 2) 2 + ( z − 2) 2
Let D2 = f (x, y, z) = (x – 1)2 + (y – 2)2 + (z – 2)2 ...(1)
2 2 2
x + y + z = 36 ...(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 – 36

( x − 1)2 + ( y − 2)2 + ( z − 2)2  + λ ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 36) = 0 ...(3)
2( x − 1) + λ (2 x) = 0
x −1 1 …(4)
λ=− = −1 +
x x
2( y − 2) + λ (2 y ) = 0
y−2 2
λ=− = −1 +
y y …(5)
Differentiating Eq. (3) partially, w.r.t. z,
2( z − 2) + λ (2 z ) = 0
z−2 2
λ=− = −1 +
z z …(6)
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
1 2 2
−1 + = −1 + = −1 +
x y z
1 2 2
= =
x y z
y = 2x and z = 2x
x 2 + 4 x 2 + 4 x 2 = 36
9 x 2 = 36
x2 = 4
x = ±2
∴ y = ±4
and z = ±4
Minimum distance = (2 − 1) 2 + (4 − 2) 2 + (4 − 2) 2 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 3
Maximum distance = ( −2 − 1) 2 + ( − 4 − 2) 2 + ( − 4 − 2) 2 = 9 + 36 + 36 = 9
example 11
A rectangular box open at the top is to have a volume of 32 cubic units. Find
the dimensions of the box requiring least material for its construction.
[Winter 2016, 2014]
Solution
Let x, y, z be the dimensions of the box.
The box is open at the top.
Surface area S = xy + 2xz + 2yz …(1)
Volume V = xyz = 32 …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = xyz – 32
( xy + 2 xz + 2 yz ) + λ ( xyz − 32) = 0 ...(3)
y + 2z + lyz = 0
y + 2z 1 2
λ=− =− − …(4)
yz z y
x + 2z + lxz = 0
x + 2z 1 2
λ=− =− − …(5)
xz z x
2x + 2y + lxy = 0
2x + 2 y 2 2
λ=− =− − …(6)
xy y x
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
1 2 1 2 2 2
− − =− − =− −
z y z x y x
2 2 1 2
= and =
y x z x
x
y = x and z =
2
 x
x( x)   = 32
 2
x 3 = 64
x=4
∴ y = 4, z = 2
Hence, dimensions of the box requiring least material for its construction are 4, 4, 2.
example 12
A rectangular box without a lid is to be made from 12 m2 of cardboard.
Find the maximum volume of such a box. [Winter 2013, 2015]
Solution
Let x, y, z be the dimensions of the box.
The box is open at the top.
Volume V = xyz ...(1)
Surface area S = xy + 2xz + 2yz = 12 ...(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = xy + 2xz + 2yz – 12
xyz + l(xy + 2xz + 2yz – 12) = 0 ...(3)
yz + l(y + 2z) = 0
yz
l=-
y + 2z
1 y + 2z 1 2
=- =- - ...(4)
l yz z y
xz + l(x + 2z) = 0
xz
l=-
x + 2z
1 x + 2z 1 2
=- =- - ...(5)
l xz z x
xy + l(2x + 2y) = 0
xy
l=-
2( x + y )
1 2x + 2y 2 2
=- =- - ...(6)
l xy y x
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
1 2 1 2 2 2
- - =- - =- -
z y z x y x
2 2 1 2
= and =
y x z x
x
y = x and z =
2

Ê xˆ Ê xˆ
x( x ) + 2 x Á ˜ + 2 x Á ˜ = 12
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯
3 x 2 = 12
x2 = 4
x=2
\ y = 2, z = 1
Hence, maximum volume = xyz = 2(2)(1) = 4 m3
example 13
A wire of length b is cut into two parts which are bent in the form of
a square and circle respectively. Find the least value of the sum of the
areas so found.
Solution
x
Let the piece of length x be bent in the form of a square so that each side is .
4
x x x2
The area of the square, A1 =⋅ = .
4 4 16
Suppose a piece of length y is bent in the form of a circle of radius r; so perimeter of
the circle is y.
2π r = y
y
r=
2π
2
 y y2
The area of the circle, A2 = π   = .
 2π  4π
Let sum of the areas be given as
x2 y 2
f ( x, y ) = + ...(1)
16 4π
Also, x+y=b …(2)
Let f (x, y) = x + y – b
 x2 y 2 
 +  + λ ( x + y − b) = 0 ...(3)
16 4π
2x
+l = 0
16
x
l=- ...(4)
8
2y
+λ =0
4π
y
λ=− ...(5)
2π
x y
=
8 2π
π
y= x
4
π
x+ x=b
4
4b
x=
4+π
πb
∴y=
4+π
Hence, the least value of the sum of the areas is
2 2
x2 y 2 1  4b  1  πb 
+ =   +  
16 4π 16  4 + π  4π  4 + π 
b2  π2 
= 1 + 4π 
(4 + π )2
b 2π (4 + π )
=
4π (4 + π ) 2
b2
=
4(π + 4)
example 14
A closed rectangular box has length twice its breadth and has constant
volume V. Determine the dimensions of the box requiring least surface
area.
Solution
Let x be the breadth and y be the height of the rectangular box so length of the box
will be 2x.
Surface area of the box

S = 2 (2x ◊ x + x ◊ y + y ◊ 2x) = 4x2 + 6xy
Let f (x, y) = 4x2 + 6xy ...(1)
Volume of the box V = x ◊ 2x ◊ y = 2x2y ...(2)
Let f (x, y) = 2x y – V2

(4 x 2
+ 6 xy ) + λ (2 x 2 y − V ) = 0 ...(3)
8 x + 6 y + λ (4 xy ) = 0
4x + 3y
λ=−
2 xy …(4)
6 x + λ (2 x 2 ) = 0
3
λ=− ...(5)
x
4x + 3y 3
=
2 xy x
4x + 3y = 6 y
4x
y=
3
4x
2 x2 ◊ =V
3
3V
x3 =
8
1
Ê 3V ˆ 3
x=Á ˜
Ë 8 ¯
1 1
4 Ê 3V ˆ 3 Ê 8V ˆ 3
\y = Á ˜ = Á ˜
3Ë 8 ¯ Ë 9 ¯
1 1
 3V  3  3V  3
Hence, the dimensions of the box requiring least surface area are 2   ,   ,
1
 8  8
 8V  3
  .
9
example 15
Show that if the perimeter of a triangle is a constant, the triangle has
maximum area when it is equilateral.
Solution
Let x, y and z be the sides of the triangle.
x+ y+ z
Perimeter of the triangle s=
2
Area of the triangle A = s ( s − x)( s − y )( s − z )
Let f (x, y, z) = A2 = s(s – x)(s – y)(s – z) …(1)
Also, x + y + z = 2s …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = x + y + z – 2s
[ s( s − x)( s − y)( s − z )] + λ ( x + y + z − 2s) = 0 ...(3)
− s ( s − y )( s − z ) + λ = 0
λ = s ( s − y )( s − z ) …(4)
− s ( s − x)( s − z ) + λ = 0
λ = s ( s − x)( s − z ) …(5)
− s ( s − x)( s − y ) + λ = 0
λ = s ( s − x)( s − y ) …(6)
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
s ( s − y )( s − z ) = s ( s − x)( s − z ) = s ( s − x)( s − y )
s − y = s − x and s − z = s − y
y=x and z= y
∴x = y = z
Hence, the triangle is equilateral.
example 16
The temperature u(x, y, z) at any point in space is u = 400 xyz2. Find the
highest temperature on surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1.
Solution
Let f (x, y, z) = u = 400 xyz2 …(1)
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = x2+y2 + z2 – 1 = 0
400 xyz 2 + λ ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 1) = 0 ...(3)

200 yz 2
λ=− …(4)
x
400 xz 2 + λ (2 y ) = 0
200 xz 2
λ=− …(5)
y
800 xyz + λ (2 z ) = 0
λ = −400 xy
λ = −400xy …(6)
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
200 yz 2 200 xz 2
= = 400 xy
x y
200 y 2 z 2 = 200 x 2 z 2 = 400 x 2 y 2
1 1 2
2
= 2 = 2
x y z
z2
x2 = y 2 =
2
Substituting y2 and z2 in Eq. (2),
x2 + x2 + 2x2 = 1
4x2 = 1
1
x2 =
4
1
x=±
2
1 1
∴y=± , z =±
2 2
Considering positive sign,

1 1 1
x= , y= , z=
2 2 2
Highest temperature on the surface of the sphere
 1  1  1
u = 400 xyz 2 = 400       = 50.
 2  2  2
example 17
Use the method of the Lagrange’s multipliers to find volume of larg-
est rectangular parallelepiped that can be inscribed in the ellipsoid
x2 y 2 z 2
+ + = 1.
a 2 b2 c2
Solution
Let 2x, 2y, 2z be the length, breadth and height of the rectangular parallelepiped
inscribed in the ellipsoid.
Volume of the parallelepiped, V = (2x) (2y) (2z) = 8xyz.
Let f (x, y, z) = 8 xyz ...(1)
x2 y 2 z 2
+ + =1 …(2)
a 2 b2 c2
x2 y 2 z 2
Let φ ( x, y , z ) = + + −1
a 2 b2 c2
 x2 y 2 z 2 
8 xyz + λ  2 + 2 + 2 − 1 = 0 ...(3)
a b c 
2x
8 yz + λ =0
a2
4 yza 2
λ=− …(4)
x
2y
8 xz + λ =0
b2
4 xzb 2
λ=− …(5)
y
2z
8 xy + λ =0
c2
4 xyc 2
λ=− …(6)
z
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
4 yza 2 4 xzb 2 4 xyc 2
= =
x y z
a 2 b2 c2
= =
x2 y 2 z 2
b2 2 c2 2
∴ y2 = x and z2 = x
a2 a2
Substituting y2, z2 in Eq. (2),
x2 x2 x2
+ + =1
a2 a2 a2
3x 2
=1
a2
a2
x2 =
3
a
x=±
3
b c
∴y=± , z=±
3 3
Since sides cannot be negative,
a b c
x= , y= , z=
3 3 3
Volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that can be inscribed in the ellipsoid
 a   b   c  8abc
V = 8 xyz = 8       =
 3  3  3 3 3
example 18
Find the minimum distance from origin to the plane 3x + 2y + z = 12.
Solution
Let (x, y, z) be a point on the plane 3x + 2y + z = 12.
The distance d between (x, y, z) and origin (0, 0, 0) is
d= x2 + y 2 + z 2
d 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
Let f (x, y, z) = d 2 = x 2 + y2 + z2 ...(1)

3x + 2y + z = 12 ...(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = 3x + 2y + z – 12 = 0
( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + λ (3 x + 2 y + z − 12) = 0 ...(3)

2x + l (3) = 0
2x
λ=− ...(4)
3
2y + l (2) = 0
2y
λ=− = −y ...(5)
2
2z + l (1) = 0
l = –2z ...(6)
From Eqs (3), (4) and (5),

2x
= y = 2z
3
2x
y=
3
x
z=
3
Substituting y, z in Eq. (2),
4x x
3x + + = 12
3 3
14 x
= 12
3
18 12 6
\ x= ,y= ,z=
7 7 7
The minimum distance is
2 2 2
 18   12   6  504
d =   +  +  =
 7   7   7 7
example 19
Divide 24 into three parts such that the continued product of the first,
square of the second and cube of the third may be maximum.
Solution
Let x, y and z be three parts of 24.
Let f (x, y, z) = xy2 z3 ...(1)
Let x + y + z = 24 ...(2)
φ ( x, y, z ) = x + y + z − 24 = 0
xy2 z3 + l (x + y + z – 24) = 0 ...(3)
y2z3 + l = 0
l = – y2z3 ...(4)
2xyz3 + l = 0
l = – 2xyz3 ...(5)
3xy2z2 + l = 0
l = – 3xy2z2 ...(6)
From Eqs (4), (5), (6),
y2z3 = 2xyz3 = 3xy2z2
Dividing by xy2z3,
1 2 3
= =
x y z
y = 2 x, z = 3 x
Substituting y, z in Eq. (2)

x + 2 x + 3 x = 24
6 x = 24
x=4
∴ y = 8, z = 12
Hence, 4, 8 and 12 are three parts of 24.
example 20
A space probe in the shape of the ellipsoid 4 x 2 + y 2 + 4 z 2 = 16 enters
the earth’s atmosphere and its surface begins to heat. After 1 hour,
the temperature at the point (x, y, z) on the surface of the probe
T ( x, y, z ) = 8 x 2 + 4 yz – 16 z + 600. Find the hottest points on the
probe’s surface.
Solution
Let f ( x, y, z ) = 8 x 2 + 4 yz − 16 z + 600 …(1)
4 x 2 + y 2 + 4 z 2 = 16 …(2)
2 2 2
Let φ ( x, y, z ) = 4 x + y + 4 z − 16 = 0

(8 x 2 + 4 yz − 16 z + 600) + λ (4 x 2 + y 2 + 4 z 2 − 16) = 0 …(3)
16x + l (8x) = 0
l = –2 …(4)
4z + l(2y) = 0
2z
λ=− …(5)
y
4y – 16 + l(8z) = 0
16 − 4 y 4 − y
λ= = …(6)
8z 2z
2z
−2 = −
y
y=z …(7)

4− y
−2 =
2y
−4 y = 4 − y
−3 y = 4
4
y=−
3
4
z=−
3
16 64
4x2 + + = 16
9 9
64
4x2 =
9
16
x2 =
9
4
x=±
3
 4 4 4
The hottest points on the probe’s surface are  ± , − , − 
 3 3 3
example 21
Find the points on the surface z 2 = xy + 1 nearest to the origin.
Solution
Let (x, y, z) be any point on the surface z2 = xy + 1.
The distance d between (x, y, z) and origin (0, 0, 0) is
d= x2 + y 2 + z 2
d 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
Let f ( x, y , z ) = d 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 …(1)
z2 = xy + 1 …(2)
Let φ ( x, y, z ) = z 2 − xy − 1 = 0

(x2 + y2 + z2) + l(z2 – xy – 1) = 0 …(3)
2x – ly = 0
y
λ= …(4)
2x
2y – l x = 0
x
λ= …(5)
2y
2z + l (2z) = 0
l = –1 …(6)
From Eqs (4) and (6), y
= −1
2x
y = −2 x
x
= −1
2y
x = –2y = –2(–2x) = 4x
x=0
\ y=0
Substituting in Eq. (2)
z2 = 1
z=±1
The nearest points on the surface from the origin are (0, 0, ±1).
example 22
x2 y 2 z 2
If u = + + where x + y + z = 1 then prove that stationary value
a 3 b3 c 3
a3 b3 c3
of u is given by x = 3 3 3 , y = 3 3 3 , z = 3 3 3 .
a +b +c a +b +c a +b +c
Solution
x2 y 2 z 2
Let f ( x, y , z ) = u = + + …(1)
a 3 b3 c 3
x+y+z=1 …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = x + y + z – 1 = 0
 x2 y2 z 2 
 a 3 + b3 + c 3  + λ ( x + y + z − 1) = 0 …(3)
2x
+λ =0
a3
2x
λ=− …(4)
a3
2y
+λ =0
b3
2y
λ=− …(5)
b3
2z
+λ =0
c3
2z
λ=− …(6)
c3
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
2x 2 y 2z
= =
a 3 b3 c 3
x y z
= =
a 3 b3 c 3
b3 c3
y= x , z = x
a3 a3

b3 c3
x+ x + x =1
a3 a3
(a 3 + b3 + c 3 ) x
=1
a3
a3
x=
a 3 + b3 + c 3
b3 c3
∴ y= 3 , z =
a + b3 + c 3 a 3 + b3 + c 3
example 23
a 3 b3 c 3
If u = + + where x + y + z = 1 then find the stationary values.
x2 y 2 z 2
Solution
a 3 b3 c 3
Let f ( x, y , z ) = u = + + …(1)
x2 y 2 z 2
x+y+z=1 …(2)
Let f (x, y, z) = x + y + z – 1 = 0
 a 3 b3 c 3 
 x 2 + y 2 + z 2  + λ ( x + y + z − 1) = 0 …(3)

2a 3
− +λ =0
x3
2a 3
λ= …(4)
x3
2b3
− +λ =0
y3
2b3
λ= …(5)
y3
2c 3
− +λ =0
z3
2c 3
λ= …(6)
z3
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
2a 3 2b3 2c 3
= 3 = 3
x3 y z
a 3 b3 c 3
= =
x3 y 3 z 3
a b c
= =
x y z
b
y= x
a
c
z= x
a

b c
x+ x+ x =1
a a
(a + b + c)
x =1
a
a
x=
a+b+c
b c
∴ y= ,z=
a+b+c a+b+c
example 24
x2 y 2 z 2
Prove that the stationary values of u= 4+ 4 + 4 where
a b c
x2 y 2 z 2
lx + my + nz = 0 and + + = 1 are given by the roots of the equa-
a 2 b2 c2
l 2a 4 m 2b 4 n 2c 4
tion + + = 0.
1 − a 2u 1 − b 2u 1 − c 2u
Solution
x2 y 2 z 2
Let f ( x, y , z ) = u =
+ + …(1)
a 4 b4 c4
lx + my + nz = 0 …(2)
f (x, y, z) = lx + my + nz = 0
x2 y 2 z 2
+ + =1 …(3)
a 2 b2 c2
x2 y 2 z 2
ψ ( x, y , z ) = + + −1 = 0
a 2 b2 c2
 x2 y 2 z 2   x2 y 2 z 2 
+ +
 a 4 b 4 c 4  + λ1 (lx + my + nz ) + λ 2  2 + 2 + 2 − 1 = 0 …(4)
a b c 

2x  2x 
+ λ1l + λ 2  2  = 0 …(5)
a 4
a 

2y  2y
+ λ1m + λ 2  2  = 0 …(6)
b 4
b 
2z  2z 
+ λ1n + λ 2  2  = 0 …(7)
c 4
c 
Multiplying Eq. (5) by x, Eq. (6) by y, Eq. (7) by z and then adding,
 x2 y 2 z 2   x2 y 2 z 2 
2  4 + 4 + 4  + λ1 (lx + my + nz ) + 2λ 2  2 + 2 + 2  = 0
a b c  a b c 
2u + λ1 (0) + 2λ 2 (1) = 0
λ 2 = −u
Substituting l2 = – u in Eq. (5),

2x 2 xu
+ λ1l − 2 = 0
a4 a
1− a u
2
2x  + λ1l = 0
 a 4 
a 4 λ1l
x=−
2(1 − a 2 u )
b 4 λ1m
Similarly y=−
2(1 − b 2 u )
c 4 λ1n
z=−
2(1 − c 2 u )
Substituting x, y, z in Eq. (2),
l 2 a 4 λ1 m 2 b 4 λ1 n 2 c 4 λ1
− − − =0
2(1 − a 2 u ) 2(1 − b 2 u ) 2(1 − c 2 u )
 l 2a4 m2b4 n2c4 
 1 − a 2 u 1 − b 2 u 1 − c 2 u  λ1 = 0
+ +
But l1 π 0
l 2a4 m2b4 n2c4

∴ + + =0
1 − a 2u 1 − b2u 1 − c 2u
example 25
In a plane triangle ABC, find the extreme values of cos A cos B cos C.
[Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (A, B, C) = cos A cos B cos C …(1)
In a triangle ABC,
A + B + C = 180° …(2)
Let f (A, B, C) = A + B + C – 180°
cos A cos B cos C + l (A + B + C – 180°) = 0 …(3)
Differentiating Eq. (3) partially w.r.t. A,
– sin A cos B cos C + l = 0
l = sin A cos B cos C …(4)
Differentiating Eq. (3) partially w.r.t. B,
– cos A sin B cos C + l = 0

l = cos A sin B cos C …(5)
Differentiating Eq. (3) partially w.r.t. C,
– cos A cos B sin C + l = 0
l = cos A cos B sin C …(6)
From Eqs (4), (5) and (6),
sin A cos B cos C = cos A sin B cos C = cos A cos B sin C
Dividing by cos A cos B cos C,
tan A = tan B = tan C
p
A=B=C=
3
p p p
Hence, fmax = cos A cos B cos C = cos cos cos
3 3 3
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ 1
=Á ˜Á ˜Á ˜ =
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯ 8
exeRCIse 8.8
1. Find stationary values of the function f (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2, given that
z2 = xy + 1.
[ans. : (0, 0, −1), (0, 0, 1)]
2. Find the stationary value of a3x2 + b3y 2 + c 3z 2 subject to the fulfillment of
1 1 1
the condition + + = 1, given a, b, c are not zero.
x y z
 1 1 1 
 Ans. : x = a (a + b + c), y = b (a + b + c), z = c (a + b + c)
 
3. Find the largest product of the numbers x, y and z when x + y + z 2 = 16.
 4096 
 Ans. : 
 25 5 
4. Find the largest product of the numbers x, y and z when x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9.
 Ans. : 3 3 
 
5. Find a point in the plane x + 2y + 3z = 13 nearest to the point (1, 1, 1).
 3 5 
 Ans. :  , 2,  
 2 2 
6. Find the shortest distance from the point (1, 2, 2) to the sphere
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 36. [ans. : 3]
7. Find the maximum distance from the origin (0, 0) to the curve
3x 2 + 3y 2 + 4xy − 2 = 0.
 Ans. : 2 
 
8. Decompose a positive number a into three parts so that their product is
maximum.
  a a a 
 Ans. :  , ,  
 3 3 3 
9. Find the maximum value of x m y n z p when x + y + z = a.
 a m + n + p mm n n p p 
 Ans. : 
 (m + n + p)m + n + p 
10. Find the dimensions of a rectangular box of maximum capacity whose

surface area is given when
(i) box is open at the top (ii) box is closed
 s s 1 s s s s
 Ans. : (i) , , (ii) , , 
 3 3 2 3 6 6 6 
11. Determine the perpendicular distance of the point (a, b, c) from the
plane lx + my + nz = 0.
 la + mb + nc 
 Ans. : minimum distance 2 
 l + m2 + n2 
12. Find the length and breadth of a rectangle of maximum area that can be
inscribed in the ellipse 4x 2 + y 2 = 36.
 3 2 
 Ans. : , 2, Area = 12
 2 
13. Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that can be
inscribed in the ellipsoid of revolution 4x 2 + 4y 2 + 9z 2 = 36.
 Ans. : 16 3 
14. Find the extreme volume of x2 + y2 + z2 + xy + xz + yz subject to the

conditions x + y + z = 1 and x + 2y + 3z = 3.
 1 1 5
 Ans. : 6 , 3 , 6 
 
Points to Remember
Chain Rule
∂ z dz ∂ u df ∂ u ∂u
= or or f ′(u )
∂ x du ∂ x du ∂ x ∂x
∂ z dz ∂u df ∂ u ∂u
= or or f ′ (u )
∂ y du ∂ y du ∂ y ∂y
Composite Function of One Variable

du ∂u d x ∂u dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
du ∂u d x ∂u dy ∂u dz
= + +
Composite Function of Two Variables

∂z ∂ z ∂ x ∂z ∂y
= +
∂u ∂ x ∂ u ∂y ∂u
∂z ∂ z ∂ x ∂ z ∂ y
= +
∂v ∂ x ∂ v ∂ y ∂ v
Implicit Differentiation
∂f
dy f
= − ∂x = − x
dx ∂f fy
∂y
Gradient and Directional Derivative

Gradient
grad f = —f = iˆ + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
df = —f dr cos q
Directional Derivative
a
Da f = —f ◊ aˆ = —f ◊
a
Tangent Plane and Normal to a Surface

The equation of the tangent plane at P(x0, y0, z0) to the surface f (x, y, z) = 0 is
(x − x0) fx(x0, y0, z0) + (y − y0) fy (x0, y0, z0) + (z − z0) fz (x0, y0, z0) = 0
The equations of the normal line to the surface at P(x0, y0, z0) are
x - x0 y - y0 z - z0
= =
f x ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) f y ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) fz ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
Local Extreme Values (Maximum and Minimum Values)

To determine the maxima and minima (extreme values) of a function f (x, y)
∂f ∂f
Step 1: Solve = 0 and = 0 simultaneously for x and y.
∂x ∂y
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
Step 2: Obtain the values of r = ,s= ,t = 2 .
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y
Step 3: (i) If rt – s2 > 0 and r < 0 (or t < 0) at (a, b) then f (x, y) is maximum at (a, b) and
the maximum value of the function is f (a, b).
(ii) If rt – s2 > 0 and r > 0 (or t > 0) at (a, b) then f (x, y) is minimum at
(a, b) and the minimum value of the function is f (a, b).
(iii) If rt – s2 < 0 at (a, b) then f (x, y) is neither maximum nor minimum at (a, b).
(iv) If rt – s2 = 0 at (a, b) then no conclusion can be made about the
extreme values of f (x, y).
Method of Lagrange Multipliers

Let f (x, y, z) be a function of three variables x, y, z, and the variables be connected
by the relation
f( x, y, z ) = 0
Let f (x, y, z) + lf (x, y, z) = 0 be an auxiliary equation.
Differentiating this equation partially w.r.t x, y and z
∂f ∂f
+l =0
∂x ∂x
∂f ∂f
+l =0
∂y ∂y
∂f ∂f
+l =0
∂z ∂z
Eliminating l from these equations, the values of x, y and z are obtained for which f
(x, y, z) has a stationary (maximum and minimum) value.
multiple Choice Questions

x-y
( x , y )Æ(0,0) x+y
(a) limit does not exist (b) 0
(c) 1 (d) –1
x+ y
2. The value of lim , x π 0, y π 0 is
( x , y )Æ(0,0)
x2 + y
(a) limit does not exist (b) 0
(c) 1 (d) –1
x2 y
( x , y )Æ(0,0) x 4 + y2
1
(a) 0 (b) (c) 1 (d) does not exist
2
xy
( x , y )Æ(0,0) y - x2
2

8x2 y
x Æ1 x + y2 + 5
2
y Æ1
3 8 8 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7 5 7 5
4 xy
x Æ1 6 x + y2
2
yÆ2
4 2 3 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5 3 10 5
2 x2 + y
x Æ1 4x - y
yÆ0
3 1 5
(a) (b) (c) 1 (d)
2 2 2
2 x2 + y
xÆ0 4 x2 - y
yÆ0
1
(a) –1 (b) (c) 1 (d) does not exist
2
x 2 - xy
( x , y )Æ(0,0) x- y
x 2 - yx
( x , y )Æ(0,0) x + y
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 0 (d) –1

∂r ∂r
11. If x = r cosq, y = r sinq then = — and =—
∂x ∂y
x x y x
(a) , tan q (b) , (c) tan q, sin q (d) ,sin q
r r r r
∂u
12. If u = sin (ax + by + cz) then =
∂x
(a) a cos (ax + by + cz) (b) a sin (ax + by + cz)
(c) b cos (ax + by + cz) (d) b sin (ax + by + cz)
∂u ∂x ∂u
13. If u = x 2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x then + + =
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 1
(a) x + y + z (b) (x + y + z)2 (c) (d)
x+ y+z ( x + y + z )2
∂2 f
14. If f = x2 + y2 then =
∂x ∂y
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) –1 (d) 2
∂u
15. If u = log (x2 + y2) then =
∂x
2y 2 2x y
(a) (b) (c) (b)
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
∂u
16. If u = sin (x + y) then =
∂y
(a) sin x (b) cos(x + y) (c) tan(x + y) (d) cos x
2 2
∂ u ∂ u
17. If u = ex (x cos y – y sin y) then + =
∂x 2 ∂y 2
(a) 1 (b) –1 (c) 0 (d) 2
∂u
18. If u = xy then is
∂x
(a) 0 (b) yxy –1 (c) xy log x (d) yxy
∂u ∂u
19. If u = yx then = —— and = ——
∂x ∂y
(a) log y,yx–1 (b) yxlog x, x (c) yx, xyx–1 (d) yx log y, xyx–1
∂2 u
20. If u = x3 + y3 then =
∂x ∂y
(a) –3 (b) 3 (c) 0 (d) 1
2
∂ u
21. If u = f (x + ay) + g (x – ay) then is
∂y 2
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
(a) (b) a (c) a 2 (d)
∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x ∂y
4 4 4 ∂u ∂u ∂u
22. If u = ( x - y) + ( y - z ) + ( z - x ) then + + is
∂x ∂y ∂z
(a) 1 (b) u (c) 4u (d) 0
–1
23. If u = tan (x + y) then ux – uy is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) sin x cos y
–1
24. If f = log (x tan y) then fxy is equal to
1 1 1
(a) - 2 (b) 0 (c) 2
(d)
x x x
∂z
25. If z = x2 – y2 then = [Winter 2014]
∂x
(a) 2y (b) 0 (c) 2z (d) 2x
3 cos ( xw) sin y 5 ∂f

26. If f(x, y, z, w) = 2
+ 5 xzw then at (1,2,3, 4) is
(1 + y ) ∂z
ey +
xy w [Winter 2015]
(a) 20 (b) 200 (c) 0 (d) 1
27. If z = f(x,y), dz is equal to
Ê ∂f ˆ Ê ∂f ˆ Ê ∂f ˆ Ê ∂f ˆ
(a) Á ˜ dx + Á ˜ dy (b) Á ˜ dx + Á ˜ dy
Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂y ¯ ∂
Ë ¯ y Ë ∂x ¯
Ê ∂f ˆ Ê ∂f ˆ Ê ∂f ˆ Ê ∂f ˆ
(c) Á ˜ dx - Á ˜ dy (d) Á ˜ dx - Á ˜ dy
Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ∂y ¯ Ë ∂y ¯ Ë ∂x ¯
dy
28. For an implicit function f(x,y) = c, the value of is [Summer 2017, 2015]
dx
fx fy fx fy
(a) (b) (c) - (d) -
fy fx fy fx
dy
29. If x 3 + y3 + 3 xy = 0 then =
dx
x2 - y x2 + y x2 + y x2 + y
(a) 2
(b) - (c) 2
(d)
y -x y2 + x x -y x-y
du
30. If u = sin ( xy 2 ), x = log t , y = et then =
dt
Ê1 ˆ
(a) y 2 Á + 2 x ˜ cos xy 2 (b) 0
Ët ¯
(c) 1 (d) –1
∂f
31. If f is a function of u, v, w and u, v, w are functions of x, y, z then is
∂y
∂f ∂u ∂f ∂v ∂f ∂w ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂f ∂z
(a) ◊ + ◊ + ◊ (b) ◊ + ◊ + ◊
∂u ∂z ∂v ∂z ∂w ∂z ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂u ∂z ∂u
∂f ∂u ∂f ∂v ∂f ∂w ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂f ∂z
(c) ◊ + ◊ + ◊ (d) ◊ + ◊ + ◊
∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y ∂w ∂y ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂z ∂v
∂x
32. If u = x 2 - y 2 , v = xy then is
∂u
x y y x
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2
2( x + y ) 2 2
2( x + y ) 2 2
x +y 2 x + y2
2
2
xy
33. If f ( x, y) = e , the total differential of the function at the point (1,2) is
(a) e(dx + dy) (b) e4 (dx + dy) (c) e4 (4dx + dy) (d) 4e4 (dx + dy)
2 2
34. If f (x, y) = x + y + 3, the minimum value of f(x, y) is
(a) 3 (b) • (c) 0 (d) 1
35. The stationary points of x3 + y3 – 3axy are
(a) (0, 0), (a, a) (b) (0, 0), (a, 0) (c) (a, 0), (0, – a) (d) (0, a), (a, 0)
36. If f(x,y) = xy + (x – y), the stationary points are
(a) (0, 0) (b) (1, –1) (c) (1, 2) (d) (1, –2)
37. The stationary points of x4 + y4 – 2x2 + 4xy – 2y2 are
(a) ( 2, 2 ) (b) ( - 2, - 2 ) (c) ( 2, - 2 ) (d) (0, 2 )
38. In a plane triangle ABC, the maximum value of cos A cos B cos C is
1 3 3
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d)
8 8 8
39. For the function f(x,y) = x2 + y2 + 6x + 12, minima occurs at
(a) (0, 3) (b) (–3, 0) (c) (3, 0) (d) (0, –3)
40. The function f(x, y) = 2x2 + 2xy – y3 has
(a) only one stationary point at (0, 0)
Ê 1 1ˆ
(b) two stationary points at (0, 0) and Á , - ˜
Ë 6 3¯
(c) two stationary points at (0, 0) and (1, –1)
(d) no stationary points
1 18
41. The function z = 5 xy - 4 x 2 + y 2 - 2 x - y + 5 has at x = ,y =
41 41
(a) maxima (b) saddle point (c) minima (d) no conclusion
42. With usual notations, the properties of maxima and minima under various
conditions are
I II
(P) Maxima (i) rt – s2 = 0
(Q) Minima (ii) rt – s2 < 0
(R) Saddle Point (iii) rt – s2 > 0, r > 0
(S) Failure Case (iv) rt – s2 > 0, r < 0
(a) P – i, Q – iii, R – iv, S – ii (b) P – ii Q – i, R – iii, S – iv
(c) P–iv, Q – iii, R–ii, S – i (d) P – iv, Q – ii, R – i, S – iii
43. The minimum value of f(x,y) = x2y2 is [Winter 2015]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) no conclusion
44. The sum of the squares of two positive numbers is 200, their minimum product
is
(a) 200 (b) 25 7 (c) 28 (d) 0
45. The minimum value of x2 + y2 + z2 given that xy + yz + zx = 3a2 is

1 2
(a) 3a (b) 4a2 (c) a (d) 3a2
3
46. For the auxiliary equation F ( x, y, z ) = f ( x, y, z ) + lf ( x, y, z ) = 0, the Lagrange’s
equations are [Winter 2014]
∂F ∂F ∂F ∂f ∂f ∂f
(a) = 0, = 0, =0 (b) = 0, = 0, =0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
(c) = 0, = 0, =0 (d) = 0, = 0, =0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂f ∂z
47. The equation of the tangent plane of z = x at (2, 0, 2) is
(a) z = x (b) x + y + z = 2 (c) z + x = 0 (d) x + y = 2
48. A point (a, b) is said to be saddle point if at (a, b) [Summer 2016]
2 2 2 2
(a) rt – s > 0 (b) rt – s = 0 (c) rt – s < 0 (d) rt – s ≥ 0
49. The minimum value of f(x, y) = x2 + y2 is [Winter 2016]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 0
answers
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (d)
10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (b)
19. (d) 20. (c) 21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (a)
28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (a) 31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (b)
37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (b) 41. (b) 42. (c) 43. (d) 44. (d) 45. (d)
46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (b) 49. (d)
UNIT-5
Chapter 9. Multiple Integrals

CHAPTER
Multiple
9
Integrals
Chapter Outline
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Double Integrals
9.3 Change of Order of Integration
9.4 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates
9.5 Multiple Integrals by Substitution
9.6 Triple Integrals
9.7 Area by Double Integrals
9.1 IntroductIon
Integration of functions of two or more variables is normally called multiple
integration. The particular case of integration of functions of two variables is called
double integration and that of three variables is called triple integration. Sometimes,
we have to change the variables to simplify the integrand while evaluating the multiple
integrals. Variables can be changed by substitution or by changing the coordinate
system (polar, spherical or cylindrical coordinates). Multiple integrals are useful in
evaluating plane area, mass of a lamina, mass and volume of solid regions, etc.
9.2 double Integrals
Let f (x, y) be a continuous function defined in a closed and bounded region R in

the xy-plane. Divide the region R into small elementary rectangles by drawing lines
parallel to coordinate axes. Let the total number of complete rectangles which lie
inside the region R be n. Let dAr be the area of rth rectangle and (xr, yr) be any point
in this rectangle.
9.2 Chapter 9 Multiple Integrals
n
Consider the sum S = ∑ f ( xr , yr )δ Ar …(1)
r =1
where d Ar = d xr◊d yr
If we increase the number of elementary rectangles y
then the area of each rectangle decreases. Hence, as dAr
n Æ •, d Ar Æ 0. The limit of the sum given by the
Eq. (1), if it exists, is called the double integral of f
(x, y) over the region R and is denoted by
∫∫ f ( x, y)d A.
R
O x
Fig. 9.1
n
Hence, ∫∫ f ( x, y)d A = lim ∑ f ( x , y )δ A
R
n→∞
δ Ar →0 r =1
r r r
where d A = d x dy
9.2.1 Double Integrals over Rectangles and General Regions

Double integral of a function f (x, y) over a region R can be evaluated by two successive
integrations. There are two different methods
to evaluate a double integral. y
Method-I Let the region R, i.e., PQRS be

y = y2 (x)
bounded by the curves y = y1 (x), y = y2 (x) B R
S
and the lines x = a, x = b.
In the region PQRS, draw a vertical strip AB.
x=a x=b
Along the strip AB, y varies from y1 to y2 and
x is fixed. Therefore, the double integral is
integrated first w.r.t. y between the limits y1 P
and y2 treating x as constant. A Q
y = y1 (x)
Now, move the strip AB horizontally from O x
PS (i.e., x = a) to QR (i.e., x = b) to cover
the entire region PQRS. The result of the Fig. 9.2
first integral is integrated w.r.t. x between the
limits a and b. Hence,
∫∫ f ( x, y)d x dy = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dy  d x

b y2 ( x )
R
a y1 ( x ) 
Method-II Let the region R, i.e., PQRS be bounded by the curves x = x1( y), x = x2( y)
and the lines y = c, y = d.
In the region PQRS, draw a horizontal strip y

AB. Along the strip AB, x varies from x1 to x2
and y is fixed. Therefore, the double integral
is integrated first w.r.t. x between the limits x1
and x2 treating y as constant.
S y=d R
Now, move the strip AB vertically from PQ
(i.e., y = c) to RS (i.e., y = d ) to cover the A B
entire region PQRS. The result of the first x =x1(y ) x = x2 (y)
integral is integrated w.r.t. y between the P y=c Q
limits c and d.
Hence,
O x
f ( x, y )d x dy = ∫  ∫ f ( x, y )d x dy
d x2 ( y )
∫∫
R
c  x1 ( y )  Fig. 9.3
Note:
(i) If all the four limits are constant then region of integration R is a rectangle. In this
case, the function f(x,y) can be integrated w.r.t. any variable first.
(ii) If all the four limits are constant and f (x, y) is explicit then double integral can be
written as product of two single integrals.
(iii) If inner limits depends on x then the function f (x, y) is integrated first w.r.t. y and
vice-versa.
9.2.2 Properties of Double Integrals

Various properties of double integrals are analogous to those for single integrals. For f
and g continuous in region R with k as rational number,
(i) ∫∫ R
( f + g ) dxdy = ∫∫ f dxdy + ∫∫ g dxdy
R R
(ii) ∫∫ R
k f dxdy = k ∫∫ f dxdy , where k is a constant.
R
For f continuous in region R, where R = R1 » R2 where R1 and R2 are non-overlapping

regions whose union is R:
(iii) ∫∫ R
f dxdy = ∫∫ f dxdy + ∫∫ f dxdy
R1 R2
9.2.3 Double Integrals as Volumes

If z = f (x, y) ≥ 0 represents a surface and R is a rectangle in the xy-plane, then the
double integral of f (x, y) over R,
∫∫ R
f ( x, y ) dxdy
represents the volume of the solid under the surface z = f(x, y) and above the
region R.
Example 1
3 1
∫ ∫ (x + 3 y 2 )dy d x.
2
Evaluate
0 0
Solution
3 1 3
∫ ∫ (x + 3 y 2 )dy d x = ∫ x 2 y + y 3 0 d x
2 1
0 0 0
3
= ∫ ( x 2 + 1)d x
0
3
x3
= +x
3 0
= 12
Example 2
1 2
Evaluate ∫∫
0 0
( x 2 + y 2 )dy d x.
Solution 2
1 2 1 y3
∫∫ 0 0
( x 2 + y 2 ) dy d x = ∫ x 2 y +
0 3 0
dx
1 8
= ∫  2x2 +  dx
0 3
1
2 x3 8 x
= +
3 3 0
10
=
3
Example 3
1 2 2
Evaluate Ú-1 Ú0 (1 - 6 x y) dx dy . [Winter 2016]
Solution
y) dx dy = Ú ÈÍ Ú (1 - 6 x 2 y) dx ˘˙ dy
1 2 1 2
Ú-1 Ú0 (1 - 6 x
2
-1 Î 0 ˚
2
1 x3
=Ú x - 6y ◊ dy
-1 3
0
1 2
=Ú x - 2 yx 3 dy
-1 0
1
= Ú (2 - 16 y) dy
-1
1
= 2 Ú 2 dy
0
=4
Example 4
a b d x dy
Evaluate ∫∫
2 2 xy
.
Solution
a b d x dy a Ê b d x ˆ dy a b 1
Ú2 Ú2 xy
= Ú ÁÚ ˜
2 Ë 2 x ¯ y
= Ú log x 2 dy
2 y
a 1
= (log b - log 2)Ú dy
2 y
Ê bˆ a
= log Á ˜ log y 2
Ë 2¯
Ê bˆ
= log Á ˜ (log a - log 2)
Ë 2¯
Ê bˆ Ê aˆ
= log Á ˜ log Á ˜
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯
Another method: Since both the limits are constant and integrand (function) is
explicit in x and y, the integral can be written as
a b d x dy a dy b d x
Ú2 Ú2 xy
=Ú
2 y Ú2 x
a b
= log y 2 log x 2
= (log a - log 2)(log b - logg 2)
 a  b
= log   ⋅ log  
 2  2
 b  a
= log   ⋅ log  
 2  2
Example 5
1 2
Evaluate ∫∫
0 1
xy d y d x.
Solution
∫∫
1
0 1
2
xy dy dx = ∫
1
0 { ∫ y dy } x d x
2
1
2
1 y2
=∫ x dx
0 2 1
1 4 1
= ∫  −  x dx
02 2
1
3 x2
=
2 2 0
3 1
= ⋅
2 2
3
=
4
explicit in x and y, the integral can be written as
1 2 1 2
∫∫
0 1
xy dy d x = ∫ x d x ⋅ ∫ y dy
0 1
2 1 2 2
x y
=
2 0
2 1
1  4 1
=  − 
2  2 2
3
=
4
Example 6
1
∫∫
x
Evaluate dy d x.
0 0
Solution x
1 1
∫∫ dy d x = ∫ y d x
x
0 0 0 0
1
= ∫ x dx
0
1
x2
=
2 0
1
=
2
Example 7
y
1
∫∫
x
Evaluate e dy d x.
x
0 0
Solution y
1 1 y x
∫∫ e x dyd x = ∫
x
dx
0 0 0 xe x 0
1
= ∫ x(e − 1)dx
0
1
x2
= (e − 1)
2 0
1
= (e − 1)
2
Example 8
1 x2
Evaluate ∫∫
0 x
xy dy dx.
Solution
∫∫ 0
1 x2
x
xy dy dx = ∫
1
0 { ∫
x2
2
}
y dy x dx
2 x
1 y
=∫ x dx
0 2 x
1 1 2 2
2 ∫0 
= ( x ) − x 2  x dx
1 1
= ∫ ( x 5 − x 3 ) dx
2 0
1
1 x6 x4
= −
2 6 4 0
1  1 1
=  − 
2  6 4
1
=−
24
Example 9
1 1+ x 2 dx d y
Evaluate ∫∫
0 0 1 + x2 + y 2
.
Solution
1+ x 2
 1+ x2 dy  1
∫0 ∫0 ( 1 + x 2 )2 + y 2  dx = ∫0 1 + x 2 tan 1 + x 2
1 1 −1 y
dx
  0
1 1
=∫ (tan −1 1 − tan −1 0)dx
0
1+ x 2
1 1 π
=∫ ⋅ dx
0
1+ x 2 4
π
= log ( x + 1 + x 2 )
1
4 0
π
= log (1 + 2 )
4
Example 10
1− y 2
1 dxdy
Evaluate ∫∫
0 0
2
1 − x2 − y 2
.
Solution
1
1− y 2
dx dy  1− y 2
1 dx 
∫∫
0 0
2
1 − x2 − y 2
= ∫ ∫ 2
0
 0
 dy
(1 − y 2 ) − x 2 
1− y 2
x 2
1 −1
= ∫ sin dy
0 1 − y2 0
1 1 
= ∫  sin −1 − sin −1 0 dy
0 
2
π 1
= y0
4
π
=
4
Example 11
y
4 x 3
Sketch the region of integration and evaluate Ú1 Ú0 2
e x dy dx .
[Summer 2017]
Solution
1. Since the inner limits depend on x, the function is integrated first w.r.t. y and then
w.r.t. x.
2. Limits of y: y = 0 to y = x
Limits of x: x = 1 to x=4
3. The region is bounded by the line x = 1, y = 0, x = 4 and parabola y2 = x.
4. The points of intersection of y2 = x and x = 1, x = 4 are (1, 1) (4, 2).
3 ÈÍ x ˘
y y y
4 3 4 y2 = 4
dy ˙ dx
x
Ú1 Ú0 2
e x
dy dx = Ú
1 2 Í Ú0
e x
˙
Î ˚ B
(4, 2)
(1, 1)
x
y
4 3 e x
=Ú dx A
x
1 2 1/ x O
x=1
0
x=4
x
4
4 3
=Ú x e x
dx
1 2
0
Fig. 9.4
4 3
=Ú x (e - 1)dx
1 2
3 4
= (e - 1) Ú x dx
2 1
4
3
3 x2
= (e - 1)
2 3
2 1
4
3
3 2
= (e - 1) ◊ x 2
2 3
1
= (e - 1) ÈÍ 2 ˘
3
Î - 1˙˚
4
3
2◊
= (e - 1) [2 2 - 1]
3
= [e – 1] [2 – 1]
= (e – 1) [8 – 1]
= 7(e – 1)
ExERCIsE 9.1
Evaluate the following integrals:
2 2−y
1. ∫∫1 − 2−y
2 x 2 y 2 dx dy
 856 
 Ans. : 945 
1 y
2. ∫∫0 0
xy e x −2 dx dy
 1
 Ans. : 4e 
1 x
3. ∫∫0 0
e x + y d x dy
 1 2
 Ans. : 2 (e − 1) 
1
1
4. ∫ ∫
10 0
y
ye xy dx dy
[Ans. : 9(1 – e)]
log 8 log y
5. ∫ ∫
1 0
e x + y d x dy
[Ans. : 8(log 8 – 1)]
1 y
6. ∫∫0 y2
(1 + xy 2 )dx dy
 41 
 Ans. : 210 
2a 2 ax − x 2
7. ∫ ∫
0 0
xy dy dx
 2a 4 
 Ans. : 
 3 
9.2.4 Working Rule for Evaluation of Double Integrals

Over a General Region
1. If the region is bounded by more than one curve then find the points of intersection
of all the curves.
2. Draw all the curves and mark their point of intersection.
3. Identify the region of integration.
4. Draw a vertical or horizontal strip in the region whichever makes the integration easier.
5. The vertical strip starts from the lowest part of the region and terminates on the
highest part of the region.
6. For vertical strip: (i) The lower limit of y is obtained from the curve where the
vertical strip starts and the upper limit of y is obtained from the curve where it
terminates.
(ii) The lower limit of x is obtained from the leftmost point of the region and the
upper limit of x is obtained from the rightmost point of the region.
7. The horizontal strip starts from the left part of the region and terminates on the right
part of the region.
8. For horizontal strip: (i) The lower limit of x is obtained from the curve where the
horizontal strip starts and upper limit is obtained from the curve where it terminates.
(ii) The lower limit of y is obtained from the lowest point of the region and the
upper limit of y is obtained from the highest point of the region.
9. If variation along the strip changes within the region then the region is divided into
parts.
Example 1
∫∫ e
ax + by
Evaluate dx dy, over the triangle bounded by x = 0, y = 0, ax + by = 1.
Solution
1. The region of integration is the DOPQ.
2. The integration can be done w.r.t. any variable first. Draw a vertical strip AB paral-
lel to y-axis which starts from x-axis and terminates on the line ax + by = 1.
1 − ax
3. Limits of y : y = 0 to y=
b
1
Limits of x : x = 0 to x=
a
1 1− ax y
I= ∫a∫ b
e ax + by dx dy
0 0
1 1− ax
= ∫ e ax ∫
a b
eby dy dx Q (0, 1 )
0 0 b
1− ax
1
eby b ax + by = 1
=∫ e a ax
0
b 0 B
1 1
= ∫ a e ax [ e(1− ax ) − 1] dx
b 0 1 , 0)
P (a
1
1 A
b ∫0
O x
= (e − e ax )dx
a
1 Fig. 9.5
1 e ax a
= ex −
b a 0
1  e e 1
=  − + 
b  a a a
1
=
ab
Example 2
xy
Evaluate ∫∫ 1 − y2
dx dy over the first quadrant of the circle x2 + y2 = 1.
Solution
1. The region of integration is OPQ. y
2. The integration can be done w.r.t any
variable first. Draw a vertical strip AB Q (0, 1)
parallel to y-axis which starts from x-axis
and terminates on the circle x2 + y 2 = 1. B
3. Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 − x2 x2 + y2 = 1
Limits of x : x = 0 to x=1
1 1− x 2 xy
I=∫ ∫ dx dy
0 0
1 − y2 P (1, 0)
1 A x
1 1− x 2 1 − O
= ∫ x∫ − (1 − y 2 ) ( −2 y )dy dx
2
0 0 2 Fig. 9.6
1− x 2
[ f ( x)]n +1 
1
1 1 
2 ∫0  ∫
=− x 2(1 − y ) 2 2
0
dx Q [ f ( x )]n
f ′ ( x ) d x = 
 n +1 
1 1
= − ∫ 2 x( x − 1)dx
2 0
1
x3 x 2
=− −
3 2 0
 1 1
= − − 
 3 2
1
=
6
Example 3
∫ ∫ (a − x) dx dy, over the right half of the circle x + y
2 2 2
Evaluate = a2.
Solution
1. The region of integration is PQR.
2. The integration can be done w.r.t. any variable first. Draw a vertical strip AB
parallel to y-axis which starts from the part of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 below
x-axis and terminates on the part of the y
circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 above x-axis.
3. Limits of
y : y = − a2 − x2 to y = a2 − x2
R
Limits of x : x = 0 to x=a B
2 2
x 2 + y 2 = a2
a −x
I=∫ ∫
a
(a − x) dx dy 2
0 − a2 − x2
a2 − x2
= ∫ (a − x) 2 ∫
a
dy d x Q (a, 0)
0 − a2 − x2
O x
a2 − x2
= ∫ (a − x) 2 y −
a
2
a −x 2 dx
0
= ∫ (a 2 + x 2 − 2ax) ⋅ 2 a 2 − x 2 dx
a
0
A
= 2∫ (a 2 + x 2 − 2ax) a 2 − x 2 dx
a
P
0
Putting x = a sin θ , dx = a cos θ dθ

When x = 0, θ=0
π
When x = a, θ= Fig. 9.7
2
p
I = 2∫ 2 (a 2 + a 2 sin 2 q − 2a 2 sin q ) ⋅ a cos q ⋅ a cos q dq
0
p
= 2a 4 ∫ 2 (cos 2 q + sin 2 q cos 2 q − 2 sin q cos 2 q )dq
0
È 3 1 3 3 3˘ È p ˘
Í 1 ˙ ÍQ 2 Ú 2 sin p q cosq q dq ˙
= a4 Í 2 2 + 2 2 - 2 2 ˙ Í 0
˙
Í 2 3 5 ˙ Í Ê p + 1 q + 1ˆ ˙
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚ Í = B ÁË , ˙
Í 2 2 ˜¯ ˙
È Ê 1 1ˆ
2 ˘ Í p +1 q +1 ˙
Í1 1 1 3 ˙ Í ˙
Í Á 2 2˜ ˙
Ë ¯ Í = 2 2 ˙
= a4 Í 2 2 2 + -2 2 ˙ Í p+q+2 ˙
Í 1 2! 3 3˙ Í ˙
Í 2 2˙ Î 2 ˚
ÍÎ ˙˚
Èp p 4 ˘
= a4 Í + - ˙
Î2 8 3˚
È 5p 4 ˘
= a4 Í - ˙
Î 8 3˚
Example 4
n
 x2 y 2  2
Evaluate ∫ ∫ xy  2 + 2  dx dy, over the first quadrant of the ellipse
a b 
x2 y 2 y
+ = 1.
a 2 b2
Solution
1. The region of integration is OPQ.
2. The integration can be done w.r.t any Q (0, b)
variable first. Draw a vertical strip AB par- B
x2 y2
+ =1
allel to y-axis which starts from x-axis and a2 b2
x2 y 2
terminates on the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1.
a b P (a, 0)
2 O A x
x
3. Limits of y : y = 0 to y = b 1−
a2 Fig. 9.8
Limits of x : x = 0 to x=a
n
x2
a b 1−  x2 y2  2
I=∫ ∫ a2 xy  2 + 2  dx dy
0 0 a b 
n
x2
a b 1− b2  x2 y2  2 2 y
= ∫ x∫  2 + 2  2 dy dx
2
a
0 0 2 a b b
x2
n b 1− 2
+1 a
b2 a 1  x2 y2  2
 [ f ( y )]n +1 
= ∫ x n   2 + 2  dx Q ∫ [ f ( y )] f ′( y ) dy =
n

2 a b  n +1 
 + 1
0
2 0
a
b2 x2 1 xn+ 4
= − n+ 2 ⋅
n+2 2 a n+4 0
b2 a 2 1 an+ 4
= − n+ 2 ⋅
n+2 2 a n+4
2 2
ab ( n + 2)
= ⋅
( n + 2) 2 ( n + 4 )
a 2b2
=
2( n + 4 )
Example 5
∫ ∫ (x + y 2 )dx dy over the ellipse 2x2 + y2 = 1.
2
Evaluate
Solution
x2 y2
1. The region of integration is PQRS, the ellipse 2 x 2 + y 2 = 1 or 2
+ =1
 1  12
 
2
1
with and 1 as its axes.
2 y
2. The integration can be done w.r.t any vari- Q (0, 1)
able first. Draw a vertical strip AB paral- B
lel to y-axis which starts from the part
of the ellipse 2 x 2 + y 2 = 1 below x-axis 2x 2 + y 2 = 1
and terminates on the part of the ellipse
2 x 2 + y 2 = 1 above x-axis. R P
x
3. Limits of − 1, 0 O
(√2 ) (√21 , 0)
y : y = − 1 − 2x2 to y = 1 − 2x2
1 1
Limits of x : x = − to x =
2 2
1 2 S (0, −1) A
1− 2 x
I=∫ 2
1 ∫ 2
( x 2 + y 2 ) dy dx
− − 1− 2 x
2
Fig. 9.9
1 1− 2 x 2
y3
=∫ 2
1 x2 y + dx
− 3
2 − 1− 2 x 2
1
 1 3

=∫ 2
1 2  x 2 1 − 2 x 2 + (1 − 2 x 2 ) 2  dx
− 3
2  
1
 2 3

= 4∫ 2 2 1
 x 1 − 2x + 3 1 − 2x
2
( ) 2
 dx
0
 
t 1
Putting 2 x 2 = t , x = , dx = dt
2 2 2 t
When x = 0, t = 0
1
x= , t =1
2
1 t  1
3
1
I = 4∫  1 − t + (1 − t ) 2  dt
0 2 3
 2 2 t
11 
1 1
1 −1 3
= 2 ∫  t 2 (1 − t ) 2 + t 2 (1 − t ) 2  dt
0 2 3
 
 1  3 3 1  1 5 
= 2  B ,  + B , 
 2  2 2 3  2 2 
 3 3 1 5
1 1 
= 2 ⋅ 2 2 + ⋅ 2 2
2 3 3 3 
 
  1 1 2 
  
1 3 1 1
⋅ ⋅
 1  2 2 1 
= 2 ⋅ + ⋅ 2 2 2 2
2 2 3 2 
 
 
1 p p 
= 2 ⋅ + 
4 4 8 
3 2p
=
16
Example 6
∫ ∫ (x − y 2 )dx dy over the triangle with the vertices (0, 1),
2
Evaluate
(1, 1), (1, 2).
Solution
1. The region of integration is DPQR.
2. Equation of the line PQ is y = 1.
Equation of the line PR is
2 −1
y −1 = ( x − 0) = x
1− 0
y = x +1
3. The integration can be done w.r.t. any variable first. Draw a vertical strip AB parallel
to y-axis which starts from the line y = 1 and terminates on the line y = x + 1.
4. Limits of y : y = 1 to y = x + 1
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 1 y
1 x +1
R (1, 2)
I=∫ ∫ ( x 2 − y 2 )dy dx
0 1 B
1 3 x +1 +1
= ∫ x2 y −
y x
dx y=
0
3 1
P (0, 1) Q (1, 1)
A y=1

1 ( x + 1)3 1
= ∫  x 2 ( x + 1) − − x 2 +  dx
0
 3 3
1
x 4 x 3 ( x + 1) 4 x 3 x
= + − − +
4 3 12 3 30 O x
1 1 16 1 Fig. 9.10
= + − +
4 3 12 12
2
=−
3
Example 7
∫∫e
y2
Evaluate dx dy over the region bounded by the triangle with vertices
(0, 0), (2, 1), (0, 1).
Solution
1. The region of integration is DOPQ. y
2. Equation of the line OQ is
x
y = or x = 2 y.
2
3. Here, it is easier to integrate w.r.t.
x first than y. Draw a horizontal P (0, 1) Q (2, 1)
strip AB parallel to x-axis which
starts from y-axis and terminates A B
on the line x = 2y. =2
y
x
4. Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 2y
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 O x
1 2y
I=∫ ∫
y2
e dxdy
0 0
1 2y
Fig. 9.11
= ∫ ey ∫
2
dx dy
0 0
1
= ∫ e y x 02 y dy
2
0
1
= ∫ e y ⋅ 2 y dy
2
0
Q e f ( y ) f ′ ( y )dy = e f ( y ) 
 ∫
1
= e y2 0 
= e −1
Example 8
2 xy 5
Evaluate ∫∫
1 + x2 y 2 − y 4
dx dy over the triangle having vertices
(0, 0), (1, 1) and (0, 1).

