CHAPTER VII

VOLUMES AND SURFACES OF REVOLUTION

POLYHEDRONS

39. CENTER OF GRAVITY

For anu body there is a point at which the body may be supported in any position with no tendency to
turn. This point is called the center of gravity of the body.

By considering the point where a body must be held so that the body will hang balanced (see figure),
one can see by inspection that the center of gravity (e,g.) of:

(a) a straight line segment is at its midpoint (see figure);

( b ) a rectangle is at the intersection of its diagonals (see figure);

(c ) a triangle is at the intersection of its medians (see figure);

(d ) a circle is at its center (see figure).

40. THEOREMS OF PAPPUS

First Theorem. The are of any surface generated by the revolution of a plane curve about an external
axis in its plane is equal to the product of the length of the generating curve and the distance its center
of gravity moves.

An axis in the same plane with a curve is external to the curve if every point of the curve lies on the
given side of the axis or on the axis.

Surface=distance e . g . moves X length of curve .

S= ( 360∝ ° 2 π x́) L.
where ∝ is the angle in degrees generated by the revolution of the line drawn from the axis of
revolution to the center of gravity, and x́ is the distance of the center of gravity from the axis.
 Second Theorem. The volume of any solid generated by the revolution of a plane area about an
external axis in its plane is equal to the product of the area of the generating figure and the distance its
its center of the gravity moves.

An axis in the same plane with a plane area is external to the area if no two points of the area are on
opposite sides of the axis.

Volume=distance e . g . moves X area .

∝
V= ( 360° 2 π x́ ) A .

where ∝ is the angle in degrees generated by the revolution of the line drawn from the axis of
revolution to the center of gravity, and x́ is the distance of the center of gravity from the axis.

Historical Note. This theorem was first discovered by Pappis of Alexandria in the third century of the
Christian era, but his work was forgotten until the sixteenth century, when Kepler and Guldin revived
ineterest in the subject.

Kepler succeeded in finding rules for computing volumes of a number of solids generated by the
revolution of a plane figure. All his rules were special cases of Pappus’s theorem. However, Kepler never
announced the theorem in its general form.

Among the solids treated by Kepler were the torus and two solids which be termed “the apple” and “the
lemon.” (“The apple” is the solid which is formed by revolving a segment of a circle, greater than a
semicircle, about its chord as an axis. “The lemon” is the solid which is formed by revolving a segment of
a circle, less than a semicircle, about its chord as an axis.)

Example 1. Find the area of the surface of revolution generated by revolving the line MN (see figure,
page 112) about the axis AB parallel to MN .

Solutions. The length of the line MN ( generating curve) is L=l . For one complete revolution ∝=360 ° .
Since MN contains its center of gravity and its distant a from AB , x́=a.

Substituting x́=a , ∝=360 ° , and L=l in the formula

S= ( 360∝ ° 2 π x́) L.
We find

S=2 πal Ans .

The student should observe that the surface generated in this case is the
lateral surface if a right circular cylinder of altitude l and radius of base a .

Example 2. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving about the axis AB the line MN
shown in the figure.
 1
Solution. The center of gravity of MN is at its midpoint C . Hence CM = l. From C drop
2
perpendicular CC ' to AB. Then since the shorter leg of a 30 °−60 ° right triangle is equal to half the
hypotenuse, we have

1 1
x́=C C ' = CM = l.
2 4
The length of the line MN (generating curve) is L=l .For one complete revolution, ∝=360 ° .
l
Substituting x́= , ∝=360 ° ,and L=l in the formula
4

S= ( 360∝ ° 2 π x́) L ,
We find

π l2
S= . Ans .
2
The student should observe that the surface generated in this case is the lateral surface of a right
circular cone whose semi-vertical angle is 30 ° and whose slant height is l .

Example 3. Find the volume generated by revolving about the line AB the rectangle shown in the
figure.

Solution. Since the center of gravity of the rectangle coincides with the center of
1 1
the rectangle, it is distance a from the axis AB . Hence x́= a . The area of the
2 2
reactangle (generating figure) is A=ab . For a complete revolution, ∝=360 ° .

1
Substituting, x́= a , ∝=360 ° , and A=ab inthe formula.
2
∝
V= ( 360° 2 π x́ ) A ,

We find

V =(2 π ) ( 12 a) ( ab) =π a b . Ans .

2

The student should observe that the solid generated in this case is a right cylinder of altitude b and
radius of base a .

