Financial Close and Reporting Processes
Financial Close and Reporting Processes
The financial close and reporting processes are a critical part of the accounting cycle and
fundamental in having relevant and representationally faithful accounting records and financial
statements. However, the process is often poorly executed – especially by small and medium‐sized
organizations.
Without performing the financial close and reporting processes, the accounting records and
financial statement will be incomplete, inaccurate, and irrelevant.
The users of the financial statements will have not have decision‐useful information.
Decisions made and actions taken will not be based on a representationally faithful picture of the
organization’s financial position and activities.
The activities performed at the end of the period that ensure all transactions and events have been
recorded, all transactions and account balances have been measured appropriately, and that the
financial statements are prepared properly.
They include:
Preparing a trial balance
Identifying, collecting, and analyzing information for accounts that require adjustments
Preparing the adjusting journal entries and posting them to the ledgers
Preparing an adjusted, or final, trial balance
Use the final trial balance to prepare the required financial statements
Formally closing the accounting records for the period
They comprise the majority of the accounting cycle’s steps.
This is the starting point for performing financial close and reporting processes.
The unadjusted trial balance is simply a listing of all accounts from the general ledger as of a
particular point in time.
The general ledger comprises all accounts used by the organization:
Balance sheet accounts (e.g., cash, fixed assets, accounts payable, common stock, etc.)
o These are called “permanent” accounts because their balances are carried forward
from one period to the next.
Income statement accounts (e.g., revenue, expenses, other revenue and expenses, etc.)
o These are called “temporary” accounts because their balances are closed at the end
of the period and rolled up into the appropriate equity account
The trial balance must balance – that is, the sum of all debits must equal the sum of all credits.
The next step is to identify, collect, and analyze information about transactions and events or
regarding account balances that need to be recorded as adjusting entries.
A methodical approach is best practice. Work your way down the accounts on the trial balance and,
for each, ask yourself:
Does this account balance actually exist (or, not overstated)? Or, is it an account that no
longer exists and yet the disposal of it was recorded elsewhere?
Is the account balance complete (or, not understated)? Does it have all transactions and
events recorded in it that should be recorded?
Is the account valued appropriately? What’s the proper valuation technique for this
particular account? What are the factors in determining its value?
Have revenues and expenses been allocated out of or into the account appropriately?
Are all of the revenue or expense transactions that are recorded in this account applicable
to the period being covered?
Are there any revenue of expense transactions that have been earned or incurred but have
yet to be recorded?
Use the answers to these questions to determine what information needs to be gathered, from
whom or from where will it be gathered, and what analysis needs to be performed.
Develop a checklist of period‐end adjustments that need to be made, the information required to be
gathered, the analysis necessary, and the timelines of when to collect and analyze the data.
Suppose you have an Inventory balance on the unadjusted trial balance.
Does the account balance actually exist? It’s possible that there has been some inventory
shrinkage that would mean the balance is overstated.
Is the account balance complete? It’s possible that some purchase orders issued before year
end have been fulfilled and the invoice has simply not yet been received. Or, perhaps,
goods are in transit at period end.
Is the inventory valued appropriately? It’s possible that the inventory is obsolete, or that its
market value is lower than its cost.
Does anything need to be allocated to or from inventory? For Works in Process Inventory,
an allocation of overhead expenses often needs to be performed.
The last two questions are not applicable to Inventory.
The answers to these questions will provide you with a list of informational needs. For example, you
will need to know the period‐end physical inventory count. You will also need to look at open
purchase orders at year end and determine if any were filled by period end. You will need to
consider the marketability of the inventory and, if questionable, perform calculations to compare its
market value to its cost. You will need to know which overhead costs are allocated to inventory and
what calculations are used.
Once you have all of the necessary information, you will need to analyze it and compare your
analysis results to the unadjusted balance. If there is a difference, then an adjustment will be
necessary. If there is no difference, then no adjustment is necessary.