Solution
y
1. The region of integration is the DOPQ.
2. Equation of the line OP is y = x.
3. Here, it is easier to integrate w.r.t. x f irst than
with y. Draw a horizontal strip AB parallel
Q (0, 1)
to x-axis which starts from y-axis and termi- P (1, 1)
nates on the line y = x. x
4. Limits of x : x = 0 to x = y y
=
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 A B
5
1 y 2 xy
I=Ú Ú dx dy
0 0
1 + x 2 y2 - y 4 O x
1
1 y -
= Ú y3 Ú (1 + x 2 y 2 - y4 ) 2 ◊ 2 xy 2 dx dy
0 0 Fig. 9.12
y
1
1 È [ f ( x )]n +1 ˘
= Ú y3 2(1 + x 2 y 2 - y 4 ) 2 0 dy ÍQ Ú [ f ( x )] f ¢( x )dx =
n
˙
0
Î n +1 ˚
1 È 1˘
= Ú y3 ◊ 2 ÎÍ1 - (1 - y 4 ) 2 ˚˙ dy
0
1
1 1
= Ú 2 y3 dy - 2Ú (1 - y 4 ) 2 y3 dy
0 0
1 1
4 1 ( -4 y3 )
=2 y - 2Ú (1 - y 4 ) 2 dy
4 0
0 -4
1
1 1 3
È [ f ( x )]n +1 ˘
= + 2 (1 - y 4 ) 2 ÍQ Ú [ f ( x )] f ¢( x )d x =
n
˙
2 2 3 0 Î n +1 ˚
1 1
= -
2 3
1
=
6
Example 9
Evaluate ∫ ∫ ( x 2 + y 2 )dx dy over the region bounded by the lines
y = 4x, x + y = 3, y = 0, y = 2.
Solution
y
1. The region of integration is OPQR.
2. The integration can be done w.r.t. any
variable first. But in case of vertical strip y = 4x
we need to divide the region into three
parts. Therefore, draw a horizontal strip
AB parallel to x-axis which starts from R Q y=2
the line y = 4x and terminates on the line
x + y = 3. A B
x+y=3
y
3. Limits of x : x = to x=3–y
4 O P x
Limits of y : y = 0 to y=2
2 3- y 2
I=Ú Ú
y (x + y 2 )dx dy Fig. 9.13
0
4
3- y
2 x3
=Ú + xy 2 dy
0 3 y
4
2 È (3 - y ) 1 y3 y3 ˘
3
=Ú Í + (3 - y) y 2 - ◊ - ˙ dy
0
ÍÎ 3 3 64 4 ˙˚
2 È (3 - y ) 241 3 ˘
3
=Ú Í + 3 y2 - y ˙ dy
0
ÍÎ 3 192 ˙˚
2
1 (3 - y)4 y3 241 y 4
= ◊ + 3◊ - ◊
3 -4 3 192 4
0
1 241 Ê 27 ˆ
=- +8- ◊4 - Á- ˜
12 192 Ë 4¯
463
=
48
Example 10
Evaluate Ú Ú ( x + y)dy dx, where R is the region bounded by x = 0, x = 2,
R
y = x, y = x + 2. [Summer 2016]
Solution
1. The region of integration is
OPQR. y
Q
(2, 4)
2. The point of intersection of x = 2 2
and y = x + 2 is obtained as y = 4. x+
y=
The point of intersection is (2, 4). (2, 2)
R P
)
3. The integration can be done w.r.t.
x=0 ,2
(0 x x=2
any variable first. Draw a vertical y=
strip AB parallel to y-axis which O x
starts from the line y = x and termi- (–2, 0)
nates on the line y = x + 2.
Fig. 9.14
4. Limits of y: y = x to y = x + 2
Limits of x: x = 0 to x = 2
2
x+2
I = ÚÚ ( x + y) dy dx
x
0
2
= Ú ÈÍ Ú ( x + y) dy ˘˙ dx
x+2
0
Î x ˚
2 x+2
y2
=Ú xy + dx
0
2
x
2
È 1 x2 ˘
= Ú Í x( x + 2) + ( x + 2)2 - x 2 - ˙ dx
0ÎÍ 2 2 ˙˚
2
È x2 x2 ˘
= Ú Í x2 + 2 x + + 2 x + 2 - x 2 - ˙ dx
0ÎÍ 2 2 ˚˙
2
= Ú [4 x + 2] dx
0
2
x2
= 4 + 2x
2
0
2
= 2 x2 + 2 x
0
= 8+4-0
= 12
Example 11
ÚÚ (2 x - y
2
) dA over the triangular region R enclosed between the lines
R
y = –x + 1, y = x + 1 and y = 3. [Summer 2015]
Solution
1. The region of integration is DPQR.
2. The points of intersection of
(i) y = –x + 1 and y = x + 1 is
obtained as
–x + 1 = x + 1
2x = 0, x = 0
y=1
The points of intersection
is P(0, 1).
(ii) y = x + 1 and y = 3 is
obtained as
3=x+1
x = 2, y = 3
is Q(2, 3). Fig. 9.15
(iii) y = –x + 1 and y = 3 is obtained as
3 = –x + 1
x = –2, y = 3
The points of intersection is R(–2, 3).
3. The integration can be done w.r.t. any variable first. But in case of vertical strip,
we need to divide the region into two parts. Therefore, draw a horizontal strip AB
parallel to x-axis which starts from the line y = –x + 1 and terminates on the line
y = x + 1.
4. Limits of x : x = 1 – y to x = y – 1
Limits of y : y = 1 to y = 3
3 y -1
I=Ú Ú (2 x - y 2 ) d A
1 1- y
3 y -1
=Ú Ú (2 x - y 2 ) dx dy
1 1- y
3 y -1
= Ú x 2 - xy 2 dy
1 1- y
3
= Ú ÈÎ( y - 1)2 - y 2 ( y - 1) - (1 - y)2 + y 2 (1 - y)˘˚ dy
1
3
= Ú ÈÎ( y - 1)2 - (1 - y)2 - 2 y3 + 2 y 2 ˘˚ dy
1
3
( y - 1)3 (1 - y)3 y4 y3
= - -2 +2
3 -3 4 3
1
È 8 8 81 54 1 2 ˘
=Í - - + + -
Î3 3 2 3 2 3 ˙˚
68
=-
3
Example 12
y dx dy
Evaluate ∫ ∫ (a − x) ax − y 2
over the region bounded by the parabola
y 2 = x and the line y = x.

Solution
y
2. The points of intersection of y2 = x and
y = x are obtained as y2 = x
B
P (1, 1)
x2 = x
x( x - 1) = 0 Q A
x = 0, 1 x
y=
\ y = 0, 1
The points of intersection are O (0, 0) and O x
P (1, 1).
3. Here, it is easier to integrate w.r.t. y first
than x. Draw a vertical strip AB parallel to
y-axis, which starts from the line y = x and
terminates on the parabola y2 = x.
4. Limits of y : y = x to y= x
Limits of x : x = 0 to x=1 Fig. 9.16
1 x y dx dy
I=Ú
0 Úx
(a - x ) ax - y 2
1
1 1 x Ê 1ˆ -
=Ú
0 (a - x ) Úx Ë 2 ¯
2
Á - ˜ (ax - y ) 2 ( -2 y)dy dx
1 1 1 1
x
È [ f ( y)]n +1 ˘
=- Ú
2 (a - x )
0 2( ax - y 2 2
) x
dx ÍQ Ú [ f ( y)] f ¢( y)dy =
Î
n
n +1 ˚
˙
1 È
1 1˘
1
= -Ú ÍÎ(ax - x) 2 - (ax - x 2 ) 2 ˙˚ dx
0 (a - x )
= -Ú
1 x
( a - 1 - a - x ) dxx
0 a-x
Putting x = a sin2 q, dx = 2a sin q cos q dq
When x = 0, q = 0
1
When x = 1, q = sin -1
a
1
sin -1 a sin q
I = -Ú a ( a - 1 - a cos q ) 2 a sin q cos q dq
0 a cos2 q
1
sin -1 sin 2 q
= -2 a Ú
0
a
cos q
( a - 1 - a cos q ) dq
sin -1
1
ÈÊ 1 - cos2 q ˆ ˘
= -2 a Ú a ÍÁ ˜ a - 1 - a sin 2 q ˙ dq
0
ÎË cos q ¯ ˚
sin -1
1
È a ˘
= -2 a Ú a Í a - 1(sec q - cos q ) - (1 - cos 2q )˙ dq
0 Î 2 ˚
1
sin -1
= -2 a aq a sin 2q a
a - 1[log(sec q + tan q ) - sin q ] - +
2 4 0
1
sin -1
È Ê 1 + sin q ˆ ˘ aq a sin q cos q a
= -2 a a - 1 Í log Á ˜¯ - sin q ˙ - +
Î Ë cos q ˚ 2 2 0
È Ê 1 ˆ 1 ˘
Í Á
1+
˜ a sin -1 ˙
1 a 1 1
= -2 a Í a - 1 Á log ◊ 1- ˙
a
- ˜-
a
+ ◊
Í Á 1 a˜ 2 2 a a˙
Í ÁË 1- ˜¯ ˙
Î a ˚
a +1 1
= -2 a(a - 1) log + a - 1 + a sin -1
a -1 a
Example 13
Evaluate ∫ ∫ y dx dy over the region enclosed by the parabola x2 = y and
the line y = x + 2. y
2
Solution x+ Q (2, 4)
1. The region of integration is POQ. y=
B
2. The points of intersection of x2 = y and
y = x + 2 are obtained as x2 = y
x2 = x + 2 P (−1, 1)
x2 − x − 2 = 0 A
( x − 2)( x + 1) = 0 O x
x = 2, − 1
∴ y = 4, 1 Fig. 9.17
The points of intersection are P (–1, 1) and Q (2, 4).

to y-axis which starts from the parabola x2 = y and terminates on the line y = x + 2.
4. Limits of y : y = x2 to y = x + 2
Limits of x : x = –1 to x = 2
2 x+2
I=Ú
-1 Ú x 2 y dy dx
x+2
=Ú
2 y2 dx
-1
2 x2
1 2
2 Ú-1 Î
= È( x + 2)2 - x 4 ˘˚ dx
2
1 ( x + 2) 3 x 5
= −
2 3 5 −1
1  64 32 1 1 
=  − − − 
2 3 5 3 5
36
=
5
Example 14
Evaluate ∫ ∫ xy ( x + y )dx dy, over the region enclosed by the parabolas
x2 = y, y2 = –x.
Solution
2. The points of intersection of the parabola y

x2 = y, and y2 = –x are obtained as
y4 = y Q (−1, 1)
y = 0, 1
\ x = 0, –1. A B
The points of intersection are O (0, 0) and x2 = y y 2 = −x
P
Q (–1, 1).
O x
3. Here, it is easier to integrate w.r.t. x first. Draw
a horizontal strip AB parallel to x-axis, which
starts from the parabola x2 = y and terminates
on the parabola y2 = –x.
4. Limits of x : x = − y to x = –y 2
1 − y2 Fig. 9.18
I=∫y ∫ xy ( x + y )dx dy
0 − y
1 − y2
=∫y ∫ ( x 2 + xy )dx dy
0 − y
1 − y2
x3 x 2 y
=∫y + dy
0 3 2 − y
 7 5

−
1 6 2
y3
= ∫ −  dy
y y y
+ +
 3 2 3 2
0
7 1
8 7 2 4
y y 2y y
= − + + −
24 14 21 8 0
=0
Example 15
Evaluate ∫ ∫ xy dx dy over the region enclosed by the x-axis, the line
x = 2a and the parabola x2 = 4ay.
Solution
2. The point of intersection of the parabola x2 = 4ay and the line x = 2a is obtained as
4a2 = 4ay
y=a
The point of intersection is Q (2a, a).
to y-axis, which starts from x-axis and terminates on the parabola x2 = 4ay.
x2 y
4. Limits of y : y = 0 to y=
4a
Q (2a, a)
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 2a
x2 x2 = 4ay
2a
I=∫ ∫ 4a
xy dx dy
0 0
B x = 2a
x2
2a
= ∫ x∫ 4a
y dy dx P (2a, 0)
0 0
x2 O A x
2a y2 4a
=∫ x dx
0
2 0 Fig. 9.19
2a x4
=∫ x⋅ dx
0 a2
32a
2a
1 x6
=
32a 2 6 0
1 64a 6
= ⋅
32a 2 6
a4
=
3
Example 16
Evaluate ∫ ∫ xy dx dy, over the region enclosed by the circle x2 + y2 – 2x = 0,
the parabola y2 = 2x and the line y = x.
Solution
1. The region of integration is OPQRO.
y 2 = 2x
2. (i) The points of intersection of the circle D
Q (2, 2)
x2 + y2 – 2x = 0 and the line y = x are ob- R x
y =
tained as B
C
x2 + x2 – 2x = 0
x = 0, 1 A xP x 2 + y 2 − 2x = 0
y=
\ y = 0, 1 (1, 1)
The points of intersection are O (0, 0) and
O
P (1, 1).
(ii) The point of intersection of the circle
x2 + y2 – 2x = 0 and the parabola
y2 = 2x is obtained as
x2 + 2x – 2x = 0
x=0
\y=0
The point of intersection is O (0, 0). Fig. 9.20
(iii) The points of intersection of the parabola y2 = 2x and the line y = x are obtained
as x2 = 2x
x = 0, 2
\ y = 0, 2
The points of intersection are O (0, 0) and Q (2, 2).
3. The integration can be done w.r.t. any variable first. To integrate w.r.t. y first we
need to draw a vertical strip in the region. But one vertical strip does not cover the
entire region, therefore, divide the region OPQRO into two subregions OPR and
RPQ and draw one vertical strip in each subregion.
4. In the subregion OPR, strip starts from the circle x2 + y2 – 2x = 0 and terminates on
the parabola y2 = 2x.
Limits of y : y = 2 x − x 2 to y = 2 x
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 1.
5. In the subregion RPQ, strip starts from the line y = x and terminates on the
parabola y2 = 2x.
Limits of y : y = x to y = 2 x
Limits of x : x = 1 to x = 2
I = Ú Ú xy dx dy
= ÚÚ xy dx dy + ÚÚ xy dx dy
OPR RPQ
1 2x 2 2x
=Ú Ú xy dy dx + Ú Úx xy dy dx
0 2 x - x2 1
1 2x 2 2x
= Ú xÚ y d y dx + Ú x Ú y dy dx
0 2 x - x2 1 x
2x 2x
1 2 2 2
=Ú x y dx + Ú x y dx
0 1
2 2 x - x2 2 x
1 1 1 2
2 Ú0
= x(2 x - 2 x + x 2 )dx + Ú x(2 x - x 2 )dx
2 1
1 2
1 4 1 2 x3 x 4
= x + -
2 4 0 2 3 4 1
1 8 1 1
= + -2- +
8 3 3 8
7
=
12
Example 17
Evaluate ∫ ∫ x dxdy, over the region in the first quadrant enclosed by
2
the rectangular hyperbola xy = 16, the lines y = x, y = 0 and x = 8.

[Winter 2014]
Solution
1. The region of integration is OPQR. y
2. (i) The points of intersection of the
hyperbola xy = 16 and the line
y = x are obtained as x
=
x2 = 16, x = ± 4 y
B
\y=±4 x=8
Hence, R (4, 4) is the point of inter- R (4, 4)
section in the first quadrant. B xy = 16
D Q (8, 2)
(ii) The point of intersection of the
hyperbola xy = 16 and line x = 8 is
obtained as O A M y=0 C P x
8y = 16
y=2
Fig. 9.21
The point of intersection is Q (8, 2).
3. The integration can be done w.r.t. any variable first. To integrate w.r.t. y first we
need to draw a vertical strip in the region. But here one vertical strip cannot cover
the entire region, and therefore divide the region OPQR into two subregions OMR
and RMPQ and draw one vertical strip in each subregion.
4. In the subregion OMR, strip starts from x axis and terminates on the line y = x.
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = x
5. In subregion RMPQ, strip starts from x axis and terminates on the rectangular
hyperbola xy = 16
16
Limits of y : y = 0 to y =
x
I = Ú Ú x 2 dx dy
= ÚÚ x 2 dx dy + ÚÚ x 2 dx dy
OMR RMPQ
16
4 x 8
=Ú Ú0 x 2 dy dx + Ú Ú
x x 2 dy dx
0 4 0
16
4 8
= Ú x 2 Ú d y dx + Ú x 2 Ú
x
x dy dx
0 0 4 0
16
4 8 2
= Ú x 2 y 0 dx + Ú
x
x y 0x dx
0 4
4 3 8 16
=Ú x dx + x 2 ◊ Ú dx
0 4 x
4 8
4 2
= x + 16 x
4 0 2 4
= 64 + 8(64 - 16)
= 448
Example 18
dx d y
Evaluate ∫∫ x 4
+ y2
, over the region bounded by the y ≥ x2, x ≥ 1.
Solution
1. The region of integration is bounded by y
y ≥ x2 (the region inside the parabola
B
x2 = y) and x ≥ 1 (the region on the right
of line x = 1).
2. The point of intersection of x2 = y and
x = 1 is obtained as 1 = y.
The point of intersection is P(1, 1).
A
3. Here, it is easier to integrate w.r.t. y x2 = y
first than x. Draw a vertical strip AB
parallel to y-axis in the region which
P (1, 1)
starts from the parabola x2 = y and
O x
extends up to infinity. x=1
4. Limits of y : y = x2 to y Æ •
Limits of x : x = 1 to x Æ •
Fig. 9.22
• • 1
I=Ú Ú 2 4 dydx
1 x x + y2
•
• 1 -1 y
=Ú tan dx
1 x2 x2 x2
• 1
=Ú (tan -1 • - tan -1 1)d
dx
1x2
• 1 Êp pˆ
= Ú 2 Á - ˜ dx
1 x Ë 2 4¯
•
p 1
= -
4 x1
p
=
4
ExERCIsE 9.2
1
1. ∫ ∫ xy dx dy, over the rectangle 1 £ x £ 2, 1 £ y £ 2.
[Ans. : (log 2)2]
2. ∫∫ sin π(ax + by)dx dy, over the triangle bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0
and ax + by = 1.
 1 
 Ans. : π ab 
∫∫ e
3x +4 y
3. dx dy , over the triangle bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0, and
x + y = 1.
 1 
 Ans. : 12 (3e − 4e + 1)
4 3
4. ∫∫ xy 1− x − y dx dy , over the triangle bounded by x = 0, y = 0 and x + y = 1.

 16 
 Ans. : 945 
5. ∫∫ xy − y 2 dx dy , over the triangle having vertices (0, 0), (10, 1), (1, 1).
[Ans. : 6]
6. ∫ ∫ (x + y + a)dx dy, over the region bounded by the circle x 2
+ y2 = a 2 .
[Ans. : p a3]
7. ∫ ∫ xydxdy, over the region bounded by the x-axis, the line y = 2x and
x2
the parabola y = .
4a  2048 4 
 Ans. : 3 a 
8. ∫ ∫ 5 − 2x − y (dx) dy, over the region bounded by x-axis, the line x + 2y = 3

and the parabola y2 = x.
 217 
 Ans. : 60 
1
∫ ∫ (4 x − y )2 dx dy, over the triangle bounded by x-axis, the line y = x

2 2
9.
and x = 1.  1π 3
 Ans. :  + 
 
3 3 2 
10. ∫ ∫ xy(x + y)dx dy, over the region bounded by the parabola y 2
= x, x2 = y.
 3
 Ans. : 28 
11. ∫ ∫ xy(x + y)dx dy, over the region bounded by the curve x 2
= y and the
line x = y.
 3
 Ans. : 56 
12. ∫ ∫ xy(x − 1)dx dy, over the region bounded by the rectangular hyperbola
xy = 4, the lines y = 0, x = 1, x = 4 and x-axis.
[Ans. : 8(3 – log 4)]
9.3 ChAnGE OF ORDER OF IntEGRAtIOn
Sometimes, evaluation of double integral becomes easier by changing the order of

integration. To change the order of integration, first, we draw the region of integration
with the help of the given limits. Then we draw a vertical or horizontal strip as per the
required order of integration. This change of order also changes the limits of integration.
type I Change of Order of Integration
Example 1
1 x
Change the order of integration of ∫∫ 0 0
f ( x, y )dx dy.
Solution y
1. Since inner limits depends on x, the func-
tion is integrated first w.r.t. y and then Q (1, 1)
w.r.t. x.
B′
The correct form of the integral x
1 x =
=∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dy dx. y
0 0
x=1
2. Limits of y : y = 0 to y = x, along
vertical strip A¢B¢
O y=0 A′ P x
3. The region is bounded by the lines y = 0,
y = x, and x = 1.
4. The point of intersection of y = x and Fig. 9.23
x = 1 is Q(1, 1). y
5. To change the order of integration, i.e.,
to integrate first w.r.t. x, draw a horizon- Q (1, 1)
tal strip AB parallel to x-axis which starts
from the line y = x and terminates on the x=1
x
=
y
line x = 1.
Limits of x : x = y to x = 1 A B
Hence, the given integral after change of
order is O P x
1 x 1 1
∫∫
0 0
f ( x, y )dy dx = ∫
0 ∫ y
f ( x , y ) dx d y
Fig. 9.24
Example 2
1 y
Change the order of integration of ∫∫ 0 0
f ( x, y )dy dx.
Solution y
1. Since inner limits depend on y, the function y=1

is integrated first w.r.t. x and then w.r.t. y. P
Q (1, 1)
The correct form of the integral
1 y
=∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dx dy.
0 0
2. Limits of x : x = 0 to x = y, along hori- A′ B′

zontal strip A¢B¢
y
=
x
3. The region is bounded by the lines x = 0, O x
x = y, and y = 1.
4. The point of intersection of x = y and y = 1
is Q (1, 1). Fig. 9.25
y
5. To change the order of integration, i.e., to
integrate first w.r.t. y, draw a vertical strip B y=1
AB parallel to y-axis which starts from the P
Q (1, 1)
line x = y and terminates on the line y = 1.
Limits of y : y = x to y = 1
y
=
Hence, the given integral after change of order x
is
A
1 y 1 1
∫∫
0 0
f ( x, y )dx dy = ∫
0 ∫ x
f ( x, y )dy dx O x
Fig. 9.26
Example 3
a a
Change the order of integration of ∫∫
0 x
f ( x, y )dy dx.
Solution
y
1. Since inner limits depend on x, the function
B′ y=a
is integrated first w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x. P
Q (a, a)
2. Limits of y : y = x to y = a, along verti-
cal strip A¢B¢.
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = a
x
=
3. The region is bounded by the lines y = x,

y
y = a and x = 0.
4. The point of intersection of y = x and A′
y = a is Q (a, a).
O x
5. To change the order of integration i.e., to
integrate first w.r.t. x, draw a horizontal
strip AB parallel to x-axis which starts from Fig. 9.27
the line x = 0 and terminates on the line y

y = x.
y=a
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = y P
Q (a, a)
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = a
x
order is
=
y
A B
a a a y
∫∫
0 x
f ( x, y )dy dx = ∫
0 ∫0
f ( x, y )dx dy
O x
Fig. 9.28
Example 4
∞ ∞
Change the order of integration of ∫ ∫ 0 x
f ( x, y )dx dy.
Solution y
B′ y Æ •
1. Since inner limits depend on x, the function is

integrated first w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x.
The correct form of the integral
∞ ∞
= ∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dy dx
x
0 x
=
y
2. Limits of y : y = x to y Æ •, along vertical

strip A′
O x
3. The region is bounded by the lines y = x and
x = 0.
Fig. 9.29
4. Here the only point of intersection is origin
y
O.
integrate first w.r.t. x, draw a horizontal strip
AB parallel to x-axis which starts from the
line x = 0 and terminates on the line y = x.
x
=
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = y
y
Limits of y : y = 0 to y Æ • A B
Hence, the given integral after change of order
is
∞ ∞ ∞ y O x
∫ ∫
0 x
f ( x , y ) d y dx = ∫
0 ∫0
f ( x , y ) dx d y
Fig. 9.30
Example 5
1 x
0 x
f ( x, y )dy dx.
Solution
y
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. y and
then w.r.t. x. y2 = x
Q (1, 1)
2. Limits of y : y = x to y = x
B′ y =x
3. The region is bounded by the line y = x and
the parabola y2 = x. A′
4. The points of intersection of y2 = x and O x
y = x are obtained as
x2 = x
x = 0, 1
\ y = 0, 1.
Q (1, 1). Fig. 9.31
5. To change the order of integration, i.e., to y
integrate first w.r.t. x, draw a horizontal y2 = x
strip AB parallel to x-axis which starts from Q (1, 1)
x
the parabola y2 = x and terminates on the A y=
B
line y = x.
Limits of x : x = y2 to x = y
Hence, the given integral after change of order O x
is
1 x 1 y
∫∫
0 x
f ( x, y )dy dx = ∫
0 ∫ y2
f ( x, y )dx dy
Fig. 9.32
Example 6
1
1 y3
0 y2
f ( x, y )dx dy.
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. x and then w.r.t. y.
1 y
2. Limits of x : x = y2 to x = y3
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 Q (1, 1)
3. The region is bounded by the parabola y2 = x y � x3
y2 = x and the cubical parabola y = x3. A′
B′
4. The points of intersection of y2 = x and y = x3
are obtained as
O x
x6 = x
x = 0, 1
\ y = 0, 1.
Q (1, 1).
Fig. 9.33
5. To change the order of integration , i.e.,
y
to integrate first w.r.t. y, draw a vertical
strip parallel to y-axis which starts from the
cubical parabola y = x3 and terminates on
Q (1, 1)
the parabola y2 = x. B
Limits of y : y = x3 to y= x y2 = x
y = x3
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 1 A
Hence, the given integral after change of order O x
is
1
1 y3 1 x
∫∫
0 y 2
f ( x, y )dx dy = ∫
0 ∫ x 3
f ( x, y )dy dx
Fig. 9.34
Example 7
y
Change the order of integration of
y Q y=8
8
∫∫
0
4
y −8
4
f ( x, y )dx dy. (0, 8) P (2, 8)
A′ B′
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. x and
8
then w.r.t. y.
4x +
y −8
4x
y
2. Limits of x : x = to x =
y=
y=
4 4
3. The region is bounded by the line y = 4x + 8, R
y = 4x, y = 8 and x-axis (y = 0). (−2, 0) O x
Fig. 9.35
4. The point of intersection of y = 4x and y

y = 8 is obtained as
Q y=8 D
8 = 4x
(0, 8) P (2, 8)
x = 2.
+8
The point of intersection is P (2, 8).
4x
y=
to integrate first w.r.t. y, divide the region
C
OPQR into two subregions OQR and
OPQ. Draw a vertical strip parallel to B
4x
y-axis in each subregion.
y=
(i) In subregion OQR, strip AB starts
from x-axis and terminates on the line R
y = 4x + 8. (−2, 0) A O x
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 4x + 8
Limits of x : x = –2 to x = 0 Fig. 9.36
(ii)In subregion OPQ, strip CD starts from
the line y = 4x and terminates on the line y = 8.
Limits of y : y = 4x to y = 8
Hence, the given integral after change of order is
y
8 0 4 x +8 2 8
∫∫
0
4
y −8
4
f ( x, y )dx dy = ∫
−2 0 ∫ f ( x, y )dy dx + ∫
0 ∫
4x
f ( x, y )dy dx
Example 8
y2
a
Change the order of integration of ∫ ∫
−a 0
a
f ( x, y )dx dy.
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. x and y
then w.r.t. y. y=a
P
y2 Q (a, a)
2. Limits of x : x = 0 to x = A′ B B′
a
Limits of y : y = –a to y = a y 2 = ax
3. The region is bounded by the y-axis, the
parabola y2 = ax, and the line y = – a, and O x
y = a.
4. (i) The point of intersection of y2 = ax and
y = –a is obtained as R (a, –a)
a2 = ax S
y = –a
x=a
The point of intersection is R (a, –a). Fig. 9.37
(ii) The point of intersection of y2 = ax and y

y = a is obtained as D y=a
a2 = ax P
Q (a, a)
B
x=a y 2 = ax
The point of intersection is Q (a, a). C

to integrate first w.r.t. y, divide the region O x
into two subregions ORS and OPQ. Draw
a vertical strip parallel to y-axis in each B
subregion. R (a, −a)
S
(i) In subregion ORS, strip AB starts from A y = −a
the line y = –a and terminates on the
parabola y2 = ax. Fig. 9.38
Limits of y : y = –a to y = − ax (part of the parabola below x-axis)
(ii) In subregion OPQ, strip CD starts from the parabola y2 = ax and terminates on
the line y = a.
Limits of y : y = ax to y = a
y2
a a − ax a a
∫ ∫
−a 0
a
f ( x, y )dx dy = ∫
0 ∫
−a
f ( x , y ) dy d x + ∫
0 ∫ ax
f ( x, y )dy dx
Example 9 2 2+ 4 − 2 y
Change the order of integration of ∫∫0 y
f ( x, y )dx dy.
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. x and then w.r.t. y.
2. Limits of x : x = y to x = 2 + 4 − 2 y
y
3. The region is bounded by the x-axis,
Q (2, 2)
the line y = x and the parabola
(x – 2)2 = 2(2 – y). (x − 2)2 = 2(2 − y)
x
=
4. The points of intersection of y = x

y
and (x – 2)2 = 2(2 – y) are obtained A′ B′

as R (4, 0)
(x – 2)2 = 2(2 – x) O x
x = 0, 2
\ y = 0, 2.
Fig. 9.39
The points of intersection are O (0, 0) and Q (2, 2).

5. To change the order of integration, i.e., to integrate first w.r.t. y, divide the region into
two subregions OPQ and PQR. Draw a vertical strip parallel to y-axis in each subre-
gion.
y
(i) In subregion OPQ, strip AB
starts from x-axis and termi- Q (2, 2)
D
nates on the line y = x. B
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = x (x − 2)2 = 2 (2 − y)
x
=
y
(ii) In subregion PQR, strip CD R (4, 0)
starts from x-axis and termi- O A P (2, 0) C x
nates on the parabola (x – 2)2 =
2(2 – y).
Fig. 9.40
x2
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 2x −
2
x2
2 2+ 4 − 2 y 2 x 4 2 x−
∫∫
0 y
f ( x , y ) d x dy = ∫
0 ∫
0
f ( x , y ) dy dx + ∫
2 ∫0
2
f ( x , y ) dy dx
Example 10
a cos α a2 − x2
Change the order of integration of ∫0 ∫ x tan α
f ( x, y )dy dx.
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x.
2. Limits of y : y = x tan a to y = a2 − x2
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = a cos a
3. The region is bounded by the line y
y = x tan a, the circle x2 + y2 = a2 Q (0, a)
and y-axis. Since given limits of x B′ y = x tan a
and y are positive, the region lies P (a cos a, a sin a )
in the first quadrant.
4. The points of intersection of y = x A′
x2 + y 2 = a2
tan a and x2 + y2 = a2 are obtained
as O x
x2 + x2 tan2a = a2
x = ± a cos a
\ y = ± a sin a . P′
(−a cos a,
The points of intersection are P −a sin a)
(a cos a, a sin a ) and P ¢(– a cos
a, – a sin a ). Fig. 9.41
5. To change the order of integration, y

i.e., to integrate first w.r.t. x, divide Q (0, a)
the region into two subregions C D y = x tan a
OPR and PQR. Draw a horizontal R P (a cos a, a sin a )
strip in each subregion. A B x 2 + y 2 = a2
(i) In subregion OPR, strip AB starts
from y-axis and terminates on O x
the line y = x tan a.
Limits of x : x = 0 to
x = y cot a
P′
Limits of y : y = 0 to (−a cos a,
y = a sin a −a sin a)
(ii) In subregion PQR, strip CD
starts from y-axis and terminates Fig. 9.42
on the circle x2 + y2 = a2.
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = a 2 − y 2
Limits of y : y = a sin a to y = a
Hence, given integral after change of order is
a cos a a2 - x 2 a sin a y cot a a a2 - y2
Ú0 Úx tan a f ( x, y)dy dx = Ú
0 Ú0 f ( x, y)dx dy + Ú Ú
a sin a 0
f ( x, y)dx dy
Example 11
4 4x
Change the order of integration of ∫∫ 0 4 x − x2
f ( x, y )dy dx.
Solution
2. Limits of y : y = 4 x − x 2 to y = 4 x y
B′ Q (4, 4)
3. The region is bounded by the circle y 2 = 4x
x2 + y2 – 4x = 0, the parabola y2 = 4x
and the line x = 4. A′
4. (i) The point of intersection of
P (4, 0)
x2 + y2 – 4x = 0 and y2 = 4x is
O x
obtained as
2
x =0 x 2 + y 2 − 4x = 0
x=0
\ y = 0.
The point of intersection is O (0, 0).
(ii) The points of intersection of y2 = 4x
Q ′(4, −4)
and x = 4 are obtained as
y2 = 16 Fig. 9.43
y=±4
The points of intersection are Q (4, 4) and Q ¢ (4, – 4).
5. To change the order of integration, i.e., y

to integrate first w.r.t. x, divide the region Q (4, 4)
into three subregions ORT, TPS and E F
y 2 = 4x
RSQ. Draw a horizontal strip parallel to R T (2, 2)
S (4, 2)
x-axis in each subregion. A B C D
(i) In subregion ORT, strip AB starts from
P (4, 0)
the parabola y2 = 4x and terminates on
O (2, 0) x
the circle x2 + y2 – 4x = 0.
Limits of x :
x 2 + y 2 − 4x = 0
y2
x= to x = 2 − 4 − y 2
4
(Part of the circle where x < 2)
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 2 Q' (4, −4)
(ii) In subregion TPS, strip CD starts
from the circle x2 + y2 – 4x = 0 and Fig. 9.44
terminates on the line x = 4.
Limits of x : x = 2 + 4 − y 2
(Part of circle where x > 2) to x = 4
(iii) In subregion RSQ, strip EF starts from the parabola y2 = 4x and terminates on
the line x = 4.
y2
Limits of x : x = to x = 4
4
Hence, given integral after change of order is
4 4x 2 2− 4− y2
∫∫
0 4 x− x 2
f ( x, y )dy dx = ∫
0 ∫ y2
4
f ( x, y )dx dy
2 4 4 4
+∫ ∫ 2
f ( x , y ) dx dy + ∫ ∫ y2 f ( x, y )dx dy
0 2+ 4− y 2
4
Example 12
2 ( 4− x )2
0 4− x
f ( x, y )dy dx.
Solution
2. Limits of y : y = 4 − x to y = (4 − x) 2 .
3. The region is enclosed by the parabolas y2 = 4 – x, y = (4 – x)2, the lines x = 0 and x = 2.
4. (i) The points of intersection of x = 2 and y2 = 4 – x are obtained as
y2 = (4 – 2) y
y = ± 2.
U (0, 16)
The points of intersection are
Q (2, 2 ) and Q ′ (2, − 2 ) . y = (4 − x)2
(ii) The point of intersection B′
of x = 2 and y = (4 – x)2 is
x=2
obtained as
y = (4 – 2)2 = 4.
S (2, 4)
The point of intersection is
S (2, 4).
(iii) The points of intersection P
(0, 2) A′
of x = 0 and y2 = 4 – x are Q
(2, 2)
obtained as
y2 = 4
y = ±2. O V (4, 0) x
are P (0, 2) and P¢ (0, –2). y 2= 4 − x
(iv) The point of intersection
Q ′(2, − 2)
of x = 0 and y = (4 – x)2 is P′
obtained as (0, −2)
y = 16.
Fig. 9.45
The point of intersection is
U (0, 16). y
5. To change the order of

integration, i.e., to integrate first U (0, 16)
w.r.t. x, divide the region into

three subregions PQR, PRST y = (4 − x)2
and STU. Draw a horizontal strip
in each subregion.
E F
(i) In subregion PQR, strip AB
starts from the parabola y2 = T S (2, 4)
4 – x and terminates on the C D
line x = 2. P R (2, 2)
A B
Limits of x : (0, 2) Q
x = 4 – y2 to x = 2 (2, 2)
Limits of y : x=2
y= 2 to y = 2 O V (4, 0) x
(ii) In subregion PRST, strip y2 = (4 − x)
CD starts from y-axis and
terminates on the line x = 2. Q ′(2, − 2)
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 2 P′(0, −2)
Fig. 9.46
(iii) In subregion STU, strip EF starts from y-axis and terminates on the parabola
y = (4 – x)2.
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 4 − y (Part of the parabola where x < 4)
2 ( 4 − x )2 2 2 4 2
∫∫0 4− x
f ( x, y )dy dx = ∫
2 ∫ 4 − y2
f ( x, y )dx dy + ∫
2 ∫
0
f ( x, y )dx dy
16 4− y
+∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dx dy
4 0
type II Evaluation of Double Integrals by Changing the Order

of Integration
Example 1
∫∫
a a
Change the order of integration and evaluate ( x 2 + y 2 )dy dx.
0 x
Solution
1. Since inner limits depend on x, the function y
is integrated first w.r.t. y. B′ y=a
2. Limits of y : y = x to y = a, along verti- P
Q (a, a)
cal strip
x
=
y
y = a and x = 0
4. The point of intersection of y = x and y = a
is Q (a, a). A′
5. To change the order of integration, i.e. to O x
strip AB parallel to x-axis which starts from
y-axis and terminates on the line y = x. Fig. 9.47
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = y y
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = a y=a
Hence, the given integral after change of P
Q (a,a)
order is
∫∫ ( x 2 + y 2 ) dy d x = ∫ ∫
a a a y
( x 2 + y 2 )dx dy
x
=
y
0 x 0 0
y A B
x3
=∫
a
+ y 2 x dy
0 3 0
a y 
3 x
O
= ∫  + y 3  dy
0  3 
Fig. 9.48
4 3
=∫
a
y dy
0 3
a
4 y4
=
3 4 0
4
a
=
3
Example 2
π π sin y
Change the order of integration and evaluate ∫ ∫
0 x y
dy dx.
Solution
y
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t.
y, but evaluation becomes easier by y=p B¢
changing the order of integration. P (p, p )
2. Limits of y : y = x to y = p
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = p
3. The region is bounded by the line
A¢
y = x, y = p and x = 0.
4. The point of intersection of the line
x
=
y = x and the line y = p is P (p, p).

y

O x
to integrate first w.r.t. x, draw a hori-
zontal strip AB parallel to x-axis which
starts from y-axis and terminates on the Fig. 9.49
line y = x.
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = p
y
π π sin y π sin y y
∫ ∫
0 x y
dy dx = ∫
0 y ∫0
dx d y
y=p
π sin y
=∫ y
x 0 dy
Q
P (p, p )
0 y
π sin y
=∫ ⋅ y dy A B
0 y
π
= ∫ sin y dy
x
=
0
y
π
= − cos y 0
O x
= − cos π + cos 0
=2 Fig. 9.50
Example 3
1 1 2
Evaluate the iterated integral Ú0 Úx sin y dydx. [Winter 2013]
Solution
1. Since the inner limits depend on x, the
function is integrated first w.r.t. y, but
evaluation becomes easier by changing
the order of integration.
2. Limits of y : y = x to y = 1, along
vertical strip
y = 1 and x = 0.
4. The point of intersection of the line
y = x and the line y = 1 is P (1, 1).
5. To change the order of integration, i.e., Fig. 9.51
to integrate first w.r.t. x, draw a horizontal
strip AB parallel to x-axis which starts
from y-axis and terminates on the line
y = x.
order is
1 1 1 y
Ú0 Úx sin y dydx = Ú0 Ú0 sin y
2 2
dx dy
Fig. 9.52
1 y
= Ú sin y 2 x 0 dy
0
1
= Ú sin y 2 ◊ y dy
0
1 1
2 Ú0
= sin y 2 ◊ 2 y dy
1 1
ÈQ sin f ( y) ◊ f ¢( y) dy = - cos f ( y)˘
Î Ú
= - cos y 2 dy
2 0 ˚
1
= [ - cos 1 + cos 0 ]
2
1
= [1 - cos 1]
2
Example 4
∞ ∞ e− y
Change the order of integration and evaluate ∫ ∫
0 x y
dy dx.
[Winter 2015]
y
Solution B′ y Æ •
1. Since inner limits depend on x, the

function is integrated first w.r.t. y but
evaluation becomes easier by changing
x
2. Limits of y : y = x to y Æ •, along
=
y
vertical strip
A′
3. The region is bounded by the lines y = x
and x = 0. O x
4. Here, the only point of intersection is
origin. Fig. 9.53
5. To change the order of integration, i.e. to y
strip AB parallel to x-axis which starts
from y-axis and terminates on the line
x
y = x. =
y
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = •
A B
order is
∞ ∞ e− y ∞ ye
−y
∫ ∫
0 x y
dy d x = ∫ ∫
0 0 y
dx d y
O x
{∫ dx} ey dy
−y
∞
=∫
y
Fig. 9.54
0 0
∞ e− y
=∫ x0
y
dy
0 y
∞ e− y
= ∫ y⋅ dy
0 y
∞
= ∫ e − y dy
0
∞
= −e − y 0
= −(e −∞ − e0 )
=1
Example 5
2 1 x2
Evaluate the integral Ú0 Ú y e dx dy by changing the order of integration.
2 [Summer 2017, 2015]
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. x, but
evaluation becomes easier by changing the
order of integration.
y
2. Limits of x : x = to x = 1
2
along horizontal strip A¢B¢
3. The region is bounded by the lines y = 2x,
x = 1, y = 2, and y = 0.
4. The point of intersection of y = 2x and x = 1 Fig. 9.55
is x = 1, y = 2.
The point of intersection is Q (1, 2).
integrate first w.r.t. y, draw a vertical strip
AB parallel to y-axis which starts from x-axis
and terminates on the line y = 2x.
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 2x
is
2 1 x2 1 2 x x2
Ú0 Ú y e dx dy = Ú
0 0 Ú e dy dx Fig. 9.56
2
=Ú
1
0 {Ú }2x
0
2
dy e x dx
1 2
= Ú 2 x ◊ e x dx
0
2 1
ÈQ e f ( x ) f ¢( x ) dx = e f ( x ) ˘
Î Ú
= ex
0
˚
= e1 - e0
= e -1
Example 6
x2
∞ −
∫ ∫
x
Change the order of integration and evaluate xe y
dy dx.
0 0
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. y, but y
2. Limits of y : y = 0 to y = x.
Limits of x : x = 0 to x Æ •. B′
3. The region is the part of the first quadrant
bounded between the lines y = x and y = 0.
x
=
y
parallel to x-axis which starts from the line
y = x and extends up to infinity. O A′ x
Limits of x : x = y to x Æ •
Limits of y : y = 0 to y Æ •
Hence, the given integral after change of order Fig. 9.57
is
y
x2 x2
∞ x − ∞ ∞ −
∫ ∫ dy dx = ∫ ∫
y y
xe xe dx dy
0 0 0 y
x2
∞ y ∞ −  2x 
= ∫ −  ∫ e y  − y  dx dy
0  2 y
∞ A B
1 ∞ − x2
2 ∫0 e
=− y y dy x
y =
y
Q e 
 ∫ f ′ ( x ) dx = e
f ( x) f ( x)

O x
1 ∞
= − ∫ y (0 − e − y )dy
2 0
Fig. 9.58
1 ∞
= − ye − y − e − y 0
2
1
=
2
Example 7
x2
∫∫
a a
Change the order of integration and evaluate dx dy.
0 y
x2 + y 2
Solution
1. Since inner limits depend on y, the function is integrated first w.r.t. x but evaluation
becomes easier by changing the order of inte-
y
gration.
2. Limits of x : x = y to x = a, along horizontal Q (a, a)
strip A¢B¢
x=a
x
=
3. The region is bounded by the lines y = x, x = a
y
and y = 0.
A′ B′
4. The point of intersection of y = x and x = a is
x = a, y = a.
O P x
The point of intersection is Q (a, a).
5. To change the order of integration, i.e. to
integrate first w.r.t. y, draw a vertical strip AB Fig. 9.59
parallel to y-axis which starts from x-axis and y
terminates on the line y = x.
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = x Q (a, a)
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = a x
Hence, the given integral after change of order is y
=
x=a
x2 x2 B
∫∫ dx dy = ∫ ∫
a a a x
dx
0 y
x +y
2 2 0 0
x +y
2 2
a
 x 1  O A P x
= ∫ ∫ d y  x 2 dx
0

0
x +y
2 2

Fig. 9.60
( )
x
= ∫ log y + y 2 + x 2
a
x 2 dx
0 0
= ∫ log ( x + )
2 x 2 − log x  x 2 dx
a
 0 

= ∫  log
a x 1+ 2  2(
 x dx
)
0  x 
( )∫
a
= log 1 + 2 x 2 dx
0
a
= log 1 + 2 ( ) x3
3 0
( ) a3
3
= log 1 + 2
Example 8
Change the order of integration and evaluate [Winter 2016]
2 y
1 1− x e y
∫∫
0 0
(e y + 1) 1 − x 2 − y 2
dy dx.
Q (0, 1)
B′
x2 + y2 = 1
Solution
P (1, 0)
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. y, but
O A′ x
2. Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 − x2
Fig. 9.61
3. Since given limits of x and y are positive, the y
region is the part of circle x2 + y2 = 1 in the
first quadrant.
Q (0, 1)
4. To change the order of integration, i.e., to x2 + y2 = 1
A B
AB parallel to x-axis which starts from y axis
and terminates on the circle x2 + y2 = 1. O P(1, 0) x
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 1 − y2
Hence, the given integral after change of order Fig. 9.62
is
1 1− x 2 ey 1ey 1− y 2 1
∫∫
0 0
(e + 1) 1 − x − y
y 2 2
dy dx = ∫ y ∫
0 e +1 0
(1 − y 2 ) − x 2
dx dy
1− y 2
e y sin −1
1 x
=∫ y dy
0 e +1 1 − y2 0
ey
1
=∫ (sin −1 1 − sin −1 0)dy
0 ey +1
1 e
y
π
=∫ y ⋅ dy
0 e +1 2
π  f ′( y) 
Q∫
1
= log(e y + 1) 0  dy = log f ( y ) 
2  f ( y ) 
π
= [log(e + 1) − log 2]
2
π  e + 1
= log 
2  2 
Example 9
a+ a2 − y2
∫∫
a
Change the order of integration and evaluate dx dy.
0 a− a2 − y2
Solution
1. Since inner limits depend on y, the func- y
tion is integrated first w.r.t. x.
P (a, a)
2. Limits of x : x = a − a 2 − y 2 to A′ B′
x = a + a 2 − y 2 , along horizontal strip
A¢B¢
Q (2a, 0)
O (a, 0) x
3. The region is bounded by the circle (x –
a)2 + y2 = a2 and the line y = 0. Since
limits of y are positive, the region is the
part of the circle (x – a)2 + y2 = a2 above
x-axis.
4. The points of intersection of the circle
Fig. 9.63
with x-axis are O (0, 0) and Q (2a, 0).
5. To change the order of integration i.e. y
to integrate first w.r.t. y, draw a vertical
strip AB parallel to y-axis which starts B
from x-axis and terminates on the circle
(x – a)2 + y2 = a2
or x2 + y2 – 2ax = 0 Q (2a, 0)
O A (a, 0) x
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 2ax − x 2
order is
a + a2 − y2 2a 2 ax − x 2
Fig. 9.64
∫∫ dx dy = ∫ ∫
a
2 2
dy dx
0 a− a − y 0 0
2a 2 ax − x 2
=∫ y dx
0 0
2a
=∫ 2ax − x 2 dx
0
2a
=∫ a 2 − ( x − a)2
0
2a
( x − a) 2 a2  x − a
= a − ( x − a ) 2 + sin −1 
2 2  a  0
a a (0 − a )
2
a 2
= 0 + sin −1 1 − 0 − sin −1 ( −1)
2 2 2 2
= a 2 sin -1 1 [Q sin -1 ( -1) = - sin -1 (1)]

p
= a2
2
2
pa
=
2
Example 10
1 2- x2
x
Evaluate Ú Ú dy dx by changing the order of integration.
0 x x 2 + y2
[Summer 2016]
Solution
1. Since inner limits depend on x, the function is integrated first w.r.t. y.
2. Limits of y : y = x to y = 2 - x 2 along vertical setup A¢B¢
3. The region is bounded by y-axis, the line
y = x and the circle x2 + y2 = 2.
4. The point of intersection of the circle
y = 2 - x 2 and y = x is obtained as
x2 = 2 - x2
2 x2 = 2
x2 = 1
x = ±1 Fig. 9.65
\ y=1
Hence, P(1, 1) is the point of intersection.
5. To change the order of integration, i.e. to

integrate first w.r.t. x, divide the region
into two subregions OPR and PQR.
Draw a horizontal strip parallel to x-axis
in each subregion.
(i) In the subregion OPR, strip AB starts
from y-axis and terminates on the
line y = x.
Limit of x: x = 0 to x=y
Limit of y: y = 0 to y=1 Fig. 9.66
(ii) In the subregion PQR, strip CD starts from y-axis and terminates on the circle
y = 2 - x2 .
Limit of x: x = 0 to x = 2 - y 2
Limit of y: y = 1 to y = 2
1 2 - x2
x x x
Ú Ú 2 2
dy dx = ÚÚ 2 2
dy dx + ÚÚ dydx
0 x x +y OPR x +y PQR x + y2
2
2
1 y 2 2- y
x x
= ÚÚ dy dx + Ú Ú dy dx
00 x 2 + y2 1 0 x 2 + y2
y 2 - y2
È 1 ˘ È 1 ˘
1 Í ( x 2 + y2 ) 2 ˙ 1 Í ( x 2 + y2 ) 2 ˙
1 2
=Ú Í ˙ dy + Ú Í ˙ dy
2Í 1 ˙ 2Í 1 ˙
0 1
ÎÍ 2 ˚˙ 0 ÎÍ 2 ˚˙ 0
1 2
= Ú ÈÎ 2 y - y ˘˚ dy + Ú ÈÎ 2 - y ˘˚ dy
0 1
1 2
y2 È y2 ˘
= ( 2 - 1) + Í 2y - ˙
2
0 ÎÍ 2 ˙˚
1
Ê1 ˆ Ê 1ˆ
= ( 2 - 1) Á - 0˜ + Á 2 - 1 - 2 + ˜
Ë2 ¯ Ë 2¯
2 1 3
= - + - 2
2 2 2
1
= 1- 2 +
2
1
= 1-
2
Example 11
Sketch the region of integration, reverse the order of integration and
2y
2 4 - x 2 xe
evaluate Ú0 Ú0 dy dx. [Summer 2014]
4-y
Solution
1. Since inner limit depends on x, the
function is integrated first w.r.t. y.
2. Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 4 – x2
along vertical strip A¢B¢
3. The region is bounded by the parabola
Fig. 9.67
x2 = 4 – y, x-axis and y-axis.
strip parallel to x-axis which starts from
y-axis and terminates on the parabola
x2 = 4 – y.
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 4− y
Hence, the given integral after change of order is Fig. 9.68
2 4 - x2 xe2 y 4 4 - y xe
2y
Ú0 Ú0 4-y
dydx = Ú Ú
0 0 4-y
dx dy
4 e2 y È 4 - y ˘
=Ú
4 - y ÍÎ Ú0
x dx ˙ dy
0
˚
4- y
4 e2 y x 2
=Ú dy
0 4-y 2
0
4 e2 y È 1 ˘
=Ú (4 - y)˙ dy
0 4 - y ÍÎ 2 ˚
4 e2 y
=Ú dy
0 2
1 2y 4
= e
4 0
1
= (e8 - 1)
4
Example 12
1 2− x
Change the order of integration and evaluate ∫∫
0 x2
xy dx dy.
Solution
1. Since inner limits depend on x, the function P ′(−2, 4) y
is integrated first w.r.t. y.
The correct form of integral
1 2− x
=∫ ∫ xy dy dx Q (0, 2)
x2
0
x2 = y
2. Limits of y : y = x2 to y = 2 – x, along B′
vertical strip A¢B¢ P (1, 1)
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 1 A′ x +y=2
3. The region is bounded by y-axis, the line O x
x + y = 2 and the parabola x2 = y. Since given
limits of x and y are positive, the region lies Fig. 9.69
4. The points of intersection of x + y = 2 and P ′(−2, 4) y
x2 = y are obtained as
x2 = 2 – x
2
x +x–2=0
Q (0, 2)
(x – 1) (x + 2) = 0 x2 = y
C D
x = 1, –2
y = 1, 4 R P (1, 1)
A B x +y=2
The points of intersection are P (1, 1) and O x
P' (–2, 4).
5. To change the order of integration, i.e., to Fig. 9.70
integrate first w.r.t. x, divide the region into two subregions OPR and RPQ. Draw a
horizontal strip parallel to x-axis in each subregion.
(i) In subregion OPR, strip AB starts from y-axis and terminates on the parabola
x2 = y.
(ii) In subregion RPQ, strip CD starts from y-axis and terminates on the line
x + y = 2.
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 2 – y
1 2− x 1 2 2− y
∫∫ xy dy dx = ∫ ∫ xy dx dy + ∫ ∫
y
xy dx dy
0 x2 0 0 1 0
y 2− y
1 x2 2 x2
=∫ y dy + ∫ y dy
0 2 0
1 2 0
1 1 1 2
= ∫
2 0
( y ) y dy + ∫ ( 2 − y ) 2 y dy
2 1
1 1 2 1 2
= ∫ y d y + ∫ ( 4 y − 4 y 2 + y 3 ) dy
2 0 2 1
1 2
1 y3 1 y2 y3 y 4
= + 4 −4 +
2 3 0 2 2 3 4 1
1  1 1  32 4 1
=   +  8 − + 4 − 2 + − 
2  3 2  3 3 4
1 5
= +
6 24
9
=
24
3
=
8
Example 13
4a 2 ax
Change the order of integration and evaluate ∫ ∫ 0
x2
4a
dy dx.
[Winter 2014]
Solution y
1. Since inner limits depend on x, the y 2 = 4ax

function is integrated first w.r.t. y. P(4a, 4a)
x2 B′
2. Limits of y : y = to y = 2 ax ,
4a x 2 = 4ay
along vertical strip A¢B¢ A′
3. The region is bounded by the parabolas O x
x2 = 4ay and y2 = 4ax.
4. The points of intersection of x2 = 4ay
and y2 = 4ax are obtained as
x4 = 16a2y2
=16a2 (4ax)
Fig. 9.71
x(x3 – 64a3) = 0
x = 0, x = 4a
\ y = 0, y = 4a
The points of intersection are O (0, 0) and P (4a, 4a).
5. To change the order of integration, i.e., to integrate first w.r.t. x, draw a horizontal
strip AB parallel to x-axis which starts from the parabola y2 = 4ax and terminates on
the parabola x2 = 4ay.
y
y2
Limits of x : x = to x = 2 ay
4a y 2 = 4ax
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 4a P(4a, 4a)
x 2 = 4ay
order is A B
4a 2 ax 4a 2 ay
Ú0 Ú x 2 xy dy dx = Ú
0 Úy 2 dx dy O x
4a 4a
4 a 2 ay
=Ú x dy
0 y2
4a
4a Ê y2 ˆ
=Ú Á 2 - dy Fig. 9.72
4 a ˜¯
ay
0 Ë
4a
3
4a
y2 1 y3
=2 a -
3 4a 3
0
2 0
3 3
4 1
= a ( 4) 2 a 2 - (64 a 3 )
3 12 a
32 2 16 2
= a - a
3 3
16 2
= a
3
Example 14
Change the order of integration and evaluate
a− a2 − y2 xy log( x + a )
∫∫
a
dx dy.
0 0 ( x − a)2
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. x, but evaluation becomes easier by changing
2. Limits of x : x = 0 to x = a − a 2 − y 2 y
y=a
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = a P (a, a)
Q
3. The region is bounded by the circle A′ B′
(x − a)2 + y 2 = a 2
(x – a)2 + y2 = a2, the lines y = a and x = 0.
4. The point of intersection of x
O
(x – a)2 + y 2 = a2 and y = a is obtained as
(x – a)2 + a2 = a2
x=a
The point of intersection is P (a, a). Fig. 9.73
5. To change the order of integration, y
i.e., to integrate first w.r.t. y, draw a
y=a
vertical strip AB parallel to y-axis which B P(a, a)
starts from the circle (x – a)2 + y2 = a2 and Q
terminates on the line y = a. A (x − a)2 + y 2 = a 2
Limits of y : y = 2ax − x 2 to y=a