Example 4 Find the distance of the center of gravity of a semi-circular are of radius r form its
diameter.
Solution. When the semicircle is revolved about its diameter through
an angle ∝=360 ° ,a sphere of radius r ,is generated (see figure) is
1 4
A= π r 2 ; the volume of the sphere (generated solid) is V = π r 3 .
2 3
4 3 1
Substituting V = π r ,∝=360° , and A= π r 2 in the formula
3 2
∝
V= ( 360° 2 π x́ ) A ,

We obtain

4 3 1
3 (
π r =( 2 π ) ( x́ ) π r 2
2 )
Solving this equation for x́ ,we find

4r
x́= . Ans .
3π
Example 5. Find the distance of the center of gravity of a semicircle arc of radius r from its diameter.

Solution. When the semicircular arc is revolved about its diameter through and angle ∝=360 ° ,
the surface of a sphere of radius r is generated (see figure). The length of the semicircular arc (generated
curve) is L=πr ; the area of the spherical surface (generated surface) is S=4 π r 2 .

Substituting S=4 π r 2 ,∝=360 ° , and L=πr in the formula

S= ( 360∝ ° 2 π x́) L ,
We obtain

4 π r 2 =( 2 π ) ( x́ ) ( πr ) .

Solving this equation for x́ , we find

2r
x́= . Ans .
π
PROBLEMS

In the following problems cross section means axial section. An axial section is a section made by a plane
containing the axis.

1. Wedding rings a few years ago were merely plain bands of gold with an approximate cross
3 5
section of sq .∈. In a certain size ring the center of the cross section is ∈. from the axis
128 16
of the ring. Find the amountt of gold used in 50, 000 such rings.
2. A centrifugal water turbine has a protective circular covering in the shape of the surface of a
torus 2 ft .in diameter encasing its entire outer rim. If the center of the cross section is 10 ft .
from the center of the wheel, find the volume enclosed by the casing, neglecting the portion cut
away for fitting purposes.
3. An inflated tire tube has cross section, uniformly circular, 4 ∈. inside diameter. The distance of
the center of the center of the tube’s cross section from the axis of the wheel for which it was
1
made to fit in 14∈. Find the amount of air in the tube, and also, if the rubber is ∈. thick, find
2
the outer surface area of the rubber.
4. The cross section of the rim of an from flywheel 3 ft . in diamter is a rectangle 12∈.by 2∈. How
much does the rim weigh? ( The iron weighs 450 lb per cu . ft . ¿
5. An anchor ring is formed by revolving a circle 3∈. in diameter
about a line lying in the plane of the circle and at a distance of
10∈. from the center. Find the volume of the solid formed.
6. A vertical 3−¿ . steam pipe is turned so as to eventually run
horizontally. The path of the center of the pipe follows along the
5
arc of the circle whose radius is 8 ft .if the steam pipe is
∈. thick and if it is covered with a
4
coating of sabestos 2∈. thick, find the amount of sebestos coating in the turn. ( A 3−¿ . pipe is a
pipe which has an inside diameter of 3∈. )
7. In passing an obstruction the center of a steel aqueduct following along an arc of a circle whose
1
radius is mile , and the direction of the center is changed by 20 ° . The aqueduct has a uniform
2
cross section whose inside diameter is 4 ft . Find the volume of water in the turn if the aqueduct
is running full.
8. Find the position of the center of gravity of the area of the quadrant of a circle of radius r .
9. Find the position of the center of gravity of the arc of the quadrant of a circle of radius r .
10. For the triangle shown, find the distance of the center of gravity above the 4−ft . base.
11. Find the position of the center of gravity of the sector of a circle of radius r if the central angle of
the sector is 30 °.
12. Find the position of the center of gravity of the trapezoid
shown in the figure.
13. Prove by means of the First Theorem of Pappus that the
π a2
area of a circle is , where of is the diameter.
4
14. Find the position of the center of gravity of an arc of a circle
of radius r if the central angle submented by the arc is 60 ° .
15. A square and an equilateral triangle having their bases in the same straight line are
circumscribed about a circle of radius a . The whole figure is then revolved about an altitude of
the traingle. Find, in terms of a; (a) the sum of the areas of the three surfaces generated, (b)
the sum of the volumes of the three solids generated.
16. An equilateral traingle is curcumscribed about a circle of radius r and the figure
is revolved about an altitude if the triangle as an axis. Show that (a) the
surface generated by the revolution of the arc of the circle is two-thirds the
 lateral surface generated by the revolution of the triangle, (b) the volume generated by the
revolution of the semicircular area is four-ninths the volume generated by the revolution of the
triangle.
1
17. A segment of a circle of radius R is bounded by an arc equal to the circumference of the
2
circle. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving this segment about its chord as an
axis. (This solid is known as Kepler’s lemon.)

61. POLYHEDRONS

Definition. A polyhydron is a solid bounded by polygons.