Accounting requires management to make many estimates, judgments, and calculations. The slide
above shows a number of examples.
For financial statements to maintain their decision‐usefulness, management must make these
estimates, judgments, and calculations:
Objectively and without bias
Consistently from period to period
Accurately (within materiality and cost constraints)
It’s critical that those charged with governance know which estimates and judgments management
is making, the rationale for the estimates and judgments, and how the calculations related to the
estimates and judgments are performed.
Having that understanding will allow those charged with governance to ascertain the
reasonableness and accuracy of the estimates and judgments and will help them detect any
indications of management bias or fraud.
Estimates and judgments from prior periods should be evaluated by management and those
charged with governance to determine how close to reality (representationally faithful) they were.
Stark differences between reality and estimates should prompt changes in estimates or judgments
and calculations should be revised. Stark differences should also be considered for indications of
management bias or fraud.
Going back to our inventory example, management needs to make some estimates, judgments, and
calculations to arrive at the proper period‐end account balance.
For example, management needs to make judgments on how inventory’s costs flow. Will inventory
be recorded on a Last‐In, First‐Out (LIFO) basis, First‐In, First‐Out (FIFO) basis, average cost basis,
dollar‐value LIFO basis, or some other costing method? Is the costing method appropriate, or still
appropriate, and does it result in a faithful representation?
Management also needs to make judgments regarding the inventory’s value. GAAP requires that
inventory be recorded at the lower of cost or market (LCM). This requires estimates of the
inventory’s net realizable value (NRV), net realizable value less a normal profit, and comparisons to
the recorded costs.
For Works in Process Inventory, management would need to determine which overhead costs
should be allocated to inventory and estimate what percentage should be allocated.
These can be complicated calculations, so the information inputs need to be consistent from period
to period, the method of calculation needs to be consistent, and the timing and manner of recording
the adjustment should be consistent.
Management should document all factors of the adjustment and the Board should review them
periodically.
Once the identification, collection, and analysis of adjusting information is complete, the accounting
records need to be updated to with adjusting journal entries. These are recorded in the General
Journal.
All journal entries should be supported by documentation (which is not just a printing out of the
journal entry itself) and should be reviewed and approved by management.
Documentation of the reasons for estimates and judgments made
Source documents for the various factors in the calculation
Worksheet of calculations and end results
Documentation of authorization, review, and approval
Adjusting journal entries should be posted as of the date of the end of the period.
In accounting applications, journal entries are automatically posted to the ledger. But, if you’re still
keeping your records using pencil and paper, make sure you post the adjusting entries to the leger
accounts (and once you’re done that, you should think about entering the 21st century).
And always remember: debits must equal credits.
Once all adjustments are journalized and posted, a final trial balance needs to be generated.
Again, this is simply a listing of all permanent and temporary accounts in the general ledger and
their balances as of the period end date.
As you can see from the example above (and when compared with the unadjusted trial balance from
earlier) the adjusting journal entries have affected account balances. Some have been increased,
others decreased, and some temporary accounts that were not on the unadjusted trial balance now
have amounts.
The sum of all debits will still equal the sum of all credits.
The final trial balance will now be used by management to prepare the required financial
statements.
The first step in preparing financial statements is to prepare the Income Statement.
The income statement is composed of all temporary accounts – accounts that get closed at the end
of the period and rolled up into the equity accounts.
The income statement describes how equity changed throughout the period as a result of revenues,
expenses, and other revenues and expenses.
The bottom line is either net income or net loss.
The income statement is the easiest statement to produce because it’s simply taking the items from
the final trial balance and organizing them in the proper format.
The net income (or loss) is key to completing the balance sheet. This is why the income statement is
prepared first.
Accounting applications will be able to prepare this for you automatically. Just be sure to have all of
your adjustments posted – otherwise the income statement will not be complete or accurate.
The next step in preparing the financial statements is to prepare the Balance Sheet.