O x
order is
Fig. 9.74
a − a2 − y2 xy log( x + a ) x log( x + a )
∫∫ dx dy = ∫ ∫
a a a
y dy d x
0 0 ( x − a) 2 0 2 ax − x 2
( x − a)2
a
x log( x + a ) y 2
=∫
a
dx
0 ( x − a)2 2 2 ax − x 2
x log( x + a )  a 2 − 2ax + x 2 
=∫
a
0 ( x − a ) 2  2  dx
1 a
2 ∫0
= x log( x + a )dx
1  x2 
a 2
a x 1
=  log( x + a ) − ∫ ⋅ dx 
2 2 0 2 x+a 
 0 
1  a2 1 a a2  
=  log 2a − ∫0 ( x − a ) +  dx 
2 2 2  x + a 
1  a2 
a
1 x2
=  log 2a − − ax + a log( x + a ) 
2
2 2 2 2 0
 
1 a 2

=  a 2 log 2a − + a 2 − a 2 log 2a + a 2 log a
4 2 
1  a2 
=  + a 2 log a
4 2 
a2
= (1 + 2 log a )
8
Example 15
1
1− 4 y 2 1 + x2
∫ ∫
0
2
0
1 − x2 1 − x2 − y 2
dx dy.
y
Solution 1
Q 0,
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. 2
x, but evaluation becomes easier by x 2+ 4y 2 = 1
changing the order of integration. A′ B′
x
O P (1, 0)
2. Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 1 − 4 y2
1
Limits of y : y = 0 to y=
2
3. Since the limits of x and y are positive,
the region is the part of the ellipse in Fig. 9.75
the first quadrant. y
to integrate first w.r.t. y, draw a verti- 1
Q 0,
cal strip AB parallel to y-axis which 2
B
starts from x-axis and terminates on x 2+ 4y 2 = 1
the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 1.
x
O A P (1, 0)
1
Limits of y : y = 0 to y= 1 − x2
2
order is Fig. 9.76
1 1
1- 4 y2 1 + x2 1 1 + x2 1- x 2 1
Ú Ú
2
0 0 2 2 2
dxdy = Ú
0 2 Ú
0
2 dydx
1- x 1- x - y 1- x (1 - x 2 ) - y 2
1
1- x 2
2
1 1+ x 2
sin -1
y
=Ú dx
0 2
1- x 1 - x2 0
1 1 + x 2 Ê -1 1 -1 ˆ
=Ú Á sin 2 - sin 0˜¯ dx
0 2 Ë
1- x
1 2 - (1 - x2 ) p
=Ú ◊ dx
0
1 - x2 6
p 1Ê 2 ˆ
=
6 Ú0 ÁË - 1 - x 2 ˜ dx
¯
1 - x2
1
p 1
2 sin -1 x - 1 - x 2 - sin -1 x
x
=
6 2 2 0
È a2 x˘
sin -1
x 2
ÍQ Ú a - x dx =
2 2
a - x2 + ˙
ÍÎ 2 2 a ˙˚
p Ê 3 -1 ˆ
= sin 1˜
6 ÁË 2 ¯
p p
= ◊
4 2
p2
=
8
Example 16
x dy dx
∫∫
a y
.
0 0
(a 2 − x 2 )(a − y )( y − x)
Solution
y
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. x, but
order of integration. y=a
2. Limits of x : x = 0 to x = y P (a, a)
3. The region is bounded by the line y = x,
x
=
y = a and x = 0.
y
4. The point of intersection of y = a and y = x A′ B′

is P (a, a).
integrate first w.r.t. y, draw a vertical strip O x
AB parallel to y-axis which starts from the
line y = x and terminates on the line y = a.
Fig. 9.77
Limits of y : y = x to y = a y
is B y=a
P (a, a)
x dy dx
∫∫
a y
0 0
(a 2 − x 2 )(a − y )( y − x)
x
=
x d y dx
y
=∫ ∫
a a
0 x
(a − x )(a − y )( y − x)
2 2
A
 a dy 
 ∫x (a − y )( y − x)  dx
x
=∫
a
0
a −x 
2 2
 O x
Putting y – x = t2, dy = 2t dt
When y = x, t = 0 Fig. 9.78
When y = a, t = a−x
a y x dy dx a x a−x 2t dt
∫∫
0 0
(a − x )(a − y )( y − x)
2 2
=∫
0
a −x
2 2 ∫ 0
(a − x − t 2 )t 2
dx
a x a−x dt
= 2∫ ∫ dx
0
a −x2 2 0
(a − x) − t 2
a−x
a x t
= 2∫ sin −1
dx
0
a2 − x2 a−x 0
x
= 2∫
a
(sin −1 1 − sin −1 0)dx
0
a − x2
2
π a 1 2 −
1

= 2⋅ ∫  −
2 0 2
( a − x 2
) 2
( −2 x)  dx

a
p
1
È [ f ( x )]n +1 ˘
= - 2( a 2 - x 2 ) 2 ÍQ Ú [ f ( x )] f ¢( x )dx =
n
˙
2 ÍÎ n + 1 ˙˚
0
= pa
Example 17
1
1 y
∫∫
0 x
x
(1 + xy ) (1 + y 2 )
2
dy dx.
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. y, but evaluation becomes easier by changing
1 y
2. Limits of y : y = x to y=
x
Limits of x : x = 0 to x=1 xy � 1
3. The region is bounded by the rectangular
hyperbola xy = 1, the line y = x and y-axis B′
4. The point of intersection of xy = 1 and P (1, 1)
y = x in the first quadrant is obtained as
A′
x2 = 1
x
x=1
�
y
\ y=1 O x
The point of intersection is P (1, 1).
5. To change the order of integration, i.e., to Fig. 9.79
integrate first w.r.t. x, divide the region y
R
into two subregions OPQ and QPR. Draw
a horizontal strip parallel to x-axis in each
subregion.
(i) In subregion OPQ, strip AB starts from C D
x
=
y-axis and terminates on the line y = x.
y
xy = 1
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 Q P (1, 1)
(ii) In subregion QPR, strip CD starts from A B

y-axis and terminates on the rectangular
hyperbola xy = 1. O x
1
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = Fig. 9.80
y
Limits of y : y = 1 to y → ∞.

1 1
1 y 1 y y 1 ∞ y 1
∫∫
0 x
x
(1 + xy ) 2 (1 + y 2 )
d y d x = ∫0 ∫0 1 + y 2 (1 + xy)2 d x d y + ∫1 ∫0y 1 + y 2 (1 + xy)2 dx dy
1
y
1 y 1 ∞ y 1 y
=∫ − dy + ∫ − dy
0 1+ y 2
y (1 + xy ) 0 1 1+ y 2
y (1 + xy ) 0
1 1  1  ∞ 1 1 
= −∫ − 1 dy − ∫  − 1 dy
0 1 + y 2  1 + y 2  1 1+ y2  2
1 1 1  1 ∞ 1
= −∫  −  dy + ∫ dy
0 (1 + y )
2 2
1+ y 
2
2 1 1+ y2

Putting y = tan q in the first term of first integral, dy = sec2q dq,

When y = 0, q = 0
π
When y = 1, θ =
4
π
1
1
y sec 2 θ dθ 1 1 ∞
∫∫
0
x
x (1 + xy ) (1 + y )
2 2
d y d x = − ∫0
4
sec θ4
+ tan −1 y 0 + tan −1 y 1
2
π
(1 + cos 2θ ) 1
= −∫ 4 dθ + (tan −1 1 − tan −1 0) + (tan −1 ∞ − tan −1 1)
0 2 2
π
1 sin 2θ 4 π 1π π
=− θ+ + +  − 
2 2 0 4 2  2 4
π 1 π 3π
=− − sin +
8 4 2 8
π −1
=
4
Example 18
1 1− y 2 cos −1 x
∫∫
0 0
1 − x2 1 − x2 − y 2
dx dy.
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. x, but y
order of integration. Q (0, 1)
2. Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 1 − y 2 A′ B′
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 x2 + y2 = 1
3. Since given limits of x and y are positive, the O P (1, 0) x

region is the part of the circle x2 + y 2 = 1 in
the first quadrant.
integrate first w.r.t. y, draw a vertical strip
AB parallel to y-axis in the region. AB starts
Fig. 9.81
from x-axis and terminates on the circle
x2 + y 2 = 1.
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 − x 2
Hence, the given integral after change of order is y

−1
1 1− y 2
cos x
∫∫
0 0
1− x 2
1 − x2 − y 2
dx d y
Q (0, 1)
B
1 1− x 2 cos −1 x 1
=∫ ∫ dy dx x2 + y2 = 1
0 0
1 − x2 (1 − x 2 ) − y 2
1− x 2 O A P (1, 0) x
1 cos −1 x y
=∫ sin −1
dx
0
1 − x2 1 − x2 0
1 cos −1 x
=∫ (sin −1 1 − sin −1 0)dx
1− x 0 2
Fig. 9.82
π 1 −1  1 
= − ∫ cos x  −  dx
2 0
 1 − x2 
1
π (cos −1 x) 2  [ f ( x)]2 
=− Q ∫ f ( x) f ′ ( x)d x = 
2 2 0  2 
π
=− (cos −1 1) 2 − (cos −1 0) 2 
4
π  π 
2
= − 0 −   
4   2  
π3
=
16
ExERCIsE 9.3
Change the order of integration of the following integrals:
6 2+ x
1. ∫∫ 0 2− x
f (x, y )dy dx
 Ans. : 2 6 f (x, y )dy dx + 8 6 f (x, y )dy dx 

 ∫− 4 ∫2−y ∫2 ∫y −2 
1 2x
2. ∫∫ 0 x
f (x, y )dy dx
 1 y 2 1 
 Ans. : ∫0 ∫y f (x, y )dx dy + ∫1 ∫ y f (x, y )dx dy 
 2 2 
1 y
3. ∫∫ 0 − y
f (x, y )dx dy
 Ans. : 1 1 f (x, y )dx dy 
 ∫−1 ∫x 2 
y2
a
4. ∫ ∫
−a 0
a
f (x, y )dx dy
 a − ax a a 
 Ans. : ∫0 ∫− a f (x, y )dy dx + ∫0 ∫ ax f (x, y )dy dx 
a 2a −x
5. ∫∫
0
x2
a
f (x, y )dy dx
 a ay 2a 2a−y 
 Ans. : ∫0 ∫0 f (x, y )dx dy + ∫a ∫0 f (x, y )dx dy 
3 y
6. ∫ ∫
−2 y 2 − 6
f (x, y )dx dy
 −2 x +6 3 x +6 
 Ans. : ∫−6 ∫− x +6 f (x, y )dy dx + ∫−2 ∫x f (x, y )dy dx 
1 2(1+ 1− y )
7. ∫∫
0 2y
f ( x , y ) dx dy
 
2
x 4 x −x
2 4
 Ans. : ∫0 ∫02 f (x, y )dy dx + ∫2 ∫0 4 f (x, y )dy dx 
 
6−x
2
8. ∫∫
0
2
x2 +4
f ( x , y ) dy dx
4
 2 2 y −1 3 6 −2 y 
 Ans. : ∫1 ∫0 f (x, y )dx dy + ∫
2 ∫0
f (x, y )dx dy 

2 x +6 a
9. ∫∫ 0 4−x2
f (x, y )dy dx
 Ans. : 2 2
∫0 ∫ 4 −y 2 f(x, y)dx dy + ∫2 ∫0 f(x, y)dx dy + ∫6 a ∫y −6 a f(x, y)dx dy 
6a 2 6a+2 2

a y +a
10. ∫ ∫ 0 a2 − y 2
f (x , y )dxdy
 Ans. : a a
∫0 ∫ a2 − x 2 f(x, y)dy dx + ∫a ∫x −a f(x, y)dy dx 
2a a

2a 2 ax
11. ∫ ∫ 0 2 ax − x 2
f (x, y )dx dy
 Ans. : 
 a 2a a a− a2 − y 2 2a 2a

 f (x, y )dx dy 
 ∫0 ∫a + a 2
− y 2
f (x, y )dx dy + ∫ ∫ y 2
0
2a
f (x, y )dx dy + ∫
a ∫ y2
2a 
a a2 − x 2
12. ∫∫
0
a2 − x 2
4
f (x, y )dy dx
 a
a2 − y 2 a a2 − y 2 
 Ans. : ∫0 ∫ f (x, y )dx dy + ∫a ∫
2
f (x, y )dx dy 
a2 − 4 y 2
0
 2 
a2
a
13. ∫∫
0 x
x
f (x, y )dy dx
 
2
a
a y ∞
 Ans. : ∫0 ∫0 f (x, y )dx dy + ∫a ∫0 y f (x, y )dx dy 
 
b mx
14. ∫ ∫
a
k
x
f (x, y )dy dx
 k
b ma b mb b 
 Ans. : ∫bk ∫yk f(x, y)dx dy + ∫ak ∫a f(x, y)dx dy + ∫ma ∫my f(x, y) dx dy 
a
 
1 ex
15. ∫∫
0 1
f (x, y )dy dx
 Ans. : e 1 f (x, y )dx dy 
 ∫1 ∫log y 
2 x3
16. ∫∫
0 0
f (x, y )dy dx
 8 2 
 Ans. : ∫0 ∫ 1 f (x, y )dx dy 
 y3 
1
1− 4 y 2 1+ x 2
17. ∫ ∫
0
2
0
1− x2 − y 2
dx dy
 1
1− x 2
1+ x 2 2π 
 Ans. : ∫ ∫ 2 dy dx = 
 0 0
1− x2 − y 2 3 

x2
2 x
18. ∫∫
0 0
2
x + y2 +1
2
dy dx
 2 2 x 1 
 Ans. : ∫ ∫ dx dy = (5 log 5 − 4)
 0 2y
x2 + y2 + 1 4 
a a x
19. ∫∫
0 y x + y2
2
dy dx
 πa 
 Ans. : 4 
 
9.4 DOublE IntEGRAls In POlAR COORDInAtEs

θ2
r2
The integral ∫∫
θ1
r1
f ( r , θ )drdθ represents the polar form of the double integration. This
integral is first integrated w.r.t. r keeping q constant and then the resulting expression
is integrated w.r.t. q.
R
limits of Integration
If the limits of integration are not given B
then these limits are obtained from q = q2 r = r2(q )
the equations of the given curves. Let
the region be bounded by the curves Q
r = r1(q ), r = r2 (q ) and the lines S
q = q1, q = q2. A
dq q = q1
The region of integration is PQRS.
Draw an elementary radius vector AB q2 P
from origin which enters in the region r = r1(q )
q1
from the curve r = r1(q ) and leaves at O q =0
the curve r = r2(q ). Therefore, limits for
Fig. 9.83
r are r1(q ) to r2(q ).
To cover the entire region PQRS, rotate elementary radius vector AB from PQ to RS.
Therefore, q varies from q1 to q 2.
θ2 r2 (θ )
∫∫ f (r , θ ) dr dθ = ∫ ∫ θ1 r1 (θ )
f (r , θ ) dr dθ
type I Evaluation of Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates
Example 1
π
1
Evaluate ∫ ∫ r dr dθ.
4
0 0
Solution
π π
r d r dθ = ∫ 4  ∫ r d r  d θ
1 1
∫ ∫
0
4
0 0  0 
π 1
r2
=∫ 4
dθ
0 2 0
π
1
= ∫ 4 dθ
0 2
1 π
= θ 04
2
1 π
= ⋅
2 4
π
=
8
explicit in r and q, the integral can be written as
π π
1 1
∫ ∫
0
4
0
r dr dθ = ∫ 4 dθ ⋅ ∫ r dr
0 0
π 2 1
r
=θ ⋅ 4
0
2 0
π 1
= ⋅
4 2
π
=
8
Example 2
π sin θ
Evaluate ∫ ∫
0 0
r dr dθ.
Solution
π sin θ π sin θ
∫ ∫ r dr dθ = ∫  ∫ r dr  dθ
0 0  0
0  
sin θ
π r2
=∫ dθ
0 2 0
1 π 2
2 ∫0
= sin θ dθ
1 π 1 − cos 2θ
= ∫ dθ
2 0 2
π
1 sin 2θ
= θ−
4 2 0
1 sin 2π 
= π − 
4 2 
π
=
4
Example 3 p
2 1 - sin q r 2
Evaluate the integral Ú Ú
0 0
cos q dr dq . [Summer 2014]
Solution
p p
1 - sin q 2 È 1 - sin q 2
r dr ˘˙ cos q dq
Ú Ú
2
0 0
r cos q dr dq = Ú ÍÎÚ0
0
2
˚
p 1 - sin q
r3
= Ú
0
2
3
cos q dq
0
p
1
=
3 Ú 0
2 (1 - sin q )3 cos q dq
p
1 (1 - sin q )4 2
=
3 4
0
1È 1˘
= Í 0- ˙
3Î 4˚
1
= -
12
Example 4
π
2 a cos θ
Evaluate ∫ ∫
2
0 0
r 2 sin θ dθ dr.
Solution
Since inner limits depend on q, the function is integrated first w.r.t. r.
π
2 a cos θ
The correct form of the integral = ∫02 ∫0 r 2 sin θ dr dθ
π π
2 a cos θ 2 a cos θ
∫ ∫
2
r 2 sin θ dr dθ = ∫ 2  ∫ r 2 dr  sin θ dθ
0 0 0  0 
π 2 a cos θ
r3
=∫2 sin θ dθ
0 3 0
π
8a 3 2
3 ∫0
= cos3 θ sin θ dθ
π
8a 3 2
3 ∫0
=− cos3 θ ( − sin θ ) dθ
p
8a 3 cos 4 q 2 È [ f (q )]n +1 ˘
ÍQ Ú [ f (q )] f ¢ (q )dq =
n
=- , n π - 1˙
3 4 ÍÎ n +1 ˙˚
0
3
8a Ê 4 p ˆ
=- Á cos - cos 4 0˜
12 Ë 2 ¯
2 3
= a
3
Example 5
π
a (1+ sin θ )
Evaluate ∫ ∫2
0 0
r 2 cos θ dθ dr.
Solution
Since inner limits depend on q, the function is integrated first w.r.t. r.
π
a (1+ sin θ )
The correct form of the integral = ∫02 ∫0 r 2 cos θ dr dθ
π π
a (1+ sin θ ) a (1+ sin θ )
∫ ∫
2
r 2 cos θ dr dθ = ∫ 2  ∫ r 2 dr  cos θ dθ
0 0 0  0 
π a (1+ sin θ )
r3
=∫ 2
cos θ dθ
0 3 0
p
1 2 3
3 Ú0
= a (1 + sin q )3 cos q dq
p
È [ f (q )]n +1 ˘
a 3 (1 + sin q ) 4 2
ÍQ [ f (q )]n
f ¢ (q ) d q = , ˙
Í Ú
= n +1
3 4 ˙
0 ÍÎ n π -1 ˙˚
a 3  
4
π
= 1 + sin  − (1 + sin 0) 
4
12  2 
a3 4
=  2 − 1
12 
5
= a3
4
Example 6
π
cos 2θ r
Evaluate ∫ ∫
0
4
0 (1 + r 2 ) 2
dr dθ.
Solution
p
cos 2q 1 2r
Ú04 Ú0 ◊
2 (1 + r 2 )2
dr dq
p
1 4 È cos 2q ˘
= Ú Í Ú (1 + r 2 )-2 ◊ 2r dr ˙ dq
2 0 Î 0 ˚
1 4
p
2 -1
cos 2q
È
ÍQ Ú [ f (r )]n f ¢(r ) dr =
[ f (r )]n+1 ˘˙
= Ú -(1 + r ) dq Í n +1 ˙
2 0 0
Í π - ˙
Î n 1 ˚
p
1 4Ê 1 ˆ
=-
2 Ú0 Á
Ë
- 1˜ dq
1 + cos 2q ¯
p
1 4Ê 1 ˆ
=- Ú0 Á - 1˜ dq
2 Ë 2 cos q ¯
2
p
1 4Ê1 ˆ
=- Ú
2 Ë2
0 Á sec 2 q - 1˜ dq
¯
p
1 1 4
=- tan q - q
2 2 0
1Ê1 p pˆ
= - Á tan - ˜
2Ë2 4 4¯
1
= (p - 2)
8
Example 7
p p
Evaluate Ú Ú
2 2
0 0
sin(q + f )dq df.
Solution
p p p È p ˘
Ú Ú 2 2
0 0
sin(q + f ) dq df = Ú 2 Í Ú 2 sin(q + f ) dq ˙ df
0
ÍÎ 0 ˙˚
p
p 2
=Ú 2 - cos(q + f ) df
0 0
p
È Êp ˆ ˘
= - Ú Ícos Á + f ˜ - cos f ˙ df
2
Î 0 Ë 2 ¯ ˚
p
= - Ú 2 ( - sin f - cos f ) df
0
p
= - cos f - sin f 2
0
Ê p p ˆ
= - Á cos - sin - cos 0 + sin 0˜
Ë 2 2 ¯
=2
type II Evaluation of Double Integrals Over a Given Region

in Polar Coordinates
Example 1
3
Evaluate ÚÚr sin 2q dr dq over the area bounded in the first quadrant
R
between the circle r = 2 and r = 4. [Summer 2016]
Solution
1. The region of integration is the interior of the
circle between r = 2 to r = 4.
2. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB from the
origin which enters in the region from the circle
r = 2 and leaves at the circle r = 4.
3. Limits of r: r = 2 to r = 4
p
Limits of q: q = 0 to q =
2
I = ÚÚ r 3 sin 2q dr dq Fig. 9.84
p
2 4
Ú Úr
3
= sin 2q dr dq
0 2
4 p
r4 cos 2q 2
= -
4 2 0
2
1È 4 Ê 1ˆ
= Î(4) - (2)4 ˘˚ Á ˜ (cos p - cos 0)
2 Ë 2¯
1 Ê 1ˆ
= [256 - 16] Á - ˜ (-2)
2 Ë 2¯
1
= [240]
2
= 120
Example 2
Evaluate ÚÚ r a 2 - r 2 dr dq over the upper half of the circle
r = a cos q. [Summer 2017]
Solution q= p
2
1. The region of integration is the upper half
of the circle r = a cos q. A
2. Draw an elementary radius vector OA which r = a cos q
starts from the origin and terminates on the
circle r = a cosq.
3. Limits of r : r = 0 to r = a cosq
O q =0
π
Limits of q : q = 0 to θ=
2
I = ÚÚ r a 2 - r 2 dr dq
p 1
a cosq Ê 1ˆ 2 2 2
=Ú2Ú ÁË - 2 ˜¯ (a - r ) (-2r ) dr dq Fig. 9.85
0 0
a cosq
3
1
p
2( a 2
- r2 )2 È [ f (r )]n +1 ˘
2Ú
=- Í Ú =
n
2 dq Q [ f (r )] f ¢ (r )dr ˙
0 3 0 Î n +1 ˚
p
1
3Ú
=- (a 3 sin 3 q - a 3 ) dq
2
0
p
a3 Ê 3 sin q - sin 3q ˆ
=-
3 Ú 0
2
ÁË 4
- 1˜ dq
¯
p
a3 1 Ê cos 3q ˆ 2
=- Á -3 cos q + ˜ -q
3 4Ë 3 ¯ 0
a3 Ê 3 p 1 3p p 3 1 ˆ
=- ÁË - cos + cos - + cos 0 - cos 0˜
3 4 2 12 2 2 4 12 ¯
a3 Ê p 3 1ˆ
=- ÁË - 2 + 4 - 12 ˜¯
3
a3 Ê 2 p ˆ
=- -
3 ÁË 3 2 ˜¯
Example 3
4
Evaluate ÚÚ r cos3 q dr dq over the interior of the circle r = 2a cos q.
Solution
1. The region of integration is the interior of q= p
the circle r = 2a cos θ. 2
2. Draw an elementary radius vector OA A
which starts from the origin and termi- r = 2a cos q
nates on the circle r = 2a cos θ.
3. Limits of r : r = 0 to r = 2a cos θ
π π O q=0
Limits of θ : θ = − to θ =
2 2
I = Ú Ú r 4 cos3 q dr dq
p
2 a cosq 4
= Ú 2p cos3q Ú r dr d q
- 0
2
Fig. 9.86
p 2 a cosq
5
r
=Ú 2
p cos3 q dq
- 5
2 0
p
1 2
5 Ú- p
= cos3q (2 a cos q )5 dq
2
5 p
32 a
= ◊ 2 Ú 2 cos8 q dq
5 0
32 a 5 Ê 9 1ˆ È Ê p + 1 q + 1ˆ p ˘
=
5
◊ BÁ ,
Ë2 2 ˜¯
ÍQB Á
ÍÎ Ë 2
,
2 ¯˜ = 2 Ú0
2 sin p q cosq q dq ˙
˙˚
9 1
32 a 5 2 2
= ◊
5 5
7 5 3 1 1 1
32 a 5 2 2 2 2 2 2
◊ ◊ ◊ ◊
= ◊
5 24
7p 5
= a
4
Example 4
2
Evaluate ÚÚ r sinq dr dq over the cardioid r = a (1 + cos q ) above the
initial line.
Solution
1. The region of integration is the part of the cardioid r = a (1 + cos q ) above the initial
line (q = 0).
2. Draw an elementary radius vector OA which starts from the origin and terminates
on the cardioid r = a (1 + cos q ).
3. Limits of r : r = 0 to r = a (1 + cos q )
Limits of q : q = 0 to q = p q=p
2
I = ÚÚ r 2 sin q dr dq A
r = a (1 + cos q )
p a (1+ cosq ) 2
=Ú Ú r sinq dr dq
0 0
a (1+ cosq ) O q =0
p r3
=Ú sin q dq
0 3 0
1 p 3
3 Ú0
= a (1 + cos q )3 sin q ◊ dq
a3 p Fig. 9.87
=-
3 Ú0 (1 + cos q )3 (- sin q )dq
p
a 3 (1 + cos q )4 È [ f (q )]n +1 ˘
=- ÍQ Ú [ f (q )] f ¢(q )dq =
n
˙
3 4 ÍÎ n + 1 ˙˚
0
3
a È
Î(1 + cos p ) - (1 + cos 0) ˘˚
4 4
=-
12
a3
=- (0 - 16)
12
4 2
= a
3
Example 5
r dr dq
Evaluate ÚÚ 2 2
over one loop of the lemniscate r2 = a2 cos 2q.
r +a
Solution
1. The region of integration is one loop of the lemniscate r2 = a2 cos 2q bounded
π π
between the lines θ = − and θ = .
4 4
2. Draw an elementary radius vector OA which q= p

2
q= p
lemniscate r 2 = a2 cos 2q. 4
r 2 = a 2 cos 2q
3. Limits of r: r = 0 to r = a cos 2θ A
q=0
π π O
Limits of θ : θ = − to θ =
4 4
r dr dq
I = ÚÚ q=− p
2 2 4
r +a
p
a cos 2q r d r dq Fig. 9.88
=Ú 4
p 0 Ú
- r 2 + a2
4
p 1
a cos 2q 1 2 -
=Ú 4
p 0 Ú (r + a 2 ) 2 (2r )dr dq
- 2
4
p 1 a cos 2q
1 È [ f (r )]n +1 ˘
= Ú 4p 2(r 2 + a 2 ) 2 dq ÍQ Ú [ f (r )] f ¢ (r )dr =
n
, n π - 1˙
2 - ÍÎ n + 1 ˙˚
4 0
1
p È 1 ˘
2Ú
= 4
p 2a Í(cos 2q + 1) 2 - 1˙ dq
-
4
ÍÎ ˙˚
p
= a Ú 4p
-
( 2 cos q - 1 dq )
4
p
=a 2 sin q - q 4
p
-
4
È p p Ê p ˆ Ê p ˆ˘
= a Í 2 sin - - 2 sin Á - ˜ + Á - ˜ ˙
Î 4 4 Ë 4¯ Ë 4¯˚
Ê pˆ
= aÁ2- ˜
Ë 2¯
a
= (4 - p )
2
Example 6
2
Evaluate ÚÚ r dr dq over the area between the circles r = a sin q and
r = 2a sin q.
Solution
1. The region of integration is the area bounded between the circle r = a sin q and
r = 2a sin q.
2. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB q= p

2
from the origin which enters in the region
from the circle r = a sin q and leaves at
the circle r = 2a sin q.
3. Limits of r : r = a sin q to r = 2a sin q B
Limits of q : q = 0 to q = p
I = ∫∫ r 2 dr dθ r = 2a sin q
π 2 a sin θ A
=∫ ∫ r 2 d r dθ
0 a sin θ
2 a sin θ r = a sin q
π r3
=∫ dθ
0 3 a sin θ O q =0
1 π
= ∫ (8a 3 sin 3 θ − a 3 sin 3 θ )dθ
3 0
Fig. 9.89
7a3 π 3
3 ∫0
= sin θ dθ
7 a 3 π 3 sin θ − sin 3θ
3 ∫0
= dθ
4
π
7a3 cos 3θ
= −3 cos θ +
12 3 0
7a3  1 
=
12  −3(cos π − cos 0) + 3 (cos 3π − cos 0) 
7 a 3  16 
=  
12  3 
28 3
= a
9
ExERCIsE 9.4
−r2
1. ∫∫ re a2
cos q sin q dr dq over the upper half of the circle r = 2a cos q.
 a2  1 
 Ans. :  3+ 4 
 16  e 
∫∫ r dr dq
3
2. over the region between the circles r = 2 sin q and r = 4 sin q.
 45π 
 Ans. : 2 
 
3. ∫∫ r sinq dA over the cardioid r = a (1+ cos q ) above the initial line.
 4 3
 Ans. : 3 a 
 
r
4. ∫∫ r +4
2
dr dq over one loop of the lemniscate r2 = 4 cos 2q.
Ans. :(4 − π )
9.5 MultIPlE IntEGRAls by substItutIOn
9.5.1 Change of Variables from Cartesian to

Polar Coordinates
The double integral can be changed from Cartesian coordinates (x, y) to polar
coordinates (r, q ) by putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q. Then ∫∫ f ( x, y )dy dx =
∫∫ f (r cos θ , r sin θ ) J dr dθ where J is the Jacobian (functional determinant)
defined as
∂x ∂x
∂ ( x , y ) ∂r ∂θ
J= =
∂ ( r , θ ) ∂y ∂y
∂r ∂θ
cos θ − r sin θ
=
sin θ r cos θ
= r (cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ )
=r
Hence, ∫∫ f ( x, y)dy dx = ∫∫ f (r cos θ , r sin θ ) r dr dθ
= ∫∫ f (r cos θ , r sin θ )r dr dθ
Example 1
1 − x2 − y 2
Evaluate ∫∫ 1 + x2 + y 2
dx dy over the first quadrant of the circle
x2 + y 2 = 1.
Solution
1. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, polar form of the circle x2 + y2 = 1 is obtained as r = 1.
2. The region of integration is the part of the circle r = 1 in the first quadrant.
3. Draw an elementary radius vector OA which q= p

2
circle r = 1.
4. Limits of r : r = 0 to r = 1 A
π
Limits of q : q = 0 to θ = r=1
2
Hence, the polar form of the given integral is O q =0
1− x − y 2 2
I = ∫∫ dx d y
1 + x2 + y 2
π
1 1− r2
= ∫2∫ r dr dθ
0 0 1+ r2
2
Putting r = cos2t, 2r dr = – 2 sin 2t dt Fig. 9.90
π
When r = 0, t =
4
When r = 1, t = 0
π
0 1 − cos 2t
I = ∫ 2 ∫π ( − sin 2t dt )dθ
0
4 1 + cos 2t
π π
2 sin 2 t
=∫ 2
∫ 4
sin 2t dt dθ
0 0 2 cos 2 t
π π
sin t
= ∫2∫4 ⋅ 2 sin t cos t dt dθ
0 0 cos t
π π
= ∫ 2 dθ ∫ 4 (1 − cos 2t )dt
0 0
π
π
sin 2t 4
=θ 2
0
t− dθ
2 0
π  π 1
=  − 
2  4 2
π
= (π − 2)
8
Example 2
4 xy - x 2 - y2
Evaluate ÚÚ x 2 + y2 e dx dy over the region bounded by the circle
x2 + y 2 – x = 0 in the first quadrant.
Solution
1. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, polar form of the circle x2 + y2 – x = 0 is r 2 – r cos q = 0,
r = cos q.
2. The region of integration is the part of q= p

2
the circle r = cos q in the first quadrant.
3. Draw an elementary radius vector
A
OA which starts from the origin and
terminates on the circle r = cos q.
4. Limits of r : r = 0 to r = cos q r = cos q
π O
Limits of q : q = 0 to θ= q =0
2
Hence, the polar form of the given integral
is
4 xy − x − y
I = ∫∫ 2
2 2
e dx dy
x + y2
π
Fig. 9.91
cos θ 4r 2 cos θ sin θ − r 2
= ∫2∫ e r dr dθ
0 0 r2
π
cos θ
= −2∫ 2 cos θ sin θ  ∫ e − r ( −2r ) dr  dθ
2
0  0 
π cos θ
= −2∫ 2 cos θ sin θ e − r Q e f ( r ) f ′ (r )dr = e f ( r ) 
 ∫
2
0 dθ 
0
π
(
= −2∫ 2 cos θ sin θ e − cos θ − 1 dθ
0
2
)
π
= − ∫ e − cos θ (2 cos θ sin θ ) − sin 2θ  dθ
2
2
0
π
− cos 2 θ cos 2θ 2
=−e +
2 0
 cos π cos 0 
= −  e0 + − e −1 − 
 2 2 
1
=
e
Example 3
x 2 y2
Evaluate ÚÚ ( x 2 + y2 ) dx dy over the region bounded by the circles
x2 + y2 = a2 and x2 + y2 = b2 (a > b).
Solution
1. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, polar form of
(i) the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is r2 = a2, r = a.
(ii) the circle x2 + y2 = b2 is r 2 = b2, r = b.
2. The region of integration is the part bounded q= p

2
between the circles r = a and r = b.
3. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB
from the origin which enters in the region B
from the circle r = b and terminates on the r=a
circle r = a.
A r=b
4. Limits of r : r = b to r = a
Limits of q : q = 0 to q = 2p O q=0
Hence, the polar form of the given integral is
x2 y 2
I = ÚÚ dx dy
( x2 + y 2 )
2p a r 4 cos 2 q sin 2 q
=Ú Úb ◊ r dr dq
0 r2
a
Fig. 9.92
2p r4
=Ú cos 2 q sin 2 q dq
0 4
b
2 4 4
2psin 2q (a - b )
=Ú ◊ dq
0 4 4
a 4 - b 4 2p (1 - cos 4q )
16 Ú0
= dq
2
Ê a 4 - b4 ˆ sin 4q
2p
=Á ˜q- 4
Ë 32 ¯ 0
Ê a -b ˆ4 4
=Á ˜ (2p )
Ë 32 ¯
p 4
= (a - b4 )
16
Example 4
( x 2 + y 2 )2
Evaluate ÚÚ x 2 y2
dx dy over the region common to the circles
x2 + y 2 = ax and x2 + y2 = by (a, b > 0).
Solution
(i) the circle x2 + y 2 = ax is r 2 = ar cos q, r = a cos q.
(ii) the circle x2 + y 2 = by is r 2 = br sin q, r = b sin q.
2. The region of integration is the common part of the circles r = a cos q and
r = b sin q.
3. The point of intersection of the circle q= p

2
r = a cos q and r = b sin q, is obtained
as r = b sin q
b sin θ = a cos θ q = tan−1 a

b
a P
tan θ = B
b r = a cos q
a A
θ = tan −1
b
O q=0
a −1
Hence, θ = tan at P.
b
4. Divide the region into two subregions
OAP and OBP. Draw an elementary
Fig. 9.93
radius vector OA and OB in each
subregion.
(i) In subregion OAP, elementary radius vector OA starts from the origin and
terminates on the circle r = b sin q.
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = b sin q
a
Limits of q : q = 0 to θ = tan −1
b
(ii) In subregion OBP, elementary radius vector OB starts from the origin and
terminates on the circle r = a cos q.
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = a cos q
a π
Limits of θ : θ = tan −1 to θ =
b 2
( x 2 + y 2 )2
I = ÚÚ dx dy
x 2 y2
a p
tan -1 b sin q r4 a cosq r4
=Ú b
Ú0 ◊ r dr dq + Ú 2 -1 a Ú ◊ r dr dq
0 r 4 sin 2 q cos2 q tan
b
0 r 4 sin 2 q cos2 q
a b sin q p a cosq
tan -1 1 r2 1 r2
=Ú b dq + Ú 2 -1 a dq
0 sin 2 q cos2 q 2 0
tan
b
sin 2 q cos2 q 2 0
a p
1 tan -1 b 1 1 1
2 Ú0
= 2 2
◊ b2 sin 2 q dq + Ú 2 -1 a 2 2
◊ a 2 cos2 q dq
sin q cos q 2 tan sin q cos q b
2 -1 a 2 p
b tan a
Ú0 b sec 2 q
Útan-1 a cosec q dq
2
= dq + 2
2 2
b
-1 a p
b2 tan a2
= tan q 0 b + - cot q 2
a
2 2 tan -1
b
b2 È -1 Ê a ˆ ˘ a2 È p Ê -1 a ˆ ˘
= Í tan tan - tan 0 ˙- Ícot - cot ÁË tan ˙
2 Î
ÁË b ˜¯
˚ 2 Î 2 b ˜¯ ˚
b2 È a ˘ a2 È b˘
= - 0 ˙- 2 Í0 - a ˙
2 ÍÎ b ˚ Î ˚
ab ab
= +
2 2
= ab
Example 5
∞ ∞
∫ ∫
2 2
Evaluate e − ( x + y )dx dy.
0 0
Solution y
1. Limits of x : x = 0 to x → ∞
Limits of y : y = 0 to y → ∞
2. The region of integration is the first
quadrant.
3. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, the integral
changes to polar form.
4. Draw an elementary radius vector which
starts from the origin and extends up to
infinity.
O x
Limits of r : r = 0 to r → ∞
π Fig. 9.94
Limits of q : q = 0 to θ=
2
Hence, the polar form of the given integral is p
q=
2
∞ ∞ r→∞
I=∫ ∫
2
+ y2 )
e−( x dx dy
0 0
p
• 2
= Ú 2 Ú e - r r dr dq
0 0
p
1 2 • -r 2
2 Ú0 Ú0
=- e ( -2r )dr dq
1 2 -r 2 •
p
ÈQ e f (r ) f ¢(r )dr = e f (r ) ˘
2 Ú0 Î Ú
=- e dq
0
˚
p O
1 2 q=0
2 Ú0
=- (0 - e0 )dq
Fig. 9.95
p
1 2
=- -q 0
2
p
=
4
Example 6
∞ ∞ dx dy
Evaluate ∫ ∫−∞ −∞ 3 .
(1 + x + y )
2 2 2
Solution
1. Limits of x : x → −∞ to x→∞
Limits of y : y → −∞ to y→∞ y
2. The region of integration is the entire coor-

dinate plane.
3. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, integral
changes to polar form.
4. Draw an elementary radius vector which
starts from origin and extends up to •. O x
Limits of r : r = 0 to r → ∞
Limits of q : q = 0 to q = 2p
∞ ∞ dx d y
I=∫ ∫ 3
−∞ −∞
(1 + x 2 + y 2 ) 2
Fig. 9.96
2π ∞ r dr dθ
=∫ ∫ 3
0 0
(1 + r 2 ) 2
3
−
1 2π ∞
2 ∫0 ∫0
= + (2r )dr dθ
2 2
(1 r ) q= p
2
1 ∞
1 2π − r→∞
= ∫ −2(1 + r 2 ) 2 dθ
2 0 0
 [ f (r )]n +1 
Q ∫ [ f (r )] f ′ (r )dr =
n

 n +1 
∞
O q=0
2π 1
= −∫ dθ
0
1+ r2 0
2π
= − ∫ (0 − 1)dθ
0
2π
= θ0
= 2π Fig. 9.97
Example 7
x
Evaluate ∫0 ∫
a a
dx dy by transforming into polar coordinates.
y x + y2
2
[Winter 2013]
Solution
y
1. Limits of x : x = y to x = a
2. The region of integration is bounded by
Q (a, a)
the lines y = x, x = a and y = 0.
3. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, polar form
of
y
=
x
(i) the line y = x is r sin q = r cos q, tan x=a
π
q = 1, θ = .
4
(ii) the line x = a is r cos q = a,
O P x
r = a sec q.
4. Draw an elementary radius vector OA
which starts from the origin and terminates
on the line r = a sec q. Fig. 9.98
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = a sec q
π
Limits of q : q = 0 to θ =
4
x
I=∫ ∫
a a
dx dy
0 y x + y2
2
π
a sec θ r cos θ
=∫4∫ ⋅ r d r dθ y q=p
0 0 r2 2
π
a sec θ
= ∫ 4∫ cos θ dr dθ
0 0
Q
π
a sec θ
=∫ r04
cos θ dθ
0
= p
π A
4
= ∫ 4 a sec θ cos θ dθ
q
0
π r = a secq
= a ∫ 4 dθ
0
π P q=0
O
= a θ 04
π
= a⋅
4 Fig. 9.99
πa
=
4
Example 8
2 2 x − x2 x
Evaluate ∫∫ 0 0 x + y2
2
dy dx by transforming into polar coordinates.
Solution
y
1. Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 2 x − x 2
2. The region of integration is bounded by
the circle x 2 + y 2 – 2x = 0 and the lines x 2+y 2−2x = 0
y = 0, x = 0. Since the limits of x and y are
positive, the region of integration is the
part of the circle in the first quadrant. (2, 0)
3. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, polar form O x
of the circle x2 + y 2 – 2x = 0 is
r2 – 2r cos q = 0
r = 2 cos q.
which starts from the origin and termi-
nates on the circle r = 2 cos q. Fig. 9.100
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = 2 cos q
π
Limits of q : q = 0 to θ= p
2 q=
2
2 2 x - x2 x A
I=Ú
0 Ú0
dy dx r = 2 cosq
x 2 + y2
p
2 cosq r cos q
=Ú2Ú ◊ r dr dq
0 0 r2 (2, 0)
p O q=0
2 cosq
=Ú2Ú cos q dr dq
0 0
p
2 cosq
=Ú 2 r0 cos q dq
0
p
= Ú 2 2 cos2 q dq Fig. 9.101
0
p
= Ú (1 + cos 2q )dq
2
0
p
sin 2q 2
= q+
2 0
p 1 1
= + sin p - sin 0
2 2 2
p
=
2
Example 9
1 2 x − x2
Evaluate ∫∫
0 x
( x 2 + y 2 )dx dy.
y
Solution
y=x
1. Limits of y : y = x to y = 2 x − x 2
P
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 1 (1, 1) x 2 + y 2 − 2x = 0
2. The region of integration is bound-
ed by the line y = x and the circle
x2 + y 2 – 2x = 0.
O (1, 0) x
3. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, polar
form of
(i) the line y = x is
π
r sin θ = r cos θ , tan θ = 1, θ = .
4
2 2
(ii) the circle x + y – 2x = 0 is Fig. 9.102
r2 – 2r cos q = 0
r = 2 cos q. q= p
2
q= p
which starts from the origin and termi- A P 4
nates on the circle r = 2 cos q. r = 2 cos q
π π
Limits of θ : θ = to θ =
4 2
Hence, the polar form of the given integral O q=0
is
1 2 x - x2
I=Ú
0 Úx
( x 2 + y 2 )dx dy
p
2 cosq 2
= Ú p2 Ú r ◊ r d r dq
0 Fig. 9.103
4
p 2 cosq
r4
= Ú p2 dq
4
4 0
p
= 4Ú cos4q dq
p
2
4
p 2
Ê 1 + cos 2q ˆ
= 4Ú p2 Á ˜¯ dq
Ë 2
4
p
= Ú (1 + 2 cos 2q + cos2 2q ) dq
p
2
4
p
Ê 1 + cos 4q ˆ
= Ú Á 1 + 2 cos 2q +
2
˜¯ dq
Ë
p
2
4
p
3 2 sin 2q sin 4q 2
= q+ +
2 2 8 p
4
3Êp pˆ Ê pˆ 1
= Á - ˜ - Á sin p - sin ˜ + (sin 2p - sin p )
Ë
2 2 4 ¯ Ë 2¯ 8
3p
= +1
8
Example 10
a2 - y2
y 2 x 2 + y 2 dy dx by changing into
a
Evaluate the integral Ú0 Ú0
polar coordinates. [Summer 2014]
Solution
1. Limits of x : x = 0 to x = a2 - y2
2. The region of integration is bounded by x = 0,
x= a 2 - y 2 , y = 0 and y = a.
3. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, polar form of the
circle x2 + y2 = a2 is
Fig. 9.104
(i) r2 = a2
\r=a
4. Draw an elementary radius vector OA which
circle r = a.
Limits of r: r = 0 to r = a
p
Limit of q: q = 0 to q =
2
Fig. 9.105

p
a 2
I= Ú Ú
2
0 0
r sin 2 q ◊ r ◊ r dr dq
p
sin 2 q ÈÍ Ú r 4 dr ˘˙ dq
a
= Ú
0
2
Î 0 ˚
p a
r5
= Ú
0
2 sin 2 q
5
dq
0
5 p
a
=
5 Ú
0
2 sin 2 q dq
a5 1 p
= ◊ ◊
5 2 2
a 5p
=
20
Example 11
2 2
1 1- x 2 xye - ( x + y )
Evaluate Ú0 Ú x - x2
x 2 + y2
dx dy.
Solution
1. Limits of y : y = x − x 2 to y = 1 − x2
2. The region of integration is the part of y
the first quadrant bounded by the circles
x 2 + y 2 – x = 0 and x 2 + y 2 = 1. x2 + y2 = 1
form of x2 + y2 – x = 0
(i) the circle x 2 + y 2 – x = 0 is P (1, 0)
r2 – r cos q = 0, r = cos q. O x
(ii) the circle x2 + y2 = 1 is r2 = 1, r = 1.
from the origin which enters in the
region from the circle r = cos q and
terminates on the circle r = 1.
Limits of r : r = cos q to r = 1
Fig. 9.106
p
Limits of q : q = 0 to q =
2
Hence, the polar form of the given integral is q= p

2 2
2
1 1- x 2 xye - ( x +y )
I=Ú Ú dx dy
0 x - x2 x 2 + y2 r=1
B
2
r 2 sin q cos q e - r
p
1
=Ú2Ú ◊ r d r dq A r = cos q
0 cosq r2
p
1 2 1 2
=- Ú sin q cos q Ú e - r (-2r ) dr dq O q =0
2 0 cos q
p 1
1 2 2
sin q cos q e - r
2 Ú0
=- dq
cosq
ÈQ e f (r ) f ¢(r )dr = e f (r ) ˘
Î Ú ˚
p
1 2 2 Fig. 9.107
sin q cos q (e -1 - e - cos q )dq
2 Ú0
=-
p
1 2 1Ê1 2 ˆ
=- Ú Á sin 2q - e - cos q ◊ 2 sin q cos q ˜ dq
2 0 2Ëe ¯
p
1 1 Ê cos 2q ˆ - cos2 q 2
ÈQ e f (q ) f ¢(q )dq = e f (q ) ˘
Î Ú
=- - -e
4 e ÁË 2 ˜¯ 0
˚
È Ê pˆ
- Á cos2 ˜ ˘
1Í 1
+ e - cos 0 ˙
2
Ë 2¯
= - - (cos p - cos 0) - e
4 Í 2e ˙
Î ˚
1È 1 ˘
= - Í- (-2) - e0 + e -1 ˙
4 Î 2e ˚
1 È1 1˘
=- -1+ ˙
4 ÍÎ e e˚
1 È 2˘
= 1-
4 ÍÎ e ˙˚
Example 12
4a y x2 - y 2
Evaluate Ú0 Ú y 2
x2 + y 2
dx dy. [Winter 2013]
4a
Solution
y2
1. Limits of x : x = to x = y
4a
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 4a.
2. The region of integration is bounded by the y

line y = x and the parabola y 2 = 4ax.
y 2 = 4ax P(4a, 4a)
(i) the line y = x is r sin q = r cos q,
p
tan q = 1, q = .
4
y
(ii) the parabola y2 = 4ax is
=
x
r 2 sin2 q = 4ar cos q, r = 4a cot q cosec q.
O x
4. Draw an elementary radius vector OA which
parabola r = 4a cotq cosecq.
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = 4a cot q cosec q
p p
Limits of q : q = to q=
4 2 Fig. 9.108
q= p
2 2
2
4a y x -y
I=Ú Úy 2 dx dy
0 x 2 + y2 r = 4a cot q cosec q
4a P
p A
4 a cot q cosec q r 2 (cos2 q - sin 2 q )
=Ú 2
p 0 Ú 2
◊ r dr dq
4
r q= p
4
p 4 a cot q cosec q
2
=Ú 2 (1 - 2 sin 2 q ) r dq
p
2
4 0
p O
1 2 q=0
=
2 p Ú (1 - 2 sin 2 q )(4 a )2 cot 2 q cosec 2q dq
4
p
= Ú
8a 2 p2 (cot 2 q cosec 2q - 2 cot 2 q )dq
4
p
= 8a 2
Ú p
2
Î{ }
È -(cot 2 q )(-cosec 2q ) - 2cosec 2q + 2 ˘ dq
˚
4 Fig. 9.109
p
cot 3 q 2 È [ f (q )]n +1 ˘
= 8a 2 - + 2 cot q + 2q ÍQ Ú [ f (q )] f ¢(q )dq =
n
˙
3 p ÍÎ n + 1 ˙˚
4
È 1Ê p pˆ Ê p pˆ Ê p p ˆ˘
= 8a 2 Í- Á cot 3 - cot 3 ˜ + 2 Á cot - cot ˜ + 2 Á - ˜ ˙
Î 3 Ë 2 4 ¯ Ë 2 4 ¯ Ë 2 4¯˚
È 1 p˘
= 8a 2 Í- (-1) + 2(-1) + 2 ◊ ˙
Î 3 4˚
È 5 p˘
= 8a 2 Í - + ˙
Î 3 2˚
Èp 5˘
= 8a 2 Í - ˙
Î 2 3˚
Example 13
a 5 ax - x 2 x2 + y 2
Evaluate Ú0 Ú2 ax y2
dx dy.
Solution
1. Limits of y : y = 2 ax to y
y = 5ax − x 2 y 2 = 4ax
P
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = a x 2 + y 2 – 5ax = 0
2. Since the limits of x and y are posi-
tive, the region of integration is the
part of the first quadrant bounded O x
by the parabola y 2 = 4ax and the
circle x2 + y 2 – 5ax = 0
form of
(i) the parabola y2 = 4ax is
r2 sin2 q = 4ar cos q, Fig. 9.110
r = 4a cot q cosecq. q= p
2
(ii) the circle x2 + y2 – 5ax = 0 is r = 4a cotq cosecq
r2 – 5ar cos q = 0, B P
r = 5a cos q. r = 5a cosq
A
r = 4a cotq cosecq and r = 5a cos q
are obtained as O q=0
4a cot q cosec q = 5a cos q
4
sin 2 q =
5
2
q = ± sin -1
5
Fig. 9.111
-1 2
Hence, q = sin at P.
5
5. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB from the origin which enters in the region
from the parabola r = 4a cotq cosecq and terminates on the circle r = 5a cos q.
Limits of r : r = 4a cotq cosecq to r = 5a cos q
2 p
Limits of q : q = sin -1 to q =
5 2
a 5 ax - x 2 x 2 + y2
I=Ú Ú2 d x dy
0 ax y2
p
5 a cosq r
=Ú 2
-1 2 Ú4 a cot q cosecq r 2 sin2 q r dr dq
sin
5
p
5 a cosq
=Ú 2
-1 2 cosec 2q r 4 a cot q cosecq dq
sin
5
p
=Ú 2
2 cosec 2q (5a cos q - 4 a cot q cosecq )dq
sin -1
5
p
=Ú 2 È5a cot q cosecq + 4 a cosec 2q (-cosec q cot q )˘ dq
sin -1
2 Î ˚
5
p
cosec3q 2 È [ f (q )]n +1 ˘
= -5acosecq + 4 a ÍQ Ú [ f (q )] f ¢(q )dq =
n
˙
3 2 ÍÎ n + 1 ˙˚
sin -1
5
È p Ê 2 ˆ 4a p 4a Ê 2 ˆ˘
= Í-5acosec + 5acosec Á sin -1 ˜ + cosec3 - cosec3 Á sin -1 ˙
ÍÎ 2 Ë 5¯ 3 2 3 Ë 5 ˜¯ ˚˙
È Ê 2 ˆ Ê 5ˆ˘
È 3˘ ÍQ cosec Á sin -1 = cosec Á cosec -1 ˙
Í 5 4a 4a Ê 5 ˆ ˙ Í Ë ˜
5¯ Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙
= -5a + 5a + -
Í 2 3 3 ÁË 2 ˜¯ ˙ Í ˙
Î ˚ Í 5 ˙
ÍÎ = ˙˚
2
=
a
(5 5 - 11)
3
Example 14
n
Ê x2 y 2 ˆ 2
Evaluate ÚÚ xy Á + ˜ dx dy over the first quadrant of the ellipse
Ë a 2 b2 ¯
x2 y 2
+ = 1.
a 2 b2
Solution
Let x = ar cos q, y = br cos q
∂x ∂x
∂( x, y) ∂r ∂q y
J= =
∂(r , q ) ∂y ∂y
∂r ∂q
a cos q - ar sin q
= = abr
b sin q br cos q
O x
dx dy = J dr dq = abr dr dq
Under the transformation x = ar cos q,

x2 y 2
y = br sin q, the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 in the
a b
xy-plane gets transformed to r 2 = 1 or r = 1,
Fig. 9.112
circle with centre (0, 0) and radius 1 in the
rq -plane.
p
The region of integration is the part of the q=
2
circle r = 1 in first quadrant in the rq -plane.
Draw an elementary radius vector OA which A
starts from the origin and terminates on the r=1
circle r = 1.
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = 1 O q=0
p
2
n
Ê x 2 y2 ˆ 2
I = ÚÚ xy Á 2 + 2 ˜ dx dy Fig. 9.113
Ëa b ¯
p n
1
= Ú 2 Ú abr 2 cos q sin q (r 2 ) 2 abr dr dq
0 0
p
sin 2q 1 n + 3
= a 2 b2 Ú 2
2 Ú0
(r ) dr
0
p 1
a 2 b2 cos 2q 2 r n+4
= -
2 2 0 n+4
0
2 2
a b 1
= (- cos p + cos 0) ◊
4 n+4
a 2 b2
=
2(n + 4)
ExERCIsE 9.5
Change to polar coordinates and evaluate the following integrals:
1
1. ∫∫ xy
dx dy over the region bounded by the semicircle x 2 + y 2 – x = 0,
y ≥ 0.
 p 
 Ans. : 
 2
∫∫ y
2
2. dx dy over the area outside the circle x 2 + y 2 – ax = 0 and inside the
circle x 2 + y 2 – 2ax = 0.
 15p a 4 
 Ans. : 
 64 
∫∫ sin(x + y 2 )dx dy over the circle x2 + y2 = a2.