Properties

The edge of a polyhedron are the intersections of the bounding plane.

The faces are the portions of the bounding planes included by edges.

The vertices are the intersections of the edges.

A diagonal of a polyhedron is a straight line joining two vertices not in the

same face.

Definition. A convex polyhedron is a polyhedron every section of which is a convex polygon.

Regular Polyhedrons

Definition. A regular polyhedron is a polyhedron all of whose faces are equal regualr polygons, and
all of whose polyhedral angles are equal.

There are only five regular polyhedrons, namely:

Certain properties of regular polyhedrons are given in the table on page 117. In this tavle we denote
the number of faces by F , number of edges by E , number of verices by v , area of face by B , radius
of inscribed sphere by r , and the leght of an edge by e .

Formulas

Total area=number of faces X area of one face .

T =F B .
 1
Volume= number of faces X face X radius of inscribed sphere .
2
1
V = FBr .
2
Historical Note. Pythagoras knew about the existence of all the regular polyhedrons except the
dodecahedron. This was discovered in 470 B.C by Hippasus, who having boasted of his discovery was
drowned by the other Pythagoreans. The regular polyhedrons were supposed to have certain
magical properties, and their study were greatly emphasized.

Suface analysis. Since a regular polyhedron has F faces, the total area is equal to F times the
area of one face.

Volume analysis. Consider any regular polyhedron of F faces in which is inscribed a sphere of
center O and radius r . Divide this polyhedron into pyramids by planes each of which passes through
an edge of the polyhedron and all of which contain the center O . Each of these pyramids hasan
altitude the radius r of the inscribed sphere and as base B a face of the polyhedron. Hence the
1
volume of one pyramid is Br .Since there are F pyramids, we write for the volume of the
3
polyhedron

1
V = FBr .
3
Example. Each corner of a hexahedron (cube) of edge 3 a is cut off by a plane intersecting three
concurrent edges at points each distant a from the vertex of the corner. Find the volume of the solid
formed.

Solution. Each of the eight corners cut from the cube is a triangular pyramid such as O− ABC
shown in the figure. Consider ABC as the base and O as the vertex of this pyramid. Since ABC is
an isosceles right triangle of leg a , the
 ( a ) ( a ) a2
Area of ABC= = .
2 2
The altitude h of the pyramid is OB=a .
 a2
Substituting B= and h=a in the formula
2
1
V = Bh ,
3
We get

1 a2 ( ) a3
V=
3 2 ( )
a= .
6
Therefore the volume of the eight corners cut from the cube is

a3 4 3
V 2=8
6 ( )
= a.
3
But the volume of the given cube is

V 2=( 3 a )3=27 a3 .

Hence for the required volume, we have

4 3 77 a3
3
V 2−V 2 =27 a − a = . Ans.
3 3
PROBLEMS

1. For each of the regular polyhedrons verify the formula E=e+ F−2 by substituting for E , V and
F the values given in the table on p.117. This formula is true for all convex polyhedrons.
2. Verify each of the values given in column Bof the table on p.117.
1
3. Substitute in the formula V = FBr the values of F , B and r given in the table on p. 117. To
3
verify the entries in the column headed Volume.
4. Find the radius of the sphere inscribed in a regular icosehedron, whose volume is 24 cu .∈.
5. If a regular tetrahedron and a regular octahedron have the same edge, show that the volume of
the octahedron is four times the volume of the tetrahedron.
6. If a regular dodecahedron and regular icosahedron have the same edge, compare ( a )their
surface area, (b) their volumes.
7. How many glass paper weights each in the shape of a dodecahedron 1∈¿ on an edge can be
manufactured by melting 1000 glass of paper weights in the form of a cube 2∈. on an edge?
8. Verify the value of r in the table on p.117 for (a) regular tetrahedron and (b) a regular
octahedron without taking the values listed in the column headed B and Volume.
9. Using the following directions, construct solids representing the five regular polyhedrons.
 Directions for construction. Mark on cardboard larger figures similar to the drwaings. Cut
along the full lines. Fold along the dotted lines so as to form the figure. Paste strips of paper
along the edges.

10. A certain polyhedron whose shortest edge is 2∈. weighs 40 lb . What is the weight of a similar
polyhedron whose shortest edge is 5∈.?
11. Find the number of degrees in a dihedral angle of a regular tetrahedron.
12. How many diagonals can be drawn in a regular octahedron?
13. The figure represents an octahedron with diagonals AC=16 ∈. ,
EF=12∈,. BD=8∈. Find the total surface and volume. The
diagonals are mutually perpendicular, and the point of intersection is
the midpoint of each diagonal.