The balance sheet is a snapshot in time that describes the organization’s financial position on a
specific date.
In transferring accounts and amounts from the final trial balance, the preparer must remember to
close the temporary accounts to the appropriate equity account, That is, whatever the net income
or loss is, per the income statement, must be added to or subtracted from equity (in this case, the
Retained Earnings account.)
Failure to do this will result in a balance sheet that doesn’t balance. In fact, it will be out of balance
by the net income or loss amount.
The balance sheet is the second‐easiest financial statement to prepare. With the exception of the
equity account to which net income (loss) was closed, it simply takes the final trial balance amounts
for all balance sheet accounts and arranges them in the proper format.
Notice in the example above that Retained Earnings is $5,049 more than what it shows on the final
trial balance. This is the net income amount that has been closed to retained earnings.
Accounting applications will be able to prepare this for you automatically. Just be sure to have all of
your adjustments posted – otherwise the balance sheet will not be complete or accurate.
The statement of cash flows is the most difficult statement to prepare. It requires management to:
Identify non‐cash items in the income statement and understand their effects on net income
Use the prior‐period balance sheet to determine how operating assets and liabilities have
changed from the prior period to the current period
Obtain and understand information about cash transactions occurring during the period that
are not reported on the income statement
Understand the difference between operating activities, investing activities, and financing
activities
The statement of cash flows describes how cash has changed from the prior period to the current
period and segregates those changes among three activity categories: operating activities, investing
activities, and financing activities.
The end result – cash, end of year – should match the amount on the period‐end balance sheet.
Most accounting applications are able to prepare a statement of cash flows for you automatically.
However, there may be some “cash flow mappings” that are required for the application to
categorize the cash transactions properly among operating, investing, and financing activities.
Once all the other statements have been prepared, the statement of owners’ equity is relatively
easy to prepare.
The statement of changes in owners’ equity describes how the different components of equity have
changed from the prior period to the current period. By contrast, the income statement describes
how equity has changed only as a result of operating and non‐operating activities (revenue,
expenses, and other revenue and expenses). The statement of owners’ equity, though, includes
other changes to equity components – like proceeds from contributions to equity, payments of
dividends, conversions of equity components (e.g., from preferred stock to common stock), and
changes in other comprehensive income.
To prepare it properly, management will need to:
Obtain beginning balances for each equity component from the prior period’s balance sheet
Obtain and understand information about cash transactions occurring during the period that
affect equity components.
Understand the differences between each of the components.
The final step in the Financial Close and Reporting processes is to close the books for the period.
This is accomplished by preparing one final general journal entry, called the closing entry, to zero
out all of the temporary accounts (by posting debits or credits to those accounts that are equal to
and opposite of their final trial balance amounts) and recording the net difference to the
appropriate equity account.
In the example above, notice that the revenue account is being debited for $59,620 which will, when
posted the ledger account, zero out the revenue account. Likewise, the expense accounts are being
credited each in the amount of their final trial balance amounts. When posted to the ledger
accounts, these will zero out the expense accounts. And, finally, notice that the net difference
between the revenue and expense accounts ($5,049, the net income for the period) is being
credited to the Retained Earnings account (and, thus, increasing it in the ledger from its final trial
balance amount).
Once the closing journal entry is posted to the ledger, a Post Closing Trial Balance is created. Notice
that it only contains permanent (balance sheet) accounts. These balances will carry forward into the
new period. The temporary (income statement) accounts are essentially re‐set to zero so that
activity for the new period can be recorded in them.
Accounting applications perform this journal entry automatically as part of the software’s closing
process.
Interim Financial Close and Reporting
Many organizations only close their books once a year, even though economic decisions with
respect to the organization are made throughout the year. Preparing financial statements without
performing adjusting entries results in statements that do not faithfully represent the activities and
economic condition of the organization.