2
3.
 Ans. : p(1 − cos a 2 )

3
∫∫ xy(x + y 2 ) 2 dx dy over the first quadrant of the circle x2 + y2 = a2.

2
4.
 a7 
 Ans. : 
 14 
3 3x dy dx
5. ∫∫ 0 0
x2 + y2
 3 
 Ans. : 2 log 3
 
a x x 3 dx dy
6. Ú Ú 0 0
x2 + y2
 
a4
(
 Ans. : log 1 + 2 
 4 
)
a a2 − x 2 p 
7. ∫ ∫ 0 0
sin  2 (a 2 − x 2 − y 2 ) dx dy
a 
 a2 
 Ans. : 
 2
a a2 − x 2
∫ ∫
2
−y2
8. e−x dx dy
0 0


p
(
 Ans. : 4 1 − e
−a 2 


)
2a 2 ax − x 2
9. ∫ ∫
0 0
(x 2 + y 2 )dx dy
È 3p a 4 ˘
Í Ans. : ˙
Î 4 ˚
1 x - x2 4 xy
ÚÚ
2 2
10. e -( x + y ) dx dy
0 0 x +y 2
2
È 1˘
Í Ans. : e ˙
Î ˚
a
a2 - y 2
11. Ú Ú
0
2
y
log e(x 2 + y 2 )dx dy
È p 2Ê 1ˆ ˘
Í Ans. : a ÁË log a - ˜¯ ˙
Î 4 2 ˚
a a + a2 - y 2 dx dy
12. Ú Ú
0 y (4 a 2 + x 2 + y 2 )3
È 1 Êp 1 1 ˆ˘
Í Ans. : 2 Á - tan-1 ˜˙
Î 8a Ë 4 2 2¯˚
a a2 - x 2 dx dy
13. Ú Ú
0 ax - x 2
a - x2 - y2
2
ÈÎAns. : a ˘˚
a a2 - x 2 xy
Ú Ú
2 2
14. e -( x + y ) dx dy
0 ax - x 2 x +y 22
È 1 È - a2 ˘ ˘
Í Ans. : 4 a 2 Î1 - (1 + a )e ˚ ˙
2
Î ˚
1 x dx dy
15. ÚÚ0 x2
x2 + y2
È Ans. : 2 - 1˘
Î ˚
9.5.2 Change of Variables from Cartesian to

Other Coordinates
In some cases, evaluation of double integral becomes easier by changing the variables.
Let the variables x, y be replaced by new variables u, v by the transformation
x = f1 (u, v), y = f2 (u, v), then
ÚÚ f ( x, y)dx dy = ÚÚ f ( f1 , f2 ) J dudv ... (1)

∂x ∂x
∂( x, y) ∂u ∂v
where Jacobian J = =
∂(u, v) ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v
Using Eq. (1), the double integral can be transformed to new variables.
Example 1
Ê x - yˆ
Using the transformation x - y = u, x + y = v, evaluate ÚÚ cos Á dxdy
Ë x + y ˜¯
over the region bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 1.
Solution x - y = u, x + y = v
u+v v-u
x= ,y =
2 2
∂x ∂x 1 1
∂( x, y) ∂u ∂v 2 2 1 1 1
J= = = = + =
∂(u, v) ∂y ∂y 1 1 4 4 2
-
∂u ∂v 2 2
1
dxdy = J dudv = dudv
2
The region bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0 and x + y = 1 in xy-plane is a triangle
OPQ.
u+v v-u
Under the transformation x = and y = ,
2 2
(i) the line x = 0 gets transformed to the line u = –v
y
v
v=1
Q C
Q' P'
x=0 x+y=1 A B
u = −v u=v
P
O x O u
y=0
Fig. 9.114
(ii) the line y = 0 gets transformed to the line u = v

(iii) the line x + y = 1 gets transformed to the line v = 1
Thus, triangle OPQ in xy-plane gets transformed to triangle OP'Q' in uv-plane bounded
by the lines u = v, u = –v and v = 1.
In the region, draw a horizontal strip AB parallel to u-axis which starts from the line
u = –v and terminates on the line u = v.
Limits of u : u = –v to u = v
Limits of v : v = 0 to v = 1
Ê x - yˆ
I = ÚÚ cos Á dx dy
Ë x + y ˜¯
1 v Ê uˆ 1
=Ú
0 Ú- v
cos Á ˜ du dv
Ë v¯ 2
v
1 1 Ê uˆ
= Ú v sin Á ˜ dv
2 0 Ë v¯ -v
1 1
v [sin 1 - sin(-1)] dv
2 Ú0
=
1
1 v2
= ◊ 2 sin 1
2 2
0
1
= sin 1
2
Example 2
Using the transformation x 2 - y 2 = u , 2 xy = v, find ÚÚ ( x + y ) dx dy
2 2
over the region in the first quadrant bounded by x2 – y2 = 1, x2 – y2 = 2,

xy = 4, xy = 2.
Solution
x2 – y2 = u, 2xy = v
It is difficult to express x and y in terms of u and v, therefore we write Jacobian of u,
v in terms of x and y.
∂u ∂u
∂ (u, v) ∂x ∂y 2x − 2y
J= = = = 4 ( x 2 + y2 )
∂ ( x , y ) ∂v ∂v 2y 2x
∂x ∂y
(
dudv = J dxdy = 4 x 2 + y 2 dxdy )
1
dxdy = dudv
(
4 x + y2
2
)
The region in xy-plane bounded by the curves x2 – y2 = 1, x2 – y2 = 2, xy = 4, xy = 2 is
transformed to a square in uv-plane bounded by the lines u = 1, u = 2, v = 4, v = 8.
In the region, draw a vertical strip AB parallel to the v-axis which starts from the line
v = 4 and terminates on the line v = 8.
I = ÚÚ ( x 2 + y 2 ) dx dy
2 8 1
=Ú Ú4 ( x
2
+ y2 ) du dv
1 4 ( x + y2 )
2
1 2 8
= u v
4 1 4
=1
v
y
xy = 4 v=8
R' B Q'
xy = 2
R x2 − y2 = 1
Q
x2 − y2 = 2
S S' A P'
v=4
P u=2
u=1
O x O u
Fig. 9.115
Example 3
Ú Ú (x
2
Evaluate + y 2 ) dA by changing the variables, where R is
R
the region lying in the first quadrant and bounded by the hyperbola
x2 – y2 = 1, x2 – y2 = 9, xy = 2 and xy = 4. [Summer 2014]
Solution
Let u = x2 – y2 v = xy
∂u ∂u
∂(u, v) ∂x ∂y 2 x -2 y
J= = =
∂( x, y) ∂v ∂v y x
∂x ∂y
= 2x2 + 2y2 = 2(x2 + y2)
du dv = |J| dx dy = 2(x2 + y2) dx dy
1
dx dy = ◊ du dv
2( x + y 2 )
2
The region in the xy-plane bounded by the curves x2 – y2 – 1, x2 – y2 = 9, xy = 2 and xy = 4

is transformed to a square in the uv-plane bounded by the lines u = 1, u = 9, v = 2, v = 4.
v
y
xy = 4 v=8
R' B Q'
xy = 2
R x2 − y2 = 1
Q
x2 − y2 = 9
S S' A P'
v=4
P u=2
u=1
O x O u
Fig. 9.116
ÚÚ ( x
2
I= + y 2 ) dx dy
R
1
ÚÚ ( x
2
= + y2 ) ◊ du dv
R 2( x + y 2 )
2
1
=
2 ÚÚ du dv
49
1
=
2 Ú Ú du dv
21
1 4 9
= v u1
2 2
1
= (4 - 2) (9 - 1)
2
1
= (2)(8)
2
=8
Example 4
Using the transformation x + y = u, y = uv, show that
y
1 1- x x+ y 1
Ú0 Ú0 e dy dx =
2
(e - 1). [Winter 2014]
Solution
x + y = u, y = uv
x = u(1 - v), y = uv
∂x ∂x
∂( x, y) ∂u ∂v 1 - v - u
J= = = = (1 - v)u + uv = u
∂(u, v) ∂y ∂y v u
∂u ∂v
dxdy = J du udv = udu dv
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 – x
The region in xy-plane is the triangle OPQ bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0 and x + y = 1.
Under the transformation x = u (1 – v) and y = uv,
(i) the line x = 0 gets transformed to the line u = 0 or v = 1
(ii) the line y = 0 gets transformed to the line u = 0 or v = 0
(iii) the line x + y = 1 gets transformed to the line u = 1
v
y
v=1
R' B Q' (1, 1)
Q
u=0 u=1
P
O x O A P' u
v=0
Fig. 9.117
Thus, the triangle OPQ in the xy-plane gets transformed to the square OP'Q'R' in
uv-plane bounded by the lines u = 0, v = 0, u = 1 and v = 1.
In the region, draw a vertical strip AB parallel to the v-axis which starts from the u-axis
and terminates on the line v = 1.
Limits of u : u = 0 to u = 1 y
1 1- x
I=Ú Ú e x + y dx dy
0 0
1 1 v
=Ú Úe udu dv
0 0
1
1 u2
= ev
0 2
0
1
= (e1 - e0 ) ◊
2
1
= (ee -1)
2
Example 5
y
2 2x -
4 +1 y
Evaluate
Ú0 Ú y
2
dx dy by applying the transformations
2
2x - y y
u= , v = . Draw both regions. [Winter 2015]
2 2
Solution
1. The function is integrated first w.r.t. x.
y y
2. Limits of x : x = to x = + 1
2 2
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 4.
3. The region is the parallelogram bounded
y y
by the lines x = , x = + 1, y = 0 and
2 2
y = 4 in xy-plane.
Applying the transformations
2x - y y
u= , v=
2 2
y Fig. 9.118
= x-
2
y
(i) the line x - = 0 mapped to the line u = 0
2
y
(ii) the line x - = 1 mapped to the line u = 1
2
(iii) the line y = 0 mapped to the line v = 0
(iv) the line y = 4 mapped to the line v = 2
Hence, the parallelogram OABC in the xy-plane
mapped to the rectangle O¢A¢B¢C¢ in uv-plane,
bounded by the lines u = 0, u = 1, v = 0 and v = 2.
In the region, draw a vertical strip AB parallel to the Fig. 9.119
v-axis which starts from the u-axis and terminates on the line v = 2.
Limits of u : u = 0 to u = 1
dxdy = J du dv
∂( x, y)
where Jacobian, J =
∂(u, v)
1 ∂(u, v)
J* = =
J ∂( x, y)
∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y
=
∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y
1
1 -
2
=
1
0
2
1
=
2
1
\ dxdy = dudv
2
Hence, the new form of the integral is
4 y +1 2 x - y
I = Ú Úy dxdy
0
2 2
2 1 1
=Ú Ú u ◊ du dv
v=0 u=0 2
1
1 2 u2
= Ú dv
2 0 2
0
1 2
= v0
4
1
= (2 )
4
=2
Example 6
Using the transformation x = u (1 + v), y = v(1 + u ), u ≥ 0, v ≥ 0,
1
2 y -
Ú0 Ú0 ÈÎ( x - y) + 2( x + y ) + 1˘˚ dydx.
2 2
evaluate
Solution
x = u(1 + v), y = v(1 + u)
∂x ∂x
∂( x, y) ∂u ∂v 1 + v u
J= = = = 1+ u + v
∂(u, v) ∂y ∂y v 1+ u
∂u ∂v
dxdy = J dudv = (1 + u + v) dudv
y y=x
y=2
v (1 + u) = 2
Q
P
Q' v=u
x=0 B
u = −1
P'(1, 1)
u=0
A
O x O u
Fig. 9.120
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 2.
The region in the xy-plane is the DOPQ bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 2 and y = x.
Under the transformation x = u (1 + v), y = v (1 + u), u ≥ 0, v ≥ 0
(i) the line x = 0 gets transformed to the line u = 0
(ii) the line y = 2 gets transformed to the curve v (1 + u) = 2
(iii) the line y = x gets transformed to the line u = v
Thus, the triangle OPQ in the xy-plane gets transformed to the region OP'Q' in uv
plane bounded by the lines u = 0, u = v and the curve v (1 + u) = 2.
The point of intersection of u = v and v (1 + u) = 2 is obtained as u2 + u – 2 = 0, u = 1, –2
and v = 1, –2.
The point of intersection is P' (1,1).
In the region, draw a vertical strip AB parallel to the v-axis which starts from the line
u = v and terminates on the curve v (1 + u) = 2.
2
Limits of v : v = u to v =
1+ u
1
2 y -
I=Ú È( x - y)2 + 2( x + y) + 1˘
Ú
2
Î ˚ dy dx
0 0
1
2 -
1 2
=Ú È(u - v)2 + 2(u + v + 2uv) + 1˘
0 u Ú
1+ u
Î ˚ (1 + u + v)du dv
2
1
=Ú 1+ u (1 + u + v ) -1 (1 + u + v ) dv du
0 u Ú
2
1
=Ú Ú
1+ u dv du
u
0 u
2
1 1+ u
=Ú v du
0 u
1Ê 2 ˆ
=Ú Á - u˜ du
0 Ë 1+ u ¯
1
u2
= 2 log(1 + u) -
2
0
1
= 2 log 2 -
2
Example 7
Evaluate ÚÚ xy dxdy by changing the variables over the region in the
first quadrant bounded by the hyperbolas x2 – y2 = a2, x2 – y2 = b2 and the
circles x2 + y2 = c2, x2 + y2 = d2 with 0 < a < b < c < d.
Solution
Let x 2 - y 2 = u, x 2 + y 2 = v
u+v 2 v-u
x2 = ,y =
2 2
∂x ∂x 1 1
∂( x, y) ∂u ∂v 4x 4x 1
J= = = =
∂(u, v) ∂y ∂y 1 1 8 xy
-
∂u ∂v 4y 4y
1
dxdy = J dudv = dudv
8 xy
dudv
xydxdy =
8
The region bounded by the hyperbolas x2 – y2 = a2, x2 – y2 = b2 and the circles x2 + y2 = c2, x2
+ y2 = d 2 in xy-plane is the curvilinear rectangle PQRS.
v
y v = d2
S' B R'
x2 − y2 = a2
R x2 − y2 = b2
Q u = b2
S u = a2
P x2 + y 2 = d2 P' A Q'
v = c2
x
O u
x2 + y2 = c2
Fig. 9.121
Under the transformation x2 – y2 = u and x2 + y2 = v,

(i) the hyperbolas x2 – y2 = a2, x2 – y2 = b2 get transformed to the lines u = a2,
u = b2 respectively.
(ii) the circles x2 + y2 = c2, x2 + y2 = d 2 get transformed to the lines v = c2, v = d 2
respectively.
Thus, the curvilinear rectangle PQRS in the xy-plane gets transformed to the rectangle
P'Q'R'S' in uv-plane bounded by the lines u = a2, u = b2, v = c2 and v = d 2.
In the region, draw a vertical strip AB parallel to v-axis which starts from the line
v = c2 and terminates on the line v = d 2.
Limits of v : v = c2 to v = d 2
Limits of u : u = a2 to u = b2
I = ÚÚ xydxdy
b2 d2 1
=Ú 2 Úv = c 2 dudv
u=a 8
1 b2 d 2
= u 2 v 2
8 a c
1
= (b 2 - a 2 )(d 2 - c 2 )
8
Example 8
Evaluate ∫∫ ( x + y ) dx dy, by changing the variables
2
over the
parallelogram with vertices (1, 0), (3, 1), (2, 2), (0, 1).
Solution
The region of integration in xy-plane is the parallelogram PQRS.
Equations of the sides of the parallelogram are obtained as
1− 0 y
(i) PQ : y − 0 = ( x − 1)
3 −1
2 y = x −1
x − 2y =1 R (2, 2)
2 −1
(ii) RS : y − 1 = ( x − 0) S
2−0 Q (3, 1)
2y − 2 = x (0, 1)
x − 2 y = −2
O P (1, 0) x
(iii) PS : y − 0 = 1 − 0 ( x − 1)
0 −1
x + y =1
Fig. 9.122
2 −1
(iv) QR : y − 1 = ( x − 3)
2−3
y −1 = −x + 3
x+ y = 4
Let x − 2 y = u, x + y = v
u + 2v v−u
x= ,y=
3 3
∂x ∂x 1 2
∂( x, y) ∂u ∂v 3 3 1
J= = = =
∂(u, v) ∂y ∂y 1 1 3
-
∂u ∂v 3 3
1
dxdy = J dudv = du udv
3
Under the transformation x – 2y = u, and x + y = v
(i) the lines x – 2y = 1, x – 2y = –2 get transformed to the lines u = 1, u = –2
respectively.
(ii) the lines x + y = 1, x + y = 4 get transformed to the lines v = 1, v = 4 respectively
Thus, the parallelogram PQRS in the xy-
v=4 v
plane gets transformed to a square P'Q'R'S'
in uv-plane bounded by the lines u = 1, u = R' B Q'
–2, v = 1 and v = 4.
In the region, draw a vertical strip AB
parallel to v-axis which starts from the line
v = 1 and terminates on the line v = 4.
u = −2 u=1
Limits of u : u = –2 to u = 1
I = ÚÚ ( x + y)2 dxdy
1 4 1
=Ú
u = 2 Úv =1
2 S' A P'
v dudv
3
4
v=1
1 1 v3 O u
= u -2
3 3
1 Fig. 9.123
= 21
Example 9
n
Ê x2 y 2 ˆ 2
Evaluate ÚÚ xy Á 2 + 2 ˜ over the first quadrant of the ellipse
Ëa b ¯
x2 y 2
+ = 1.
a 2 b2
Solution
Let x = ar cos q, y = br sin q y
∂x ∂x
∂ ( x, y ) ∂r ∂ q
J= =
∂(r , q ) ∂y ∂y
∂r ∂ q
a cos q − ar sin q
= = abr O x
b sin q br cos q
dx dy = J dr dq = abr dr dq
Under the transformation x = ar cos q,

x2 y2
y = br sin q, the ellipse = 1. in the
+ Fig. 9.124
a 2 b2
xy-plane gets transformed to r2 = 1 or r =
1, circle with centre (0, 0) and radius 1 in the rq -plane.
The region of integration is the part of the circle r = 1 in first quadrant in the
rq-plane. In the region, draw an elementary radius vector OA from the pole which
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = 1
p
2 q=p
2
n
Ê x 2 y2 ˆ 2 A
I = ÚÚ xy Á 2 + 2 ˜ dxdy r=1
Ëa b ¯
p n O
1 q=0
= Ú 2 Ú abr 2 cos q sin q (r 2 ) 2 abr dr dq
0 0
p
sin 2q 1 n +3
= a 2 b2 Ú 2 Ú0 (r ) dr
0 2
p 1
a 2 b2 cos 2q 2 r n+4 Fig. 9.125
= -
2 2 0 n+4
0
2 2
a b 1
= (- cos p + cos 0) ◊
4 n+4
a 2 b2
=
2(n + 4)
ExERCIsE 9.6
x -y
ÚÚ e dxdy over
x +y
1. Using the transformation x + y = u, x – y = v, evaluate
the region bounded by x = 0, y = 0 and x + y = 1.
È 1Ê 1ˆ ˘
Í Ans.: ÁË e - ˜¯ ˙
Î 4 e ˚
2. Using the transformation x2 – y2 = u, 2xy = v, evaluate ÚÚ (x - y )dxdy

2 2
over the region bounded by the hyperbolas x2 – y2 = 1, x2 – y2 = 9, xy = 2

and xy = 4.
[Ans.: 4]
3. Using the transformation x + y = u, y = uv, evaluate
• •
Ú Ú
0 0
e -( x + y ) x p -1y q -1dx dy .
È Ans.: p q ˘
Î ˚
1 x
4. Using the transformation x = u, y = uv, evaluate ∫∫
0 0
x 2 + y 2 dx dy .
È 1È 2 1 ˘˘
Í Ans.: Í
ÍÎ 3 ÍÎ 2 2
(
+ log 1 + 2 ˙ ˙
˚˙ ˙˚
)
∫∫ (x + y) dx dy by changing the variables over the region bounded

2
5. Evaluate
by the parallelogram with sides x + y = 0, x + y = 2, 3x – 2y = 0 and 3x – 2y = 3.
 8
 Ans. : 5 
 
6. Evaluate ∫∫ (x − y )4 e x + y dx dy , by changing the variables over the region

bounded by the square with vertices at (1, 0), (2, 1), (1, 2), (0, 1).
 e3 − e 
 Ans. : 
 5 
1
7. Evaluate ∫∫ [ xy (1 − x − y )]2 dx dy , by changing the variables over the region
bounded by the triangle with sides x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 1.
È 2p ˘
Í Ans.: 105 ˙
Î ˚
9.6 tRIPlE IntEGRAls
Let f (x, y, z) be a continuous function defined in a closed and bounded region V in

3-dimensional space. Divide the region V into small elementary parallelopipeds by
drawing planes parallel to the coordinate planes. Let the total number of complete
parallelopipeds which lie inside the region V be n. Let d Vr be the volume of the rth
parallelopiped and (xr, yr, zr) be any point in this parallelopiped. Consider the sum
n
S = Â f ( xr , yr , zr )d Vr …(1)
r =1
where, d Vr = d xr ◊ d yr ◊ d zr
If we increase the number of elementary parallelopipeds, n, then the volume of each
parallelopiped decreases. Hence as n Æ •, d Vr Æ 0.
The limit of the sum given by Eq. (1), if it exists is called the triple integral of
f (x, y, z) over the region V and is denoted by ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)dV
V
n
Hence, ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z )dV = lim
n Æ•
Â f ( xr , yr , zr )d Vr
V d Vr Æ 0 r =1
where dV = dx dy dz
9.6.1 triple Integrals in Cartesian Coordinates

Triple integral of a continuous function f (x, y, z) over a region V can be evaluated by
three successive integrations.
Let the region V be bounded below by a surface z = z1 (x, y) and above by a surface
z = z2 (x, y). Let the projection of region V in xy-plane be R which be bounded by the
curves y = y1(x), y = y2(x) and x = a, x = b. Then the triple integral is defined as
b È y2 ( x )
I = Ú ÍÚ
a Î y1 ( x ) {Ú z2 ( x , y )
z1 ( x , y ) } ˘
f ( x, y, z ) dz dy ˙ dx
˚
Note: The order of variables in dx dy dz indicates the order of integration. In some
cases this order is not maintained. Therefore, it is advisable to identify the order of
integration with the help of the limits.
9.6.2 triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

Cylindrical coordinates r, q, z are used to evaluate the integral in the regions which
are bounded by cylinders along z-axis, planes through z-axis, planes perpendicular to
the z-axis.
Relations between Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates (x, y, z) and cylindrical

coordinates (r, q, f ) are given as x = r cos q
y = r sin q
z=z
z
Then ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z )dx dy dz
= ÚÚÚ f (r cos q , r sin q , z ) J dz dr dq

P (r, q, z)
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂r ∂q ∂z z=z
∂( x, y, z ) ∂y ∂y ∂y
where, J= = y = r sin q N
∂(r , q , z ) ∂r ∂q ∂z O
y
∂z ∂z ∂z
q
90°
os
q
rc
∂r ∂q ∂z r
=
x
90°
cos q -r sin q 0 M Q
= sin q r cos q 0 x
0 0 1 Fig. 9.126
= cos q (r cos q ) + r sin q (sin q )
=r
Hence, ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)dx dy dz = ÚÚÚ f (r cos q , r sin q , z)r dz dr dq
9.6.3 triple Integrals in spherical Coordinates

Spherical coordinates (r, q, f ) are used z
to evaluate the integral in the regions
which are bounded by the sphere with
P (x, y, z)
centre at the origin.
Relations between cartesian (rectangu-
lar) coordinates (x, y, z) and spherical r z = r cos q
q
coordinates (r, q, f ) are given as
y = r sin q sin f N
x = r sin q cos f O
y
f
y = r sin q sin f
s
90°
co
f
rs
q
in
in
z = r cos q
rs
q
=
90°
x
Then M Q
ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)dx dy dz x
= ÚÚÚ f (r sin q cos f , r sin q sin f , r cos q ) J dr dq df Fig. 9.127

∂x ∂x ∂x
∂r ∂q ∂f
∂( x, y, z ) ∂y ∂y ∂y
where J= =
∂(r , q , f ) ∂r ∂q ∂f
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂r ∂q ∂f
sin q cos f r cos q cos f -r sin q sin f
= sin q sin f r cos q sin f r sin q cos f
cos q -r sin q 0
= sin q cos f (r 2 sin 2 q cos f ) - r cos q cos f (-r sin q cos f cos q )
- r sin q sin f (-r sin 2 q sin f - r cos2 q sin f )
= r 2 sin q cos2 f (sin 2 q + cos2 q ) + r 2 sin q sin 2 f
= r 2 sin q
ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)dx dy dz = ÚÚÚ f (r sin q cos f, r sin q sin f, r cos q )r
2
Hence, sin q dr dq df.
Note: If the region of integration is a sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = a2 with centre at (0, 0, 0)
and radius a, then limits of r, q, f are
(i) For positive octant of the sphere,
r : r = 0 to r = a
p
q : q = 0 to q =
2
p
f : f = 0 to f =
2
(ii) For hemisphere,
r : r = 0 to r = a
p
q : q = 0 to q =
2
f : f = 0 to f = 2p
(iii) For complete sphere,

r : r = 0 to r = a
q : q = 0 to q = p
f : f = 0 to f = 2p
9.6.4 Change of Variables

In some cases, evaluation of a triple integral becomes easier by changing the variables.
Let the variables x, y, z be replaced by new variables u, v, w by the transformation x =
f1 (u, v, w), y = f2 (u, v, w), z = f3 (u, v, w).
Then ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)dx dy dz = ÚÚÚ f ( f1 , f2 , f3 ) J du dv dw

∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂w
∂( x, y, z ) ∂y ∂y ∂y
where, J= =
∂(u, v, w) ∂u ∂v ∂w
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂u ∂v ∂w
9.6.5 Working Rule for Evaluation of triple Integrals

1. Draw all the planes and surfaces and identify the region of integration.
2. Draw an elementary volume parallel to z ( y or x) axis.
3. Find the variation of z ( y or x) along the elementary volume.
4. Lower and upper limits of z ( y or x) are obtained from the equation of the surface
(or plane) where elementary volume starts and terminates respectively.
5. Find the projection of the region on xy (zx or yz) plane.
6. Draw the region of projection in xy (zx or yz) plane.
7. Follow the steps of double integration to find the limits of x and y (z and x or y
and z).
Note: (1) If the region is bounded by the cylinders along the z-axis, planes through
z-axis, the planes perpendicular to the z-axis, then the cylindrical coordinates are used.
(2) If the region is bounded by the sphere, then the spherical coordinates are used.
type I Evaluation of triple Integrals when limits are Given
Example 1
1 2 e
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 dy dx dz.
Solution
1 2 e 1 2È e ˘
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 dy dx dz = Ú0 Ú0 ÍÎ Ú0 dy ˙˚dx dz
1 2 e
=Ú
0 Ú0
y dx dz
0
= Ú Í Ú e dx ˘˙ dz
1È 2
0Î 0 ˚
1 2
= e Ú x dz
0 0
1
= e Ú 2 dz
0
1
= 2e z 0
= 2e
Another method
Since all the limits are constant and integrand (function) is explicit in x, y and z, the
integral can be written as
1 2 e 1 2 e
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 dy dx dz = Ú0 dz ◊Ú0 dx ◊ Ú0 dy
1 2
= z0◊ x0◊ y0
e
= 1◊ 2 ◊ e
= 2e.
Example 2
2 3 2
Evaluate Ú0 Ú1 Ú1 xy 2 z dz dy dx.
Solution
Since all the limits are constant and integrand (function) is explicit in x, y and z, the
2 3 2 2 3 2
Ú0 Ú1 Ú1 xy z dz dy dx = Ú x dx ◊Ú y 2 dy ◊ Ú z dz
2
0 1 1
2 3 2
x2 y3 z2
= ◊ ◊
2 3 2
0 1 1
26 3
= 2◊ ◊
3 2
= 26
Example 3
1 p p
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 y sin z dx dy dz. [Winter 2013]
Solution
Since all the limits are constant and integrand (function) is explicit in x, y, and z, the
1 p p 1 p p
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 y sin z dx dy dz = Ú0 sin z dzÚ0 y dyÚ0 dx
p
1 y2 p
= - cos z 0 ◊ ◊ x0
2
0
Ê p2 ˆ
= ( - cos 1 + cos 0) Á ˜ (p )
Ë 2 ¯
p3
= (1 - cos 1)
2
Example 4
1 z 2p
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 (r 2 cos2 q + z 2 )rdq drdz. [Winter 2016]
Solution
1 z
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0
2p
(r 2 cos2 q + z 2 )rdq drdz = Ú
1
0 Ú0 Ú0
z
{ 2p
}
[r 2 cos2 q + z 2 ] dq r drdz
1 z ÏÔ 2p È 2 Ê 1 + cos 2q ˆ ˘ ¸Ô
=Ú
0 Ú0
Ì Ú0 Ír ÁË ˜ + z 2 ˙ dq ˝ r drdz
Ô Ó Î 2 ¯ ˚ ˛Ô
ÏÔ È 1 Ê 2p ¸
1 z sin 2q ˆ 2 ˘ Ô
=Ú Ú Ìr Í r Á q +
2
˜ + z q ˙ ˝ d r dz
0 0
ÔÓ Î 2 Ë 2 ¯ ˚ 0 Ô˛
1 z È1 3 2 ˘
= 2p Ú Ú Í 2 r + z r ˙ drdz
0 0 Î ˚
2
1 r4 r2
= 2p Ú + z2 dz
0 8 2
0
1 z2 z3
= 2p Ú + dz
0 8 2
1
È z3 z 4 ˘
= 2p Í + ˙
ÍÎ 24 8 ˙˚ 0
È 1 1˘
= 2p Í + ˙
Î 24 8 ˚
È 3 + 1˘
= 2p Í ˙
Î 24 ˚
4
= 2p ◊
24
p
=
3
Example 5
1 1- x x+ y
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 dx dy dz.
Solution
1 1- x È x + y
dz ˘˙ dy dx
1 1- x x+ y
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 dx dy dz = Ú
0 0 Ú ÍÎ Ú0 ˚
1 1- x x+ y
=Ú
0 Ú0
z dy dx
0
1 1- x
=Ú Ú ( x + y)dy dx
0 0
1- x
1 y2
= Ú xy + dx
0 2
0
1È (1 - x )2 ˘
= Ú Í x(1 - x ) + ˙ dx
0
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
1È (1 - x )2 ˘
= Ú Í x - x2 + ˙ dx
0Î 2 ˚
1
x 2 x 3 1 (1 - x )3
= - + ◊
2 3 2 (-3)
0
1 1 1
= - +
2 3 6
1
=
3
Example 6
1 1- x x+ y z
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 e dx dy dz.
Solution
1 1- x x+ y z 1 1- x È x + y z ˘
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 e dx dy dz = Ú
0 0 ÍÚ Î 0 Ú e dz ˙ dy dx
˚
1 1- x x+ y
=Ú
0 Ú0
ez dy dx
0
= Ú ÈÍ Ú (e x + y - e0 )dy ˘˙ dx
1 1- x
0Î 0 ˚
1 1- x
= Ú ex+ y - y dx
0 0
1
= Ú ÈÎ(e - e x ) - (1 - x )˘˚ dx
0
1
x2
= (e - 1) x + - ex
2
0
1
= (e - 1) + - e + e0
2
1
=
2
Example 7
a x x+ y
x+ y+ z
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 e dz dy dx.
Solution
dz dy dx = Ú e x Ú e y ÈÍ Ú e z dz ˘˙ dy dx
a x x+ y x+ y+ z a x x+ y
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 e
0 0 Î 0 ˚
a x x+ y
= Ú e x Ú e y ez dy d x
0 0 0
=Ú
a x x y
0
e
0Úe e x+ y
( )
- e 0 dy dx
=Ú
a x È x x 2y
0
e Í e e
Î 0 Ú ( - e ) dy ˘˙ dx
y
˚
x
a x e2 y
=Ú e e ◊ x
- e y dx
0 2
0
a ÈÊ e 1ˆ2x ˘
= Ú e x ÍÁ e x ◊ - e x ◊ ˜ - (e x - e0 )˙ dx
0 ÎË 2 2 ¯ ˚
a Ê 1 4x 3 2x ˆ
= Ú Á e - e + e x ˜ dx
0 Ë2 2 ¯
a
1 e 4 x 3 e2 x
= ◊ - ◊ + ex
2 4 2 2
0
1 3
= (e 4 a - e0 ) - (e2 a - e0 ) + (e a - e0 )
8 4
1 4a 3 2a 3
= e - e + ea -
8 4 8
Example 8
2 2 yz
Evaluate the integral Ú0 Ú1 Ú0 xyz dx dy dz. [Summer 2014]
Solution
2 2 yz 2 2 È x dx ˘˙ dy dz
Ú0 Ú1 Ú0
yz
xyz dx dy dz = Ú0 Ú1 yz ÍÎÚ0 ˚
yz
2 2 x2
= Ú0 Ú1 yz
2
dy dz
0
2 2 1
Ú0 Ú1 2 y
3 3
= z dy dz
2 2
1 y4 z4
=
2 4 4
1 0
1 Ê 1ˆ 1
= Á ˜ [16 - 1] [16 - 0]
2 Ë 4¯ 4
15
=
2
Example 9
1
3 xy
Evaluate Ú Ú Ú
x
1 1 0
xy dz dy dx.
Solution
1 1
3 xy 3 È xy ˘
Ú Ú Ú x
1 1 0
xy dz dy dx = Ú
1 1
x
Ú ÍÎÚ0 dz ˙ xy dy dx
˚
1
3
=Ú Ú
xy
x z 0 dy dx
1 1
3È ˘
1
= Ú Í Ú x xy dy ˙ dx
1 Î 1 ˚
1
3 x
3 2y 2
=Ú x dx
1 3 1
Ê ˆ
2 3 1
= Ú x 3 - 1˜ dx
Á
3 1 Á ˜
Ë x2 ¯
2 3Ê 1
1ˆ
3 Ú1 Ë x
= Á - x ˜¯
2 dx
3
3
2 2x 2
= log x -
3 3 1
=
2È
3Î
2
3 ˘
Í( log 3 - log 1) - 3 2 - 1 ˙
3 ˚
( )
2È 2˘
= Ílog 3 - 2 3 + ˙
3Î 3˚
Example 10
2 z yz
Evaluate Ú0 Ú1 Ú0 xyz dx dy dz. [Summer 2017]
Solution
The innermost limits depend on y and z. Hence, integrating first w.r.t. x,
yz
2 z yz 2 z x2
Ú0 Ú1 Ú0 xyz dx dy dz = Ú
0 1 Ú 2
yz dy dz
0
1 2 z 2 2
2 Ú0 Ú1
= ( y z ) yz dy dz
= Ú z 3 ÈÍ Ú y3 dy ˘˙ dz
1 2 z
2 0 Î1 ˚
z
1 2 3 y4
2 Ú0
= z dzz
4
1
1 2
= Ú z 3 ( z 4 - 1)dz
8 0
2
1 z8 z 4
= -
8 8 4
0
1
= (32 - 4)
8
7
=
2
Example 11
1 1- x 1- x - y 1
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 ( x + y + z + 1)3
dx dy dz.
Solution
The innermost limits depend on x and y. Hence, integrating first w.r.t. z,
1 1- x 1- x - y 1
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 ( x + y + z + 1)3
dx dy dz
1 1- x È 1- x - y 1 ˘
=Ú Ú Í Ú0 dz ˙ dy dx
0 0
Î ( x + y + z + 1)3 ˚
1- x - y
1 1- x 1
=Ú Ú dy dx
0 0 -2( x + y + z + 1)2 0
1 1 1- x È 1 1 ˘
=- Ú Ú Í
2 0 0 ÍÎ {x + y + (1 - x - y) + 1}2
- ˙ dy dx
( x + y + 1) ˙˚
2
1 1 È 1- x ÔÏ 1 1 Ô¸ ˘
=- Ú
2 ÍÎ
0
ÍÚ Ì -
0
˝ dy ˙ dx
ÔÓ 4 ( x + y + 1) Ô˛ ˙˚
2
1- x
1 1 y 1
=- Ú +
2 4 x + y +1 0
0
dx
1 1 È1 - x 1 1 ˘
=- Ú Í
2 0Î 4
+ -
x + (1 - x ) + 1 x + 1 ˙˚
dx
1 1Ê 1 - x 1 1 ˆ
=- Ú Á + - ˜ dx
2 0 Ë 4 2 x + 1¯
1
1 x x2 x
=- - + - log( x + 1)
2 4 8 2
0
1Ê5 ˆ
= - Á - log 2˜
Ë
2 8 ¯
Example 12
1 1- x 2 1- x 2 - y2
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 xyz dz dy dx. [Winter 2014]
Solution
1- x 2 - y2
1 1- x 2 È 1- x2 - y2 ˘ 1 1- x 2 z2
Ú0 Ú0 xy Í Ú
Î 0
z dz ˙ dx dy =
˚ Ú0 Ú0 xy
z 0
dx dy
1 1 1- x2
2 Ú0 Ú0
= xy(1 - x 2 - y 2 ) dx dy
1 1 È 1- x2 È 3˘
˘
Ú x ÍÚ 2
=
Î (1 - x ) y - y ˚ ˙˚ dy dx
2 0 Î 0
1- x 2
1 1 y2 y 4
= Ú x (1 - x 2 ) - dx
2 0 2 4 0
1 1 È 2
2 (1 - x )
Ê 1 - x 2 )2 ˆ ˘
2 Ú0 Î
= x Í (1 - x ) - ÁË ˜ ˙ dx
2 4 ¯˚
1 1 È (1 - x 2 )2 ˘
2 Ú0 Î
= xÍ ˙ dx
4 ˚
1 1
8 Ú0
= x(1 - x 2 )2 dx
1 1
8 Ú0
= {x(1 - 2 x 2 + x 4 )} dx
1 1
8 Ú0
= ( x - 2 x 3 + x 5 ) dx
1
1 x2 2 x 4 x6
= - +
8 2 4 6 0
1 Ê 1 1 1ˆ
= Á - + ˜
8 Ë 2 2 6¯
1
=
48
Example 13
e log y e x
Evaluate Ú1 Ú1 Ú1 log z dx dy dz. [Summer 2016]
Solution
The inner most limit depends on x and middle limit depends on y. Hence, integrating
first w.r.t. z,
e log y ex e log y ex
Ú1 Ú1 Ú1 log z dx dy dz = Ú
1 Ú1 Ú1 log z dz dx dy
log y Ê ex ex 1 ˆ
=Ú Ú Ú1 z ◊ z dz˜¯ dx dy
e
ÁË z log z 1
-
1 1
=Ú
1 Ú1
e log y
(e log e
x x ex
- log 1 - z 1 dx dy )
= Ú ÈÍ Ú
e
(e x - e x + 1) dx ˘˙ dy
log y x
1 Î 1 ˚
log y
= Ú xe x - e x - e x + x
e
dy
1 1
= Ú ÈÎe log y (log y - 2) + log y - e(1 - 2) - 1˘˚ dy

e
1
= Ú [ y(log y - 2) + log y + e - 1] dy
e
1
= Ú [( y + 1) log y - 2 y + e - 1] dy
e
1
e
Ê y2 ˆ e1Ê y
2 ˆ e
= log y Á + y˜ - Ú Á + y˜ dy - y 2 + (e - 1) y 1
e
Ë 2 ¯1 1 yË 2 ¯ 1
e
Ê e2 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ y2
= log e Á + e˜ - log 1Á + 1˜ - + y - (e2 - 1) + [(e - 1)(e - 1)]
Ë 2 ¯ Ë 2 ¯ 4
1
e2 È1 ˘
= + e - Í (e2 - 1) + (e - 1)˙ - e2 + 1 + e2 - 2e + 1
2 Î4 ˚
e2 13
= - 2e +
4 4
Example 14
• • • dx dy dz
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 (1 + x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )2
.
Solution z
1. It is difficult to integrate this integral in r →∞
cartesian form. Putting x = r sin q cos f,
y = r sinq sin f, z = r cosq integral changes to
spherical form.
2. Limits of x : x = 0 to x Æ •
O y
Limits of y : y = 0 to y Æ •
Limits of z : z = 0 to z Æ •
The region of integration is the positive octant of
the plane. x
Limits of r : r = 0 to r Æ • Fig. 9.128
p
Limits of q = 0 to q =
2
p
Limits of f : f = 0 to f =
2
Hence, the spherical form of the given integral is
• • • dxdydz
I=Ú Ú0 Ú0
0 (1 + x + y 2 + z 2 )2
2
p p
• r 2 sin q dr dq df
=Ú Ú Ú
2 2
0 0 0 (1 + r 2 )2
p p
• r 2 dr
=Ú Ú 2 sinq dq Ú 2 df
0 (1 + r 2 )2 0 0
Putting r = tan t , dr = sec 2 t dt

When r = 0, t = 0
p
When r Æ •, t =
2
p p p
tan 2 t
I = Ú 2 sin q dq Ú 2 sec 2 t dt Ú 2 df
0 0 sec 4 t 0
p p
Ê p 2 ˆ
= - cos q 2
0 ÁË Ú 2 sin t dt ˜¯ f
2
0
0
Ê ˆ Ê p ˆ p
= Á - cos + cos 0˜ ◊ Á 2 1 - cos 2t dt ˜ ◊
p
Ë 2 ¯ Ë Ú0 2 ¯ 2
p
1 sin 2t 2 p
= t-
2 2 0 2
1 Èp 1 ˘p
= Í - (sin p - sin 0 )˙
2 Î2 2 ˚2
p2
=
8
Example 15
a a2 - x2 a2 - x 2 - y2
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 xyz dx dy dz.
Solution
1. It is difficult to integrate this integral in cartesian form. Putting
x = r sin q cos f , y = r sin q sin f , z = r cos q integral changes to spherical form.
2 2 2
2. Limits of z : z = 0 to z = a - x - y z
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = a 2 - x 2
The region of integration is the positive octant P
r
of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a 2 .
q
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = a O y
p φ
2
p
Limits of f : f = 0 to f = x
2
Hence, the spherical form of the given integral is Fig. 9.129
2 2 2 2 2
a a -x a -x -y
I=Ú Ú0 Ú0 xyz dx dy dz
0
p p
a
=Ú2
f = 0 Úq = 0 Úr = 0
3
2 r sin 2 q cos q ◊ cos f sin f ◊ r 2 sin q dr dq df
p p
sin 2f a
=Ú2 df Ú 2 sin 3q cos q dq Ú r 5 dr
0 2 0 0
p p
1 - cos 2f sin 4 q 2 r6
a
È [ f (q )]n +1 ˘˙
ÍQ Ú [ f (q )]n f ¢(q )dq =
2
= ◊ ◊
2 2 4 6 Í n +1 ˙
0 0 0 Î ˚
1 1 1Ê p ˆ a6
= ◊ (- cos p + cos 0) ◊ Á sin - sin 0˜ ◊
2 2 4Ë 2 ¯ 6
1 2 1 a6
= ◊ ◊ ◊
2 2 4 6
a6
=
48
Example 16
1 1- x 2 1 dz dy dx
Evaluate Ú0 Ú0 Ú x 2 + y2 by transforming into spherical
x 2 + y2 + z2
polar coordinates.
Solution
2 2
1. Limits of z : z = x + y to z=1
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 − x2
2. The region of integration is the part of the cone z2 = x2 + y 2 bounded above by the
plane z = 1 in the positive octant (since all three limits are positive).
3. Putting x = r sinq cos f, y = r sinq sin f, z = r cosq, spherical polar form of
(i) the cone z2 = x2 + y 2 is
r2 cos2q = r2 sin2q (cos2f + sin2f )
= r2 sin2q
cosq = sin q
tanq = 1
p
q=
4
(ii) the plane z = 1 is r cos q = 1
r = secq
z
r = sec q
A
y
P p
q=
4
f O
O x f y
P
Fig. 9.130
4. Draw an elementary radius vector OA which starts from the origin and terminates
on the plane r = secq.
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = secq
p
4
p
Limits of f : f = 0 to f = (in positive octant)
2
1 1- x 2 1 dz dy dx
I=Ú Ú Ú
0 0 x 2 + y2
x 2 + y2 + z2
p p
sec q r 2 sin q dr dq df
=Ú2 4
Ú Ú
f =0 q =0 r =0 r
p p
=Ú È sec q
r dr ˘˙ sin q dq df
2 4
0 0 Ú ÍÎÚ0 ˚
p p sec q
r2
=Ú2 Ú 4 sin q dq df
0 0 2
0
p È p sec 2 q ˘
=Ú 2 ÍÚ 4 sin q dq ˙ df
0 Î 0 2 ˚
p p
1 2
2 Ú0 Ú
= df 4 tan q sec q dq
0
p p
1 2
= f sec q 04
2 0
1 pÊ p ˆ
= . Á sec - sec 0˜
2 2Ë 4 ¯
=
p
4
( 2 -1 )
type II Evaluation of triple Integrals Over the Given Region
Example 1
Evaluate ÚÚÚ x 2 yz dx dy dz over the region bounded by the planes
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and x + y + z = 1.
Solution
1. Draw an elementary volume AB parallel to z-axis in the region. AB starts from
xy-plane and terminates on the plane x + y + z = 1.
z
y
R (0, 0, 1)
Q (0, 1)
x+y+z=1
B′
B x
+
y
=
Q (0, 1, 0) 1
O
A y O A′ P (1, 0) x
1
y=
x+
P (1, 0, 0)
x
Fig. 9.131
Limits of z : z = 0 to z = 1 – x – y
2. Projection of the plane x + y + z = 1 in xy-plane is DOPQ. Putting z = 0 in x + y + z = 1,
the equation of the line PQ is obtained as x + y = 1.
3. Draw a vertical strip A¢B¢ in the region OPQ. A¢B¢ starts from the x-axis and
terminates on the line x + y = 1.
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 1 – x
1 1- x 1- x - y 2
I=Ú Ú Ú x yz dz dy dx
0 0 0
1- x - y
1 1- x z2
=Ú Ú x2 y dy dx
0 0 2
0
2 0 Î 0
{ }
= Ú x 2 ÈÍ Ú y (1 - x )2 + y 2 - 2 y(1 - x ) dy ˘˙ dx
1 1 1- x
˚
= Ú x 2 ÈÍ Ú
1 1
2 0 Î 0
1- x
{ }
y(1 - x )2 + y3 - 2 y 2 (1 - x ) dy ˘˙ dx
˚
1- x
1 1 y2 y 4 y3
= Ú x 2 (1 - x )2 + - 2(1 - x ) dx
2 0 2 4 3 0
1 1 2È 2 (1 - x )
2
(1 - x ) 4 (1 - x )3 ˘
= Ú x
2 0 Î
Í(1 - x ) ◊
2
+
4
- 2(1 - x ) ◊
3 ˚
˙ dx
1 1 x2
2 Ú0 12
= (1 - x )4 dx
1
1 (1 - x )5 2 (1 - x )6 (1 - x )7
= ◊x - ◊ 2x + ◊2
24 -5 30 -210
0
1 Ê 1 ˆ
= 0+
24 ÁË 105 ˜¯
1
=
2520
Example 2
Evaluate ÚÚÚ 2x dV , where E is the region under the plane
E
2x + 3y + z = 6 that lies in the first octant. [Winter 2015]
Solution
1. Draw an elementary volume AB parallel to z-axis in the region. AB starts from xy-plane
and terminates on the plane 2x + 3y + z = 6.
Limits of z : z = 0 to z = 6 – 2x – 3y
2. Projection of the plane 2x + 3y + z = 6 in xy-plane is DOPQ. Putting z = 0 in

2x + 3y + z = 6, the equation of the line PQ is obtained as 2x + 3y = 6.
z
y
R (0, 0, 6)
Q (0, 2)
B′
B
Q (0, 2, 0)
O
A y O A′ P (3, 0) x
1
y=
x+
P (3, 0, 0)
x
Fig. 9.132
3. Draw a vertical strip A¢B¢ in the region OPQ. A¢B¢ starts from the x-axis and
terminates on the line 2x + 3y = 6.
6 - 2x
Limits of y : y = 0 to y=
3
I = ÚÚÚ 2 x dV
E
6 -2 x
3 6 -2 x -3 y
=Ú Ú 3
Ú 2 x dz dy dx
0 0 0
6 -2 x
3 6 -2 x -3 y
=Ú Ú 3 2x z 0 dy dx
0 0
6 -2 x
3
=2Ú Ú3 x(6 - 2 x - 3 y) dy dx
0 0
6 -2 x
3 3 y2 3
=2Ú x (6 - 2 x ) y - dx
0 2
0
3 È (6 - 2 x ) 3 Ê 6 - 2 x ˆ ˘
2
= 2Ú x Í(6 - 2 x ) - Á ˙ dx
0
ÍÎ 3 2 Ë 3 ˜¯ ˙
˚
3 (6 - 2 x )2
= 2Ú x dx
0 6
4 3
= Ú x (9 + x 2 - 6 x )dx
3 0
4 3
= Ú (9 x + x 3 - 6 x 2 ) dx
3 0
3
4 x2 x4 x3
= 9 + -6
3 2 4 3
0
=9
Example 3
Evaluate ÚÚÚ xyz dx dy dz over the positive octant of the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = 4.
Solution
Putting x = r sin q cos f, y = r sin q sin f, z
z = r cos q, the equation of the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = 4 reduces to r2 sin2q cos2f + r2 sin2q
sin2f + r2 cos2 q = 4, r2 = 4, r = 2.
The region is the positive octant of the sphere r P
r = 2. q
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = 2 O y
π φ
Limits of q=0 to θ=
2
π x
Limits of f=0 to φ=
2 Fig. 9.133
I = ÚÚÚ xyz dx dy dz
p p
2
= Ú 2 Ú 2 Ú (r 3 sin 2 q cos q cos f sin f )r 2 sin q dr dq df
0 0 0
p p
sin 2f 2
= Ú 2 sin 3 q cos q dq Ú 2 df Ú r 5 dr
0 0 2 0
p p 2
sin 4 q 2 - cos 2f r6 È [ f (q )]n +1 ˘
ÍQ Ú [ f (q )] f ¢(q )dq =
2 n
= , n π 1˙
4 4 0 6 Î n + 1 ˚
0 0
1Ê 4 p ˆÈ 1 ˘ Ê 26 ˆ
= Á sin - sin 0˜ Í - (cos p - cos 0)˙ Á ˜
4Ë 2 ¯Î 4 ˚Ë 6 ¯
4
=
3
Example 4
dx dy dz
Evaluate ÚÚÚ over the region bounded by the sphere
a - x 2 - y2 - z2
2
x2 + y2 + z2 = a2.
Solution
1. Putting x = r sin q cos f, y = r sin q sin f, z = r cos q, the equation of the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = a2 reduces to r = a.
2. For the complete sphere, limits of r : r = 0 to r = a
limits of q : q = 0 to q = p
limits of f : f = 0 to f = 2p
dx dy dz
I = ÚÚÚ
a - x 2 - y2 - z2
2
2p p a r2 sin q dr dq df
=Ú Ú0 Ú0
0
a2 - r 2
2p p a r 2 + a2 - a2
=Ú df Ú sin q dq Ú dr
0 0 0
a2 - r 2
2p p aÊ a2 ˆ
= f 0 ◊ - cos q 0 ◊ Ú Á - a 2 - r 2 ˜ dr
0
Ë a2 - r 2 ¯
a
-1 r r a2 r
= (2p )(- cos p + cos 0) a sin 2
- a2 - r 2 - sin -1
a 2 2 a
0
Ê a ˆ 2
= 2p (2) Á a 2 sin -1 1 - sin -1 1˜
Ë 2 ¯
Ê a2 ˆ
= 4p Á sin -1 1˜
Ë 2 ¯
a2 p
= 4p ◊ ◊
2 2
= p 2 a2
Example 5
dx dy dz
Evaluate ∫∫∫ 1 over the region bounded by the spheres
( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 and x2 + y 2 + z 2 = b2, a > b > 0.
z
Solution
1. Putting x = r sinq cos f, y = r sinq sin f,
z = r cosq, equations of the spheres
x2 + y2 + z2 = a2 and x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = b2 reduce
to r = a and r = b respectively. B r=a
2. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB A r=b
from the origin in the region. This radius O
y
vector enters in the region from the sphere
r = b and terminates on the sphere r = a.
3. Limits of r : r = b to r = a.
For the complete sphere,
limits of q : q = 0 to q = p
limits of f : f = 0 to f = 2p x
Hence, the spherical form of the given
integral is Fig. 9.134
dx dy dz
I = ÚÚÚ 1
( x 2 + y2 + z2 ) 2
2p p a r2 sinq
=Ú Ú0 Úb dr dq df
0 r
2p p a
=Ú df Ú sin q dq Ú r dr
0 0 b
a
2p p r2
= f 0 ◊ - cos q 0 ◊
2
b
(a 2 - b2 )
= 2p (- cos p + cos 0)
2
= 2p (aa 2 - b2 ).
Example 6
2
Evaluate ÚÚÚ z dx dy dz over the region common to the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = 4 and the cylinder x2 + y2 = 2x.
Solution
1. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, z = z, the q=p
equation of 2
(i) the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 reduces to
r2 + z2 = 4
z 2 = 4 – r 2. A
(ii) the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 2x reduces to r = 2cos q

r 2 = 2r cosq, r = 2 cosq. O q=0
2. Draw an elementary volume parallel to z-axis
in the region. This elementary volume starts
from the part of the sphere z2 = 4 – r 2, below xy-
plane and terminates on the part of the sphere
z2 = 4 – r 2, above xy-plane.
Fig. 9.135
Limits of r : z = - 4 - r 2 to z = 4 - r 2
3. Projection of the region in rq -plane is the circle r = 2 cosq.
4. Draw an elementary radius vector OA in the region (r = 2 cosq ) which starts from
the origin and terminates on the circle r = 2 cosq
p p
Limits of q : q = - to q =
2 2
Hence, the cylindrical form of the given integral is
I = ÚÚÚ z 2 dx dy dz
p
2 cosq 4 -r 2
=Ú 2
-p 0 Ú Ú z 2 r dz dr dq
- 4 -r 2
2
p 4 -r 2
2 cosq z3
=Ú 2
p 0Ú r dr dq
- 3
2 - 4 -r 2
p 3
1 2 2 cosq
3 Ú- p Ú0
= 2(4 - r 2 ) 2 r dr dq
2
1
p
2 cosq È 3 ˘
3Ú Ú
= 2
p 0
ÍÎ -(4 - r 2 ) 2 ( -2r )dr ˙˚ dq
-
2
2 cosq
5
p
1 2 2
2( 4 - r ) È [ f (r )]n +1 ˘
3Ú
=- ÍQ Ú [ f (r )] f ¢(r )dr =
2 n
dq ˙
-
p
5 Î n +1 ˚
2 0
p
2 È 5 5˘
15 Ú
=- 2 dq
-
p ÍÎ(4 - 4 cos2 q ) 2 - (4) 2 ˙˚
2
p
2
= - Ú 2p (25 sin 5 q - 25 ) dq
15 -
2
ÈQ a f (q )dq = 0, if f (-q ) = - f (q )˘
2 È
p ˘
= - Í0 - 2 5 q 2 p ˙ Í Ú- a ˙
15 Í - ˙ Í 5 5 ˙
Î 2˚ ÎHere sin (-q ) = - sin q ˚
26 p
=
15
64p
=
15
Example 7
Evaluate ÚÚÚ xyz dx dy dz over the region bounded by the planes
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, z = 1 and the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1.
Solution
1. Putting x = r cosq, y = r sinq, z = z, equation of the cylinder x2 + y2 = 1 reduces to
r 2 = 1, r = 1.
B z=1 q= p
2
A′
r=1
O
y O q=0
Fig. 9.136
2. Draw an elementary volume AB parallel to z-axis in the region. This elementary

volume AB starts from xy-plane and terminates on the plane z = 1.
Limits of z : z = 0 to z = 1
3. Projection of the region in rq -plane is the part of the circle r = 1 in the first quadrant.
4. Draw an elementary radius vector OA¢ in the region in the rq -plane which starts
from the origin and terminates on the circle r = 1.
Limits of r : r = 0 tor=1
p
2
I = ÚÚÚ xyz dx dy dz
p
1 1
=Ú Ú Ú
2 r2 cos q sin q ◊ zr dz dr dq
z=0 q =0 r =0
p
1 sin 2q 1
= Ú z dz Ú 2 dq Ú r 3 d r
0 0 2 0
1 p 1
z2 cos 2q 2 r4
= -
2 4 0 4
0 0
1
=
16
Example 8
Evaluate ∫∫∫ x 2 + y 2 dx dy dz over the region bounded by the right
circular cone x2 + y2 = z2, z > 0 and the planes z = 0 and z = 1.
Solution
1. Putting x = r cosq, y = r sinq, z = z, the equation of the cone x 2 + y 2 = z 2 reduces to
r 2 = z 2, r = z.
2. Draw an elementary volume AB parallel to z-axis in the region, which starts from
the cone r = z and terminates on the plane z = 1.
Limits of z : z = r to z = 1.
3. Projection of the region in rq -plane is the curve of intersection of the cone r = z
and the plane z = 1 which is obtained as r = 1, a circle with centre at the origin and
radius 1.
4. Draw an elementary radius vector OA¢ in the region which starts from the origin and
B z=1
q= p
2
r=z
A A′
r=1
O y O q=0
Fig. 9.137
I = ÚÚÚ x 2 + y 2 dx dy dz
2p 1 1
=Ú Ú Ú r ◊ r dz dr dq
q = 0 r =0 z =r
2p 1 2 1
=Ú Ú0 r z r dr dq
0
2p 1
=Ú dq Ú r 2 (1 - r )dr
0 0
1
2π r3 r4
= θ0 −
3 4 0
1
= 2π ⋅
12
π
=
6
Example 9
Evaluate ÚÚÚ ( x 2 + y 2 )dx dy dz over the region bounded by the parabo-
loid x2 + y2 = 3z and the plane z = 3.
Solution
1. Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, z = z, the equation of the paraboloid x2 + y2 = 3z
reduces to r 2 = 3z.
2. Draw an elementary volume AB parallel to z-axis in the region which starts from the
paraboloid r 2 = 3z and terminates on the plane z = 3.
r2
Limits of z : z = to z = 3
3
3. Projection of the region in rq -plane is the curve of intersection of the paraboloid
r 2 = 3z and the plane z = 3 which is obtained as r 2 = 9, r = 3, a circle with centre at
the origin and radius 1.
B z=3 q= p
2
r 2 = 3z A′
r=3
A q
O y O q=0
Fig. 9.138
4. Draw an elementary radius vector OA¢ in the region (circle r = 3) which starts from
origin and terminates on the circle r = 3.
I = ÚÚÚ ( x 2 + y 2 )dx dy dz
2p 3 3
=Ú Ú0 Ú r 2 r 2 ◊ r d z d r dq
0
3
2p 3 3 3
=Ú Ú r z d r dq
0 0 r2
3
2p 3 Ê r2 ˆ
=Ú dq ◊ Ú r 3 Á 3 - ˜ dr
0 0 Ë 3¯
3
2p 3r 4 r 6
=q 0
-
4 18
0
Ê 35 36 ˆ
= 2p Á - ˜
Ë 4 18 ¯
81p
=
2
Example 10
x 2 y2 z2
Evaluate ÚÚÚ 1 - 2 - 2 - 2 dx dy dz, where V is the volume of the
a b c
V
x 2 y2 z2
ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1.
a b c
Solution
It is difficult to integrate this integral in cartesian form. Therefore, transforming the
ellipsoid into a sphere using following change of variables.
x y z x 2 y2 z2
Putting = u, = v, = w, equation of the ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 reduces to
a b c a b c
2 2 2
u + v + w = 1, which is a sphere of radius 1 and centre at the origin,
dx dy dz = |J| du dv dw
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂w
where, ∂( x, y, z ) ∂y ∂y ∂y
J= =
∂(u, v, w) ∂u ∂v ∂w
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂u ∂v ∂w
a 0 0
= 0 b 0 = abc
0 0 c
Therefore, dx dy dz = abc du dv dw
New form of the integral is
x2 y2 z2
I = Ú Ú Ú 1- - - dx dy dz
a2 b2 c2
= Ú Ú Ú 1 - u2 - v 2 - w 2 ◊ abc du dv dw
Since in the new coordinate system u, v, w, the region of integration is a sphere,
therefore using spherical coordinates u = r sinq cos f, v = r sin q sin f, w = r cosq and
du dv dw = r2 sin q dr dq df, the equation of the sphere u2 + v2 + w2 = 1 reduce to r2 =1, r = 1.
For complete sphere limits of r : r = 0 to r = 1 (radius of sphere)
limits of θ : θ = 0 to θ = π
limits of φ : φ = 0 to φ = 2π

2p p 1
I=Ú Ú0 Ú0 1 - r 2 abc ◊ r 2 sin q dr dq df
0
2p p 1
= abc Ú df Ú sin q dq Ú r 2 1 - r 2 dr
0 0 0
Putting r = sin t, dr = cos t dt
When r = 0, t=0
p
When r = 1, t=
2
p
2p p
\ I = abc f 0 - cos q 0 Ú
0
2 sin 2 t ◊ cos t ◊ cos t dt
1 Ê 3 3ˆ
= abc (2p )(2) ◊ B Á , ˜
2 Ë 2 2¯
3 3
= 2p abc 2 2
3
2
Ê 1 1ˆ
Á 2 2˜
Ë ¯
= 2p abc
2
2
p abc
=
4
Example 11
Evaluate ÚÚÚ x 2 y 2 z 2 dx dy dz over the region bounded by the surfaces
xy = 4, xy = 9, yz = 1, yz = 4, zx = 25, zx = 49.
Solution
Evaluation of integral becomes easier by changing the variables. Under the trans-
formation xy = u, yz = v, zx = w, the surfaces get transformed to u = 4, u = 9,
v = 1, v = 4, w = 25, w = 49.
These equations represent the planes parallel to v w, w u and uv planes in the new
coordinate system.
It is easier to find partial derivatives of u, v, w w.r.t. x, y and z.
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(u, v, w) ∂v ∂v ∂v
=
∂( x, y, z ) ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z
y x 0
= 0 z y
z 0 x
= y( zx - 0) - x(0 - yz )
= 2 xyz
du dv dw = J dx dy dz = 2 xyz dx dy dz
1
dx dy dz = du dv dw
2 xyz
1
du dv dw = [Q x 2 y 2 z 2 = uvw]
2 uvw
Limits of w : w = 25 to w = 49
Hence, the new form of the integral is
I = ÚÚÚ x 2 y 2 z 2 dx dy dz
49 4 9 1
=Ú
w = 25 Úv =1 Úu = 4
uvw ◊ du dv dw
2 uvw
1 1 1
1 49 2 4 9
= Ú
2 25
w dw Ú v 2 dv Ú u 2 du
1 4
49 4 9
3 3 3
1 2w 2 2v 2 2u 2
=
2 3 25 3 1 3 4
4
= (343 - 125)(8 - 1)(27 - 8)
27
115976
=
27
ExERCIsE 9.7
(I) Evaluate the following integrals:
1 2 2
1. ∫ dx ∫
0 0
dy ∫ x 2 yz dz
1
Ans. :1
log 2 x x +y
2. ∫ ∫ ∫
0 0 0
e x + y + z d z dy d x
 5
 Ans. : 8 
 
π
a cos θ a2 −r 2
3. ∫ ∫
0
2
0 ∫ 0
r dz dr dθ  a3  π 2  
 Ans. : − 
 3  2 3  
π a(1+ cos θ ) h  r 
4. ∫ ∫
0 0 ∫ 0
2 1 −
 a(1 + cos θ )  r dz dr d θ
  π a 2h 
 Ans. : 
 2 
4 2 z 4 z−x2
5. ∫∫ ∫
0 0 0
dy dx dz
Ans. : 8π 
2 2
π a −r
a sin θ
6. ∫ ∫
0
2
0 ∫ 0
a
r dz dr dθ
 5a 3 
 Ans. : 
 64 
2 y x +y
7. ∫∫ ∫
0 0 x −y
(x + y + z)dz dx dy
Ans. :16 
a a2 − x 2 a2 − x 2 − y 2
8. ∫∫
0 0 ∫ 0
xyz dz dy dx.  a6 
 Ans. : 
 48 
(II) Evaluate the following integrals over the given region of integration:
1. ∫∫∫ (x + y + z)dx dy dz over the tetrahedron bounded by the planes

x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and x + y + z = 1.
 1
 Ans. : 8 
 
dx dy dz
2. ∫∫∫ (1 + x + y + z) 3 over the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x = 0,
y = 0, z = 0 and x + y + z = 1.  1 5 
 Ans. :  log 2 −  
 2 8 
3. ∫∫∫ xyz dx dy dz over the positive octant of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = a2.

 a6 
 Ans. : 
 48 
∫∫∫ xyz(x + y 2 + z 2 )dx dy dz over the positive octant of the sphere

2
4.
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2.  a8 
 Ans. : 
 64 
∫∫∫ (y z 2 + z 2 x 2 + x 2 y 2 ) dx dy dz over the sphere of radius a and centre

2
5.
at the origin.
 4π a 7 
 Ans. : 
 35 
z2
6. ∫∫∫ x 2
+ y 2 + z2
dx dy dz over the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2.
 8π 2 
 Ans. : 
 9 
dx dy dz
7. ∫∫∫ 3
over the region bounded by the spheres x2 + y2 + z2 = a2
(x + y + z )
2 2 2 2
and x2 + y 2 + z2 = b2, a > b > 0.

  a
 Ans. : 4π log   
 b 
∫∫∫ z dx dy dz
2
8. over the region common to the spheres x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a 2
and cylinder x 2 + y 2 = ax.
 2π a 5 
 Ans. : 
 15 
∫∫∫ (x + y 2 )dx dy dz over the region bounded by the paraboloid x2 + y2 = 2z

2
9.
and the plane z = 2.
 16π 
 Ans. : 3 
 
∫∫∫ x
2
10. y z dx dy dz over the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x = 0,
x y z
y = 0, z = 0 and + + = 1.
a b c  a 3 b 2c 2 
 Ans. : 
 2520 
11. ∫∫∫ xyz dx dy dz over the positive octant of the ellipsoid

2 2 2
x y z
2
+ 2 + 2 ≤ 1.
a b c  a 2 b 2c 2 
 Ans. : 
 48 
x 2 y 2 z2
12. ∫∫∫ 1 + 4 + 9 dx dy dz over the region bounded by the ellipsoid
x 2 y 2 z2
+ + = 1.
1 4 9
Ans. : 8π 
9.7 AREA by DOublE IntEGRAls
9.7.1 Area in Cartesian Coordinates

(i) The area A bounded by the curves y = y1(x) y
and y = y2(x) intersecting at the points
P (a, b) and Q (c, d ) is
)
c y2 ( x ) (x
A=∫ ∫ d y dx y2 Q (c, d )
a y1 ( x ) y=
)
(x
(ii) If equation of the curves are represented
1
y
as x = x1(y) and x = x2(y) then
y=
d x2 ( y ) P (a, b)
A=∫ ∫ dx dy
b x1 ( y )
Note: Consider the symmetricity of the region O x

while calculating area.
Fig. 9.139
Example 1
x2 y2
Find the area bounded by the ellipse + = 1, above x-axis.
a2 b2
Solution
1. The region is symmetric about y-axis. Total y
area = 2 (area bounded by the ellipse in the
first quadrant) 2
x2 + y =1
2. Draw a vertical strip AB in the region Q (0, b)
B a 2 b2
which lies in the first quadrant. AB starts
from the x-axis and terminates on the
x2 y 2 x
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1. O A P (a, 0)
a b
x2
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = b 1 − 2
a
x2
a b 1−
A = 2∫ ∫ a2 dy dx Fig. 9.140
0 0
x2
a b 1−
= 2∫ y 0 a2
dx
0
a x2
= 2∫ b 1 − dx
0 a2
2b a 2
a ∫0
= a − x 2 dx
a
2b x 2 a2 x
= a − x 2 + sin −1
a 2 2 a0
2b  a 2
−1 
=  sin 1
a  2
2b  a 2 π 
=  ⋅ 
a  2 2
π ab
=
2
Example 2
Find the area bounded by the parabola y 2 = 4x and the line 2x –3y + 4 = 0.
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the parabola y2 = 4x and the line 2x – 3y + 4 = 0 are
obtained as
2
 2x + 4
  = 4x
3 
( x + 2) 2 = 9 x y
x2 − 5x + 4 = 0
B Q (4, 4)
x = 1, 4
∴ y = 2, 4 A
2x – 3y + 4 = 0 P (1, 2)
The points of intersection are P (1, 2) and Q (4, 4).
2. Draw a vertical strip AB which starts from the
O x
line 2x – 3y + 4 = 0 and terminates on the pa-
rabola y2 = 4x. y 2 = 4x
2x + 4
Limits of y : y = to y = 2 x
3
4 2 x
A = 2∫ ∫ 2 x+4 dy dx
1
3
4 Fig. 9.141
= ∫ y 2 x + 4 dx
2 x
1
3
4  2x + 4
=∫  2 x −  dx
1 3 
3 4
2 2
= 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ x − x − 4x
3 3 3 1
4 1 4
= (8 − 1) − (16 − 1) − (4 − 1)
3 3 3
1
=
3
Example 3
Find the area enclosed by the curves y = x2 and y = x.
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the parabola y
y = x2 and the line y = x are obtained as
x = x2 y =x P(1,1)
x = 0, 1
\ y = 0, 1 B y = x2
P (1, 1). A
O x
2. Draw a vertical strip AB which starts from
the parabola y = x2 and terminates on the
line y = x.
Limits of y : y = x2 to y = x Fig. 9.142
1 x
A=∫ ∫ d y dx
0 x2
1 x
= ∫ y 2 dx
0 x
1
= ∫ ( x − x 2 ) dx
0
1
x 2 x3
= −
2 3 0
1 1
= −
2 3
1
=
6
Example 4
Find the area enclosed by the parabola y2 = 4ax and the lines
x + y = 3a, y = 0 in the first quadrant.
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the parabola y2 = 4ax and the line x + y = 3a are
obtained as
y2 = 4a(3a – y)
y2 + 4ay – 12a2 = 0
y = 2a, – 6a
\ x = a, 9a
The point of intersection is Q (a, 2a) which lies in the first quadrant.
2. Area enclosed in the first quadrant is OPQ.
Draw a horizontal strip AB which starts from the parabola y2 = 4ax and terminates
on the line x + y = 3a. y
y2
Limits of x : x = to x = 3a – y
4a x + y = 3a
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = 2a y 2 = 4ax
2a 3a − y
A=∫ ∫
y2 d x dy Q(a, 2a)
0
4a
A
B
2a 3a − y P(3, 0)
=∫ x y 2 dy O x
0
4a
2a  y2 
= ∫  3a − y −  dy
0  4a 
2a
y 2 1 y3
= 3ay − − ⋅
2 4a 3 0
Fig. 9.143
1 8a 3
= 6a 2 − 2a 2 − ⋅
4a 3
10 2
= a
3
Note: In case of vertical strip, two vertical strips are required to cover the entire region.
Therefore one horizontal strip is preferred over vertical strip.
Example 5
Find the area bounded by the parabolas y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4ay.
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the parabolas y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4ay are obtained as
2
 x2 
  = 4ax y
4a
x4 = 16a2 (4ax) y 2 = 4ax
x(x – 64a3) = 0
3
B
P(4a,4a)
x = 0, x = 4a
\ y = 0, y = 4a
x 2 = 4ay
A
P (4a, 4a). O x
2. Draw a vertical strip AB which starts
from the parabola x2 = 4ay and termi-
nates on the parabola y2 = 4ax.
x2
Limits of y : y = to y = 2 ax
4a
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 4a Fig. 9.144
4a 2 ax
A=∫ ∫ x2 dy dx
0
4a
4a
=∫
2 ax
y x2
dx
0
4a
4a  x2 
= ∫  2 ax −  dx
0  4a 
4a
2 3 1 x3
= 2 a ⋅ x2 − ⋅
3 4a 3 0
3
4 1
= a ( 4a ) 2 − ( 4a )3
3 12a
32 2 16 2
= a − a
3 3
16 2
= a
3
Example 6
Find the area enclosed by the curves y = 2 – x and y2 = 2(2 – x).
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the line y = 2 – x and the parabola y2 = 2(2 – x) are
obtained as y
(2 – x)2 = 2(2 – x)
(2 – x)(2 – x – 2) = 0 Q (0, 2)
(2 – x)(–x) = 0 y =2−x
B
x = 2, 0 y 2 = 2 (2 −x)
y = 0, 2 A P (2, 0)
The points of intersection are P (2, 0) and
O x
Q (0, 2).
from the line y = 2 – x and terminates
on the parabola y2 = 2 (2 – x).
Limits of y : y = 2 – x to y = 2(2 − x)
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 2 Fig. 9.145
2 2( 2− x )
A=∫ ∫ d y dx
0 2− x
2 2( 2− x )
=∫ y dx
0 2− x
2 
1
= ∫  2 ( 2 − x ) 2 − ( 2 − x )  dx
0
 
3 2
2( 2 − x )
2
x2
= 2⋅ − 2x +
−3 2
0
 8 1
=  0 +  − 2( 2 − 0 ) + ( 4 − 0 )
 3  2
2
=
3
Example 7
Find the area bounded between the parabolas x2 = 4ay and
x2 = – 4a (y – 2a).
Solution
1. The parabola x2 = 4ay has vertex (0, 0) and the parabola x2 = – 4a(y – 2a) has vertex
(0, 2a). Both the parabolas are y
symmetric about the y-axis.
Q (0, 2a)
x2 = 4ay and x2 = – 4a(y – 2a) are B x 2 = 4ay
obtained as
4ay = −4a ( y − 2a ) R P (2a, a)
(−2a, a)
8ay = 8a 2 x 2 = −4a (y − 2a)
y=a A
O x
∴ x = ± 2a
The points of intersection are

P (2a, a) and R (–2a, a). Fig. 9.146
3. The region is symmetric about
y-axis.
Total area = 2 (Area in the first quadrant)
4. Draw a vertical strip AB in the region which lies in the first quadrant. AB starts from
the parabola x2 = 4ay and terminates on the parabola x2 = – 4a(y – 2a).
x2 x2
Limit of y : y = to y = 2a −
4a 4a
x2
2a 2a −
A = 2∫ ∫ x2
4a
d y dx
0
4a
x2
2a 2a −
= 2∫ y x2
4a
dx
0
4a
2a  x2 x2 
= 2∫  2 a − −  dx
0 
4a 4a 
2a
x3
= 2 2ax −
6a 0
 4 
= 2  4a 2 − a 2 
 3 
16
= a2
3
Example 8
Find smaller of the area enclosed by the curves y = 2 – x and x2 + y2 = 4.
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the line y = 2 – x and the circle x2 + y2 = 4 are obtained as
x2 + (2 – x)2 = 4 y
x + 4 – 4x + x2 = 4
2
2x2 = 4x
x = 2, 0 Q (0, 2)
\ y = 0, 2 B
y
The points of intersection are P (2, 0) x2 + y2 = 4

=
2
−
and Q (0, 2).

x
A P (2, 0)
from the line y = 2 – x and terminates O x
on the circle x2 + y2 = 4.
Limits of y : y = 2 – x to y = 4 − x 2
2 4 − x2
A=∫ ∫ dy dx Fig. 9.147
0 2− x
2 4− x2
=∫ y dx
0 2− x
= ∫  4 − x 2 − ( 2 − x )  dx
2
0  
2
x 4 x x2
= 4 − x 2 + sin −1 − 2 x +
2 2 2 2 0
= 2 sin −1 1 − 2
=π −2
Example 9
Find the area of the loop of the curve x(x2 + y2) = a (x2 – y2).
Solution
 a − x
The equation of the curve can be rewritten as y 2 = x 2 
 a + x 
1. The points of intersection of the curve with x-axis ( y = 0) are obtained as
x2(a – x) = 0
x = 0, x = a.
y
The loop of the curve lies between the
points O (0, 0) and P (a, 0).
2. The region is symmetric about x-axis
Total area = 2 (Area above x-axis) B
P (a, 0)
3. Draw a vertical strip AB in the region x
A
above x-axis. AB starts from x-axis and O
a − x
terminates on the curve y 2 = x 2 
x=−a
.
 a + x 
a−x
Limits of y : y = 0 to y=x
a+ x
Fig. 9.148
Limits of x : x = 0 to x=a
a− x
A = 2∫ ∫
a x
a+ x
dy dx
0 0
a−x
x
= 2∫ y 0
a
a+ x
dx
0
a−x
= 2∫ x
a
dx
0 a+ x
Putting x = a cosq, dx = – a sin q dq
π
When x = 0, θ =
2
When x = a, q = 0
0 a - a cos q
A = 2 Ú p a cos q (- a sin q )dq
2
a + a cos q
q
p 2 sin 2
2 dq
= Ú cos q sin q ◊
2a 2 2
0 2 q
2 cos
2
q
p sin
q q 2 dq
= 2 a 2 Ú 2 cos q ◊ 2 sin cos ◊
0 2 2 q
cos
2
p
= 2 a 2 Ú 2 cos q (1 - cos q ) dq
0
p
Ê 1 + cos 2q ˆ
= 2 a 2 Ú 2 Á cos q - ˜¯ dq
0 Ë 2
p
2 q sin 2q 2
= 2 a sin q - -
2 4 0
ÈÊ p ˆ 1Êp ˆ 1 ˘
= 2 a 2 ÍÁ sin - sin 0˜ - Á - 0˜ - (sin p - sin 0 )˙
Î Ë 2 ¯ Ë
2 2 ¯ 4 ˚
Ê pˆ
= 2a2 Á 1 - ˜
Ë 4¯
Example 10
Find the area included between the curve y2(2a – x) = x3 and its
asymptote. [Summer 2017]
Solution
The equation of the curve can be rewritten as
x3 y
y2 =
2a - x
B Asymptote
1. The point of intersection of the curve
with x-axis (y = 0) is x = 0.
2. The region is symmetric about
x-axis. x
Total area = 2 (Area above x-axis) O A x = 2a
3. Draw a vertical strip AB in the re-
gion above x-axis. AB starts from
x-axis and terminates on the curve
x3
y2 = .
2a - x Fig. 9.149
x
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = x
2a - x
Limits of x : x = 0 to x = 2 a
x
2a x
A = 2Ú Ú0 2a - x dy dx
0
x
2a x
2a - x
= 2Ú y 0
dx
0
2a x
= 2Ú x dx
0 2a - x
Putting x = 2a sin2q,
dx = 2a (2 sinq cosq dq)
When x = 0, q = 0
p
When x = 2 a, q =
2
p
2 a sin 2 q
A = 2 Ú 2 2 a sin 2 q ◊ 4 a sin q cos q dq
0 2 a cos2 q
p
sin q
= 2 Ú 2 2 a sin 2 q ◊ ◊ 4 a sin q cos q dq
0 cos q
p
= 16 a 2 Ú 2 sin 4 q dq
0
3 1 p
= 16 a 2 ◊ ◊ ◊
4 4 4
= 3p a 2
Example 11
Find the area between the rectangular hyperbola 3xy = 2 and the line
12x + y = 6.
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the rectangular hyperbola 3xy = 2 and the line
12x + y = 6 are obtained as y
3 x (6 − 12 x) = 2
1 ,
18 x 2 − 9 x + 1 = 0 Q 4
6
1 1
x= , 12x + y = 6
3 6
B
∴ y = 2, 4
The points of intersection are 3xy = 2
A
1  1  P 1, 2
P  , 2 and Q  , 4 .
3  6  3
O x
2. Draw a vertical strip AB in the region
which starts from the rectangular hyper-
bola 3xy = 2 and terminates on the line
12x + y = 6. Fig. 9.150
2
Limits of y : y = to y = 6 – 12x
3x
1 1
Limits of x : x = to x =
6 3
1
6 −12 x
A = ∫ 13 ∫ 2 d y dx
6 3x
1
6 −12 x
= ∫ 13 y 2 dx
6 3x
1
 2
= ∫ 13  6 − 12 x −  dx
6
 3x 
1
2 3
= 6 x − 6 x − log x
2
3 1
6
1 1  2 1 1
= (2 − 1) − 6  −  −  log − log 
 9 36  3  3 6
1 2
= − log 2
2 3
Example 12 2 2
Find the area bounded by the hypocycloid  x  +  y  = 1.

3 3
 a  b
Solution
1. The hypocycloid is symmetric in all the y
quadrants.
Q (0, b) 2 2
Total area = 4 (area in the first quadrant) x 3 y 3
a + = 1
2. Draw a vertical strip AB parallel to y-axis b
B
in the region which lies in the first quad-
rant. AB starts from x-axis and terminates P
2 2
O A (a, 0) x
 x  y 3 3
on the curve   +   = 1.
 a  b
3
 
2 2
  x 3 
Limits of y : y = 0 to y = b 1 −  
  a  
Fig. 9.151
3
 2 2
 x 3
a b 1−   
A = 4∫ ∫   a  d y dx
0 0
3
 2 2
 x 3 
a b 1−   
  a 
= 4∫ y 0
dx
0
3
 
2 2
a
  x 3 
= 4∫ b 1 −   dx
0   a  
Putting x = a cos3 t, dx = 3a cos2 t (–sin t) dt

π
When x = 0, t =
2
When x = a, t = 0
3
0
A = 4∫π b(1 − cos 2 t ) 2 ( −3a cos 2 t sin t )dt
2
π
= 12ab∫ 2 sin 4 t cos 2 t dt
0
1 Ê 5 3ˆ
= 12 ab B Á , ˜
2 Ë 2 2¯
5 3
= 6 ab 2 2
4
3 1 1 1 1
◊ ◊
= 6 ab 2 2 2 2 2
3!
3
= p ab
8
ExERCIsE 9.8
1. Find the area bounded by y-axis, the line y = 2x and the line y = 4.
[Ans. : 4]
2. Find the area bounded by the lines y = 2 + x, y = 2 – x and x = 5.
[Ans. : 25]
2
3. Find the area bounded by the parabola y + x = 0, and the line y = x + 2.
 9
 Ans. : 2 
 
4. Find the area bounded by the parabola x = y – y 2 and the line x + y = 0.
 4
 Ans. : 3 
 
5. Find the area bounded by the curves y 2 = 4x and 2x – 3y + 4 = 0.

 1
 Ans. : 3 
 
6. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = x2 – 3x and the line y = 2x.
 125 
 Ans. : 6 
 
7. Find the area bounded by the parabolas y2 = x, x2 = –8y.
 8
 Ans. : 3 
 
x2
8. Find the area bounded by the parabolas y = ax2 and y = 1 − , where
a
a > 0.
 4 a 
 Ans. : 
 3 a + 1 
2
 a + x
9. Find the area of the loop of the curve y 2 = x 2 
 a − x 
 2 π 
 Ans. : 2a  − 1 
 4 
10. Find the area of one of the loops of x4 + y4 = 2a2xy.
 π a2 
 Ans. : 
 4 
11. Find the area enclosed by the curve 9xy = 4 and the line 2x + y = 2.
 1 4 
 Ans. : 3 − 9 log 2
 
12. Find the area of the smaller region bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = 9
and a straight line x = 3 – y.
  2π 3
 Ans. : 4  − 
  3 2  
13. Find the area bounded by the x-axis, circle x2 + y2 = 16 and the line y = x.
[Ans. : 2p ]
14. Find the area bounded between the curves y = 3x2 – x – 3 and y = – 2x2
+ 4x + 7.
 45 
 Ans. : 2 
 
2 2 2
15. Find the area bounded by the asteroid (x) 3 + (y ) 3 = (a) 3 .
 3 2
 Ans. : 8 π a 
 
9.7.2 Area in Polar Coordinates p

q = q = q2
2
The area A bounded by the curves r = r1 (q ), r = r2 R
(q ) and the lines q = q1 and q = q2 is
q = q1
θ2 r2 (θ )
A=∫ ∫ r dr dθ S
Q
θ1 r1 (θ ) r = r2(q )
q2 r = r1(q )
q1 P
Note: Consider the symmetricity of the region O q =0
while calculating the area.
Fig. 9.152
Example 1
Find the area between the circles r = 2 sinq and r = 4 sinq.
Solution
π
1. The region is symmetric about the line θ = .
2
Total area = 2 (area in the first quadrant)
q= p
2. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB 2
from the origin in the region which lies
in the first quadrant. OAB enters in the P
region from the circle r = 2sinq and B
terminates on at the circle r = 4 sinq. r = 4 sin q
Limits of r : r = 2sinq to r = 4sinq Q A
π
Limits of θ : θ = 0 to θ =
2
π
4 sin θ
A = 2∫ 2 ∫ r dr dθ r = 2 sinq
0 2 sin θ
q
π 4 sin θ
r2 O
= 2∫ 2 dθ q =0
0 2 2 sin θ
π
Fig. 9.153
= ∫ (16 sin 2 θ − 4 sin 2 θ ) dθ
2
0
π
= ∫ 2 12 sin 2 θ dθ
0
π
= ∫ 2 6(1 − cos 2θ ) dθ
0
π
sin 2θ 2
=6θ− dθ
2 0
 π sin π − sin 0 
= 6 − 
2 2
= 3π
Example 2
Use double integral in polar form to find the area enclosed by the three
petalled rose r = sin 3q. [Winter 2015]
Solution
1. This curve consists of three similar loops.
Total area = 3 (area of the loop in the first quadrant)
2. When r = 0, sin 3q = 0
3q = 0, p, 2p, 3p, ...
p 2p
q = 0, , , p , ...
3 3
Since, in the first quadrant,
p
r = 0 at q = 0,
3 Fig. 9.154
p
loop exists between q = 0 and q = .
3
3. Draw an elementary radius vector OA from the origin in the loop which lies in the
first quadrant. OA starts from the origin and terminates on the curve = sin q.
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = sin 3q
p
3
p
sin 3q
A = 3Ú 3 Ú r dr dq
0 0
p sin 3q
r2
= 3Ú 3 dq
0 2
0
p
3 3 2
2 Ú0
= sin 3q dq
p
3 3 Ê 1 - coss 6q ˆ
2 Ú0 ÁË
= ˜¯ dq
2
p
3 sin 6q 3
= q-
4 6 0
3Êp 1 ˆ
= Á - sin 2p ˜
4Ë 3 6 ¯
3Êpˆ
=
4 ÁË 3 ˜¯
p
=
4
Example 3
Find the area of the crescent bounded by the circles r = 3 and
r = 2cosq.
Solution
p
1. The points of intersection of r = 3 q=
2
and r = 2cosq are obtained as r = √3 q=
p
6
3 = 2 cos θ P
r = 2 cosq
3 A B
cos θ =
2 q
π O q =0
θ=±
6
π
Hence, θ = at P. p
6 q =−
6
2. The region is symmetric about the
initial line, q = 0. Fig. 9.155
Area of the crescent = 2 (area above the initial line, q = 0)
3. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB from the origin in the region above the
initial line. OAB enters in the region from the circle r = 3 and terminates on at
the circle r = 2 cosq.
Limits of r : r = 3 to r = 2 cos θ
π
6
π
2 cos θ
A = 2∫ 6 ∫ r dr dθ
0 3
π 2 cos θ
r2
= 2∫ 6 dθ
0 2 3
π
= ∫ 6 (4 cos 2 θ − 3)dθ
0
π
= ∫ 6 [2(1 + cos 2θ ) − 3]dθ
0
π
sin 2θ 6
= 2 −θ
2 0
π π
= sin −
3 6
3 π
= −
2 6
Example 4
Find the area which lies inside the circle r = 3a cosq and outside the
cardioid r = a (1 + cosq ).
p p
q= q=
Solution 2 3
1. The points of intersection of the circle r = 3a cosq
R
r = 3a cos q and the cardioid
r = a (1 + cos q ) are obtained as B
3a cos θ = a (1 + cos θ ) A
q Q
1 O
cos θ = P q =0
2 r = a (1 + cosq )
π
θ=±
3
π p
Hence, θ = at R. q =−
3
3
2. The region is symmetric about the ini-
Fig. 9.156
tial line q = 0.
Total area = 2 (area above the initial line)
3. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB from the origin in the region above the ini-
tial line. OAB enters in the region from the cardioid r = a (1 + cosq ) and terminates
on the circle r = 3a cosq.
Limits of r : r = a (1 + cosq ) to r = 3a cosq
π
3
p
3 a cosq
0 a (1+ cosq )
p 3 a cosq
r2
= 2Ú 3 dq
0 2
a (1+ cosq )
p
= Ú 3 ÈÎ9a 2 cos2 q - a 2 (1 + cos q )2 ˘˚ dq
0
p
= Ú 3 ÈÎ8a 2 cos2 q - a 2 - 2 a 2 cos q ˘˚ dq
0
p
= a 2 Ú 3 [ 4(1 + cos 2q ) - 1 - 2 cos q ] dq
0
p
2 4 sin 2q 3
= a 3q + - 2 sin q
2 0
Ê p 2p pˆ
= a 2 Á 3 + 2 sin - 2 sin ˜
Ë 3 3 3¯
= p a2
Example 5
Find the area lying inside the circle r = a sin q and outside the cardioid
r = a (1 – cos q). [Summer 2016]
Solution
1. The points of intersection of circle r = a sinq and the cardioid r = a (1 – cosq) are
obtained as
a sinq = a(1 – cosq)
q q q
2 sin cos = 2 sin 2
2 2 2
q q
sin = 0, tan = 1
2 2
q q p
= 0, =
2 2 4
p
q = 0, q = Fig. 9.157
2
p
Hence, q = 0 at origin and q = at P.
2
2. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB from origin in the region. OAB enters
in the region from the cardioid r = a(1 – cos q) and terminates on the circle
r = a sinq.
Limit of r: r = a(1 – cos q) to r = a sin q
p
2
p
a sin q
A=Ú2Ú r dr dq
0 a (1- cosq )
p a sin q
r2
=Ú2 dq
0 2
a (1- cosq )
p
1 Èa 2 sin 2 q - a 2 (1 - cos q )2 ˘ dq
2Ú Î
= 2
˚
0
p
a2 Èsin 2 q - (1 - 2 cos q + cos2 q )˘ dq
=
2 Ú0
2
Î ˚
p
a2 Èsin 2 q - cos2 q + 2 cos q - 1˘ dq
=
2 Ú
0
2
Î ˚
a2 È 2 ˘
p p p
= Í Ú (- cos 2q )dq + 2 Ú 2 cos q dq - Ú 2 dq ˙
2 Î 0 0 0 ˚
È p
p p ˘
a 2 Í sin 2q 2
= Í - + 2 sin q 0 - q 02 ˙˙
2
2 Î 2 0 ˚
a2 È 1 p p˘
= ÍÎ- 2 (sin p - sin q ) + 2(sin 2 - sin 0) - 2 ˙˚
2
a2 È p ˘
= 2- ˙
2 ÍÎ 2˚
Ê pˆ
= a2 Á1 - ˜
Ë 4¯
Example 6
Find the area common to the cardioids r = a(1 + cosq ) and
r = a(1 – cos q ).
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the p
cardioids q=
2
r = a (1 + cos θ ) and r = a (1 − cos θ )
r = a (1 − cosq ) r = a (1 + cosq )
are obtained as P
A
a (1 + cosθ ) = a (1 − cosθ )
cosθ = 0
π O q =0
θ=±
2
π
Hence, θ = at P.
2
2. The region is symmetric in all the
quadrants
Total area = 4 (area in the first Fig. 9.158
quadrant)
3. Draw an elementary radius vector OA from the origin in the region which lies
in the first quadrant. OA starts from the origin and terminates on the cardioid
r = a(1 – cos q ).
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = a (1 − cos θ )
π
2
p
a (1- cosq )
0 0
p a (1- cosq )
r2
= 4Ú 2 dq
0 2
0
p
= 2 Ú a 2 (1 - cos q )2 dq
2
0
p
= 2 a 2 Ú 2 (1 - 2 cos q + cos2 q )dq
0
p
Ê 1 + cos 2q ˆ
= 2 a 2 Ú 2 Á 1 - 2 cos q + ˜¯ dq
0 Ë 2
π
3 sin 2θ 2
= 2a θ − 2 sin θ +
2
2 4 0
 3π 
= 2a 2  − 2
 4 
Example 7
Find the area inside the cardioid r = 3(1 + cos θ ) and outside the
3
parabola r = .
1 + cos θ
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the p
q=
2
cardioid r = 3(1 + cos θ ) and the
3 P
parabola r = are ob- B
1 + cos θ
tained as A
r = 3 (1 + cosq )
3
3(1 + cos θ ) = O q =0
(1 + cos θ )
(1 + cos θ ) 2 = 1
cos θ = 0 3
r=
π 1 + cosq
θ=±
2
π
Hence, θ = at P.
2 Fig. 9.159
2. The region is symmetric about the initial line q = 0.

3. Draw an elementary radius vector OAB from the origin in the region above the
3
initial line q = 0. OAB enters in the region from the parabola r = and
terminates on the cardioid r = 3(1 + cos θ ). 1 + cos θ
3
Limits of r : r = to r = 3(1 + cos q )
1 + cos q
π
2
p
3(1+ cosq )
A = 2Ú 2 Ú 3 r dr dq
0
1+ cosq
p 3(1+ cosq )
r2
= 2Ú 2 dq
0 2 3
1+ cosq
p
È 1 ˘
= Ú 2 9 Í(1 + cos q )2 - 2 ˙ dq
0
Î (1 + cos q ) ˚
p
È 1 + cos 2q 1 ˘
= 9 Ú 2 Í1 + 2 cos q + - 2 ˙ dq
0 2 Ê 2 qˆ ˙
Í
ÍÎ ÁË 2 cos 2 ˜¯ ˙
˚
p
È3 cos 2q 1 Ê qˆ q˘
= 9 Ú 2 Í + 2 cos q + - Á 1 + tan 2 ˜ sec 2 ˙ dq
0 2
Î 2 4 Ë 2 ¯ 2˚
p
È3 cos 2q 1 q 1 q Ê1 q ˆ˘
= 9 Ú 2 Í + 2 cos q + - sec 2 - ◊ tan 2 Á sec 2 ˜ ˙ dq
0 2
Î 2 4 2 2 2 Ë 2 2¯˚
p
q 3 2
tan
3q sin 2q 1 q 1 2
=9 + 2 sin q + - ◊ 2 tan -
2 4 4 2 2 3
0
È
ÍQ Ú [ f (q )]n f ¢(q )dq =
[ f (q )]n+1 ˘˙
Í n +1 ˙
Î ˚
Ê 3p p sin p 1 p 1 3 pˆ
= 9Á + 2 sin + - tan - tan ˜
Ë 4 2 4 2 4 6 4¯
Ê 3p 4 ˆ
= 9Á +
Ë 4 3 ˜¯
Example 8
Find the area common to both the circles r = cos q and r = sin q.
[Winter 2013]
Solution
p
q=
1. So the point of intersection of the circles 2
r = cos q and r = sin q is obtained as r = sin q
p
q=
cos q = sin q P 4
B
tan q = 1
p A
q = r = cos q
4
O q =0
p
Hence, q = is the point of intersection
4
2. The point of intersection divides the region
into two subregions OAP and OBP. Fig. 9.160
3. Draw an elementary radius in each subre-
gion.
(i) In subregion OAP, radius vector OA starts from the origin and terminates on
the circle r = sin q.
Limit of r: r = 0 to r = sin q
p
4
(ii) In the subregion OBP, the radius vector OB starts from the origin and terminates
on the circle r = cos q.
Limit of r: r = 0 to r = cos q
p p
Limit of q: q = to q =
4 2
p p
sin q cosq
A=
Ú Ú
0
4
0
r dr dq + Ú Ú 2
0 0
r dr dq
p sin q p cosq
r2 r2
=
Ú
0
4
2
0
dq + Ú p
4
2
2
0
dq
1È ˘
p p
= Í
2Í Ú
0
4 2
sin q dq + Ú p
2
cos2 q dq ˙
˙
Î 4 ˚
1È Ê 1 + cos 2q ˆ ˘
p p
Ê 1 - cos 2q ˆ
= Í
2Í Ú
0
4
ÁË 2 ˜¯ dq + Ú p
2
ÁË 2 ˜¯ dq ˙
˙
Î 4 ˚
1È ˘
p p
= Í
4Í Ú
0
4
(1 - cos 2q ) dq + Ú p
2
(1 + cos 2q ) dq ˙
˙
Î 4 ˚
È p p ˘
1Í sin 2q 4 sin 2q 2 ˙
= Íq - +q+
4 2 2 p ˙
ÎÍ ˙
0
4˚
1 ÈÊ p 1 ˆ Ê p p 1 ˆ ˘
= Í - + - - ˙
4 ÎÁË 4 2 ˜¯ ÁË 2 4 2 ˜¯ ˚
1Êp ˆ
= -1
4 ÁË 2 ˜¯
p 1
= -
8 4
Example 9
Find the area common to the circles r = cos θ and r = 3 sin θ .
Solution
1. The point of intersection of the circles r = cos θ and r = 3 sin θ is obtained as
3 sin θ = cos θ p
q=
1 2
tan θ =
3
π
θ=
6
p
q=
π 6
Hence, θ = at P.
6
B P
2. Divide the region OAPBO into two r = √3 sin q
subregions OAP and OBP. Draw A r = cos q
an elementary radius vector in each
O q =0
subregion.
(i) In subregion OAP, radius vec-
tor OA starts from the origin
and terminates on the circle Fig. 9.161
r = 3 sin θ.
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = 3 sin θ
π
6
(ii) In the subregion OBP, the radius vector OB starts from the origin and termi-
nates on the circle r = cos q.
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = cos q
p p
Limits of q : q = to q =
6 2
p p
3 sin q cosq
A=Ú6Ú r dr dq + Ú p2 Ú r dr dq
0 0 0
6
p 3 sin q p cosq
r2 r2
=Ú 6 dq + Ú p
2 dq
0 2 2
0 6 0
p p
1 1
= Ú 6 3 sin 2 q dq + Ú p2 cos2 q dq
2 0 2
6
p p
3 Ê 1 - cos 2q ˆ 1 Ê 1 + cos 2q ˆ
= Ú6Á ˜ dq + Ú p2 Á ˜¯ dq
2 Ë
0 2 ¯ 2 Ë 2
6
p p
3 sin 2q 6 1 sin 2q 2
= q- + q+
4 2 0 4 2 p
6
3Êp 1 pˆ 1Êp p 1 1 pˆ
= Á - sin ˜ + Á - + sin p - sin ˜
Ë
4 6 2 3 ¯ Ë
4 2 6 2 2 3¯
5p 3
= -
24 4
Example 10
Find the area common to the circle r = a and the cardioid
r = a(1 + cos q ).
Solution
1. The points of intersection of the circle r = a and the cardioid r = a (1 + cos q ) are
obtained as
a = a(1 + cos q )
cos q = 0
p
q=±
2
π
Hence, θ = at Q.
2
2. The region is symmetric about the initial line q = 0.

3. Divide the region OPQO above the initial line into two subregions OPQ and OBQ.
Draw an elementary radius vector in each subregion.
(i) In the subregion OPQ the radius vector OA starts from the origin and termi-
nates on the circle r = a.
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = a
p
q=
2
Q
B A
r=a
r = a (1 + cos q )
O P q =0
Fig. 9.162
π
2
(ii) In the subregion OBQ, radius vector OB starts from the origin and terminates
on the cardioid r = a (1 + cos q ).
Limits of r : r = 0 to r = a (1 + cos θ )
π
Limits of θ : θ = to θ = π
2
Ê p a p a (1+ cosq ) ˆ
A = 2 Á Ú 2 Ú r dr dq + Ú p Ú r dr dq ˜
Ë 0 0 2
0
¯
Ê p 2 a p r2
a (1+ cosq ) ˆ
r
= 2Á Ú 2 dq + Ú p dq ˜
ÁË 0 2 0 2
2
0
˜¯
p
p
= Ú a 2 dq + Ú p a 2 (1 + coss q )2 dq
2
0
2
p
pÊ 1 + cos 2q ˆ
= a 2 q 02 + a 2 Ú p Á 1 + 2 cos q + ˜¯ dq
2
Ë 2
p
p 3q sin 2q
= a2 . + a2 + 2 sin q +
2 2 4 p
2
p a 2 3a 2 Ê pˆ 2Ê p ˆ a2
= + ÁË p - + 2 sin p - sin + (sin 2p - sin p )
2 ˜¯ ÁË 2 ˜¯ 4
a
2 2
Ê 5p ˆ
= a2 Á - 2˜
Ë 4 ¯
Example 11
Find the area between the curve q = p
2
r = a (secq + cosq ) and its asymptote
r = a sec q.
r = a (sec q + cos q )
Solution
B
1. The region is symmetric about the ini- r = a sec q
tial line q = 0 A
Total area = 2(area above the initial line)
O q =0
in the region above the initial line.
OAB enters in the region from the line
r = a sec q and terminates on the curve
r = a (secq + cosq ).
Limits of r : r = a sec q to
r = a (sec q + cos q )
π Fig. 9.163
Limits of q : q = 0 to θ =
2
p
a (sec q + cosq )
0 a sec q
p a (sec q + cosq )
r2
= 2Ú 2 dq
0 2
a sec q
p
=Ú 2 [ a 2 (sec q + cos q )2 - a 2 sec 2 q ]dq
0
p
= a 2 Ú 2 (cos2 q + 2)dq
0
È1 Ê 3 1ˆ p
˘
= a 2 Í B Á , ˜ + 2q 2
˙
ÍÎ 2 Ë 2 2 ¯ 0 ˙˚
È 3 1 ˘
Í1 2p ˙
= a2 Í 2 2 + ˙
Í2 2 2 ˙
ÍÎ ˙˚
5p 2
= a
4
Example 12
Find the area of the loop of the curve x 4 + y 4 = 8 xy.
Solution
1. The equation of the curve in polar form is r 4 (cos 4 θ + sin 4 θ ) = 8r 2 cos θ sin θ
8 cos θ sin θ p
r2 = q=
2
cos 4 θ + sin 4 θ q =
p
A 4
2. Draw an elementary radius vector
OA from the origin in the region 8 cos q sin q
r2=
which lies in the first quadrant. OA cos4 q + sin4 q
starts from the origin and terminates
O q =0
8 cos θ sin θ
on the curve r 2 = .
cos 4 θ + sin 4 θ
Limits of
8 cos θ sin θ
r : r = 0 to r =
cos 4 θ + sin 4 θ
π Fig. 9.164
2
p 8 cosq sin q
4
q + sin 4 q
A=Ú 2
Ú
cos
r dr dq
0 0
8 cosq sin q
p
r2 cos4 q + sin 4 q
=Ú 2 dq
0 2
0
p
1 Ê 8 cos q sin q ˆ
2 Ú ÁË cos4 q + sin 4 q ˜¯
= 2 dq
0
π
 tan θ sec 2 θ 
= 4∫ 2  dθ
0  1 + tan 4 θ  
Putting tan 2 θ = t , 2 tan θ sec 2 θ dθ = dt

When θ = 0, t = 0
π
When θ= ,t → ∞
2
• dt
A = 2Ú
0 1 + t2
•
= 2 tan -1 t
0
Êpˆ
= 2Á ˜
Ë 2¯
=p
ExERCIsE 9.9
1. Find the area common to the circles r = a and r = 2acos q.
 