Performing interim closes (e.g., every month or every quarter) provides decision‐makers with
decision‐useful reports in a timelier manner. For example, operating budgets are often prepared
well before the end of the fiscal period, so that they can be considered and decided upon. If
decision‐makers are using financial reports that don’t faithfully represent economic reality, it’s
possible that they may make a decision that they would not have otherwise made.
Management’s Responsibility
The realities of small and medium sized organizations is that senior management often lacks the
training or expertise to adequately understand the financial close and reporting processes. Instead,
they either rely on their subordinates or on external parties, like independent auditors, to perform
the procedures for them. The problem with this approach is that, despite other parties performing
the procedures, responsibility remains with management. If management doesn’t understand the
processes, estimates, judgments, and calculations that go into closing the books and preparing the
financial statements, they run the risk of fraud or other misstatements going undetected and still
being held responsible for them.
To be a responsible manager, it’s imperative to learn and fully understand these processes as part of
the job.
Description In this space, describe why the account is likely to be adjusted, the
accounting rationale for the adjustment, the information that needs to be
collected, the source of the information, and how the information should be
analyzed.
Assigned To In this space, name the person or position authorized to collect the required
information and perform the analysis to arrive at the adjustment amount.
Standard DR/CR In this space, provide details about which accounts will be debited and which
accounts will be credited to properly post the adjustment.
Reviewer In this space, name the person or position authorized to review the supporting
documentation, estimates, judgments, and calculations, and to authorize the
posting of the adjusting journal entries. This should not be the same person
to whom the analysis is assigned.
Recorder In this space, name the person or position authorized to journalize and post
the adjusting journal entry to the books. This should not be the same person
who reviews and approves the journal entries.
Post-Reviewer In this space, name the person or position authorized to verify that the journal
entry was posted correctly. This should not be the same person who
journalizes and posts the entry. This is usually the same person as the
Reviewer, but doesn’t have to be.
Deadlines In this space, provide deadlines for any portion of the procedure (e.g., date
that collection and analysis must be completed by, date that review must be
completed by, etc.), or for the entire procedure to be complete. Deadlines are
normally described in number of business days after the fiscal period end.
For example, Day 3 would be three day after fiscal period end.
Prepare one of these for every account that normally needs adjusting at year end. Review it
with the responsible parties and ensure they understand their responsibilities. Maintain these
on file.
Description Allowance for doubtful accounts is a contra-asset that offsets the accounts receivable
account in the financial statements to ensure that accounts receivable is reported at it
appropriate value, which is the amount that management reasonably expects to
collect on outstanding receivable – also known as net realizable value.
Fake Company estimates the allowance using the balance sheet method (or,
percentage of outstanding receivables method). Under this method, individual
outstanding customer accounts at period end are categorized based on age (0 – 30
days outstanding, 31 – 60 days, 61 – 90 days, and 91 days or older). An estimated
collection rate for each age category is assigned based on experience with our
customers under our current credit policies. The then multiplied by the total of each
category. The sum of these products is the amount that management reasonably
expects to collect on outstanding receivables. The difference between this amount
and the accounts receivable balance is the allowance for doubtful accounts. See the
attached example.
Compare the amount calculated for the allowance for doubtful accounts with the
unadjusted balance for the allowance for doubtful accounts. If there is a difference
between the two, an adjustment should be posted.
Obtain the aging receivables report from Apex Accounting Software. In the main
screen, select Reports > Customers > Aging Receivables Report. Ensure that the
report date is as of the period end, December 31, 20XX.
Obtain the aging category percentages from historical collection data maintained in
the AR/AP Clerk’s office.
Documentation The aging report, support for the aging category percentages data, and the
calculations performed.
Standard DR/CR If the calculated allowance is less than the unadjusted balance, the journal entry will
be: DR Allowance for Doubtful Accounts / CR Bad Debts Expense
If the calculated allowance is greater than the unadjusted balance, the journal entry
will be: DR Bad Debts Expense / CR Allowance for Doubtful Accounts