2 2π 3
 Ans. : a  − 
  3 2  
2. Find the area of the crescent bounded by the circles

r = 2 and r = 2 cos θ.
Ans. :1
3. Find the area which lies inside the cardioid r = 2a (1 + cos q ) and
2a
outside the parabola r = .
1 + cos θ
 16a 2 
 Ans. : 3π a +
2

 3 
4. Find the area bounded between the circles r = 2a sin q, r = 2b sin q (b > a).
 Ans. : π(b 2 − a 2 )
5. Find the area outside the circle r = a and inside the cardioid r = a(1 + cos q ).
 a2 
 Ans. : (π + 8)
 4 
Points to Remember
Double Integrals
The double integral of a function f (x, y) over the region R is denoted by
ÚÚ f ( x, y)dx dy.
R
Double Integrals over Rectangles and General Regions

Method-I: When the region R is bounded by the curves y = y1(x), y = y2(x) and
x = a, x = b,
b È y2 ( x )
ÚÚ f ( x, y)dx dy = Úa ÍÎÚy ( x ) f ( x, y)dy ˘˙ dx
R
1 ˚
Method-II: When the region R is bounded by the curves x = x1(y), x = x2(y) and
y = c, y = d,
d È x2 ( y )
ÚÚ f ( x, y)dx dy = Úc ÍÎÚx ( y) f ( x, y)dx ˘˙ dy
R
1 ˚
If all the four limits are constant and f (x, y) is explicit, then the f (x, y) can be
integrated w.r.t. any variable first and also can be written as product of two single
integrals.
Change of Order of Integration
Sometimes evaluation of double integral becomes easier by changing the order of
integration. To change the order of integration,
1. Draw the region of integration with the help of the given limits.
2. Draw vertical or horizontal strip as per the required order of integra-
tion
3. Find the limits of integration
b È y2 ( x )
f ( x, y)dy ˘˙ dx = Ú ÈÍ Ú f ( x, y)dx ˘˙ dy
d x2 ( y )
Úa ÍÎÚy ( x )
1 ˚ c Î x1 ( y ) ˚
Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates
Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q,
ÚÚ f ( x, y)dy dx = ÚÚ f (r cos q , r sin q ) J dr dq

where Jacobian, J = r
Hence, ÚÚ f ( x, y)dy dx = ÚÚ f (r cos q , r sin q )r dr dq
Triple Integrals
The triple integral of a continuous function f (x, y, z) over a region V is denoted by
ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)dx dy dz.
V
Triple Integrals in Cartesian Coordinates

If the region V is bounded below by a surface z = z1 (x, y) and above by a surface z
= z2 (x, y) and if the projection of region V in xy-plane is R which is bounded by the
curves y = y1 (x), y = y2 (x) and x = a, x = b then
b È y2 ( x )
{
ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)dx dy dz = Úa ÍÎÚy ( x ) Úz ( x, y)
V
1
z2 ( x , y )
1
} ˘
f ( x, y, z )dz dy ˙ dx
˚
Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, z = z,
ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)d x dy dz = ÚÚÚ f (r cos q , r sin q , z) J dz dr dq

where Jacobian, J = r
Hence, ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z )dx dy dz = ÚÚÚ f (r cos q , r sin q , z )r dz dr dq
Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates

Putting x = r sin q cos f, y = r sin q sin f, z = r cos q,
ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)dx dy dz = ÚÚÚ f (r sin q cos f, r sin q sin f, r cos q ) J dr dq df

where Jacobian,J = r 2 sin q
Hence, ÚÚÚ f ( x, y, z)dx dy dz

= ÚÚÚ f (r sin q cos f , r sin q sin f , r cos q ) ◊ r 2 sin q dr dq df
Area by Double Integrals

Area in Cartesian Coordinates
(i) The area bounded by the curves y = y1(x) and y = y2(x) intersecting at the points
P (a, b) and Q (c, d ) is
c y2 ( x )
A=Ú Úy ( x ) dy dx
a 1
(ii) The area bounded by the curves x = x1(y) and x = x2(y) and intersecting at the
points P (a, b) and Q (c, d ) is
c y2 ( x )
A=Ú
a Úy ( x )
dy dx
1
Area in Polar Coordinates

The area bounded by the curves r = r1(q ), r = r2(q ) and the lines q = q1 and q = q2
is
q2 r2 (q )
A=Ú Úr (q ) r dr dq
q1 1
Multiple Choice Questions

x2
• -
Ú0 Ú0 xe
x y
1. To evaluate dx dy by change of order of integration, the lower limit
for the variable x is equal to
(a) y2 (b) 0 (c) • (d) y
4 3 2
2. Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 dx dy dz =
(a) 9 (b) 24 (c) 1 (d) 0
2 ex
3. By changing the order of integration, the integral Ú0 Ú1 dy dx is equivalent to
the double integral _______.
e 2 e2
Ú1 Úlog y dx dy
2
(a) (b) Ú1 Úlog y dx dy
1 log y e2 log y
(c) Úe Ú2
2 dx dy (d) Ú1 Ú2 dx dy
4. By changing to spherical polar co-ordinates, ÚÚÚ dy dx dz, where R is the region

R
of hemisphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a 2 is equivalent to triple integral ______
p
2p 2p p
Ú0 Ú Ú Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 r
a 2 a 2
(a) 2 r sin q dr dq df (b) sin q dr dq df
0 0
p p p p
Ú Ú Ú Ú Ú Ú
a 2 a 2
(c) 2 2 r sin q dr dq df (d) 2 2 r cos q dr dq df
0 0 0 0 0 0
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 xyz dz dy dx
a x y
5. =
a6 a6 a4 a4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
24 48 48 24
6. In evaluating Ú Ú xy ( x + y) dx dy over the region between y = x2 and y = x, the
limits are
(a) x = 0 to 1, xy = 0 to 1 (b) x = 0 to 1, y = 0 to x
(c) x = 0 to 1, y = 0 to x2 (d) x = 0 to 1, y = x2 to x
a2 - y2
Ú0 Ú0
a
7. ( a 2 - x 2 - y 2 ) dx dy =
p a4 p a4 p a4
(a) (b) (c) (d) pa4
8 4 2
• • - ( x 2 + y2 )
8. After transforming to polar co-ordinates Ú0 Ú0 e dx dy =
p p
1 -r 2 1 -r 2
(a) Ú Ú
2
0 0
e dr dq (b) Ú Ú
2
0 0
e r d r dq
p p
• -r 2 • - y2
(c) Ú Ú
2
0 0
e r dr dq (d) Ú Ú
2
0 0
e r dr dq
p a cosq
9. Ú0 Ú0 r sin q dr dq =
a2 a2 a2 a2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 3 2 6
1 2
Ú0 Ú0 xy
2
10. dy dx =
5 1 2 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 3 3 3
p p
11. Ú Ú
2 2
0 0
sin ( x + y) dx dy is
p
(a) 0 (b) p (c) (d) 2
2
12. The value of the integral Ú Ú xy dx dy over the region bounded by the x-axis,
ordinate at x = 2a and the parabola x2 = 4ay is
a4 a4 a4 a4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 5 7 9
13. The triple integral ÚÚÚ dx dy dz gives
R
(a) volume (b) area (c) surface area (d) density
1 1 1- x
14. The value of Ú0 Úy Ú0
2 x dz dx dy is
4 3 8 6
(a) (b) (c) (d)
35 35 35 35
p
2p 1 2
15. The value of the integral Ú0 Ú03 Ú0 r sin q dr dq df is
p p 2p p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 6 3 4
• • - x 2 (1 + y2 )
16. The value of the integral Ú0 Ú0 e x dx dy is
p p p p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 3 4 6
• 2
17. Changing the order of integration in the double integral
s q
Ú0 Ú x f ( x, y) dy dx leads
4
to Úr Ú p f ( x, y) dx dy , then q is
(a) 4y (b) 16y2 (c) x (d) 8
Ú Ú (x
2 2
18. The limits of integration of + y ) dx dy over the domain bounded by
y = x2 and y2 = x are
(a) x = 0 to 1, y = x2 to x (b) x = 0 to 1, y = 0 to 1
(c) x = y2 to y , y = 0 to 1 (d) x = 0 to y, y = x to x2
xy
19. ÚÚ 2
dx dy over the positive quadrant of the circle x2 + y2 = 1 is
1- y
1 2 5 5
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 3 6 3
ÚÚr
20. 3
dr dq over the region included between the circles r = 2 sinq and
r = 4 sinq is
p
p 4sin q 3 4sin q 3
(a) Ú0 Ú 2sin q
r dr dq (b) Ú02 Ú2sinq r dr dq
p
p 4sin q 3 4sin q 3
(c) Ú Ú
- p 2sin q
r dr dq (d) Ú Ú
2
0 sin q
r dr dq
a2 - x 2
Ú0 Ú0
a
21. On converting into polar co-ordinates ( x 2 + y 2 ) dy dx =
p p
Ú0 Ú02 r
a 3
Ú Ú
a
(a) 2 r2 dr d q (b) dr dq
0 0
p p
Ú Ú
a
Ú0 Ú
a
(c) 4 r3 dr dq (d) 4 r2 dr d q
0 0 0
22. In spherical co-ordinates, dx dy dz is equal to

(a) r dq df dr (d) r sinq dq df dr (c) r2 sinq dq df dr (d) r2 dq df dr
1 1 1
Ú0 Ú0 Ú0 ( x
2
23. The value of the integral + y 2 + z 2 ) dz dy dx is
1 2
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d) 3
3 3
a2 - x 2 a2 - x 2 - y2
Ú0 dx Ú0 dy Ú
a
24. The value of dz is
0
p a3 p 2
(a) 4pa2 (b) (c) 4pa3 (d) a
6 3
25. The transformations x + y = u, y = uv transform the area element dy dx into

J du dv, where J is equal to
(a) 1 (b) u (c) –1 (d) u2
x2 y2
ÚÚ x
3
26. The value of y dx dy, where R is region enclosed by the ellipse + =1
R a2 b2
in the first quadrant is
b2 a 4 b3 a 4 ba 4 b2 a 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
24 24 24 24
1 x
27. By changing the order of integration,
Ú0 Ú0 f ( x, y)dy dx =
0 y 0 1
(a) Ú1 Ú1 f ( x, y)dx dy (b) Ú1 Úy f ( x, y)dx dy
1 y 1 1
(c) Ú0 Ú1 f ( x, y)dx dy (d) Ú0 Úy f ( x, y)dx dy
2p 1
28. Ú0 dq Ú e2r dr is equal to
0
p 2
(a) e2 – 1 (b) (e - 1) (c) p(e2 – 1) (d) 2p(e2 – 1)
2
ÚÚ x
2 3
29. The value of y dx dy, where R is the region bounded by the rectangle
R
0 £ x £ 1 and 0 £ y £ 3 is
27 27 29 29
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 8 4 8
30. The value of Ú Ú 3 y dx dy over the triangle with vertices (–1, 1), (0, 0) and (1, 1)
is [Winter 2015]
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
31. The area of the curve y = x2 + 1 bounded by the x-axis and the line x = 1 and
x = 2 is [Summer 2014]
3 10 1
(a) (b) (c) 6 (d)
10 3 6
32. The equation of a cylindrical surface x2 + y2 = 9 becomes ____ when converted
to cylindrical polar coordinates. [Summer 2016]
(a) r = 9 2
(b) r = 9 (c) r = ± 3 (d) r = 3
y
2 x2
33. Ú0 Ú0 e x dydx is equal to [Summer 2016]
(a) e2 – 1 (b) e2 (c) e2 + 1 (d) e–2

2 2 1
34. Ú1 Ú1xy
dxdy = [Winter 2016]
(a) 0 (b) (log 2)2 (c) 1 (d) log 2

4 6
35. The region of Ú1 Ú2 dx dy represents [Winter 2016]
(a) rectangle (b) square (c) circle (d) triangle

2 2
36. The region Ú1 Ú1 dx dy represents [Summer 2017]
(a) rectangle (b) square (c) circle (d) triangle

1 1
Ú0 Ú0 (3 x
2
37. The value of - 2 y 2 ) dx dy is [Summer 2017]
1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d)
3
Answers
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b)
10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (a)
19. (a) 20. (a) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (d)
28. (c) 29. (a) 30. (c) 31. (b) 32. (d) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (a)
37. (d)
UNIT-6
Chapter 10. Matrices
CHAPTER
Matrices
10
chapter outline
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Matrix
10.3 Some Definitions Associated with Matrices
10.4 Elementary Row Operations in Matrix
10.5 Row Echelon and Reduced Row Echelon Form of a Matrix
10.6 Rank of a Matrix
10.7 Inverse of a Matrix by Gauss–Jordan Method
10.8 System of Non-homogeneous Linear Equations
10.9 System of Homogeneous Linear Equations
10.10 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
10.11 Properties of Eigenvalues
10.12 Linear Dependence and Independence of Eigenvectors
10.13 Properties of Eigenvectors
10.14 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
10.15 Similarity Transformation
10.16 Diagonalization of a Matrix
10.1 IntroductIon
A matrix is a rectangular table of elements which may be numbers or any abstract
quantities that can be added and multiplied. Matrices are used to describe linear
equations, keep track of the coefficients of linear transformation and record data that
depend on multiple parameters. There are many applications of matrices in mathematics,
viz. graph theory, probability theory, statistics, computer graphics, geometrical optics,
etc.
10.2 Chapter 10 Matrices
10.2 MAtrIX
A set of mn elements (real or complex) arranged in a rectangular array of m rows and

n columns is called a matrix of order m by n, written as m × n.
An m × n matrix is usually written as
 a11 a12 … a1n 

a a2 n 
 21 a22 …
A = … … … … 
 
… … … … 
 am1 am 2 … amn  m × n
The matrix can also be expressed in the form A = [aij ]m× n , where aij is the element
in the i th row and j th column, written as (i, j)th element of the matrix.
10.3 SoMe defInItIonS ASSocIAted wIth MAtrIceS
1. row Matrix
A matrix having only one row and any number of columns, is called a row matrix or
row vector, e.g.
[2 5 -3 4]
2. column Matrix
A matrix, having only one column and any number of rows, is called a column matrix
or column vector, e.g.
 1
 −3 
 
 4 
3. Zero or null Matrix

A matrix, whose all the elements are zero, is called zero or null matrix and is denoted
by 0, e.g.
 0 0 0
0 0  
,
 0 0  0 0 0
  
0 0 0
4. Square Matrix
A matrix, in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, is called a
square matrix, e.g.
 1 3 2
 2 3  
 1 4 ,  −1 4 −5
  
 2 6 8
5. diagonal Matrix
A square matrix, whose all non-diagonal elements are zero and at least one diagonal
element is non-zero, is called a diagonal matrix. e.g.
 1 0 0
 2 0  
 0 4 , 0 4 0
  
0 0 8
6. unit or Identity Matrix
A diagonal matrix, whose all diagonal elements are unity, is called a unit or identity
matrix and is denoted by I, e.g.
 1 0 0
 1 0  
0 1 , 0 1 0
  
0 0 1
7. Scalar Matrix
A square matrix, whose all diagonal elements are equal, is called a scalar matrix, e.g.
 2 0 0
 3 0  
0 3 ,  0 2 0
  
 0 0 2
8. upper triangular Matrix

A square matrix, in which all the elements below the diagonal are zero, is called an
upper triangular matrix, e.g.
1 3 2
0 4 −5 
 
0 0 8 
9. Lower triangular Matrix

A square matrix, in which all the elements above the diagonal are zero, is called a
lower triangular matrix, e.g.
 1 0 0
 −1 4 0 

 2 6 8 
10. trace of a Matrix

The sum of all the diagonal elements of a square matrix is called the trace of a matrix,
 2 −1 0
e.g. A =  4 6 − 2 
 −1 0 3 
Trace of A = 2 + 6 + 3 = 11
11. transpose of a Matrix

A matrix obtained by interchanging rows and columns of a matrix is called transpose
of a matrix and is denoted by A′ or AT, e.g.
 1 −1 3  1 0 −4 
If A =  0 2 6  then A =  −1 2
T
1
 −4 1 5  3 6 5
i.e.,if A = [aij]m×n , then AT = [aji]n×m

12. Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A = [aij]m×m is called symmetric if aij = aji for all i and j, i.e., A = AT,
e.g.
 1 i −3 i 
2 4  
4 3 ,  i −2 4 
   −3 i 4 3 

13. Skew-Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix A = [aij]m×m is called skew-symmetric if aij = -aji for all i and j, i.e.,
A = -AT. Thus, the diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are all zero, e.g.
 0 −3i −4 
3i 0 8

 4 −8 0 
14. conjugate of a Matrix

A matrix obtained from any given matrix A, on replacing its elements by the
corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called the conjugate of A and is denoted
by A , e.g.
1 + 3i 2 + 5i 8  1 − 3i 2 − 5i 8 
A=  , A=
 − i 6 9 − i   i 6 9 + i 
15. transposed conjugate of a Matrix

The conjugate of the transpose of a matrix A is called the conjugate transpose or
transposed conjugate of A and is denoted by Aθ , e.g.
Aq = ( A)T = ( AT )
1 − 2i 2 + 3i 3 + 4i  1 − 2i 4 − 5i 8 
For example, If A =  4 − 5i 5 + 6i 6 − 7i  , A =  2 + 3i 5 + 6i 7 + 8i 
T
 8 7 + 8i 7  3 + 4i 6 − 7i 7 
1 + 2i 4 + 5i 8 
Then, Aθ =  2 − 3i 5 − 6i 7 − 8i 
3 − 4i 6 + 7 i 7 
16. hermitian Matrix

___
A square matrix A = [aij] is called Hermitian if aij = a ji for all i and j, i.e., A = Aθ , e.g.
 1 2 + 3i 3 − 4i 
 2 − 3i 0 2 − 7i 
 
 3 + 4 i 2 + 7i 2 
17. Skew-hermitian Matrix

___
A square matrix A = [aij] is called skew-Hermitian if aij = - a ji for all i and j, i.e.,
A = - Aq . Hence, diagonal elements of a skew-Hermitian matrix must be either purely
imaginary or zero, e.g.
 i 2 + 3i 
 −2 + 3i 0 

18. orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix A is called orthogonal if AAT = I.
19. unitary Matrix
A square matrix A is called unitary if AAq = I .
20. determinant of a Matrix
If A is a square matrix, determinant of A is represented as | A |.
 2 3 1 2 3 1
If  
A =  1 2 3  , then | A | = 1 2 3
 1 1 0  1 1 0
21. Singular and non-Singular Matrices

A square matrix A is called singular if | A | = 0 and non-singular if | A | ≠ 0.
22. Minor of an element of a determinant
a11 a12 a13
If | A |= a21 a22 a23 , minor of an element of a determinant is a determinant
a31 a32 a33
obtained by leaving the row and column passing through that element, e.g.,
a22 a23 a21 a23
minor of element a11 = , minor of element a12 = ,
a32 a33 a31 a33
a21 a22
minor of element a13 =
a31 a32
23. cofactor of an element of a determinant

Cofactor of an element aij of a determinant is the minor multiplied by (-1)i+j, e.g.,
a22 a23
Cofactor of the element a11 = (−1)1+1
a32 a33
a21 a23
Cofactor of the element a12 = (−1)1+ 2
a31 a33
a21 a22
Cofactor of the element a13 = (−1)1+ 3
a31 a32
24. Inverse of a Matrix
If A is a square matrix and A ≠ 0 ,

AA−1 = I = A−1 A
where, A-1 is called inverse of the matrix A.
10.4 eLeMentAry row operAtIonS In MAtrIX

Elementary transformation is any one of the following operations on a matrix.
(i) The interchange of any two rows (or columns)
(ii) The multiplication of the elements of any row (or column) by any non-zero
number
(iii) The addition or subtraction of k items the elements of a row (or column) to the
corresponding elements of another row (or column), where k π 0
Symbols to be used for elementary transformation:
(i) Rij : Interchange of i th and j th row
(ii) kRi : Multiplication of i th row by a non zero number k

(iii) Ri + kRj : Addition of k times the j th row to the i th row
The corresponding column transformations are denoted by Cij, kCi and Ci + kCj
respectively.
10.4.1 elementary Matrices

A matrix obtained from a unit matrix by subjecting it to any row or column
transformation is called an elementary matrix.
10.4.2 equivalence of Matrices

If B be an m × n matrix obtained from an m × n matrix by elementary transformation
of A, then A is called the equivalent to B. Symbolically, we can write A ~ B.
10.5 row echeLon And reduced row echeLon forMS

of A MAtrIX
A matrix A is said to be in row echelon form if it satisfies the following properties:
(i) Every zero row of the matrix A occurs below a non-zero row.
(ii) The first non-zero number from the left of a non-zero row is a 1. This is called
a leading 1.
(iii) For each non-zero row, the leading 1 appears to the right and below any lead-
ing 1 in the preceding rows.
The following matrices are in row echelon form.
 1 1 0  1 2 −1 3 0 1 3 5 0
0 1 0 , 0 1 5 6 , 0 0 1 −1 0
     
0 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 1
A matrix A is said to be in reduced row echelon form if each column that contains
a leading 1 in row echelon form of the matrix A has zeros everywhere else in that
column.
The following matrices are in reduced row echelon form.
0 1 − 4 0 1
 1 0 0  1 0 0 2 0
0 0  0 1 0  ,  0 1 0 5 ,  0 0 1 4
0 0 ,     0 0 0 0
  0 0 1 0 0 1 −1
0
 
0 0 0 0 0
example 1
In each part determine whether the matrix is in row echelon form,
reduced row echelon form, both or neither.
È1 2 0 3 0˘
Í0 È1 0 0 5˘
0 1 1 0 ˙˙
(i)
Í
(ii)
Í0
Í 0 1 2 ˙˙
Í0 0 0 0 1˙
Í ˙ ÍÎ0 1 0 7˙˚
Î0 0 0 0 0˚
È0 0 0 0 0˘
Í0 -3˙˙
È 1 -6 4 3˘ Í 0 1 2
(iii) Í0 1 3 2 ˙˚
(iv)
Í0 0˙
Î 0 0 1
Í ˙
Î0 0 0 0 0˚
Solution
(i) The given matrix is in reduced row echelon form and row echelon form since
it satisfies properties (i), (ii), (iii) and columns containing leading 1 have zero
everywhere else.
(ii) The given matrix is neither in row echelon form nor in reduced row echelon
form since it does not satisfy the property (iii).
(iii) The given matrix is in row echelon form since it satisfies properties (i), (ii) and
(iii).
(iv) The given matrix is neither in row echelon form nor in reduced row echelon
form since it does not satisfy the property (i).
example 2
Find a row echelon form of the following matrix:
È0 -1 2 3˘
Í2 3 4 5˙˙
Í
Í 1 3 -1 2˙
Í ˙
Î3 2 4 1˚
Solution
 0 −1 2 3
2 3 4 5

 1 3 −1 2
 
3 2 4 1
R13
1 3 −1 2
2 3 4 5
~
 0 −1 2 3
 
3 2 4 1
R2 − 2 R1 , R4 − 3R1
 1 3 −1 2
0 −3 6 1
~
0 −1 2 3
 
0 −7 7 −5
R23
 1 3 −1 2
0 −1 2 3
~
0 −3 6 1
 
0 −7 7 −5
( −1) R2
 1 3 −1 2
0 1 −2 −3
~
0 −3 6 1
 
0 −7 7 −5
R3 + 3R2 , R4 + 7 R2
1 3 −1 2
0 1 −2 −3
~
0 0 0 −8
 
0 0 −7 −26
R34
1 3 −1 2
0 1 −2 −3
~
0 0 −7 −26 
 
0 0 0 −8
 1
 −  R3
7
1 3 −1 2
0 1 −2 −3

~ 26 
0 0 1 
 7
0 0 0 −8
 1
 −  R4
8
1 3 −1 2
0 1 −2 −3

~ 26 
0 0 1 
 7
0 0 0 1
example 3
Find a row echelon form of the following matrix:
È 1 2 -3 1˘
Í-1 0 3 4 ˙˙
Í
Í 0 1 2 -1˙
Í ˙
Î 2 3 0 -3˚
Solution
 1 2 −3 1
 −1 0 3 4

 0 1 2 −1
 
 2 3 0 −3
R2 + R1 , R4 − 2 R1
 1 2 −3 1
0 2 0 5
~
0 1 2 −1
 
0 −1 6 −5
R23
 1 2 −3 1
0 1 2 −1
~
0 2 0 5
 
0 −1 6 −5
R3 − 2 R2 , R4 + R2
1 2 −31
0 1 2 −1
~
0 0 −4 7
 
0 0 8 −6 
 1
 −  R3
4
1 2 −3 1
0 1 2 −1

~ 7
0 0 1 − 
 4
0 0 8 −6
R4 − 8 R3
1 2 −3 1
0 1 2 −1

~ 7
0 0 1 − 
 4
0 0 0 8
 1
  R4
8
1 2 −3 1
0 1 2 −1

~ 7
0 0 1 − 
 4
 0 0 0 1
example 4
Find the reduced row echelon form of the following matrix:
È0 -1 2 3˘
Í2 3 4 5˙˙
Í
Í 1 3 -1 2˙
Í ˙
Î3 2 4 1˚
Solution
The row echelon form of the matrix is
1 3 −1 2
0 1 −2 −3

 26 
0 0 1 
 7
0 0 0 1
Beginning with the last non-zero row and working upward, we add suitable multiples
of each row to the rows above to introduce zeros above the leading 1’s.
26
R3 − R4 , R2 + 3R4 , R1 − 2 R4
7
 1 3 −1 0
0 1 −2 0
~ 
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
R2 + 2 R3 , R1 + R3
1 3 0 0
0 1 0 0 
~
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
R1 − 3R2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
~
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
example 5
Find the reduced row echelon form of the following matrix:
È 1 2 -3 1˘
Í-1 0 3 4 ˙˙
Í
Í 0 1 2 -1˙
Í ˙
Î 2 3 0 -3˚
Solution
The row echelon form of the matrix is
1 2 −3 1
0 1 2 −1

 7
0 0 1 − 
 4
0 0 0 1
Beginning with the last non-zero row and working upward, we add suitable multiples
of each row to the rows above to introduce zeros above the leading 1’s.
7
R3 + R4 , R2 + R4 , R1 − R4
4
1 2 −3 0
0 1 2 0
~
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
R2 − 2 R3 , R1 + 3R3
1 2 0 0
0 1 0 0
~
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
R1 − 2 R2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
~
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
10.6 rAnk of A MAtrIX

The positive integer r is said to be the rank of a matrix A if it possesses the following
properties:
(i) There is at least one minor of order r which is nonzero.
(ii) Every minor of order greater than r is zero.
Rank of matrix A is denoted by r (A).
Note (1): The rank of a matrix remains unchanged by elementary transformations.
Note (2): The rank of the transpose of a matrix is same as that of the original matrix.
Note (3): The rank of the product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank of either
matrix.
r (AB) ≤ r (A) or r (AB) ≤ r (B)
10.6.1 rank of a Matrix by echelon form

The rank of a matrix in echelon form is equal to the number of nonzero rows of the
matrix,
e.g., 1 3 −1
A = 0 1 4 
0 0 0 
The matrix A is in echelon form and the number of nonzero rows is two. Hence, rank
of the matrix is two,
i.e., ρ ( A) = 2
example 1
Find the rank of the following matrix by reducing it to echelon form:
 5 3 14 4
0 1 2 1
 
 1 −1 2 0
Solution
 5 3 14 4 
Let A = 0 1 2 1
 1 −1 2 0 
Reducing the matrix A to echelon form,

R13
 1 −1 2 0 
~ 0 1 2 1
 
 5 3 14 4 
R3 − 5 R1
 1 −1 2 0 
~ 0 1 2 1
 
0 8 4 4 
R3 − 8 R2
 1 −1 2 0
~ 0 1 2 1
 
 0 0 −12 − 4 
 1
 −  R3
12
 1 −1 2 0 
~ 0 1 2 1
 
0 0 1 1 
 3 
The equivalent matrix is in echelon form.
Number of nonzero rows = 3
r (A) = 3
example 2
 1 2 3 −1
 −2 −1 −3 −1
 
 1 0 1 1
 
 0 1 1 −1
Solution
 1 2 3 −1
 −2 −1 −3 −1
Let A= 
 1 0 1 1
 
 0 1 1 −1

R2 + 2 R1 , R3 − R1
1 2 3 −1
0 3 3 −3
~ 
 0 −2 −2 2
0 1 1 −1
R24
1 2 3 −1
0 1 1 −1
~ 
0 −2 −2 2
0 3 3 −3
R3 + 2 R2 , R4 − 3R2
1 2 3 −1
0 1 1 −1
~ 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 
ρ ( A) = 2
example 3
 3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
 
 1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
Solution
 3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
Let A= 
 1 −2 −3 2 
 
0 1 2 1
R13
 1 −2 −3 2
0 2 2 1
~ 
 3 −2 0 −1 
0 1 2 1
R3 − 3R1 , R24
 1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
~ 
0 4 9 −7
0 2 2 1
R3 − 4 R2 , R4 − 2 R2
 1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
~ 
0 0 1 −11
0 0 −2 −1
R4 + 2 R3
 1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
~ 
0 0 1 −11
0 0 0 −23
 1
 −  R4
23
 1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
~ 
 0 0 1 −11 
0 0 0 1
r(A) = 4
eXercISe 10.2
1. Find the ranks of the following matrices by reducing them to echelon forms:
 1 1 −1 1  4 2 3
(i)  1 −1 2 −1 
(ii)  8 4 6

3 1 0 1  −2 −1 −1.5
 1 2 −2 3 0 1 −3 −1
 2 5 −4 6  0 0 1 1
(iii)  (iv) 
 −1 −3 2 −2 3 1 0 2
   
 2 4 −1 6  1 1 2 0
 3 −2 0 −1 −7 
0  1 2 −1 4 
2 2 1 −5
(v)  (vi)  2 4 3 5
 1 −2 −3 −2 1
   −1 −2 6 7 
0 1 2 1 6
Ans. : (i) 2 (ii) 1 (iii) 4 (iv) 2 (v) 4 (vi) 2

10.7 InverSe of A MAtrIX by GAuSS–JordAn Method
Let A be any non-singular matrix. Then A = IA. Applying suitable elementary row
transformation to A on the L.H.S and to I on the R.H.S, of a matrix A reduces to I and
I reduces to any matrix B.
Hence, I = BA
B = A−1
example 1
Find the inverse of the following matrix by elementary transformations
(Gauss–Jordan method):
2 3 4

4 3 1
 1 2 4 
Solution
 2 3 4
Let A =  4 3 1
 1 2 4
A = I3 A
 2 3 4  1 0 0
 4 3 1 = 0 1 0 A
   
 1 2 4 0 0 1
Reducing the matrix A to reduced row echelon form,
R13
 1 2 4 0 0 1
 4 3 1 = 0 1 0 A
   
 2 3 4  1 0 0
R2 − 4 R1 , R3 − 2 R1
1 2 4 0 0 1
0 −5 −15 = 0 1 − 4  A
   
0 −1 − 4   1 0 −2 
 1
 −  R2
5
0 0 1
1 2 4  
0 1 3 = 0 − 1 4 A
   5 5
0 −1 − 4 
1 0 −2
R3 + R2
0 0 1
 1 2 4 
0 1 3 = 0 − 1 4 
   A
5 5
0 0 −1 
1 6
1 − − 
 5 5
( −1) R3
 0 0 1
 1 2 4 
0 1 3 =  0 − 1 4 
   A
5 5
0 0 1 
1 6
 −1 
 5 5
R2 − 3R3 , R1 − 4 R3
 4 19 
 4 −5 − 5 
 1 2 0  
0 1 0 =  3 − 4 − 14  A
   5 5
0 0 1  
 −1 1 6
 5 5 
R1 − 2 R2
 4 9
 −2 5 5
 1 0 0  
0 1 0 =  3 − 4 − 14  A
   5 5
0 0 1  
 −1 1 6
 5 5 
−1
I3 = A A
 4 9
 −2 5 5
   −10 4 9
 −  =  15 −4 −14
−1 4 14 1
∴A = 3 −
 5 5 5
   −5 1 6
 −1 1 6
 5 5 
example 2
Find the inverse of the following matrix by elementary transformations
(Gauss–Jordan method):
 1 −1 0 2

0 1 1 −1
2 1 2 1
 
 3 −2 1 6
Solution
 1 −1 0 2
0 1 1 −1
Let A= 
2 1 2 1
 
 3 −2 1 6
A = I4 A
 1 −1 0 2  1 0 0 0
0
 1 1 −1 01 0 0
= A
2 1 2 1 0 0 1 0
   
 3 −2 1 6  0 0 0 1
Reducing the matrix A to reduced row echelon form,
R3 − 2 R1 , R4 − 3R1
 1 −1 0 2  1 0 0 0
0
 1 1 −1  0 1 0 0
= A
0 3 2 −3  −2 0 1 0
   
0 1 1 0  −3 0 0 1
R3 − 3R2 , R4 − R2
 1 −1 0 2  1 0 0 0
0 1 1 −1  0 1 0 0
 = A
0 0 −1 0  −2 −3 1 0
   
0 0 0 1  −3 −1 0 1
( −1) R3
 1 −1 0 2  1 0 0 0
0 1 1 −1  0 1 0 0
 = A
0 0 1 0  2 3 −1 0
   
0 0 0 1  −3 −1 0 1
R2 + R4 , R1 − 2 R4
 1 −1 0 0  7 2 0 −2
0
 1 1 0  −3 0 0 1
= A
0 0 1 0  2 3 −1 0
   
0 0 0 1  −3 −1 0 1
R2 − R3
 1 −1 0 0  7 2 0 −2
0
 1 0 0  −5 −3 1 1
= A
0 0 1 0  2 3 −1 0
   
0 0 0 1  −3 −1 0 1
R1 + R2
1 0 0 0  2 −1 1 −1
0
 1 0 0  −5 −3 1 1
= A
0 0 1 0  2 3 −1 0
   
0 0 0 1  −3 −1 0 1
I 4 = A−1 A
 2 −1 1 −1
 −5 −3 1 1
∴ A−1 =  
 2 3 −1 0
 
 −3 −1 0 1
eXercISe 10.3
1. Using elementary row transformations, find the inverses of the following
matrices:
8 4 3  5 -1 5  3 -3 4 

(i) 2 1 1  
(ii)  0 2 
0 (iii)  2 -3 4 
 1 2 1  -5 3 -15  0 -1 1 
 1 -1 1 2 4 2
3
 1 2 3 3
 2 2 -3 2 3 0  6 5 2
(iv)  (v)   (vi)
 1 - 4 2 5 2 -3
9 0 1 2  
4 5 14 14 
0 1 2 2  -1 -3 3 -1
1  1 1 -1 0 
(vii)  1 2 3 (viii)  
2 2 2 3  2 -5 2 -3
   
2 3 3 3  -1 1 0 1
 2 -6 -2 -3  2 0 0 -4 
 5 -13 -4 -7   2 6 0 -16
(ix)  (x) 
 -1 4 1 2  1 0 3 -5
   
 0 1 0 1  -2 0 0 10 
 Ans.: 
 
  1 -2 -1  -10 4 9  1 -1 0  
1
2
1
 (i) 1 -5 (ii) 15 -4 -14  (iii)  -2 3 -4  
 3  5    
  - 3 12 0   -5 1 6   -2 3 3 
 
 
  64 18  
  -23 29 - 5 - 
5 
  
  6 5 1  6 -1 -9  10 -12 26 7 
 1   5 
5  ( v)  - 4 6
1 5
-21 (vi) 
2 
 (iv) 8 2
17   4  6
  -10 3 4   2 -1 -1  1 -2 
  5 5 
  3 1
  2 -2 
  5 5 
  -3 3 -3 2  0 2 1 3  -2 1 0 1 
  3 -4 
  4 -2  1 
1 -1 -2  1 0 2 -1 
(vii)  -3 4 (viii)  (ix) 
-5 3  1 2 0 1 -4 1 -3 1 
       
  2 -2 3 -2  -1 1 2 6  -1 0 -2 2 
 
 5 0 0 2 
 1 1 0 2 
(x)  
 0 0 2 1 
 1 0 0  
  1 
10.8 SySteM of non-hoMoGeneouS LIneAr equAtIonS
A system of m non-homogeneous linear equations in n variables x1, x2, ..., xn or simply

a linear system, is a set of m linear equations, each in n variables. A linear system is
represented by
a11 x1 + a12 x2 +  + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 +  + a2 n xn = b2
   
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 +  + amn xn = bm
Writing these equations in matrix form,
Ax = B
 a11 a12 … a1n 
a a22 … a2 n 
where A = 
21
is called coefficient matrix of order m × n,
    
 
 am1 am 2 … amn 
 x1 
x 
x =   is any vector of order n × 1.
2

 
 xn 
 b1 
b 
B =   is any vector of order m × 1.
2

 
bm 
10.8.1 Solutions of System of Linear equations:

Gauss elimination and Gauss–Jordan Methods
For a system of m linear equations in n variables, there are three possibilities of the
solutions to the system:
(i) The system has unique solution.
(ii) The system has infinite solutions.
(iii) The system has no solution.
When the system of linear equations has one or more solutions, the system is said to
be consistent, otherwise it is inconsistent.
 a11 a12 … a1n b1 
a a22 … a2 n b2 
The matrix [ ]  21
A : B =

  
 
a
 m1 am 2 … amn bm 
is called the augmented matrix of the given system of linear equations.

To solve a system of linear equations, elementary transformations are used to reduce
the augmented matrix to either row echelon form or reduced row echelon form.
Reducing the augmented matrix to row echelon form is called Gauss elimination
method. Reducing the augmented matrix to reduced row echelon form is called
Gauss–Jordan method.
The Gauss elimination method for solving the linear system is as follows:
Step 1: Write the augmented matrix.
Step 2: Obtain the row echelon form of the augmented matrix by using elementary
row operations.
Step 3: Write the corresponding linear system of equations from row echelon form.
Step 4: Solve the corresponding linear system of equations by back substitution.
The Gauss–Jordan method for solving the linear system is as follows:

Step 1: Write the augmented matrix.
Step 2: Obtain the reduced row echelon form of the augmented matrix by using
elementary row operations.
Step 3: For each non-zero row of the matrix, solve the corresponding system of equations
for the variables associated with the leading one in that row.
Note: The linear system has a unique solution if det (A) π 0
example 1
Solve the following system by Gauss elimination method:
x + y + 2z = 9
2 x + 4 y - 3z = 1
3x + 6 y - 5 z = 0
Solution
The matrix form of the system is
 1 1 2  x  9 
 2 4 −3  y  = 1 
     
 3 6 −5  z  0
The augmented matrix of the system is

 1 1 2 9
 2 4 −3 1
 
 3 6 −5 0
Reducing the augmented matrix to row echelon form,

R2 − 2 R1 , R3 − 3R1
1 1 2 9
~ 0 2 −7 −17 
0 3 −11 −27 
 1
  R2
2
1 1 2 9
 7 17 
~ 0 1 − − 
 2 2
0 3 −11 −27 
 
R3 − 3R2
1 1 2 9
 7 17 
~ 0 1 − − 
 2 2
 1 3
0 0 − − 
 2 2
( −2) R3
1 1 2 9
 7 17 
~ 0 1 − − 
 2 2
0 0 1 3

The corresponding system of equations is
x + y + 2z = 9
7 17
y− z=−
2 2
z=3
x = 1, y = 2
Hence, x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 is the solution of the system.
example 2
4x - 2 y + 6z = 8
x + y - 3 z = -1
15 x - 3 y + 9 z = 21
Solution
 4 −2 6  x   8
 1
 1 −3  y  =  −1
15 −3 9  z   21

 4 −2 6 8
 1 1 −3 −1

15 −3 9 21

R12
 1 1 −3 −1
~  4 −2 6 8

15 −3 9 21
R2 − 4 R1 , R3 − 15 R1
1 1 −3 −1
~ 0 −6 18 12

0 −18 54 36
 1  1
 −  R2 ,  −  R3
6 18
 1 1 −3 −1
~ 0 1 −3 −2
0 1 −3 −2
R3 − R2
 1 1 −3 −1
~ 0 1 −3 −2
0 0 0 0

x + y − 3 z = −1
y − 3 z = −2
The leading ones are in columns 1 and 2. Hence, the variables x and y are called
leading variables whereas the variable z is called a free variable. Assigning the free
variable z an arbitrary value t,
y = 3t − 2
x = −1 − 3t + 2 + 3t = 1
Hence, x = 1, y = 3t – 2, z = t is the solution of the system where t is a parameter.
example 3
3 x + y − 3 z = 13
2x − 3y + 7z = 5
2 x + 19 y − 47 z = 32
Solution
3 1 −3  x   13
 2 −3 7   y  =  5
    
 2 19 −47   z  32

3 1 −3 13
 2 −3 7 5

 2 19 −47 32

 1
  R1
3
 1 13 
1 3 −1
3
~  2 −3 7 5
 2 19 − 47 32
 
R2 − 2 R1 , R3 − 2 R1
 1 13 
1 −1
3 3
 11 11 
~ 0 − 9 − 
 3 3
 55 70 
0 −45 
 3 3
 3
 −  R2
11
 1 13 
1 3 −1
3
 27 
~ 0 1 − 1
 11 
 55 70 
0 − 45 
 3 3
55
R3 − R2
3
 1 13 
1 3 −1
3
 27 
~ 0 1 − 1
 11 
0 0 0 5
From the last row of the augmented matrix,
0x + 0 y + 0z = 5
Hence, the system is inconsistent and has no solution.
example 4
Solve the following system for x, y and z.
1 3 4
− + + = 30
x y z
3 2 1
+ − = 9
x y z
2 1 2
− + = 10
x y z
Solution
 1
 x
 −1 3 4   30
 3 2 −1  1  =  9
   y  
 2 −1 2   10
 1
 z 
 −1 3 4 30
 3 2 −1 9
 
 2 −1 2 10
( −1) R1
 1 −3 −4 −30
~  3 2 −1 9
 2 −1 2 10
R2 − 3R1 , R3 − 2 R1
 1 −3 −4 −30
~ 0 11 11 99
0 5 10 70
 1  1
  R2 ,   R3
11 5
 1 −3 − 4 −30
~ 0 1 1 9
0 1 2 14
R3 − R2
 1 −3 −4 −30
~ 0 1 1 9
0 0 1 5

1 3 4
− − = −30
x y z
1 1
+ =9
y z
1
=5
z
1 1 1
x= , y= , z=
2 4 5
1 1 1
Hence, x = , y = , z = is the solution of the system.
2 4 5
example 5
Solve the following system of non-linear equations for the unknown
angles a, b and g, where 0 £ a £ 2p, 0 £ b £ 2p and 0 £ g < p.
2 sin a - cos b + 3 tan g = 3
4 sin a + 2 cos b - 2 tan g = 2
6 sin a - 3 cos b + tan g = 9
Solution
 2 −1 3  sin α   3
 4 2 −2 cos β  =  2
     
 6 −3 1  tan γ   9
 2 −1 3 3
 4 2 −2 2
 
 6 −3 1 9
 1
  R1
2
 1 3 3
1 − 2 2 2
~ 
4 2 −2 2
 6 −3 1 9

R2 − 4 R1 , R3 − 6 R1
 1 3 3
1 − 2 2 2
 
~ 0 4 −8 −4 
0 0 −8 0 

 1  1
  R2 ,  −  R3
4 8
 1 3 3
1 − 2 2 2
 
~ 0 1 −2 −1
0 1 0
 0
1 3 3
sin α − cos β + tan γ =
2 2 2
cos β − 2 tan γ = −1
tan γ = 0

γ =0
cos β = −1 ⇒ β = π
1 3 3
sin α = cos β − tan γ +
2 2 2
1 3 3
= (−1) − (0) + = 1
2 2 2
π
α=
2
π
Hence, α = , β = π , γ = 0 is the solution of the system.
2
example 6
Investigate for what values of l and m the equations
x + 2y + z = 8
2 x + 2 y + 2 z = 13
3x + 4 y + l z = m
have (i) no solution, (ii) a unique solution, and (iii) many solutions.
Solution
 1 2 1  x   8
 2 2 2  y  = 13
     
 3 4 λ   z   µ 
 1 2 1 8
 2 2 2 13
 
 3 4 λ µ 
R2 − 2 R1 , R3 − 3R1
1 2 1 8 

~ 0 −2 0 −3 
0 −2 λ − 3 µ − 24
 1
 −  R2
2
1 2 1 8 
 3 
∼ 0 1 0
 2 
0 −2 λ − 3 µ − 24
 
R3 + 2 R2
1 2 1 8 
 3 
~ 0 1 0 
 2 
0 0 λ − 3 µ − 21
(i) If l = 3 and m π 21, the system is inconsistent and has no solution.

(ii) If l π 3 and m has any value, the system is consistent and has a unique
solution.
(iii) If l = 3 and m = 21, the system is consistent and has infinite (many) solutions.
example 7
Determine the values of l for which the following equations are
consistent. Also, solve the system for these values of l.
x + 2y + z = 3
x+ y + z = λ
3x + y + 3z = λ 2
Solution
1 2 1  x   3 
1 1 1  y  =  λ 
     
3 1 3  z   λ 2 

1 2 1 3 
1 1 1 λ 
 
3 1 3 λ 2 
R2 − R1 , R3 − 3R1
1 2 1 3 
~ 0 −1 0 λ − 3 

0 −5 0 λ 2 − 9
( −1) R2
1 2 1 3 
~ 0 1 0 3 − λ 
0 −5 0 λ 2 − 9
R3 + 5 R2
1 2 1 3 

~ 0 1 0 3 − λ 
0 0 0 λ − 5λ + 6
2
The equations will be consistent if l 2 – 5l + 6 = 0, i.e. l = 3 or l = 2.

Case I: When l = 3,
x + 2y + z = 3
y =0
Assigning the free variable z any arbitrary value t,
x = 3 − 2(0) − t = 3 − t
Hence, x = 3 – t, y = 0, z = t is the solution of the system where t is a parameter.
Case II: When l = 2,

x + 2y + z = 3
y =1

x = 3 − 2(1) − t = 1 − t
Hence, x = 1 – t, y = 1, z = t is the solution of the system where t is a parameter.
example 8
Show that the system of equations
3x + 4 y + 5 z = a
4x + 5 y + 6z = b
5x + 6 y + 7 z = g
is consistent only if a, b and l are in arithmetic progression (A.P.).
Solution
 3 4 5   x  α 
4 5 6  y  =  β 
     
 5 6 7   z  γ 
3 4 5 α 
4 5 6 β 
 
 5 6 7 γ 

R2 − R1 , R3 − R1
3 4 5 α 
~ 1 1 1 β − α 
 2 2 2 γ − α 
R12
1 1 1 β − α 
~  3 4 5 α 
 2 2 2 γ − α 
R2 − 3R1 , R3 − 2 R1
1 1 1 β −α 
~ 0 1 2 4α − 3β 
0 0 0 α − 2β + γ 
The system of equations is consistent if,

α − 2β + γ = 0
α +γ
β=
2
i.e. a, b and g are in arithmetic progression (A.P.)
example 9
Show that if l π 0, the system of equations
2x + y =a
x + ly - z = b
y + 2z = c
has a unique solution for every value of a, b, c. If l = 0, determine the
relation satisfied by a, b, c such that the system is consistent. Find the
solution by taking l = 0, a = 1, b = 1, c = –1.
Solution
2 1 0  x  a 
 1 λ −1  y  =  b 
     
 0 1 2   z   c 
The system has a unique solution if det (A) π 0
det( A) = 2 (2λ + 1) − 1 (2 + 0) ≠ 0
4λ ≠ 0
λ≠0
Hence, the system of equations has a unique solution if l π 0 for any value of
a, b, c.
If l = 0, the system is either inconsistent or has an infinite number of solutions.
For l = 0, the augmented matrix of the system is

2 1 0 a
 1 0 −1 b 
 
 0 1 2 c 

R12
 1 0 −1 b 
~  2 1 0 a 
 0 1 2 c 
R2 − 2 R1
1 0 −1 b 
~ 0 1 2 a − 2b 

0 1 2 c 
R3 − R2
1 0 −1 b 
~ 0 1 2 a − 2b 
0 0 0 c − a + 2b 
The system is consistent if c – a + 2b = 0.

x− z = b
y + 2 z = a − 2b

y = a − 2b − 2t
x = b+t
Hence, x = b + t, y = a – 2b – 2t, z = t is the solution of the system where t is a
parameter.
When a = 1, b = 1, c = –1
x = 1+ t
y = −1 − 2t
z=t
example 10
Solve the following system by Gauss–Jordan method:
x1 + x2 + 2 x3 = 8
- x1 - 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 1
3 x1 - 7 x2 + 4 x3 = 10
Solution
 1 1 2  x1   8
 −1 −2 3  x  =  1
   2  
 3 −7 4  x3  10
 1 1 2 8
 −1 −2 3 1
 
 3 −7 4 10
Reducing the augmented matrix to reduced row echelon form,
R2 + R1 , R3 − 3R1
1 1 2 8
~ 0 −1 5 9
0 −10 −2 −14
( −1) R2
1 1 2 8

~ 0 1 −5 −9
0 −10 −2 −14
R3 + 10 R2
1 1 2 8

~  0 1 −5 −9
 0 0 −52 −104
 1
 −  R3
52
1 1 2 8
~ 0 1 −5 −9

0 0 1 2
R2 + 5 R3 , R1 − 2 R3
 1 1 0 4
~ 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2
R1 − R2
 1 0 0 3
~ 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2

x1 = 3
x2 = 1
x3 = 2
Hence, x1 = 3, x2 = 1, x3 = 2 is the solution of the system.
example 11
2 x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0
-2 x1 + 5 x2 + 2 x3 = 1
8 x1 + x2 + 4 x3 = -1
Solution
 2 2 2  x1   0
 −2 5 2  x  =  1
   2  
 8 1 4  x3   −1
 2 2 2 0
 −2 5 2 1

 8 1 4 −1

 1
  R1
2
 1 1 1 0
~  −2 5 2 1
 8 1 4 −1
R2 + 2 R1 , R3 − 8 R1
1 1 1 0

~ 0 7 4 1
 0 −7 − 4 −1
R3 + R2
 1 1 1 0
~ 0 7 4 1
0 0 0 0
 1
  R2
7
 1 1 1 0
 4 1 
~ 0 1
 7 7
 0 0 0 0
 
R1 − R2
 3 1
1 0 7 − 7
 

~ 0 1
4 1
 7 7
 
0 0 0 0
3 1
x1 + x3 = −
7 7
4 1
x2 + x3 =
7 7
Since leading ones are in columns 1 and 2, x1 and x2 are called leading variables,
whereas x3 is a free variable. Assigning the free variable x3 any arbitrary value t,
1 3
x1 = − − t
7 7
1 4
x2 = − t
7 7
1 3 1 4
Hence, x1 = − − t , x2 = − t , x3 = t is the solution of the system where t is a
7 7 7 7
parameter.
example 12
x - y + 2z - w = -1
2 x + y - 2 z - 2w = -2
- x + 2 y - 4z + w = 1
3x - 3w = -3
Solution
 1 −1 2 −1  x   −1
 2
 1 −2 −2  y   −2
=
 −1 2 − 4 1  z   1
    
 3 0 0 −3  w  −3
 1 −1 2 −1 −1
 2 1 −2 −2 −2

 −1 2 − 4 1 1
 
 3 0 0 −3 −3

R2 − 2 R1 , R3 + R1 , R4 − 3R1
 1 −1 2 −1 −1
0 3 −6 0 0
~ 
0 1 −2 0 0
 
0 3 −6 0 0
 1
  R2
3
 1 −1 2 −1 −1
0 1 −2 0 0
~
0 1 −2 0 0
 
0 3 −6 0 0
R3 − R2 , R4 − 3R2
 1 −1 2 −1 −1
0 1 −2 0 0
~
0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0
R1 + R2
1 0 0 −1 −1
0 1 −2 0 0
~
0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0
x− w = −1
y − 2z =0
The leading ones are in columns 1 and 2. Hence, the variables x and y are called
leading variables whereas the variables z and w are called free variables. Assigning the
free variables z and w any arbitrary values t1 and t2 respectively,
x = −1 + t2
and y = 2t1
Hence, x = −1 + t2 , y = 2t1 , z = t1 , w = t2 is the solution of the system where t1 and t2

are parameters.
example 13
- 2 y + 3z = 1
3 x + 6 y - 3 z = -2
6 x + 6 y + 3z = 5
Solution
0 −2 3  x   1
 3 6 −3  y  =  −2
    
6 6 3  z   5

0 −2 3 1
 3 6 −3 −2
 
6 6 3 5
R12
 3 6 −3 −2
~ 0 −2 3 1
6 6 3 5
 1
  R1
3
 2
 1 2 −1 − 3 
 
~ 0 −2 3 1
6 5
 6 3
R3 − 6 R1
 2
 1 2 −1 − 3 
 
~ 0 −2 3 1
0 −6 9 9

 1
 −  R2
2
 2
 1 2 −1 − 3 
 
~ 0 − 
3 1
1 −
 2 2
 
0 −6 9 9
R3 + 6 R2
 2
 1 2 −1 − 3 
 
~ 0 1 − − 
3 1
 2 2
 
 0 0 0 6
0x + 0 y + 0z = 6
example 14
x1 - 2 x2 - x3 + 3 x4 = 1
2 x1 - 4 x2 + x3 =5
x1 - 2 x2 + 2 x3 - 3 x4 = 4
Solution
 x1 
 1 −2 −1 3    1
 2 − 4 1 0  x2  =  5
  x   
 1 −2 2 −3  3   4
 x4 
 1 −2 −1 3 1
 2 − 4 1 0 5
 
 1 −2 2 −3 4

R2 − 2 R1 , R3 − R1
 1 −2 −1 3 1
~ 0 0 3 −6 3
0 0 3 −6 3
R3 − R2
 1 −2 −1 3 1
~ 0 0 3 −6 3
0 0 0 0 0
 1
  R2
3
 1 −2 −1 3 1
~ 0 0 1 −2 1
0 0 0 0 0
R1 + R2
 1 −2 0 1 2

~ 0 0 1 −2 1
0 0 0 0 0
x1 − 2 x2 + x4 = 2
x3 − 2 x4 = 1
The leading ones are in columns 1 and 3. Hence, the variables x1 and x3 are called
leading variables whereas the variables x2 and x4 are called free variables. Assigning
the free variables x2 and x4 any arbitrary values t1 and t2 respectively,
x1 = 2 + 2t1 − t2
x3 = 1 + 2t2
Hence, x1 = 2 + 2t1 − t2 , x2 = t1 , x3 = 1 + 2t2 , x4 = t2 is the solution of the system where

t1 and t2 are the parameters.
example 15
2x - y+ z =9
3x - y+ z =6
4x - y + 2z =7
-x + y- z =4
Solution
 2 −1 1  9
 3 −1 1  x   6
   y =  
 4 −1 2   7 
   z   
 −1 1 −1  4
 2 −1 1 9
 3 −1 1 6

 4 −1 2 7
 
 −1 1 −1 4

R14
 −1 1 −1 4
 3 −1 1 6
~
 4 −1 2 7
 
 2 −1 1 9
( −1) R1
1 −1 1 − 4
3 −1 1 6
~
4 −1 2 7
 
2 −1 1 9
R2 − 3R1 , R3 − 4 R1 , R4 − 2 R1
 1 −1 1 − 4
0 2 −2 18
~ 
0 3 −2 23
 
0 1 −1 17 
R24
 1 −1 1 − 4
0 1 −1 17 
~
0 3 −2 23
 
0 2 −2 18
R3 − 3R2 , R4 − 2 R2
 1 −1 1 − 4
0 1 −1 17 
~
0 0 1 −28
 
0 0 0 −16
0 x + 0 y + 0 z = −16
eXercISe 10.3
1. Solve the following systems of equations by Gauss elimination method:
(i) 2 x - 3y - z = 3 (ii) x + 2y - z = 1
x + 2y - z = 4 x + y + 2z = 9
5x - 4 y - 3z = -2 2x + y - z = 2
(iii) 6 x + y + z = - 4 (iv) 2 x - y - z = 2
2 x - 3y - z = 0 x + 2y + z = 2
- x - 7 y - 2z = 7 4 x - 7 y - 5z = 2
(v) 2 x1 + x 2 + 2 x 3 + x4 = 6
6 x1 - 6 x 2 + 6 x 3 + 12 x 4 = 36
4 x1 + 3 x 2 + 3 x 3 - 3 x 4 = 1
2 x1 + 2 x 2 - x 3 + x 4 = 10
È Ans.: ˘
Í ˙
Í (i) inconistent (ii) consistent ˙
Í x = 2, y = 1, z = 3 ˙
Í ˙
Í(iii) consistent (iv) consistent ˙
Í 6 +t 2 - 3t ˙
Í x = -1, y = -2, z = - 4 x= ,y = , z = t˙
Í 5 5 ˙
Í (v) consistent ˙
Í ˙
Î x1 = 2, x 2 = 1, x 3 = -1, x 4 = 3 ˚
2. Solve the following system of equations by Gauss–Jordan method:
(i) x + 2y + z = - 1
(ii) x+ y+ z= 6
6x + y + z = -4
x - 2y + 2z = 5
2 x - 3y - z = 0
3x + y + z = 8
- x - 7 y - 2z = 7
2 x - 2y + 3z = 7
x- y = 1
(iii) 2 x1 + x 2 + 5x 4 = 4
3 x1 - 2 x 2 + 2 x 3 = 2
5 x1 - 8 x 2 - 4 x 3 = 1
È Ans.: ˘
Í ˙
Í (i) consistent (ii) consistent ˙
Í x = -1, y = -2, z = 4 x = -1, y = -2, z = 3˙
Í ˙
Î(iii) inconsistent ˚
3. Investigate for what values of l and m, the system of simultaneous

equations
x+ y+ z= 6
x + 2y + 3z = 10
x + 2y + l z = m
has (i) no solution, (ii) a unique solution, and (iii) infinite number of
solutions.
È Ans.: ˘
Í ˙
Î (i) l = 3, m π 10 (ii) l π 3, any value of m (iii) l = 3, m = 10 ˚
4. Investigate for what values of k the equations

x+y+ z= 1
2x + y + 4 z = k
4 x + y + 10 z = k 2
have infinite number of solutions.
[Ans.: k = 1, 2]
5. Determine the values of l for which the following system of equations.
3x - y + l z = 0
2x + y + z = 2
x - 2y - l z = -1
will fail to have a unique solution. For this value of l, are the equations
consistent?
È 7 ˘
Í Ans.: l = - 2 , no solution ˙
Î ˚
6. Find for what values l, the set of equations
2 x - 3y + 6 z - 5t = 3
y - 4z + t = 1
4 x - 5y + 8 z - 9t = l
has (i) no solution, and (ii) infinite number of solutions and find the
solutions of the equations when they are consistent.
È Ans.: (i) l π 7, ˘
Í ˙
Í (ii) l = 7, x = 3k1 + k2 + 3,˙
Í y = 4k1 - k2 + 1, z = k1,˙
Í ˙
ÎÍ t = k2 ˙˚
10.9 SySteM of hoMoGeneouS LIneAr equAtIonS
A system of m homogeneous linear equations in n variables x1, x2, ..., xn or simply

a linear system, is a set of m linear equations each in n variables. A linear system is
represented by
a11 x1 + a12 x2 +  + a1n xn = 0
a21 x1 + a22 x2 +  + a2 n xn = 0
   
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 +  + amn xn = 0
Writing these equations in matrix form,

Ax = 0
where A is any matrix of order m × n, x is a vector of order n × 1 and 0 is a null vector
of order m × 1. The matrix A is called coefficient matrix of the system of equations.
10.9.1 Solutions of a System of Linear equations

For a system of m linear equations in n variables, there are two possibilities of the
solutions to the system.
(i) The system has exactly one solution, i.e. x1 = 0, x2 = 0 ..., xn = 0. This solution
is called the trivial solution.
(ii) The system has infinite solutions.
Note: The system of equations has a non-trivial solution if det (A) = 0.
example 1
Solve the following system of equations by the Gauss–Jordan method.
3x - y - z = 0
x + y + 2z = 0
5 x + y + 3z = 0
Solution
3 −1 −1  x  0
 1 1 2  y  = 0
    
5 1 3  z  0
3 −1 −1 0
 1 1 2 0
 
5 1 3 0

R12
 1 1 2 0
~ 3 −1 −1 0
5 1 3 0
R2 − 3R1 , R3 − 5 R1
1 1 2 0
~ 0 − 4 −7 0

0 − 4 −7 0
 1  1
 −  R2 ,  −  R3
4 4
 1 1 2 0
 7 
~ 0 1 0
 4 
 7 
0 1 0
 4 
R3 − R2
 1 1 2 0
 7 
~ 0 1 0
 4 
0 0 0 0
 
R1 − R2
 1 
1 0 4
0
 
7
~ 0 1 0
 4 
 
0 0 0 0
1
x+ z=0
4
7
y+ z = 0
4
Solving for the leading variables,
1
x=− z
4
7
y=− z
4
Assigning the free variable z an arbitrary value t,
1
x=− t
4
7
y=− t
4
1 7
Hence, x = − t , y = − t is the non-trivial solution of the system where t is a
4 4
parameter.
example 2
x+ y- z+ w=0
x - y + 2z - w = 0
3x + y +w=0
Solution
 x
 1 1 −1 1   0
 1 −1 2 −1  y  = 0
   z  
3 1 0 1   0
 w
 1 1 −1 1 0
 1 −1 2 −1 0
 
3 1 0 1 0
Reducing the augmented matrix to the reduced row echelon form,
R2 − R1 , R3 − 3R1
1 1 −1 1 0
~ 0 −2 3 −2 0

0 −2 3 −2 0
 1  1
 −  R2 ,  −  R3
2 2
 1 1 −1 1 0
 3 
~ 0 1 − 1 0
 2 
 3 
0 1 − 1 0
 2 
R3 − R2
 1 1 −1 1 0
 3 
~ 0 1 − 1 0
 2 
0 0 0 0 0 
 
R1 − R2
 1 
1 0 2
0 0
 
3
~ 0 1 − 1 0
 2 
 
0 0 0 0 0
1
x+ z =0
2
3
y− z+w =0
2

1
x=− z
2
3
y= z−w
2
Assigning the free variables z and w arbitrary values t1 and t2 respectively,
1
x = − t1
2
3
y = t1 − t2
2
1 3
Hence, x = − t1 , y = t1 − t2 , z = t1 , w = t2 is the non-trivial solution of the system
2 2
where t1 and t2 are parameters.
example 3
2 x1 + x2 + 3 x3 = 0
x1 + 2 x2 =0
x2 + x3 = 0
Solution
 2 1 3  x1  0
 1 2 0  x  =  0
  2  
 0 1 1  x3  0
 2 1 3 0
 1 2 0 0
 
 0 1 1 0
R12
 1 2 0 0
~ 2 1 3 0
 
0 1 1 0 
R2 − 2 R1
 1 2 0 0
~ 0 −3 3 0
0 1 1 0
 1
 −  R2
3
 1 2 0 0
~ 0 1 −1 0
0 1 1 0
R3 − R2
 1 2 0 0
~ 0 1 −1 0
0 0 2 0
 1
  R3
2
 1 2 0 0
~ 0 1 −1 0
0 0 1 0
R2 + R3
 1 2 0 0
~ 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
R1 − 2 R2
 1 0 0 0
~ 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

x=0
y=0
z=0
Hence, the system has a trivial solution, i.e. x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.
example 4
Show that the following non-linear system has 18 solutions if
0 £ a £ 2p , 0 £ b £ 2p and 0 £ g < 2p.
sin a + 2 cos b + 3 tan g = 0
2 sin a + 5 cos b + 3 tan g = 0
- sin a - 5 cos b + 5 tan g = 0
Solution
 1 2 3  sin α  0
 2
 5 3 cos β  = 0
 −1 −5 5  tan γ  0

 1 2 3 0
 2 5 3 0

 −1 −5 5 0
R2 − 2 R1 , R3 + R1
 1 2 3 0
~ 0 1 −3 0
0 −3 8 0
R3 + 3R2
1 2 3 0
~ 0 1 −3 0

0 0 −1 0
( −1) R3
 1 2 3 0
~ 0 1 −3 0
0 0 1 0
R2 + 3R3 , R1 − 3R3
 1 2 0 0
~ 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
R1 − 2 R2
 1 0 0 0
~ 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

sin α = 0
cos β = 0
tan γ = 0
From these equations,
α = 0, π , 2π
π 3π
β= , [∵ α , β and γ lie between 0 and 2π ]
2 2
γ = 0, π , 2π
Hence, there are 3 · 2 · 3 = 18 possible solutions which satisfy the system of

equations.
example 5
For what value of l does the following system of equations possess a
non-trivial solution? Obtain the solution for real values of l.
x + 2 y + 3z = l x
3x + y + 2 z = l y
2x + 3y + z = l z
Solution
The system of equations is
(1 - l ) x + 2 y + 3 z = 0
3 x + (1 - l ) y + 2 z = 0
2 x + 3 y + (1 - l ) z = 0
1 − l 2 3   x  0
 3
 1 − l 2   y  = 0
 2 3 1 − l   z  0
The system will possess a non-trivial solution if det (A) = 0.
1− λ 2 3
3 1− λ 2 =0
2 3 1− λ
(1 − λ )[(1 − λ ) 2 − 6] − 2(3 − 3λ − 4) + 3(9 − 2 + 2λ ) = 0
(1 − λ )(λ 2 − 2λ − 5) + 2 + 6λ + 21 + 6λ = 0
λ 2 − 2λ − 5 − λ 3 + 2λ 2 + 5λ + 12λ + 23 = 0
− λ 3 + 3λ 2 +115λ + 18 = 0
λ = 6, λ = −1.5 ± 0.866 i
For real value of l, i.e. l = 6, the augmented matrix of the system is

 −5 2 3 0
 3 −5 2 0
 
 2 3 −5 0

R2 − R3
 −5 2 3 0
~  1 −8 7 0
 2 3 −5 0
R12
 1 −8 7 0
~  −5 2 3 0
 2 3 −5 0
R2 + 5 R1 , R3 − 2 R1
 1 −8 7 0

~ 0 −38 38 0
0 19 −19 0
 1  1
 −  R2 ,   R3
38 19
 1 −8 7 0
~ 0 1 −1 0
0 1 −1 0
R3 − R2
 1 −8 7 0
~ 0 1 −1 0
0 0 0 0
R1 + 8 R2
 1 0 −1 0
~ 0 1 −1 0
0 0 0 0

x −z = 0
y−z =0
x=z
y=z
Assigning the free variable z an arbitrary value t,

x=t
y=t
Hence, x = t , y = t , z = t is the non-trivial solution of the system where t is a

parameter.
example 6
If the following system has a non-trivial solution, then prove that
a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c and hence find the solution in each case.
ax + by + cz = 0
bx + cy + az = 0
cx + ay + bz = 0
Solution
 a b c   x  0
 b c a   y  = 0
    
 c a b   z  0
The system has a non-trivial solution if det (A) = 0.
a b c
b c a =0
c a b
a (bc − a 2 ) − b(b 2 − ac) + c(ab − c 2 ) = 0
− a 3 + b3 + c 3 − 3abc = 0
−(a + b + c)(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 − ab − bc − ca ) = 0
a+b+c = 0
2 2 2
or a + b + c − ab − bc − ca = 0
1
[( a − b) 2 + (b − c) 2 + (c − a) 2 ] = 0
2
a − b = 0, b − c = 0, c − a = 0
a = b, b = c , c = a
a=b=c
Hence, the system has a non-trivial solution if a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c.

 a b c 0
 b c a 0
 
 c a b 0
R3 + R1 + R2
 a b c 0
~  b c a 0
 a + b + c a + b + c a + b + c 0

ax + by + cz = 0
bx + cy + az = 0
(a + b + c) x + (a + b + c) y + (a + b + c) z = 0
(i) When a + b + c = 0, we have only two equations.

ax + by + cz = 0
bx + cy + az = 0
x y z
=− = =t
b c a c a b
c a b a b c
x y z
2
=− 2 = =t
ab − c a − bc ac − b 2
Hence, x = (ab − c 2 )t , y = (bc − a 2 )t , z = (ac − b 2 )t is the solution of the

system where t is a parameter.
(ii) When a = b = c, we have only one equation.
x+ y+ z = 0
y = t1
Let
z = t2
Then x = −t1 − t2
Hence, x = −t1 − t2 , y = t1 , z = t2 is the solution of the system where t1 and t2 are

parameters.
example 7
Discuss for all values of k, the system of equations
2x + 3ky + (3k + 4) z = 0
x + (k + 4) y + (4k + 2) z = 0
x + 2(k + 1) y + (3k + 4) z = 0
Solution
2 3k 3k + 4   x  0
 1 k + 4 4k + 2  y  =  0
    
1 2k + 2 3k + 4   z  0
R12
 1 k + 4 4k + 2  x   0
2
 3k 3k + 4   y  =  0
1 2k + 2 3k + 4   z   0
R2 − 2 R1 , R3 − R1
1 k + 4 4k + 2   x   0 
0 k − 8 −5k   y  = 0 
    
0 k − 2 − k + 2   z  0 
1 k + 4 4k + 2
det ( A) = 0 k − 8 −5k
0 k − 2 −k + 2
= (k − 8)( − k + 2) + 5k (k − 2)
= (k − 2)( − k + 8 + 5k )
= 4(k − 2)(k + 2)
(i) When k ≠ ± 2, det ( A) ≠ 0, the system has a trivial solution, i.e. x = 0, y = 0,

z = 0.
(ii) When k = ±2, det ( A) = 0, the system has non-trivial solutions.
Case I: When k = 2, the augmented matrix of the system is
1 6 10 0
0 −6 −10 0
 
0 0 0 0
 1
 −  R2
6
1 6 10 0
 10 
~ 0 1 0
 6 
0 0 0 0

R1 − 6 R2
1 0 0 0
 10 
~ 0 1 0
 6 
0 0 0 0


x=0
10
y+ z = 0
6
x=0
10
y=− z
6

10 5
y=− t=− t
6 3
5
Hence, x = 0, y = − t , z = t is the solution of the system where t is a parameter.
3
Case II: When k = –2, the augmented matrix of the system is

1 2 −6 0
0 −10 10 0
 
0 − 4 4 0
 1  1
 −  R2 ,  −  R3
10 4
 1 2 −6 0
~ 0 1 −1 0
0 1 −1 0
R3 − R2
 1 2 −6 0
~ 0 1 −1 0
0 0 0 0
R1 − 2 R2
 1 0 − 4 0
~ 0 1 −1 0
0 0 0 0

x − 4z = 0
y− z =0

x = 4z
y=z

x = 4t
y=t
Hence, x = 4t , y = t , z = t is the solution of the system where t is a parameter.

eXercISe 10.4
1. Solve the following equations:
(i) x- y+ z=0
(ii) x - 2y + 3z = 0
x + 2y + z = 0
2 x + 5y + 6 z = 0
2 x + y + 3z = 0
(iii) 2 x - 2y + 5z + 3w = 0
(iv) 2 x - y + 3z = 0
4x - y + z + w = 0
3x + 2y + z = 0
3 x - 2 y + 3 z + 4w = 0
x - 4 y + 5z = 0
x - 3y + 7 z + 6w = 0
(v) 7 x + y - 2 z = 0 (vi) 3x + 4 y - z - 9w = 0
x + 5y - 4 z = 0 2 x + 3y + 2 z - 3w = 0
3x - 2y + z = 0 2 x + y - 14 z - 12w = 0
2 x - 7 y + 5z = 0 x + 3y + 13z + 3w = 0
(vii) x1 + 2 x 2 + 3x 3 + x 4 = 0 (viii) 2 x1 - x 2 + 3x 3 = 0
x1 + x 2 - x 3 - x 4 = 0 3 x1 + 2 x 2 + x 3 = 0
3 x1 - x 2 + 2 x 3 + 3 x 4 = 0 x1 - 4 x 2 + 5 x 3 = 0
È Ans.: (i) x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 (ii) x = -3t, y = 0, z = t ˘

Í ˙
Í 211 7 ˙
(iii) x = t, y = 4t, z = t, w = t
Í 9 9 ˙
Í 3 13 ˙
Í (iv) x = -t, y = t, z = t (v) x = t, y = t, z = t ˙
Í 17 17 ˙
Í (vi) x = 11t, y = -8t, z = t, w = 0 ˙
Í ˙
Í 1 2 2 ˙
(vii) x1 = - t, x 2 = t, x 3 = - t, x 4 = t
Í 3 3 3 ˙
Í ˙
Î ( viii) x 1 = - x 2 = - x 3 = t ˚
2. For what value of l does the following system of equations possess a non-
trivial solution? Obtain the solution for real values of l.
(i) 3x + y - l z = 0 (ii) (1 - l)x1 + 2x2 + 3x 3 = 0
4 x - 2y - 3z = 0 3x1 + (1 - l)x 2 + 2x3 = 0
2l x + 4 y - l z = 0 2 x1 + 3x 2 + (1 - l)x 3 = 0
È Ans.: ˘
Í ˙
Í (i) Non-trivial solution l = 1, -9 ˙
Í For l = 1, x = -t, y = -t, z = -2t ˙
Í ˙
Í For l = -9, x = -3t, y = -9t, z = 2t ˙
Í(ii) l = 6, x = y = z = t ˙
Î ˚
3. Show that the system of equations 2 x - 2y + z = l x, 2 x - 3y + 2 z = l y ,

- x + 2y = l z can posses a non-trivial solution only if l = 1, l = –3. Obtain
the general solution in each case.
È Ans. : For l = 1, x = 2t2 - t1 y = t2 , z = t1 ˘
Í ˙
Î For l = - 3, x = -t, y = -2t, z = t ˚
10.10 eIGenvALueS And eIGenvectorS
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are important concepts in linear algebra. They are derived
from the German word ‘eigen’ which means proper or characteristic. Eigenvectors are
nonzero vectors that get mapped into scalar multiples of themselves under a linear
operator.
Any nonzero vector x is said to be a characteristic vector or eigenvector of a matrix A
if there exists a number l such that
Ax = λ x
 x1 
x 
where A = [aij ]n× n is an n-rowed square matrix and x =   is a non-zero column
2

 
 xn 
vector.
Also, l is said to be characteristic root or characteristic value or eigenvalue of the
matrix A.
Depending on the sign and the magnitude of the eigenvalue l corresponding to x, the
linear operator Ax = l x compresses or stretches the eigenvector x by a factor l. If l is
negative, the direction of the eigenvector reverses. (Fig. 10.1).
Now
Ax = λ x = λ Ix
( A - λ I )x = 0
x lx x x
lx x
lx lx
(i) 0 ≤ l ≤ 1 (ii) l ≥ 1 (iii) −1 ≤ l ≤ 0 (iv) l ≤ −1

fig. 6.1
The matrix A – l I is called the characteristic matrix of A where I is the unit matrix of
order n.
a11 - λ a12  a1n

a21 a22 - λ  a2 n
det( A - λ I ) =
   
an1 an 2  ann - λ
which is an ordinary polynomial in l of degree n, is called the characteristic polynomial

of A.
The equation det(A – l I ) = 0 is called the characteristic equation of A and the roots of
this equation are called the eigenvalues of the matrix A. The set of all eigenvectors is
called the eigenspace of A corresponding to l. The set of all eigenvalues of A is called
the spectrum of A.
Note: (1) The characteristic equation of the matrix A of order 2 can be obtained from
l 2 – S1 l + S2 = 0
where S1 = sum of principal diagonal elements and
S2 = determinant A
(2) The characteristic equation of the matrix A of order 3 can be obtained from
l 3 – S1 l2 + S2 l – S3 = 0
where S1 = sum of principal diagonal elements,
S2 = sum of minors of principal diagonal elements and
S3 = determinant A
(3) The sum of the eigenvalues of a matrix is the sum of its principal diagonal elements.
(4) The product of the eigenvalues of a matrix is the determinant of the matrix.
10.11 propertIeS of eIGenvALueS
Property 1: If l is an eigenvalue of the matrix A then l is also an eigenvalue of AT.

Proof: Let l be an eigenvalue of the matrix A.
The characteristic equation of A is det (A – l I ) = 0.
The characteristic equation of AT is det (AT – l I ) = 0.
The determinant value does not change by the interchange of rows and columns.
det ( A - λ I ) = det ( AT - λ I )
The characteristic equations are same for both A and AT.

Hence, l is also an eigenvalue of AT.
1
Property 2: If l is an eigenvalue of the non-singular matrix A then is an
–1
eigenvalue of A . λ
Proof: Let l be an eigenvalue of the non-singular matrix A.
Ax = λ x …(10.1)
Premultiplying both sides of Eq. (10.1) by A–1,
A-1 Ax = A-1λ x
Ix = λ A-1x
x = λ A-1x
1
A-1x = x
λ
1
Hence, is an eigenvalue of A–1.
λ
Property 3: If l is an eigenvalue of the matrix A then lk is an eigenvalue of Ak.
Ax = λ x …(10.2)
Premultiplying both sides of Eq. (10.2) by A,

AAx = Al x
A2 x = l ( Ax)
= l ( l x)
= l 2x
Similarly, A3x = l3x
In general, Akx = lkx
Hence, lk is an eigenvalue of Ak.
Property 4: If l is an eigenvalue of the matrix A then l ± k is an eigenvalue of A ± kI.
Ax = λ x …(10.3)
Adding kIx on both sides of Eq. (10.3),
Ax + kIx = λ x + kIx
( A + kI )x = λ x + k x
= (λ + k )x
Similarly, ( A - kI )x = (λ - k )x
In general, ( A ± kI ) x = (λ ± k ) x
Hence, l ± k is an eigenvalue of A ± kI.
Property 5: If l is an eigenvalue of the matrix A then kl is an eigenvalue of kA.
Ax = λ x …(10.4)
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (10.4) by the scalar k,
k Ax = k λ x
Hence, kl is an eigenvalue of kA.
Property 6: The eigenvalues of a triangular matrix are the diagonal elements of the
matrix.
 a11 a12  a1n 
0 a  a2 n 
 22
Proof: Let A =       be a triangular matrix of order n.

 
    
 0 0  ann 
The characteristic equation is
det( A - λ I ) = 0
 a11 - λ a12  a1n 
 0 a22 - λ  a2 n 

     =0
 
     
 0 0  ann - λ 
(a11 - λ )(a22 - λ ) … (ann - λ ) = 0
λ = a11 , a22 , …, ann
Hence, the eigenvalues of A are a11, a22, … , ann which are the diagonal elements of
the matrix.
Property 7: The eigenvalues of a real symmetric matrix are real.
Proof: Let l be an eigenvalue of the real symmetric matrix.
Ax = λ x ... (10.5)
Premultiplying both sides of Eq. (10.5) by xT ,

xT Ax = λ xT x ... (10.6)
Taking complex conjugate on both sides of Eq. (10.6),

xT A x = λ xT x
xT Ax = λ xT x (∵ A = A for real matrix) ... (10.7)
Taking transpose on both sides of Eq. (10.7),
xT AT x = λ xT x
xT Ax = λ xT x (∵ A = A for symmetric matrix) ... (10.8)
T
From Eqs (10.6) and (10.8),

λxT x = λ xT x
(λ - λ ) x T x = 0
xT x is a 1 × 1 matrix, i.e., a single element which is positive,

λ -λ = 0
i.e., l is real.
Hence, the eigenvalues of a real symmetric matrix are real.
example 1
 2 -3
Find the sum and product of the eigenvalues of the matrix A =  .
 4 -2
Solution
Sum of the eigenvalues of A = Sum of principal diagonal elements of A
=2–2
=0
Product of the eigenvalues of A = Determinant of A
2 -3
=
4 -2
= -4 + 12
=8
example 2
1 2 5
Find the sum and product of the eigenvalues of the matrix A =  2 3 4 .
 
 3 6 7 
Solution
=1+3+7
= 11
1 2 5
= 2 3 4
3 6 7
= 1(21 - 24) - 2(14 - 12) + 5(12 - 9)
= -3 - 4 + 15
=8
example 3  6 -2 2
The product of two eigenvalues of the matrix A =  -2 3 -1 is 16.
 
 2 -1 3
Find the third eigenvalue.
Solution
Let l 1, l 2 and l 3 be the eigenvalues of the matrix A.
l 1l 2 = 16
6 -2 2
λ1λ 2 λ3 = -2 3 -1
2 -1 3
16λ3 = 6(9 - 1) + 2( - 6 + 2) + 2(2 - 6)
= 48 - 8 - 8
λ3 = 2
example 4 2 2 1
  1
Two eigenvalues of the matrix A = 1 3 1  are equal and are times
5
1 2 2
to the third. Find the eigenvalues.
Solution
λ1 = λ 2
1
λ1 = λ3
5
1
λ 2 = λ3
5
λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 = 2 + 3 + 2
1 1
λ3 + λ3 + λ3 = 7
5 5
7
λ3 = 7
5
λ3 = 5
∴ λ1 = λ 2 = 1
Hence, the eigenvalues of A are 1, 1, 5.
example 5
 2 -2 2
If 2 is an eigenvalue of the matrix A =  1 1 1 , find the other two
 
 1 3 -1
eigen values.
Solution
l1 = 2
2 + l2 + l3 = 2 + 1 – 1
l2 + l3 = 0 …(1)

2 -2 2
2λ 2 λ 3 = 1 1 1
1 3 -1
= 2( -1 - 3) + 2( -1 - 1) + 2(3 - 1)
= -8 - 4 + 4
= -8
l2l3 = – 4 …(2)

l 2 = 2, l 3 = – 2
Hence, the other two eigenvalues are 2, –2.
example 6
For a given matrix A of order 3, | A| = 32 and two of its eigenvalues are
8 and 2. Find the sum of the eigenvalues.
Solution
l1 = 8, l 2 = 2
l 1l 2l 3 = A
8 × 2 × l 3 = 32
l3 = 2
Hence, the sum of the eigenvalues = 8 + 2 + 2 = 12
example 7
For a singular matrix of order three, 2 and 3 are the eigenvalues. Find
its third eigenvalue.
Solution
Let l1, l 2 and l 3 be the eigenvalues of the matrix A.
l1 = 2, l2 = 3
For a singular matrix, | A| = 0

l 1l 2l 3 =A
2 × 3 × l3 = 0
l3 = 0
Hence, the third eigenvalue = 0
example 8
 2 0 1
If 2, 3 are the eigenvalues of  0 2 0 , find the value of a.
 
 a 0 2
Solution
l1 = 2, l 2 = 3
2 + 3 + l3 = 2 + 2 + 2
l3 = 1
λ1λ 2 λ3 = A
2 0 1
2 × 3 ×1 = 0 2 0
a 0 2
6 = 2(4 - 0) - 0(0 - 0) + 1(0 - 2a )
= 8 - 2a
2a = 2
a =1
example 9
 8 -6 2

If 3 and 15 are the two eigenvalues of A = - 6 7 - 4 , find | A|
 
 2 - 4 3
without expanding the determinant.
Solution
l1 = 3, l 2 = 15
3 + 15 + l 3 = 8 + 7 + 3
l3 = 0
3 × 15 × 0 = A
A = 0
example 10
 a 4
Find a and b such that A =   has 3 and –2 as eigenvalues.
1 b
Solution
Let l1 and l 2 be the eigenvalues of the matrix A.
l1 = 3, l 2 = –2
3–2=a+b
a+b=1 …(1)
λ1λ 2 = A
a 4
(3)( -2) =
1 b
= ab - 4
ab = –2 …(2)
From Eq. (1), a=1–b

(1 - b)b = -2
b - b 2 = -2
b2 - b - 2 = 0
b = 2 or b = -1
∴ a = -1 or a = 2
example 11
2 2 1
Two eigenvalues of the matrix A = 1 3 1  are 1 and 1. Find the
 
eigenvalues of A–1. 1 2 2
Solution
l1 = l 2 = 1

1 + 1 + l3 = 2 + 3 + 2
l3 = 5
Hence, the eigenvalues of A are 1, 1, 5.

1 1 1 1
The eigenvalues of A–1 are , , , i.e., 1, 1, .
1 1 5 5
example 12
 3 -1 1
Two of the eigenvalues of the matrix A =  -1 5 -1 are 3 and 6.
 
–1 3
Find the eigenvalues of A and A . 
 1 -1 3
Solution
l1 = 3, l 2 = 6
Sum of the eigenvalues of A = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A
3 + 6 + l3 = 3 + 5 + 3
l3 = 2
The eigenvalues of A are 3, 6, 2.
1 1 1
Hence, the eigenvalues of A–1 are , , , and the eigenvalues of A3 are 33, 63, 23, i.e.,
3 6 2
27, 216, 8.
example 13
Form the matrix whose eigenvalues are a – 5, b – 5, g – 5 where a, b,
 -1 -2 -3
g are the eigenvalues of A =  4 5 -6 .
 
 7 -8 9
Solution
If l1, l 2 and l 3 are eigenvalues of the matrix A then l1 – k, l 2 – k and l 3 – k are the
eigenvalues of A – kI.
 -1 -2 -3 1 0 0

Required matrix = A - 5 I =  4 5 - 6 - 5 0 1 0
 
 7 -8 9 0 0 1 
 - 6 -2 -3
=  4 0 - 6
 7 -8 4
example 14
 3 -1
If a and b are the eigenvalues of 
-1 5
, form a matrix whose
3 3
eigenvalues are a and b . 
Solution
If l1 and l 2 are the eigenvalues of the matrix A then λ1k and λ 2k are the eigenvalues
of Ak.
 3 -1
Let A=  
 -1 5
 3 -1  3 -1  10 -8
A2 = AA =   = 
 -1 5  -1 5  -8 26
 10 -8  3 -1  38 -50
x = A3 = A2 A = 
Required matrix  = 
 -8 26  -1 5  -50 138
example 15
 3 -1 1
If A =  -1 5 -1 , find the eigenvalues for the following matrices:
 
 1 -1 3
(i) A (ii) AT (iii) A–1 (iv) 4A–1 (v) A2 (vi) A2 – 2A + I (vii) A3 + 2I
Solution
 3 -1 1
A =  -1 5 -1
 1 -1 3
det( A - λ I ) = 0
3- λ -1 1
-1 5 - λ -1 = 0
1 -1 3-λ
λ - S1λ + S 2 λ - S3 = 0
3 2
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = 3 + 5 + 3 = 11

S2 = Sum of the minors of principal diagonal elements of A
5 -1 3 1 3 -1
= + +
-1 3 1 3 -1 5
= (15 - 1) + (9 - 1) + (15 - 1)
= 14 + 8 + 14
= 36
3 -1 1
S3 = det( A) = -1 5 -1
1 -1 3
= 3(15 - 1) + 1( -3 + 1) + 1(1 - 5)
= 42 - 2 - 4
= 36
Hence, the characteristic equation is

l3 – 11l2 + 36l – 36 = 0
l = 2, 3, 6
(i) Eigenvalues of A = l : 2, 3, 6
(ii) Eigenvalues of AT = l : 2, 3, 6
1 1 1
(iii) Eigenvalues of A-1 = λ -1 : , ,
2 3 6
4 2
(iv) Eigenvalues of 4A-1 = 4λ -1 : 2, ,
3 3
(v) Eigenvalues of A2 = l2 : 4, 9, 36
(vi) Eigenvalues of A2 – 2A + I = l2 – 2l + 1 : 1, 4, 25
(vii) Eigenvalues of A3 + 2I = l3 + 2 : 10, 29, 218
10.12 LIneAr dependence And Independence of

eIGenvectorS
10.12.1 Linear dependence

A set of r eigenvectors x1, x2, … xr is said to be linearly dependent if there exist r
scalars (numbers) k1, k2, … kr not all zero, such that
k1x1 + k2 x 2 +  + kr x r = 0
10.12.2 Linear Independence

A set of r eigenvectors x1, x2, … xr is said to be linearly independent if there exist
r scalars (numbers) k1, k2, … kr such that if
k1x1 + k2 x 2 +  + kr x r = 0
then k1 = k2 = … = kr = 0
Note: (1) If a set of eigenvectors is linearly dependent then at least one eigenvector
of the set can be expressed as a linear combination of the remaining
eigenvectors.
(2) If a set of eigenvectors is linearly independent then no eigenvector
of the set can be expressed as a linear combination of the remaining
eigenvectors.
10.13 propertIeS of eIGenvectorS
Property 1: If x is an eigenvector of a matrix A corresponding to the eigenvalue l

then k x is also an eigenvector of A corresponding to the same eigenvalue l , where k
is a nonzero scalar.
Proof: Let x be an eigenvector of a matrix A corresponding to the eigenvalue l .
Ax = lx
and x≠0
If k is any nonzero scalar then k x ≠ 0.
Also, A(k x) = k (Ax) = k (l x) = l (k x)
Hence, k x is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue l . Thus,
corresponding to an eigenvalue l , there is more than one eigenvectors.
Property 2: If x is an eigenvector of a matrix A then x cannot correspond to more

than one eigenvalue of A.
Proof: Let x be an eigenvector of a matrix A corresponding to two eigenvalues l 1 and l 2.
Ax = l1x
and Ax = l 2x
∴ λ1x = λ 2 x
( λ1 - λ2 ) x = 0
λ1 - λ 2 = 0 (∵ x ≠ 0)
λ1 = λ 2
Hence, x cannot correspond to more than one eigenvalue of A.
Property 3: The eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues of a matrix are
linearly independent.
Proof: Let x1, x2, …, xm be the eigenvectors of a matrix A corresponding to distinct
eigenvalues l1, l 2, …, lm.
Axi = λi xi , i = 1, 2, …, m
Let the eigenvectors x1, x2, …, xm be linearly dependent. Choose r such that the
eigenvectors x1, x2, …, xr are linearly independent but x1, x2, …, xr, xr + 1 are linearly
dependent, where 1 ≤ r < m.
Then k1x1 + k2 x 2 +  + kr x r + kr +1x r +1 = 0 ... (10.9)
where k1, k2, …, kr, kr + 1 are scalars not all zero.
A(k1x1 + k2 x 2 +  + kr x r + kr +1x r +1 ) = 0
k1 ( Ax1 ) + k2 ( Ax 2 ) +  + kr ( Ax r ) + kr +1 ( Ax r +1 ) = 0
k1 (λ1x1 ) + k2 (λ 2 x 2 ) +  + kr (λ r x r ) + kr +1 (λ r +1x r +1 ) = 0 ... (10.10)
Multiplying Eq. (10.9) by lr + 1 and subtracting from Eq. (10.10),
k1(λ1 - λ r +1 )x1 + k 2 (λ 2 - λ r +1 )x 2 +  + k r (λ r - λ r +1 )x r = 0 ... (10.11)
Since x1, x2, …, xr are linearly independent,

k1(l1 – lr+1) = 0, k2(l 2 – lr + 1) = 0, … kr(lr – lr + 1) = 0
But l 1, l 2, …, l r, l r + 1 are distinct.
∴ k1 = 0, k2 = 0, …, kr = 0
Putting in Eq. (10.9),
kr +1x r +1 = 0
kr +1 = 0 [∵ x r +1 ≠ 0]
Thus, for Eq. (10.9),
k1 = 0, k2 = 0, kr = 0, kr + 1 = 0
which contradicts our assumption that k1, k2, …, kr , kr + 1 are not all zero.
Thus, x1, x2, …, xr + 1 are linearly independent and hence x1, x2, …, xm are linearly
independent.
Note: If two or more eigenvalues are equal then the corresponding eigenvectors may
or may not be linearly independent.
Property 4: The eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues of a real
symmetric matrix are orthogonal.
Proof: Let l1 and l2 be the two distinct eigenvalues of a real symmetric matrix A and
x1 and x2 be the corresponding eigenvectors respectively.
Ax1 = λ1x1 …(10.12)
and Ax2 = l 2x2 …(10.13)
T
Premultiplying both sides of Eq. (10.12) by x , 2
xT2 Ax1 = λ1xT2 x1

Taking the transpose on both sides,
x1T Ax 2 = λ1x1T x 2 (∵ AT = A) …(10.14)
Premultiplying both sides of Eq. (10.13) by x1T ,

x1T Ax 2 = λ 2 x1T x 2 …(10.15)
From Eqs (10.14) and (10.15),
λ1x1T x 2 = λ 2 x1T x 2
(λ1 - λ 2 )x1T x 2 = 0
x1T x 2 = 0 (∵ λ1 ≠ λ 2 )
Hence, the eigenvectors x1 and x2 are orthogonal.
working rule for finding the eigenvalues and eigenvectors
(i) Write characteristic equation det (A – l I ) = 0 for the given square matrix.
(ii) Find the eigenvalues of the matrix by solving characteristic equation.
(iii) Find eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalues from the equation
[A – l I ] x = 0.
example 1 5 4 
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix  .
1 2 
Solution
5 4 
Let A=  
1 2 
det( A - λ I ) = 0
5-λ 4
=0
1 2-λ
λ 2 - S1λ + S 2 = 0
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = 5 + 2 = 7

5 4
S 2 = det( A) =
1 2
= 10 - 4
=6
l2 – 7l2 + 6 = 0
l = 6, 1
(a) For l = 6, [A – l I ]x = 0
 -1 4  x  0
 1 - 4  y  = 0
    
-x + 4y = 0
Let y=t
x = 4t
 x   4t   4
x =   =   = t   = t x1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 6.
 y  t  1
(b) For l = 1, [A – lI ]x = 0
 4 4  x   0
 1 1   y  =  0
    
x+ y = 0
Let y=t
x = –t
 x   -t   -1
x =   =   = t   = t x 2 where x2 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 1.
 y  t   1
example 2
 4 6 6

Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix 1 3 2 .
 
 -1 - 4 -3
Solution
 4 6 6
Let 
A=  1 3 2
 -1 - 4 -3

det( A - λ I ) = 0
4-λ 6 6
1 3-λ 2 =0
-1 -4 -3 - λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S2 λ - S3 = 0
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = 4 + 3 – 3 = 4
3 2 4 6 4 6
= + +
- 4 -3 -1 -3 1 3
= ( -9 + 8) + ( -12 + 6) + (12 - 6)
= -1 - 6 + 6
= -1
4 6 6
S3 = det( A) = 1 3 2
-1 - 4 -3
= 4( -9 + 8) - 6( -3 + 2) + 6( - 4 + 3)
= -4 + 6 - 6
= -4

l3 – 4l2 – l + 4 = 0
l = –1, 1, 4
(a) For l = –1, [A – lI ]x = 0
 5 6 6  x  0
 1
 4 2  y  = 0
 -1 - 4 -2  z  0
5x + 6 y + 6 z = 0
x + 4 y + 2z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
6 6 5 6 5 6
4 2 1 2 1 4
x y z
= = =t
-12 - 4 14
x y z
= = =t
- 6 -2 7
 x   - 6t   - 6
x =  y  =  -2t  = t  -2 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = –1.
 z   7t   7 
(b) For l = 1, [A – l I ]x = 0
 3 6 6  x   0
 1
 2 2  y  = 0
 -1 - 4 - 4  z  0
x + 2 y + 2z = 0
- x - 4 y - 4z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
2 2 1 2 1 2
-4 -4 -1 - 4 -1 - 4
x y z
= = =t
0 2 -2
x y z
= = =t
0 1 -1
 x   0  0
x =  y  =  t  = t  1 = tx 2 where x2 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 1.
   
 z   -t   -1
(c) For l = 4, [A – lI ]x = 0
 0 6 6  x   0
 1 -1 2  y  = 0
    
 -1 - 4 -7   z  0
0x + 6 y + 6z = 0
x - y + 2z = 0
x -4 y - 7z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
6 6 0 6 0 6
-1 2 1 2 1 -1
x y z
= = =t
18 6 -6
x y z
= = =t
3 1 -1
 x   3t   3
x =  y  =  t  = t  1 = tx3 where x3 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 4.
   
 z   -t   -1
example 3
 1 0 -1
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix  1 2 1 .
 
 2 2 3
Solution
 1 0 -1
Let A =  1 2 1
 2 2 3
det( A - λ I ) = 0
1- λ 0 -1
1 2-λ 1 =0
2 2 3- λ
λ - S1λ + S 2 λ - S3 = 0
3 2

2 1 1 -1 1 0
= + +
2 3 2 3 1 2
= (6 - 2) + (3 + 2) + (2 - 0)
= 4+5+ 2
= 11
1 0 -1
S3 = det( A) = 1 2 1
2 2 3
= 1(6 - 2) - 0 - 1(2 - 4)
=6

l3 – 6l2 + 11l – 6 = 0
l = 1, 2, 3
(a) For l = 1, [A – l I ]x = 0
 0 0 -1  x  0
 1 1 1  y  = 0
    
 2 2 2  z  0
0x + 0 y - z = 0
x+ y + z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
0 -1 0 -1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
x y z
= = =t
1 -1 0
 x  t  1
x =  y  =  -t  = t  -1 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 1.
 z   0  0
(b) For l = 2, [A – l I ]x = 0
 -1 0 -1  x  0
 1 0
 1  y  = 0
 2 2 1  z  0
x + 0y + z = 0
2x + 2 y + z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
0 1 1 1 1 0
2 1 2 1 2 2
x y z
= = =t
-2 1 2
 x   -2t   -2
x =  y  =  t  = t  1 = tx 2 where x2 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 2.
 z   2t   2
(c) For l = 3, [A – lI ]x = 0
 -2 0 -1  x  0
 1 -1 1  y  = 0
    
 2 2 0  z  0
-2 x + 0 y - z = 0
x- y+ z=0
2x + 2 y + 0z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
0 -1 -2 -1 -2 0
-1 1 1 1 1 -1
x y z
= = =t
-1 1 2
 x   -t   -1
x =  y  =  t  = t  1 = tx3 where x3 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 3.
 z   2t   2
example 4
 8 -6 2
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix -6 7 -4 .

 
 2 -4 3
Solution
 8 -6 2
Let 
A = -6 7 - 4
 2 - 4 3
det( A - λ I ) = 0
8 - λ -6 -2
-6 7 - λ -4 = 0
2 -4 3 - λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S2 λ - S3 = 0
7 -4 8 2 8 -6
= + +
-4 3 2 3 -6 7
= (21 - 16) + (24 - 4) + (56 - 36)
= 5 + 20 + 20
= 45
8 -6 2
S3 = det( A) = - 6 7 -4
2 -4 3
= 8(21 - 16) + 6( -18 + 8) + 2(24 - 14)
= 40 - 60 + 20
=0
l3 – 18l2 + 45l = 0
l = 0, 3, 15
(a) For l = 0, [A – l I ]x = 0
 8 -6 2  x   0
-6
 7 - 4  y  =  0
 2 - 4 3  z   0
8x - 6 y + 2 z = 0
-6 x + 7 y - 4 z = 0
2 x - 4 y + 3z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-6 2 8 2 8 -6
7 -4 -6 - 4 -6 7
x y z
= = =t
10 20 20
x y z
= = =t
1 2 2
 x  t 1
x =  y  =  2t  = t  2 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 0.
   
 z   2t   2
(b) For l = 3, [A – l I ]x = 0
 5 -6 2  x   0
-6
 4 - 4  y  = 0
 2 -4 0  z  0
5x - 6 y + 2 z = 0
-6x + 4 y - 4z = 0
2x - 4 y + 0z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-6 2 5 2 5 -6
4 -4 -6 -4 -6 4
x y z
= = =t
16 8 -16
x y z
= = =t
2 1 -2
 x   2t   2
   
 z   -2t   -2
(c) For l = 15, [A – lI ]x = 0
 -7 - 6 2  x  0
 - 6 -8 - 4  y  = 0
    
 2 - 4 -12  z  0
-7 x - 6 y + 2 z = 0
-6 x - 8 y - 4 z = 0
2 x - 4 y - 12 z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
= = =t
-6 2 -7 2 -7 - 6
-8 - 4 -6 - 4 - 6 -8
x y z
=- = =t
40 40 20
x y z
= = =t
2 -2 1
 x   2t   2
x =  y  =  -2t  = t  -2 = tx3 where x3 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 15.
   
 z   t   1
Note: The eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues of a real symmetric
matrix are orthogonal which can be verified with this example.
 2
x1 x 2 = [1 2 2]  1 = [0] = 0
T
 -2
 2
x x3 = [ 2 1 -2]  -2 = [0] = 0
T
2
 1
 1
x x1 = [ 2 -2 1]  2 = [0] = 0
T
3
 2
Thus, x1, x2 and x3 are orthogonal to each other.
example 5  4 2 -2
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix  -5 3 2 .
 
 -2 4 1
Solution
 4 2 -2
Let A =  -5 3 2
 -2 4 1
det( A - λ I ) = 0
4-λ 2 -2
-5 3 - λ 2 =0
-2 4 1- λ
λ - S1λ + S 2 λ - S3 = 0
3 2

3 2 4 -2 4 2
= + +
4 1 -2 1 -5 3
= (3 - 8) + (4 - 4) + (12 + 10)
= -5 + 0 + 22
= 17
4 2 -2
S3 = det( A) = -5 3 2
-2 4 1
= 4(3 - 8) - 2( -5 + 4) - 2( -20 + 6)
= -20 + 2 + 28
= 10
λ 3 - 8λ 2 + 17λ - 10 = 0
λ = 1, 2, 5
(a) For l = 1, [A – l I ]x = 0
 3 2 -2  x  0
 -5 2
 2  y  = 0
 -2 4 0  z  0
3x + 2 y - 2 z = 0
-5 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
-2 x + 2 y + 0 z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
2 -2 3 -2 3 2
2 2 -5 2 -5 2
x y z
= = =t
8 4 16
x y z
= = =t
 x   2t   2 2 1 4
x =  y  =  t  = t  1 = tx1 where vector x1 is an eigenvector corresponding
 z   4t   4
to l = 1.
(b) For l = 2, [A – l I ]x = 0
 2 2 -2  x  0
 -5 1 2  y  = 0
    
 -2 4 -1  z  0
2 x + 2y - 2 z = 0
-5 x + y + 2 z = 0
-2 x + 2y - z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
2 -2 2 -2 2 2
1 2 -5 2 -5 1
x y z
= = =t
6 6 12
x y z
= = =t
1 1 2
 x  t  1
x =  y   t  = t  1 = tx 2 where vector x2 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 2.
   
 z   2t   2
(c) For l = 5, [A – l I ]x = 0
 -1 2 -2  x  0
 -5 -2
 2  y  = 0
 -2 4 - 4  z  0
- x + 2y - 2 z = 0
- 5x - 2 y + 2 z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
2 -2 -1 -2 -1 2
-2 2 -5 2 -5 -2
x y z
= = =t
0 12 12
x y z
= = =t
0 1 1
 x   0  0
   
 z   t   1
example 6  -2 2 -3
 2
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix  1 -6 .

 -1 -2 0
Solution
 -2 2 -3
Let A =  2 1 - 6
 -1 -2 0

det( A - λ I ) = 0
-2-λ 2 -3
2 1- λ -6 = 0
-1 -2 -λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S 2 λ - S3 = 0
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = –2 + 1 + 0 = –1
1 -6 -2 -3 -2 2
= + +
-2 0 -1 0 2 1
= (0 - 12) + (0 - 3) + ( -2 - 4)
= -12 - 3 - 6
= -21
-2 2 -3
S3 = det( A) = 2 1 -6
-1 -2 0
= ( -2)(0 - 12) - 2(0 - 6) - 3( -4 + 1)
= 24 + 12 + 9
= 45
l3 + l2 – 21l – 45 = 0
l = 5, –3, –3
(a) For l = 5, [A – l I ]x = 0
 -7 2 -3   x  0
 2 - 4 - 6  y  =  0
    
 -1 -2 -5   z  0
-7 x + 2 y - 3 z = 0
2x - 4 y - 6z = 0
- x - 2 y - 5z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
2 -3 -7 -3 -7 2
- 4 -6 2 -6 2 -4
x y z
= = =t
-24 - 48 24
x y z
= = =t
1 2 -1
 x  t   1
x =  y  =  2t  = t  2 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 5.
 z   -t   -1
(b) For l = –3, [ A - λ I ]x = 0

 1 2 -3  x  0
 2
 4 -6  y  = 0
 -1 -2 3  z  0
x + 2y - 3 z = 0
Let y = t1 and z = t2
x = –2t1 + 3t2
 x   -2t1 + 3t2   -2t1  3t2   -2  3
           
x =  y =  t1  =  t1  +  0  = t1  1 + t2 0 = t1x 2 + t2 x3
 z   t2   0   t2   0 1 
where x2 and x3 are linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to l = -3.
example 7
0 1 1
 
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix 1 0 1 .
1 1 0
Solution
0 1 1
Let A = 1 0 1 
1 1 0
det (A – l I ) = 0
-λ 1 1
1 -λ 1 =0
1 1 -λ
l3 – S1l2 + S2l – S3 = 0

0 1 0 1 0 1
= + +
1 0 1 0 1 0
= (0 - 1) + (0 - 1) + (0 - 1)
= -3
0 1 1
S3 = det( A) = 1 0 1
1 1 0
= 0 - 1(0 - 1) + 1(1 - 0)
=2
l3 – 3l – 2 = 0
l = 2, –1, –1
(a) For l = 2, [A – l I ]x = 0
 -2 1 1  x  0
 1 -2
 1  y  = 0
 1 1 -2  z  0
-2 x + y + z = 0
x - 2y + z = 0
x + y - 2z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
1 1 -2 1 -2 1
-2 1 1 1 1 -2
x y z
= = =t
3 3 3
x y z
= = =t
1 1 1
 x  t  1
x =  y  = t  = t 1 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 2.
   
 z  t  1
(b) For l = –1, [A – l I ]x = 0
1 1 1  x  0
1 1 1  y  = 0
    
1 1 1  z  0
x+ y+ z = 0
x = –t1 – t2
 x   -t1 - t2   -t1   -t2   -1  -1
       
x =  y  =  t1  =  t1  +  0 = t1  1 + t2  0 = t1x 2 + t2 x3
 
 z   t2   0  t2   0  1
where x2 and x3 are linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to l = –1.
example 8  -9 4 4
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix  -8 3 4 .
 
 -16 8 7 
Solution
 -9 4 4
Let A =  -8 3 4
 -16 8 7 
det( A - λ I ) = 0
-9 - λ 4 4
-8 3- λ 4 =0
-16 8 7-λ
λ - S1λ + S 2 λ - S3 = 0
3 2
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = –9 + 3 + 7 = 1

3 4 -9 4 -9 4
= + +
8 7 -16 7 -8 3
= (21 - 32) + ( - 63 + 64) + ( -27 + 32)
= -11 + 1 + 5
= -5
-9 4 4
S3 = det( A) = -8 3 4
-16 8 7
= -9(21 - 32) - 4( -56 + 64) + 4( - 64 + 48)
= 99 - 32 - 64
=3
λ 3 - λ 2 - 5λ - 3 = 0
λ = -1, - 1, 3
(a) For l = –1, [A – l I ] x = 0
 -8 4 4  x  0
 -8 4 4  y  = 0
    
 -16 8 8  z  0
-8 x + 4 y + 4 z = 0
1 1
x= t1 + t2
2 2
1 1  1  1  1 1
 t1 + t2   t1   t2    2
 x 2 2 2 2 2
           
x= y =
 
t1  =  t1  +  0  = t1  1 + t2  0  = t1x1 + t2 x 2
 z   t2   0   t2   0   1 
where x1 and x2 are linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to l = –1.
(b) For l = 3, [A – l I ] x = 0
 -12 4 4  x  0
 -8 0 4  y  = 0
    
 -16 8 4  z  0
-12 x + 4 y + 4 z = 0
-8 x + 0 y + 4 z = 0
-16 x + 8 y + 4 z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
4 4 -12 4 -12 4
0 4 -8 4 -8 0
x y z
= = =t
16 16 32
x y z
= = =t
1 1 2
 x  t   1
   
 z   2t   2
example 9
 1 - 6 - 4
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix 0 4 2 .
 
0 - 6 -3
Solution
 1 - 6 - 4
Let A = 0 4 2
0 - 6 -3

det( A - λ I ) = 0
1- λ -6 -4
0 4-λ 2 =0
0 -6 -3 - λ
λ - S1λ + S2 λ - S3 = 0
3 2
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = 1 + 4 – 3 = 2

4 2 1 -4 1 -6
= + +
- 6 -3 0 -3 0 4
= ( -12 + 12) + ( -3 + 0) + (4 + 0)
=1
1 -6 - 4
S3 = det( A) = 0 4 2
0 -6 -3
= 1( -12 + 12) - 6(0 - 0) - 4(0 - 0)
=0
λ 3 - 2λ 2 + λ = 0
λ = 0, 1, 1
(a) For l = 0, [A – l I ] x = 0
 1 - 6 - 4  x   0
0
 4 2  y  = 0
0 - 6 -3  z  0
x - 6 y - 4z = 0
0x + 4 y + 2z = 0
0 x - 6 y - 3z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-6 - 4 1 -4 1 -6
4 2 0 2 0 4
x y z
= = =t
4 -2 4
x y z
= = =t
2 -1 2
 x   2t   2
x =  y  =  -t  = t  -1 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 0.
 z   2t   2
(b) For l = 1, [A – l I ] x = 0
 0 - 6 - 4  x   0
0
 3 2  y  = 0
0 - 6 - 4  z  0
0x + 3y + 2z = 0
Let x = t1 and z = t2
2
y = - t2
3
 t   0   0
 x   1  t1     1  2
x =  y  =  - t2  =  0  +  - t2  = t1 0 + t2  -  = t1x 2 + t2 x3
2 2
 3   3   3
 z     0   t  0  1
 2 
t  2   
where x2 and x3 are linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to l = 1.
example 10  1 2 2
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix  0 2 1 .
 
 -1 2 2
Solution  1 2 2
Let A =  0 2 1
 -1 2 2
det ( A - λ I ) = 0
1- λ 2 2
0 2-λ 1 =0
-1 2 2-λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S 2 λ - S3 = 0

2 1 1 2 1 2
= + +
2 2 -1 2 0 2
= (4 - 2) + (2 + 2) + (2 - 0)
= 2+4+2
=8
1 2 2
S3 = det( A) = 0 2 1
-1 2 2
= 1(4 - 2) - 2(0 + 1) + 2(0 + 2)
= 2-2+4
=4
λ 3 - 5λ 2 + 8λ - 4 = 0
λ = 1, 2, 2
(a) For l = 1, [A – l I ] x = 0
 0 2 2  x   0
 0 1 1  y  = 0
    
 -1 2 1  z  0
0x + y + z = 0
-x + 2y + z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
1 1 0 1 0 1
2 1 -1 1 -1 2
x y z
= = =t
-1 -1 1
x y z
= = =t
1 1 -1
 x  t   1
x =  y  =  t  = t  1 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 1.
 z   -t   -1
(b) For l = 2, [A – l I ] x = 0
 -1 2 2  x  0
 0 0 1  y  = 0
    
 -1 2 0  z  0
- x + 2 y + 2z = 0
0x + 0 y + z = 0
- x + 2 y + 0z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
2 2 -1 2 -1 2
0 1 0 1 0 0
x y z
= = =t
2 1 0
 x   2t   2
   
 z   0  0
Hence, there is only one eigenvector corresponding to repeated root l = 2.
example 11 1 0
0
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix 0 0 1 .

 
 1 -3 3
Solution 0 1 0  
Let A = 0 0 1

 1 -3 3
det ( A - λ I ) = 0
-λ 1 0
0 -λ 1 =0
1 -3 3 - λ
λ - S1λ + S 2 λ - S3 = 0
3 2

0 1 0 0 0 1
= + +
-3 3 1 3 0 0
= (0 + 3) + (0) + (0)
=3
0 1 0
S3 = det( A) = 0 0 1
1 -3 3
= 0 - 1(0 - 1) + 0
=1
λ 3 - 3λ 2 + 3λ - 1 = 0
λ = 1, 1, 1
For l = 1, [A – l I ]x = 0
 -1 1 0  x  0
 0 -1 1  y  = 0
    
 1 -3 2  z  0
- x + y + 0z = 0
0x - y + z = 0
x - 3y + 2z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
1 0 -1 0 -1 1
-1 1 0 1 0 -1
x y z
= = =t
1 1 1
 x  t  1
x =  y  = t  = t 1 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 1.
   
 z  t  1
Hence, there is only one eigenvector corresponding to repeated root l = 1.
example 12
Find the values of m which satisfy the equation A100 x = m x
2 1 -1
where A =  0 -2 -2 .

 1 1 0
Solution
2 1 -1
A =  0 -2 -2

 1 1 0

det( A - λ I ) = 0
2-λ 1 -1
0 -2 - λ -2 = 0
1 1 -λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S2 λ - S3 = 0
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = 2 – 2 + 0 = 0
-2 -2 2 -1 2 1
= + +
1 0 1 0 0 -2
= (0 + 2) + (0 + 1) + ( - 4 - 0)
= -1
2 1 -1
S3 = det( A) = 0 -2 -2
1 1 0
= 2(0 + 2) - 1(0 + 2) - 1(0 + 2)
= 4-2-2
=0
λ3 - λ = 0
λ = 0, 1, - 1
If l is an eigen value of A, it satisfies the equation Ax = lx.

For equation A100 x = m x, m represents eigen values of A100. Eigenvalues of A100 = l100,
i.e., 0, 1, 1.
Hence, values of m are 0, 1, 1.
example 13
Find the characteristic roots and characteristic vectors of
cos θ - sin θ 
A=   and verify that characteristic roots are of unit
 sin θ cos θ 
modulus.
Solution
cos θ - sin θ 
A= 
 sin θ cos θ 

det( A - λ I ) = 0
cos θ - λ - sin θ
=0
sin θ cos θ - λ
(cos θ - λ ) 2 + sin 2 θ = 0
(cos θ - λ ) 2 = - sin 2 θ
cos θ - λ = ± i sin θ
λ = cos θ ± i sin θ
|λ | = cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1
Hence, the characteristic roots are of unit modules.

(a) For l = cos q + isin q, [A – l I ]x = 0
 -i sin θ - sin θ   x  0
=
 sin θ
 -i sin θ   y  0
-i sin θ x - sin θ y = 0
Let y=t
x = it
 x  it  i 
x =   =   = t   = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to
 y  t  1
l = cos q + isin q.
(b) For l = cos q – isin q, [A – l I ]x = 0
i sin θ - sin θ   x  0
 sin θ i sin θ   y  = 0
    
i sin θ x - sin θ y = 0
Let y=t
x = – it
 x   -it   -i 
x =   =   = t   = tx 2 where x2 is an eigenvector corresponding to
   
y t  1
l = cos q – isin q.
example 14
 1 2 3
Find orthogonal eigenvectors for the matrix  2 4 6 .
 
 3 6 9
Solution
 1 2 3
Let A =  2 4 6
 3 6 9

det( A - λ I ) = 0
1- λ 2 3
2 4-λ 6 =0
3 6 9-λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S2 λ - S3 = 0
4 6 1 3 1 2
= + +
6 9 3 9 2 4
= (36 - 36) + (9 - 9) + (4 - 4)
=0
1 2 3
S3 = det( A) = 2 4 6
3 6 9
= 1(36 - 36) - 2(18 - 18) + 3(12 - 12)
=0
λ 3 - 14λ 2 = 0
λ = 0, 0, 14
(a) For l = 14, [A – l I ]x = 0

 -13 2 3  x  0
 2 -10 6  y  = 0
    
 3 6 -5  z  0
- 13 x + 2 y + 3 z = 0
2 x - 10 y + 6 z = 0
3x + 6 y - 5 z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
= = =t
2 3 -13 3 -13 2
-10 6 2 6 2 -10
x y z
= = =t
42 84 126
x y z
= = =t
1 2 3
 x  t  1
x =  y  =  2t  = t  2 = t x1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 14.
   
 z   3t   3
(b) For l = 0, [A – l I ]x = 0
 1 2 3  x  0
 2 4 6  y  =  0
    
 3 6 9  z  0
x + 2 y + 3z = 0
. x = –2t1 – 3t2
 x   -2t1 - 3t2   -2t1   -3t2   -2  -3

           
x =  y =  t1  =  t1  +  0  = t1  1 + t2  0 = t1x 2 + t2 x3
 z   t2   0   t2   0  1

Since x2 and x3 are not orthogonal, we must choose x3 such that x1, x2, x3 are
orthogonal.
l 
Let x3 =  m 
 n 
For x1 and x3 to be orthogonal, x1T x3 = 0
l 
[1 2 3]  m = 0
 n 
l + 2m + 3n = 0 …(1)
For x2 and x3 to be orthogonal, xT2 x3 = 0
l 
[ -2 1 0]  m = 0
 n 
–2l + m = 0 …(2)
Solving Eqs (1) and (2) by Cramer’s rule,
l m n
=- = =t
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 0 -2 0 -2 1
l m n
= = =t
-3 - 6 5
l m n
= = =t
3 6 5
 l   3t   3
x =  m  = 6t  = t 6 = tx3 where x3 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 14.
   
 n  5t  5
eXercISe 10.5
1. Find the sum and product of the eigenvalues of the following matrices:
 -1 1 1  -2 2 -3
(i)  1 -1 1 (ii)  2 1 -6 

 1 1 -1  -1 -2 0 
[Ans.: (i) -3, 4 (ii) -1, 45]

 1 2 1 
2. The matrix A = 2 0 -2 is singular. One of its eigenvalues is 2. Find
 1 2 3
the other two eigenvalues.
[Ans.: 1 + 5, 1 - 5]
 6 -2 2
3. If two of the eigenvalues of  -2 3 -1 are 2 and 8, find the third
 2 -1 3
eigenvalue. [Ans.: 2]
 1 -2
4. Find the eigenvalues of the matrix   . Hence, form the matrix
 -5 4 
1
whose eigenvalues are and -1.
6
 1  4 2 
 Ans. : 6, -1, -  
 6  5 1 
 3 10 5
5. If 2 and 3 are the eigenvalues of A =  -2 -3 - 4  , find the eigenvalues

 3 5 7 
-1 3
of A and A .
 1 1 1 3 3 3
 Ans. : (i) 2 , 2 , 3 (ii) 2 , 2 , 3 
 
 4 6 6
6. Two eigenvalues of A =  1 3 2 are equal and are double the third.

 -1 -5 -2
Find the eigenvalues of A2. [Ans.: 1, 4, 4]
 1 2 -3
7. If A = 0 3 2 , find the eigenvalues of 3A3 + 5A2 - 6A + 2I
0 0 -2
[Ans.: 4, 110, 10]
2 2 1
8. If A =  1 3 1 , find the eigenvalues of the following matrices:
 1 2 2
(i) A3 + I (ii) A-1 (iii) A2 - 2A + I (iv) A3 - 3A2 +A

 1 
 Ans. : (i) 2, 2, 126 (ii) 1, 1, (iii) 0, 0, 16 (iv) - 1, - 1, 55
5 
9. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors for the following matrices:
 9 -1 9  1 1 -2  -1 1 2
(i)  3 -1 3 (ii)  -1 2 1 (iii)  0 -2 1
   
 -7 1 -7   0 1 -1  0 0 -3
 4 0 1  2 1 1 2 2 1
(iv)  -2 1 0  (v) 2 3 2  (vi)  1 3 1
     
 -2 0 1 3 3 4   1 2 2
 -2 2 -3  1 0 0  2 4 -6 
(vii)  2 1 -6  (viii)  2 0 1 (ix)  4 2 -6 
   
 -1 -2 0  3 1 0   -6 -6 -15
 7 0 -2  7 -2 -2  3 -1 1
 0
5 -2
 -2
1 4 
(x) (xi) (xii)  -1 5 -1
   
 -2 -2 6   -2 4 1  1 -1 3
 6 -2 2  7 -2 1  2 -1 1
 -2
3 -1
(xiii) (xiv)  -2 10 -2 (xv)  -1 2 -1
    
 2 -1 3  1 -2 7   1 -1 2
 2 0 1  1 2 3  3 10 5
(xvi) 0 3 0  (xvii) 0 2 3
  (xviii)  -2 -3 -4 
 
 1 0 2  0 0 2  3 5 7 
 -3 -7 -5 2 1 0
(xix)  2 4

3 (xx) 
 0 2 1

 1 2 2 0 0 2 
 Ans. : 
 
 1  1  4   1  1 3 
 (i) - 1, 0, 2; 1 ,  0  ,  1      
(ii) - 1, 2, 1; 0  , 3 , 2 
      
 1  -1  -3  1  1  1 
 
  1  1  1 0   -1  -1 
 (iii) - 1, - 2, - 3; 0  ,  -1 ,  2       
(iv) 1, 2, 3;  1 ,  2 ,  1
       
 0   0   -2 0   2  1 
  1  0   1 1  2  1 
 
 (v) 1, 1, 7; 2 ,  1 ,  0  (vi) 5, 1, 1; 1 ,  -1 ,  0  
 3  -1  -1 1  0   -1 

  1  2   3  0   0   1 
       
 (vii) 5, - 3, - 3;  2 ,  -1 , 0  (viii) - 1, 1, 1;  -1 ,  1 ,  0  
  -1  0   1  1  1  0  
 
  0  2  1  1  2  2 
  -  , 2 ,  1 
 (ix) - 2, 9, - 18 ;  1     (x) 3, 6, 9; 2 ,  -2 ,  1 
 2  1  -2 
  0   1  4 
  0  1  -2  -1 1  1 

 
 (xi) - 3, 3, 9;  1 , 1 ,  1 (xii) 2, 3, 6;  0  , 1 ,  -2 
  -1 1  1  1 1  1 
 
  2 0   1  1  1 1 
 (xiii)
 8, 2, 2;  -1 ,  1 ,  1 (xiv) 12, 6, 6;  -2 ,  0  , 1 
  1  1  -1  1  -1 1 
 
  1  1  -1  1 1  1 
4, 1, 1;  -1 ,  1 ,  1 1, 3, 3;  0  , 1 ,  -2 
 (xv)  
(xvi)
 
  1 0   2   -1 1  1 
 
  1  2  1  5 
1, 2, 2; 0  ,  1

(xvii) (xviii) 3, 2, 2;  1 ,  2 
 
 0  0   -2  -5 
 
  -3  1 
 (xix)     
1, 1, 1;  1 (xx) 2, 2, 2; 0 
 
  1 0  
10. Verify that x = [2, 3, -2, -3]T is an eigenvector corresponding to the

eigenvalue l = 2 of the matrix
 1 - 4 -1 - 4 
 
2 0 5 -4
A=
 -1 1 -2 3
 
 -1 4 -1 6 
 3 -1 1
11. If A =  -1 3 -1 then check whether eigenvectors of A are
 1 -1 3
orthogonal.
 3 10 5
12. If A =  -2 -3 -4  then verify whether eigenvectors are linearly

 3 5 7 
independent or not.
10.14 cAyLey-hAMILton theoreM
Statement: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.

Proof: Let A be an n-rowed square matrix. Its characteristic equation is
A - λ I = ( -1) n ( λ n + a1λ n -1 + a2 λ n - 2 + p + an )
( A - λ I ) adj ( A - λ I ) = A - λ I I …(10.16)
{A adj ( A) = A I 
Since adj (A –l I ) has element as cofactors of elements of |A – lI |, the elements of adj

(A – l I ) are polynomials in l of degree n – 1 or less. Hence, adj (A – l I ) can be writ-
ten as a matrix polynomial in l.
adj (A –l I ) = B0ln – 1 + B1ln – 2 + ⋅⋅⋅ + Bn –2l + Bn – 1
where B0, B1,…, Bn –1 are matrices of order n.
( A - λ I ) adj ( A - λI ) = ( A - λ I )[ B0 λ n -1 + B1λ n - 2 +  + Bn - 2 λ + Bn -1 ]
A - λ I I = ( A - λ I )[ B0 λ n -1 + B1λ n - 2 +  + Bn - 2 λ + Bn -1 ]
( -1) n [ Iλ n + a1 Iλ n -1 + a2 Iλ n - 2 +  + an -1 Iλ + an I ]
= ( - IB0 )λ n + ( AB0 - IB1 )λ n -1 + ( AB1 - IB2 )λ n - 2 +  + ( ABn - 2 - IBn -1 )λ + ABn -1
Equating corresponding coefficients,
- IB0 = ( -1) n I
AB0 - IB1 = ( -1) n a1 I
AB1 - IB2 = ( -1) n a2 I
 
ABn - 2 - IBn -1 = ( -1) an -1 I
n
ABn -1 = ( -1) n an I
Premultiplying the above equations successively by An, A n–1, A n–2,… I and adding,
( -1) n [ An + a1 An -1 + a2 An - 2 +  + an I ] = 0
Hence, An + a1 An -1 + a2 An - 2 +  + an I = 0 …(10.17)
Corollary: If A is a non-singular matrix, i.e. det (A) ≠ 0 then premultiplying equation
(1) by A–1, we get
An -1 + a1 An - 2 + a2 An - 3 + … + an A-1 = 0
1
A-1 = - n [ An -1 + a1 An - 2 + … + an -1 I ]
a
example 1
 1 2
Apply Cayley–Hamilton theorem to A =   and deduce that
 2 -1
A = 625I.
8
Solution
 1 2
A=  
 2 -1
det( A - λ I ) = 0
1- λ 2
=0
2 -1 - λ
λ 2 - S1λ + S 2 = 0
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = 1 – 1 = 0
1 2
S 2 = det( A) =
2 -1
= -1 - 4
= -5
λ2 - 5 = 0
By Cayley–Hamilton theorem, the matrix A satisfies its own characteristic equation.
A2 - 5 I = 0
A2 = 5 I
A4 = 25 I
A8 = 625 I
example 2
Verify Cayley–Hamilton theorem for the following matrix and hence,
find A–1 and A4.
 2 -1 1
A =  -1 2 -1
 
 1 -1 2
Solution
 2 -1 1
A =  -1 2 -1
 1 -1 2

det( A - λ I ) = 0
2-λ -1 1
-1 2-λ -1 = 0
1 -1 2-λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S2 λ - S3 = 0
2 -1 2 1 2 -1
= + +
-1 2 1 2 -1 2
= (4 - 1) + (4 - 1) + (4 - 1)
=9
2 -1 1
S3 = det( A) = -1 2 -1
1 -1 2
= 2(4 - 1) + 1( -2 + 1) + 1(1 - 2)
= 6 -1-1
=4
λ 3 - 6λ 2 + 9λ - 4 = 0
 2 -1 1  2 -1 1  6 -5 5
A2 =  -1 2 -1  -1 2 -1 =  -5 6 -5
    
 1 -1 2  1 -1 2  5 -5 6 
 6 -5 5  2 -1 1  22 -21 21
A3 =  -5 6 -5  -1 2 -1 =  -21 22 -21
    
 5 -5 6   1 -1 2  21 -21 22
A3 - 6 A2 + 9 A - 4 I
 22 -21 21  36 -30 30  18 -9 9  4 0 0
=  -21  
22 -21 -  -30 36 -30 +  -9 18 -9 -  0 4 0
 
 21 -21 22  30 -30 36  9 -9 18  0 0 4
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 = 0 ...(1)
0 0 0
The matrix A satisfies its own characteristic equation. Hence, Cayley–Hamilton
theorem is verified.
Premultiplying Eq. (1) by A–1,
A-1 ( A3 - 6 A2 + 9 A - 4 I ) = 0
A2 - 6 A + 9 I - 4 A-1 = 0
4 A-1 = ( A2 - 6 A + 9 I )
 6 -5 5  12 -6 6 9 0 0
=  -5 6 -5 -  -6 12 -6  + 0 9 0 
     
 5 -5 6   6 -6 12 0 0 9
 3 1 -1
=  1 3 1
 
 -1 1 3
 3 1 -1
1
A-1 = 1 3 1
4  -1 1 3
 
Multiplying Eq. (1) by A,
A( A3 - 6 A2 + 9 A - 4 I ) = 0
A4 - 6 A3 + 9 A2 - 4 A = 0
A4 = 6 A3 - 9 A2 + 4 A
 132 -126 126  54 - 45 45  8 - 4 4
=  -126 132 -126 -  - 45 54 - 45 +  - 4 8 - 4
 126 -126 132  45 - 45 54  4 - 4 8
 86 -85 85
=  -85 86 -85
 85 -85 86
example 3
 0 c -b 
Show that matrix A =  -c 0 a  satisfies Cayley–Hamilton theorem
 
 b - a 0
and hence find A–1, if it exists.
Solution
 0 c -b 

A =  -c 0 a 
 b - a 0

det( A - λ I ) = 0
-λ c -b
-c - λ a =0
b -a -λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S2 λ - S3 = 0
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = 0
0 a 0 -b 0 c
= + +
-a 0 b 0 -c 0
= (0 + a 2 ) + (0 + b 2 ) + (0 + c 2 )
= a 2 + b2 + c2
0 c -b
S3 = det( A) = -c 0 a
b -a 0
= 0 - c(0 - ab) - b(ac - 0)
= abc - abc
=0
λ 3 + (a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )λ = 0
 0 c -b   0 c -b   - c 2 - b 2 ab ac 
 
A2 =  -c 0 a   -c 0 a  =  ab -c - a 2
2
bc 
 b - a 0  b - a 0  ac bc -b 2 - a 2 
 -c - b2 2
ab ac  0 c -b 
 
A =  ab
3
-c - a 2
2
bc  - c 0 a 
 ac bc -b 2 - a 2   b - a 0

 0 -c 3 - cb 2 - ca 2 b3 + bc 2 + ba 2 
 3 
=  c + ca + cb
2 2
0 - ab 2 - ac 2 - a 3 
 -bc 2 - b3 - a 2 b ac 2 + ab 2 + a 3 0 
 
 0 c -b 
2 
= -(a + b + c )  -c
2 2
0 a 
 b - a 0
= -(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) A
A3 + (a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) A = 0

0 c -b
det( A) = - c 0 a = -c(0 - ab) - b(ac - 0)
b -a 0
= abc - abc = 0
–1
Hence, A does not exist.
example 4
 1 4
Find the characteristic roots of the matrix A =   and verify
 2 3
Cayley–Hamilton theorem for this matrix. Find A–1 and also express
A5 – 4A4 – 7A3 + 11A2 – A – 10I as a linear polynomial in A.
Solution
 1 4
A=  
 2 3
det( A - λ I ) = 0
1- λ 4
=0
2 3- λ
λ 2 - S1λ + S 2 = 0
where S1 = Sum of the principal diagonal elements of A = 1 + 3 = 4
1 4
S 2 = det( A) =
2 3
= 3-8
= -5

λ 2 - 4λ - 5 = 0
λ = -1, 5
1 4  1 4 9 16
A2 =  =
2 3  2 3 8 17 
9 16  4 16  5 0 0 0
A2 - 4 A - 5 =  - - = =0 ... (1)
8 17   8 12 0 0 0 0
Premultiplying Eq. (1) by A–1,
A-1 ( A2 - 4 A - 5) = 0
A - 4 I - 5 A-1 = 0
1
4 A-1 = ( A - 4 I )
5
1  -3 4 
= 
5  2 -1
Now, A5 – 4A4 – 7A3 + 11A2 – A – 10I = A3(A2 – 4A – 5I) – 2A(A2 – 4A – 5I)
+ 3(A2 – 4A – 5I ) + A + 5I
= ( A2 - 4A - 5I )( A3 - 2A + 3I ) + ( A + 5 I )
= 0 + ( A + 5I ) [Using Eq. (1)]
= A + 5I
which is a linear polynomial in A.
example 5
 2 1 1
Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A =  0 1 0 and hence
 
 1 1 2
find the matrix represented by A8 – 5A7 + 7A6 – 3A5 + A4 – 5A3 + 8A2 –
2A + I.
Solution
 2 1 1
A =  0 1 0
 1 1 2

det( A - λ I ) = 0
2-λ 1 1
0 1- λ 0 =0
1 1 2-λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S2 λ - S3 = 0
1 0 2 1 2 1
= + +
1 2 1 2 0 1
= (2 - 0) + (4 - 1) + (2 - 0)
=7
2 1 1
S3 = det( A) = 0 1 0
1 1 2
= 2(2 - 0) - 1(0 - 0) + 1(0 - 1)
= 4 - 0 -1
=3
λ 3 - 5λ 2 + 7 λ - 3 = 0
By Cayley–Hamilton theorem,
A3 – 5A2 + 7A – 3I = 0 …(1)
Now, A8 – 5A7 + 7A6 – 3A5 + A4 – 5A3 + 8A2 – 2A + I
= A5 (A3 - 5A2 + 7A - 3I ) + A(A3 - 5A2 + 7A - 3I ) + ( A2 + A + I )
= (A3 - 5A2 + 7 A - 3I )( A5 + A) + ( A2 + A + I )
= 0 + ( A2 + A + I ) [Using Eq.(1)]
= A + A+ I
2
2 1 1   2 1 1   5 4 4
A2 =  0 1 0  0 1 0 =  0 1 0
1 1 2 1 1 2  4 4 5
5 4 4  2 1 1  1 0 0 8 5 5
A + A + I =  0
2
1 0 +  0 1 0 + 0 1 0 = 0 3 0
 4 4 5 1 1 2 0 0 1 5 5 8 
8 5 5
A - 5A + 7A - 3A + A - 5A + 8A - 2A + I = 0 3 0
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
5 5 8 
example 6
1 0 0
If A = 1 0 1 , prove by induction that for every integer n ≥ 3,
 
0 1 0
An = An – 2 + A2 – I. Hence, find A50.
Solution
1 0 0
A = 1 0 1 
0 1 0

det( A - λ I ) = 0
1- λ 0 0
1 -λ 1 =0
0 1 -λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S2 λ - S3 = 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
= + +
1 0 0 0 1 0
= (0 - 1) + (0 - 0) + (0 - 0)
= -1
1 0 0
S3 = det( A) = 1 0 1
0 1 0
= 1(0 - 1) + 0 + 0
= -1
λ3 - λ2 - λ +1 = 0
By Cayley–Hamilton theorem,
A3 - A2 - A + I = 0
A3 = A2 + A - I
= A3- 2 + A2 - I …(1)
Hence, An = An – 2 + A2 – I is true for n = 3.

Assuming that Eq. (1) is true for n = k,
Ak = Ak – 2 + A2 – I
Multiplying both the sides by A
Ak + 1 = Ak + 1 + A3 – A
Substituting the value of A3

Ak + 1 = Ak + 1 + (A2 + A – I) – A
A(k + 1) – 2 + A2 – I
Hence, An = An – 2 + A2 – I is true for n = k + 1
Thus, by mathematical induction, it is true for n ≥ 3.
We have, An = An – 2 + A2 – I
= ( An - 4 + A2 - I ) + A2 - I
= A n - 4 + 2( A 2 - I )
= ( A n - 6 + A 2 - I ) + 2( A 2 - I )
= An–6 + 3(A2 – I )
..........................
An = An–2r + r(A2 – I )
Putting n = 50 and r = 24,
A50 = A50 - 2(24) + 24( A2 - I )
= A2 + 24 A2 - 24 I
= 25 A2 - 24 I
1 0 0 1 0 0
A = 1
2
0 1  1 0 1 
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0
= 1 1 0
1 0 1
 25 0 0   24 0 0 
A =  25 25 0  -  0 24 0 
50
 25 0 25  0 0 24
 1 0 0
=  25 1 0

 25 0 1 
eXercISe 10.6
1. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix A and hence, find A-1
and A4.
 1 2 -2   1 2 3
(i)  -1 3 0  (ii)  2 -1 4
   
 0 -2 1  3 1 -1
 2 0 -1  1 2 -2
(iii)  0 2 0 (iv)  -1 3 0
   
 -1 0 2  0 -2 1
 Ans. : 
 
 3 2 6   -55 104 24   -3 5 11 248 101 218 
 (i)  1 1 2 ,  -20 -15 32 (ii)
1 
14 -10 2 , 272 109 50  
  40  
 2 2 5  32 - 42 13  5 5 -5 104 98 204  
 0 2  41 0 - 40  6   -55 104 24  
 4 3 2 
(iii)  0   0  (iv)  1 1
   
1
3 0  ,  0 16 2 ,  -20 -15 32 
 6 
  2 0 4   - 40 0 41 2 2 5  32 - 40 -23 
 1 2 0
2. Verify that the matrix A =  2 -1 0  satisfies its characteristic equation
and hence, find A-2. 0 0 -1
  1 0 0 
 1 
 Ans. : A + A - 5 A - 5I = 0, 5 0 1 0  
3 2
 0 0 1 

3. Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find 2A5 - 3A4 + A2 - 4I, where

 3 1
A= .
 -1 2   11 138 
 Ans. : 138 A - 403I =  
  -138 127  
1 4 
4. If A =   , find A - 9A + I.
7 2
1 1 
[Ans. : 609A + 640I]
 1 2 2 4 
5. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for (i) A =   (ii) A =  1 2 and
-1 3 4   
hence, find A and A - 5A .
3 2
  -2 1 -1 2

 Ans. : (i)   , 2 A (ii) A does not exist, A 
 1.5 -0.5 
 1 2 3
6. Compute A9 - 6A8 + 10A7 - 3A6 + A + I, where A =  -1 3 1 .
 1 0 2
  2 2 3 
  
 Ans. :  -1 4 1 
  1 0 3 

 1 2
7. Verify Cayley–Hamilton theorem for A =   and evaluate
2 2
2A4-5A3 - 7A - 6I.
 36 32 
 Ans. :  
 32 52 
10.15 SIMILArIty trAnSforMAtIon
If A and B are two square matrices of order n then B is said to be similar to A, if there
exists a nonsingular matrix P such that
B = P -1AP
Note: (1) Similarity of matrices is an equivalence relation.
(2) Similar matrices have the same determinant.
(3) Similar matrices have the same characteristic polynomial and hence the same
eigenvalues. If x is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue
l, then P -1x is an eigenvector of B corresponding to the eigenvalue l where
B = P -1AP.
10.16 dIAGonALIZAtIon of A MAtrIX

A matrix A is said to be diagonalizable if it is similar to a diagonal matrix.
A matrix A is diagonalizable if there exists an invertible matrix P such that P -1AP = D
where D is a diagonal matrix, also known as spectral matrix. The matrix P is then said
to diagonalize A or transform A to a diagonal form. P is known as the modal matrix.
Note (1) An n × n matrix is diagonalizable if and only if it possesses n linearly
independent eigenvectors.
(2) If the eigenvalues of an n × n matrix are all distinct then it is always similar to a
diagonal matrix.
(3) If A is similar to a diagonal matrix D, the diagonal elements of D are the eigenval-
ues of A.
10.16.1 orthogonally Similar Matrices

If A and B are two square matrices of order n then B is said to be orthogonally similar
to A if there exists an orthogonal matrix P such that
B = P -1AP
-1 T
Since P is orthogonal, P = P
B = P -1AP = PTAP
Note: (1) Every real symmetric matrix is orthogonally similar to a diagonal matrix
with real elements.
(2) A real symmetric matrix of order n has n mutually orthogonal real eigenvectors.
(3) Any two eigenvectors corresponding to two distinct eigenvalues of a real symmetric
matrix are orthogonal.
Note: To find the orthogonal matrix P, each element of the eigenvector is divided by
its norm (length).
working rule for diagonalization of Square Matrix A

(i) Find the eigenvalues of the square matrix A.
(ii) Find the eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue.
(iii) Find the modal matrix P having the normalized eigenvectors as its column vectors.
(iv) Find the diagonal matrix D = PTAP. The diagonal matrix D has eigenvalues as its
diagonal elements.
example 1 2 1 0
Show that the matrix 0 2 1  is not diagonalizable.
0 0 2
Solution
 2 1 0
Let A =  0 2 1 
 0 0 2
det( A - λ I ) = 0
2-λ 1 0
0 2-λ 1 =0
0 0 2-λ
λ - S1λ + S2 λ - S3 = 0
3 2

2 1 2 0 2 1
= + +
0 2 0 2 0 2
= ( 4 - 0) + ( 4 - 0 ) + ( 4 - 0 )
= 12
2 1 0
S3 = det( A) = 0 2 1
0 0 2
= 2(4 - 0) - 1(0 - 0) + 0
= 8-0+0
=8

λ 3 - 6λ 2 + 12λ - 8 = 0
λ = 2, 2, 2
For l = 2, [A – l I ]x = 0
0 1 0   x  0 
0 0 1  y  = 0 
    
0 0 0   z  0 
0x + y + 0z = 0
0x + 0 y + z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0
x y z
= = =t
1 0 0
 x t  1 
x =  y  = 0 = t 0 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 1.
   
 z  0 0
Since the matrix A has only one linearly independent eigenvector which is less than
its order 3, matrix A is not diagonalizable.
example 2
1 -2 0 
Show that the matrix 1 2 2 is not diagonalizable.
1 2 3
Solution
1 -2 0
Let A = 1 2 2
1 2 3
det( A - λ I ) = 0
1- λ -2 0
1 2-λ 2 =0
1 2 3-λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S2 λ - S3 = 0

2 2 1 0 1 -2
= + +
2 3 1 3 1 2
= (6 - 4) + (3 - 0) + (2 + 2)
=9
1 -2 0
S3 = det( A) = 1 2 2
1 2 3
= 1(6 - 4) + 2(3 - 2) + 0
=4
λ 3 - 6λ 2 + 9λ - 4 = 0
λ = 1, 1, 4
(a) For l = 1, [A – lI ]x = 0
0 -2 0  x  0
1
 1 2  y  = 0
0 2 2  z  0
0x - 2 y + 0z = 0
x + y + 2z = 0
x + 2 y + 2z = 0
By Cramer’s rule, x y z
=- = =t
-2 0 0 0 0 -2
1 2 1 2 1 1
x y z
= = =t
-4 0 2
x y z
= = =t
2 0 -1
 x   2t   2
x =  y  =  0 = t  0 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 1.
   
 z   -t   -1
(b) For l = 4, [A – l I ]x = 0
 -3 -2 0  x  0
 1 -2 2  y  = 0
    
 1 2 -1  z  0
-3 x - 2 y + 0 z = 0
x - 2 y + 2z = 0
x + 2y - z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-2 0 -3 0 -3 -2
-2 2 1 2 1 -2
x y z
= = =t
-4 6 8
x y z
= = =t
-2 3 4
 x   -2t   -2
x =  y  =  3t  = t  3 = tx 2 where x2 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 1.
   
 z   4t   4
Since the matrix A has two linearly independent eigenvectors which is less than its
order 3, the matrix A is not diagonalizable.
example 3
Determine a diagonal matrix orthogonally similar to the real symmetric
 3 -1 1
matrix  -1 5 -1 . Also find the modal matrix.
 1 -1 3
Solution
 3 -1 1
Let A =  -1 5 -1
 1 -1 3
det( A - λ I ) = 0
3-λ -1 1
-1 5 - λ -1 = 0
1 -1 3-λ
λ - S1λ + S2 λ - S3 = 0
3 2

5 -1 3 1 3 -1
= + +
-1 3 1 3 -1 5
= (15 - 1) + (9 - 1) + (15 - 1)
= 36
3 -1 1
S3 = det( A) = -1 5 -1
1 -1 3
= 3(15 - 1) + 1( -3 + 1) + 1(1 - 5)
= 42 - 2 - 4
= 36
λ 3 - 11λ 2 + 36λ - 36 = 0
λ = 2, 3, 6
(a) For l = 2, [A – l I ]x = 0
 1 -1 1  x  0
 -1 3 -1  y  = 0
    
 1 -1 1  z  0
x - y+z=0
- x + 3y - z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-1 1 1 1 1 -1
3 -1 -1 -1 -1 3
x y z
= = =t
-2 0 2
x y z
= = =t
-1 0 1
 x   -t   -1
x =  y  =  0 = t  0 = t x1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 2.
   
 z   t   1
(b) For l = 3, [A – l I ]x = 0
 0 -1 1  x  0
 -1 2 -1  y  = 0
    
 1 -1 0  z  0
0x - y + z = 0
-x + 2y - z = 0
x - y + 0z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-1 1 0 1 0 -1
2 -1 -1 -1 -1 2
x y z
= = =t
-1 -1 -1
x y z
= = =t
1 1 1
 x  t  1
x =  y  = t  = t 1 = tx 2 where x2 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 3.
   
 z  t  1
(c) For l = 6, [A – l I ]x = 0
 -3 -1 1  x  0
 -1 -1 -1  y  = 0
    
 1 -1 -3  z  0
- 3x - y + z = 0
x+ y - z=0
By Cramer’s rule, x - y - 3z = 0
x y z
=- = =t
-1 1 -3 1 -3 -1
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
x y z
= = =t
2 -4 2
x y z
= = =t
1 -2 1
 x  t  1
x =  y  =  -2t  = t  -2 = tx3 where x3 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 6.
   
 z   t   1
Since matrix A has three linearly independent eigenvectors which is same as its order,
the matrix A is diagonalizable.
Length of eigenvector x1 = ( -1) 2 + 02 + 12 = 2
Length of eigenvector x 2 = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3
Length of eigenvector x3 = 12 + ( -2) 2 + 12 = 6

The normalized eigenvectors are

 1   1 
 1     
 - 
2  3  6
   1   2 
x1 =  0  , x 2 =   x3 =  - 
 1   3  6
   1   1 
 2     
 3  6
The modal matrix P has normalized eigenvectors as its column vectors.
 1 1 1 
- 
 2 3 6 
 1 2 
P= 0 - 
 3 6
 1 1 1 
 
 2 3 6 
 1 1 
- 0 
 2 2
 1 1 1 
P -1 = PT =  
 3 3 3
 1 2 1 
 - 
 6 6 6
 1 1   1 1 1 
- 0  - 
 2 2  3 -1 1  2 3 6 
 
 1 1 1    1 2 
D = PT AP =   -1 5 -1  0 - 
 3 3 3 3 6
 1 -1 3 
 1 2 1   1 1 1 
 -   
 6 6 6  2 3 6 
 2 0 0
=  0 3 0
 0 0 6
Hence, the diagonal matrix D has eigenvalues as its diagonal elements.
example 4
 8 -6 2

matrix  -6 7 - 4  . Also find the modal matrix.
 2 - 4 3
Solution
 8 -6 2
Let 
A =  -6 7 - 4
 2 - 4 3
det( A - λ I ) = 0
8-λ -6 2
-6 7 - λ - 4 = 0
2 -4 3- λ
λ 3 - S1λ 2 + S 2 λ - S3 = 0

7 -4 8 2 8 -6
= + +
-4 3 2 3 -6 7
= (21 - 16) + (24 - 4) + (56 - 36)
= 5 + 20 + 20
= 45
8 -6 2
S3 = det ( A) = -6 7 -4
2 -4 3
= 8(21 - 16) + 6( -18 + 8) + 2(24 - 14)
= 40 - 60 + 20
=0
λ 3 - 18λ 2 + 45λ = 0
λ = 0, 3, 15
(a) For l = 0, [A – l I ]x = 0
 8 -6 2  x   0
 -6
 7 - 4  y  = 0
 2 - 4 3  z  0
8x - 6 y + 2 z = 0
-6 x + 7 y - 4 z = 0
2 x - 4 y + 3z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-6 2 8 2 8 -6
7 -4 -6 - 4 -6 7
x y z
= = =t
10 20 20
x y z
= = =t
1 2 2
 x  t  1
x =  y  =  2t  = t  2 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 0.
   
 z   2t   2
(b) For l = 3, [A – l I ]x = 0
 5 -6 2  x   0
 -6 4 - 4  y  = 0
    
 2 -4 0  z  0
5x - 6 y + 2 z = 0
-6 x + 4 y - 4 z = 0
2x - 4 y + 0z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-6 2 5 2 5 -6
4 -4 -6 - 4 -6 4
x y z
= = =t
16 8 -16
x y z
= = =t
2 1 -2
 x   2t   2
   
 z   -2t   -2
(c) For l = 15, [A – l I ]x = 0

 -7 -6 2  x  0
 -6 -8 -4  y  = 0
    
 2 -4 -12  z  0
-7 x - 6 y + 2 z = 0
-6 x - 8 y - 4 z = 0
2 x - 4 y - 12 z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-6 2 -7 2 -7 -6
-8 -4 -6 -4 -6 -8
x y z
= = =t
40 - 40 20
x y z
= = =t
2 -2 1
 x   2t   2
x =  y  =  -2t  = t  -2 = tx3 where x3 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 15.
 z   t   1
Since the matrix A has three linearly independent eigenvectors which is same as its order,
the matrix A is diagonalizable.
Length of eigenvector x1 = 12 + 22 + 22 = 3
Length of eigenvector x 2 = 22 + 12 + ( -2) 2 = 3
Length of eigenvector x3 = 22 + ( -2) 2 + 12 = 3

 1  2  2
 3  3  3
     
x1 =  2
, x2 =  1
x3 =  - 
2
3  3  3
     
2 - 2   1
 3   3   3 
1 2 2
3 3 3
 
P=
2 1 2
-
3 3 3
 
2 -
2 1
 3 3 3 
1 2 2
3 3 3
 
-1
P =P = T  2 1
-
2
3 3 3
 
2 - 2 1
 3 3 3 
1 2 2 1 2 2
3 3 3   3 3 3
   8 -6 2  
 2 1 2    2 1 2
D = P AP =
T
-  -6 7 -4 -
3 3 3 3 3 3
   2 -4 3  
2 - 2 1 2 - 2 1
 3 3 3   3 3 3 
 0 0 0
= 0 3 0
0 0 15
example 5
 6 -2 2
matrix  -2 3 -1 . Also find the modal matrix.
 2 -1 3
Solution
 6 -2 2
Let A =  -2 3 -1
 2 -1 3
det( A - λ I ) = 0
λ - S1λ + S 2 λ - S3 = 0
3 2

3 -1 6 2 6 -2
= + +
-1 3 2 3 -2 3
= (9 - 1) + (18 - 4) + (18 - 4)
= 8 + 14 + 14
= 36
6 -2 2
S3 = det( A) = -2 3 -1
2 -1 3
= 6(9 - 1) + 2( -6 + 2) + 2(2 - 6)
= 48 - 8 - 8
= 32
λ 3 - 12λ 2 + 36λ - 32 = 0
λ = 2, 2, 8
(a) For l = 8, [A – lI ]x = 0
 -2 -2 2   x  0 
 -2 -5 -1  y  = 0 
    
 2 -1 -5  z  0 
-2 x - 2 y + 2 z = 0
-2 x - 5 y - z = 0
2 x - y - 5z = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x y z
=- = =t
-2 2 -2 2 -2 -2
-5 -1 -2 -1 -2 -5
x y z
= = =t
12 -6 6
x y z
= = =t
2 -1 1
 x   2t   2
x =  y  =  -t  = t  -1 = tx1 where x1 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 8.
   
 z   t   1
Since matrix A has three linearly independent eigenvectors which is same as its order,
matrix A is diagonalizable.
(b) For l = 2, [A – l I ]x = 0
 4 -2 2  x  0
 -2
 1 -1  y  = 0
 2 -1 1  z  0
4x - 2 y + 2z = 0
1 1
x=
t1 - t2
2 2
1 1  1   1  1  1
t - t t - t - 2 
 x  2 1 2 2   2 1   2 2  2
         
x =  y  =  t1  =  t1  +  0  = t1  1 + t2  0 = t1x 2 + t2 x3
 z   t2   0   t 
    2 
 0
 
 1
 

The orthogonal matrix P has mutually orthogonal eigenvectors. Since x2 and x3 are
not orthogonal, we must choose x3 such that x1, x2, x3 are orthogonal.
l 
Let x3 =  m 
 n 
For orthogonality of eigenvectors,
x1T x3 = 0 and xT2 x3 = 0

l  l 
1  
[ 2 -1 1]  m = 0 and  2 1 0   m = 0
 
 n   n 
1
2l - m + n = 0 and l + m + 0n = 0
2
By Cramer’s rule,
l m n
=- = =t
-1 1 2 1 2 -1
1 0 1 1
0 1
2 2
l m n
= = =t
-1 1 5
2 2
l m n
= = =t
-2 1 5
 l   -2t   -2
x =  m  =  t  = t  1  = t x3 where x3 is an eigenvector corresponding to l = 2.
 n   5t   5 
Length of eigenvector x1 = ( 2)2 + ( -1)2 + (1)2 = 6

2
 1 5
Length of eigenvector x 2 =   + 12 + 02 =
 2 2
Length of eigenvector x3 = ( -2)2 + (1)2 + (5)2 = 30

 2   1   2 
    - 
 6   5  30 
, x3 = 
 1   2  1 
x1 =  - , x2 =
6  5 30 
     
 1   0   5 
 6     30 
 2 1 2 
 6 -
 5 30 
 1 2 1 
P = -
 6 5 30 
 1 5 
 6 0
 30 
 2 1 1 
 - 
 6 6 6 
-1  1 2 
P =P =
T
0 
 5 5 
 2 1 5 
- 
 30 30 30 
 2 1 1   2 1 2 
 -   - 
 6 6 6  6 5 30 
 6 -2 2 
D = P AP =  0   -2 3 -1  -
T 1 2 1 2 1 
5 5   6 5 30 
   2 -1 3  
- 2 1 5   1 5 
0
 30 30 30   6 30 
8 0 0
= 0 2 0
 
0 0 2

example 6
For a symmetric matrix A, the eigenvectors are [1, 1, 1]T, [1, –2, 1]T
corresponding to l1 = 6 and l 2 = 12. Find the eigenvector corresponding
to l3 = 6 and find the matrix A.
Solution
Let x3 = [x3, y3, z3]T be the eigenvector corresponding to l 3 = 6.
x1 = [1, 1, 1]T, x2 = [1, –2, 1]T
Since A is real symmetric matrix, x1, x2 and x3 are orthogonal.
i.e., x1T x3 = 0 and xT2 x3 = 0
 x3   x3 
[1, 1, 1]  y3  = 0 and [1, - 2, 1]  y3  = 0
 
 z3   z3 
x3 + y3 + z3 = 0
x3 + 2 y3 + z3 = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
x3 y z3
=- 3 = =t
1 1 1 1 1 1
-2 1 1 1 1 -2
x3 y3 z3
=- = =t
3 0 -3
x3 y3 z3
= = =t
1 0 -1
 x3   t   1
 
x =  y3  =  0 = t  0 = t x3 where x3 is an eigenvector correspponding to l = 8.
 
 z3   -t   -1
 1
x3 =  0
 -1
Length of eigenvector x1 = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3
Length of eigenvector x 2 = 12 + ( -2) 2 + 12 = 6
Length of eigenvector x3 = 12 + 02 + ( -1) 2 = 2
 1   1 
     1 
 3  6  2 
 1   2   
x1 =   , x2 =  -  , x3 =  0 
 3  6  1 
 1   1  - 
     2 
 3  6
 1 1 1 
 3 6 2 

 1 2 
P= - 0 
 3 6 
 1 1 1 
 -
 3 6 2 
 6 0 0
D = 0 12 0 = PT AP
0 0 6
A = IAI
= PPT A PPT
= P(PT AP) PT
= PDPT
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
   
 3 6 2  3 3 3 
6 0 0  
=   
1 2 1 2 1 
- 0   0 12 0  -
3 6   6 6 6 
  0 0 6   
 1 1 1   1 1 
- 0 -
 3 6 2   2 2 
 7 -2 1
=  -2 10 -2
 
 1 -2 7
eXercISe 1.9
1. Show that the following matrices are not similar to diagonal matrices.
2 3 4  2 -1 1
(i) 0 2 -1 (ii) 2 2 -1
   
0 0 1  1 2 -1
 1 2 3  3 10 5
(iii) 0 2 0  (iv)  -2 -3 -4 
   
0 0 2  3 5 7 
2. Determine diagonal matrices orthogonally similar to the following real

symmetric matrices. Also, find the modal matrix in each case.
 7 4 -4  7 0 -2
   
(i)  4 -8 -1 (ii)  0 5 -2
 - 4 -1 8  -2 -2 6 
 Ans. : 
 
  4 1
  0 
 8 3 
 9 0 0 
(i) D = 0 -9 , P =  1 1 2
- 
  0 
 18 2 3 
 0 0 -9 
  1 1 2 
 - 
 18 2 3 
 
 1 2 2 
 3 3 3 
 3 0 0   
(ii) D = 0 6

0 , P = 
2
-
2 1 
  3 3 3 
 0 0 9   
 2 1
-
2 
  3 3 3  
 -1 7 -1
3. Find A , where A =  0
11
1 0 
 0 15 -2
  -1 10237 -2047  
  
 Ans. :  0 1 0  
  0 10245 -2048  

Multiple choice questions

1. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A-1 equals
(a) A (b) AT (c) A2 (d) none of these
2. If A is a symmetric matrix and n ∈ N, then An is
(a) symmetric (b) skew symmetric
(c) diagonal matrix (d) none of these
 1 -5 7
3. If A =  0 7 9 , then trace of the matrix A is
11 8 9
(a) 17 (b) 25 (c) 3 (d) 12
 P11 P12 
4. All the four entries of the 2 × 2 matrix P =   are non-zero, and one of
 P21 P22 
its eigenvalues is zero. Which of the following statements are true?
(a) P11 P22 - P12 P21 = 1 (b) P11 P22 - P12 P21 = -1
(c) P11 P22 - P12 .P21 = 0 (d) P11 P22 + P12 P21 = 0
5. The system of linear equations 4x + 2y = 7, 2x + y = 6 has
(a) a unique solution
(b) no solution
(c) an infinite number of solution
(d) exactly two distinct solutions
1 1 1
6. The rank of the matrix 1 -1 0 is
1 1 1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
7. The eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of a 2 × 2 matrix are given
by
eigenvalue eigenvector
1
l1 = 8 x1 =  
1
 1
l2 = 4 x2 =  
 -1
The matrix is
 6 2  4 6  2 4 4 8
(a)   (b)   (c)   (d)  
 2 6  6 4  4 2 8 4
1 
 2 - 0.1 -1 2 a
8. Let A =   and A =   . Then (a + b) is
 0 3 0 b
7 3 19 11
(a) (b) (c) (d)
20 20 60 20
 1 1 1 1
 1 1 -1 -1
9. Given an orthogonal matrix A =   , [AA-1] is
 1 -1 0 0
 
0 0 1 1
1 
1  2 0 0 0
 4 0 0 0  
  0 1 0
 0 1 0 0 0
 2 
 
(a)  4
 (b)  
0 0 1 0
 0 0 1 0  2 
   1
2
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 
 
 2
1 
4 0 0 0
 
1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0
0 1 0 0  4 
(c)  (d)  1

0 0 1 0 0 0 0
   4 
0 0 0 1  1
0 0 0 
 4
10. The characteristic equation of a 3 × 3 matrix P is defined as a (l) = | l I - P | = l3
+ l2 + 2l + 1 = 0. If I denotes identity matrix, then the inverse of matrix P will be
(a) P2 + P + 2I (b) P2 + P + I
(c) - (P + P + I)
2
(d) - (P2 + P + 2I)
 3 - 2 2
 
11. For the matrix P = 0 - 2 1  , one of the eigenvalue is equal to -2. Which of
0 0 1 
the following is an eigenvector?
 3  - 3  1  2
(a)  - 2 (b)  2 (c)  - 2 (d)  5
 1  -1  3  0
12. Consider the following system of equations in three real variables x1, x2 and x3.
2x1 - x2 + 3x3 = 1
3x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 = 2
- x1 + 4x2 + x3 = 3
The system equation has
(a) no solution
(b) a unique solution
(c) more than one but a finite number of solutions
(d) an infinite number of solutions
 3 2
13. Eigenvalues of a matrix S =   are 5 and 1. What are the eigenvalues of the
 2 3
matrix S2?
(a) 1 and 25 (b) 6 and 4 (c) 5 and 1 (d) 2 and 10
14. Match the items in columns I and II
I II
(P) Singular matrix (1) Determinant is not defined
(Q) Non-square matrix (2) Determinant is always ±1
(R) Real symmetric matrix (3) Determinant is zero
(S) Orthogonal matrix (4) Eigenvalues are always real
(5) Eigenvalues are not defined
(a) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2 (b) P-2, Q-3, R-4, S-1
(c) P-3, Q-2, R-5, S-4 (d) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1
15. A is a 3 × 4 real matrix and Ax = b is an inconsistent system of equations. The
highest possible rank of A is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
1 1 3
16. The sum of eigenvalues of the matrix 1 5 1 is
3 1 1
(a) 5 (b) 7 (c) 9 (d) 18
17. Let A and B be real symmetric matrices of size n × n. Then which one of the
following is true?
(a) AA′ = I (b) A = A-1 (c) AB = BA (d) (AB)′ = BA
18. Among the following, the pair of vectors orthogonal to each other is
(a) [3, 4, 7], [3, 4, 7] (b) [1, 0, 0], [1, 1, 0]
(c) [1, 0, 2], [0, 5, 0] (d) [1, 1, 1], [-1, -1, -1]
 2 -1 0 0
0 3 0 0
19. The eigenvalues of the matrix  are
 0 0 -2 0
 
0 0 1 4
(a) 2, -2, 1, -1 (b) 2, 3, -2, 4
(c) 2, 3, 1, 4 (d) none of these
1 1 1
20. The eigenvalues of 1 1 1 are
1 1 1
(a) 0, 0, 0 (b) 0, 0, 1 (c) 0, 0, 3 (d) 1, 1, 1
1 1 3
21. The minimum and maximum eigenvalues of the matrix 1 5 1
3 1 1
are -2 and 6 respectively. What is the other eigenvalue?
(a) 5 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) -1
1 0 0
22. The inverse of the matrix 0 2 0 is
0 0 3
1 0 0 1 0 0
 1   1 
0 0 0 0
(a)  2  (b)  3 
 1  1
0 0  0 0 
 3  2
1 
 2 0 0
 
(c)  0 1 0  (d) none of these
 1
0 0 
 3
23. Are the following vectors linearly dependent?
X1 = [3, 2, 7], X2 = [2, 4, 1] and X3 = [1, -2, 6]
(a) Dependent (b) Independent
(c) Cannot say (d) None of these
1 0
24. If A =   , then the value of k for which A = 8A + kI is
2
1 7 
(a) 5 (b) -5 (c) 7 (d) -7
 a + i c -b + id 
25. A =   is unitary matrix if and only if
b + id a - i c 
(a) a2 + b2 + c2 = 0 (b) b2 + c2 + d2 = 0
(c) a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 = 1 (d) a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 = 0
26. Which of the following matrices is not diagonalizable?
1 1  1 0 0 -1 1 1
(a)   (b)   (c)   (d)  
1 2 3 2  1 0  0 1
27. The sum of the eigenvalues of the matrix 

3 4
 for real and negative value of
x is  x 1
(a) greater than zero (b) less than zero
(c) zero (d) dependent values of x.
28. A is a singular matrix of order 3 with eigenvalues 2 and 3. The third eigenvalue
is
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 4 (d) -1
29. The eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of a 2 × 2 matrix are given
by
1  1
l1 = 8 x1 =   l2 = 4 x2 =  
1  -1
The matrix is
 6 2  4 6  2 4  4 8
(a)   (b)   (c)   (d)  
 2 6  6 4  4 2  8 4
Answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a)
9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (b)
17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (d)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (a)
Index
A Cofactor of an Element of a
Determinant 10.6
Absolute Convergence of a Series 5.94 Column Matrix 10.2
Alternating Series 5.87 Combining Series 5.18
Area as Double Integral 9.141 Comparison Test 5.20
Area in Cartesian Coordinates 9.141 Composite Function of One
Area in Polar Coordinates 9.154 Variable 8.59
Area of Surface of Solid of Composite Function of Two
Revolution 4.46 Variables 8.66
Area of Surface of Solid of Revolution Conditional Convergence of a
in Cartesian Form 4.46 Series 5.94
Area of Surface of Solid of Revolution Conjugate of a Matrix 10.4
in Parametric Form 4.53 Continuous Function Theorem for
Area of Surface of Solid of Revolution Sequences 5.2
in Polar Form 4.60 Convergence and Divergence of
Improper Integrals 2.17
B Convergence, Divergence and
Beta Function 3.11 Oscillation of Infinite Series 5.9
Beta Function as Improper Integral 3.28
Bounded Sequence 5.3
D
Determinant of a Matrix 10.5
C Diagonal Matrix 10.3
Cauchy’s Integral Test 5.82 Diagonalization of a Matrix 10.119
Cauchy’s Root Test 5.73 Direct Comparison Test 2.17
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem 10.108 Directional Derivative 8.103
Chain Rule 8.59 Double Integrals Over Rectangles 9.1
Change of Order of Integration 9.31 and General Regions 9.2
Change of Variables from Cartesian to Double Integrals as Volume 9.3
Other Coordinates 9.95 Double Integrals in Polar
Change of Variables from Cartesian to Coordinates 9.66
Polar Coordinates 9.77 Duplication Formula 3.13
Characteristic Equation 10.65 D’Alembert’s Ratio Test 5.40
Characteristic Matrix 10.64
E
Characteristic Polynomial 10.65
Coefficient Matrix 10.23 Echelon Form of a Matrix 10.7
I.2 Index
Eigenspace 10.65 Convergence 5.101

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 10.64 Inverse of a Matrix 10.6
Elementary Matrices 10.7 Inverse of a Matrix by Gauss–Jordan
Elementary Transformations 10.6 Method 10.18
Equivalence of Matrices 10.7
Euler’s formulae 7.8 L
Extreme Values with Constrained Leibnitz’s Test for Alternating
Variables 8.134 Series 5.87
Length of Arc in Cartesian Form 4.6
F
Length of Arc in Parametric Form 4.20
Fourier Coefficients 7.8 Length of Arc in Polar Form 4.33
Fourier Series 7.5 Length of Plane Curves 4.6
Fourier Series of Even and Odd Limit Comparison Test 2.18, 2.23
Functions 7.66 Limit and Continuity of Functions of
Fourier Series of Functions of Any Several Variables 8.2
Period 7.7 Limit of a Sequence 5.2
Functions of Two or More Variables 8.2 Linear Dependence and Independence
of Eigenvectors 10.76
G Local Extreme Values (Maximum and
Gamma Function 3.1 Minimum Values) 8.116
Gauss Elimination Method 10.24 Lower Triangular Matrix 10.3
Gauss–Jordan Method 10.24 L’Hospital’s Rule 1.1
Geometric Series 5.10 M
Gradient 8.103
Maclaurin’s Series 6.27
H Matrix 10.2
Half-Range Cosine Series 7.93 Method of Lagrange Multipliers 8.145
Half-Range Fourier Series 7.93 Minor of an Element of a
Half-Range Sine Series 7.93 Determinant 10.6
Harmonic Analysis 7.1 Mixed Derivative Theorem 8.11
Harmonic Series 5.19 Monotonic Sequence 5.3
Hermitian Matrix 10.5 Multiple Integrals by Substitution 9.77
Higher-Order Partial Derivatives 8.11 N
I Non-Trivial Solution 10.49
nth Term Test for Divergence 5.9
Implicit Differentiation 8.94
Improper Integral of the Third Kind 2.16 O
Improper Integrals 2.1
Improper Integrals of the First Kind 2.2 Orthogonal Matrix 10.5
Improper Integrals of the Second Kind 2.9 Orthogonality of Functions 7.2
Infinite Series 5.8 Orthogonality of Trigonometric
Infinite Solutions 10.49 Functions 7.2
Interval and Radius of Orthogonally Similar Matrices 10.119
Index I.3
P System of Homogeneous Linear

Equations 10.48
p-Series 5.20 System of Non-Homogeneous Linear
Partial Derivatives 8.10 Equations 10.22
Periodic Functions 7.1
Power Series 5.101 T
Properties of Beta Functions 3.12
Properties of Double Integrals 9.3 Tangent Plane and Normal to a
Properties of Eigenvalues 10.65 Surface 8.107
Properties of Eigenvectors 10.76 Taylor’s Series 6.1
Properties of Even and Odd Telescoping Series 5.15
Functions 7.66 Test for Non-existence of a Limit 8.2
Properties of Gamma Function 3.2 Total Derivatives 8.59
Properties of Infinite Series 5.9 Trace of a Matrix 10.4
Transpose of a Matrix 10.4
R Transposed Conjugate of a Matrix 10.5
Rank of a Matrix 10.13 Trigonometric Form of Beta
Raabe’s Test (Higher Ratio Test) 5.67 Function 3.11
Rank of a Matrix by Echelon Form 10.14 Trigonometric Fourier Series 7.6
Relation between Beta and Gamma Triple Integrals 9.109
Functions 3.12 Triple Integrals in Cartesian
Row Matrix 10.2 Coordinates 9.109
Triple Integrals in Cylindrical
S Coordinates 9.109
Triple Integrals in Spherical
Sandwich Theorem for Sequences 5.7
Coordinates 9.110
Scalar Matrix 10.3
Sequence 5.2 Trivial Solution 10.49
Similarity Transformation 10.119
U
Singular and Non-Singular
Matrices 10.6 Unit or Identity Matrix 10.3
Skew-Hermitian Matrix 10.5 Unitary Matrix 10.5
Skew-Symmetric Matrix 10.4 Upper Triangular Matrix 10.3
Solutions of System of Linear
Equations 10.23 V
Solutions of a System of Linear
Volume Using Cross-sections 4.1
Equations 10.49
Spectrum 10.65 Z
Square Matrix 10.2
Symmetric Matrix 10.4 Zero or Null Matrix 10.2

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Mathematics-1

Gujarat Technological University 2018

Ravish R Singh is presently Director at Thakur Ramnarayan College

Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor at Department of

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education Offices

Cover Designer: APS Compugraphics

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Soumya and Siddharth

Points to Remember 3.36

9.7 Area by Double Integrals 9.141

Our acknowledgements would be incomplete without a mention of the contribution of

CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions

CHAPTER 5: Sequences and Series

Go To CHAPTER 7: Fourier Series

Go To CHAPTER 8: Partial Derivatives

Go To CHAPTER 9: Multiple Integrals

Go To CHAPTER 10: Matrices

Chapter 1. Indeterminate Forms

1.2 L’HospItaL’s ruLe

sin −1 x sin h x tan −1 x

cos ( x cos x)(cos x − x sin x)

sin (q − a ) [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]

A l sin kx − k sin lx 0   sin lx 

 − log (1 + x) − 1 + 1 0  [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]

Prove that lim

1.4 type 2: Form

= lim − ( cos x sin x )

Let l = lim log x tan x

Let l = lim log tan x tan 2 x

1.5 type 3 : 0 × ∞ Form

Here, applying L’Hospital’s rule will make the expression complicated, so we

1. Prove that lim x log x = 0.

2. Prove that lim x 2 e − x = 0.

1.6 type 4 : ∞ − ∞ Form

2 sec y ⋅ sec y tan y

3. Prove that lim (sec x − tan x) = 0.

1.7 type 5 : 1∞, ∞ 0, 0 0 Forms

log l = lim [ g ( x) ⋅ log f ( x)]

which takes the form • × 0, i.e., type 3 form.

Prove that lim (a x + x) x = ae. [Summer 2014]

[Applying L’Hospital’s rule]

log a + log b + log c + log d

= lim log 1 +  + log 1 −  

log l = lim tan 2 x ◊ log(cosec x )

Let l = lim(cot x)sin x [∞ 0 form]

log l = lim sin x ⋅ log(cot x) [0 × ∞ form]

Let L = lim x x 00 form 

log L = lim log( x x )

log l1 = lim sin x ⋅ log x

Let l2 = lim x log x [0 × ∞ form]

10. Prove that lim(1 + sin x)cosec x = e.

11. Prove that lim(1 + sin x)cot x = e.

12. Prove that lim(1 + tan x)cot x = e.

22. Prove that lim(sec x)cot x = 1 .

24. Prove that lim(sin x)tan x = 1.

25. Prove that lim(1 − x n )log(1− x ) = e .

multiple choice Questions

(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) 2

(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3