TOPIC 29 Radioactive Decay

1. A certain radioactive nuclide of mass number 6. The isotope which decays by β-emission to
mx disintegrates, with the emission of an produce is 111
48 Cd is
electron and γ radiation only, to give a second 111 113
A. 47 Ag D. 50 Sn
nuclide of mass number my. Which one of the 111 112
following equations correctly relates mx and B. 49 ¿ E. 47 Ag
110
my? C. 47 Ag N79/II/34
A. my = mx – 4 D. my = mx
B. my = mx – 2 E. my = mx + 1 7. The nuclide 226 88 Ra occurs in appreciable
C. my = mx – 1 N76/II/36 quantities in a mineral of great geological age
despite the fact that its half-life is only a very
2. Which one of the following combinations of
small fraction of the age of the mineral. This is
radioactive decay results in the formation of an
because
isotope of the original nucleus?
A. the radioactive decay of 226 88 Ra is
A. α and four β D. two α and β
B. α and two β E. four α and β exponential and the activity can never
C. α and β J77/II/35 become zero.
226
B. 88 Ra is constantly being formed by the
3. Which one of the following statements is true decay of a longer-lived isotope.
of both α-particles and X-rays? C. the mineral is constantly being subjected to
A. They cause ionisation of the air when they neutron bombardment from the centre of
pass through it.
the earth, forming more 226
88 Ra .
B. They can be detected after passing through 226
a few millimetres of aluminium. D. the concentration 88 Ra is constantly being
C. They can be deflected by electric fields. regenerated by radioactive fallout from the
D. They can be deflected by magnetic fields. atmosphere.
E. They are used industrially for the E. the rock surrounding the 226
88 Ra slows down
photographic detection of flaws in metal the escape of the alpha-particles and
castings. gamma-rays.
N77/II/36; J84/II/36 N79/II/36; J82/II/38; J87/I/27
226
4. A naturally occurring isotope of radium 88 Ra , 8. In order to trace the line of a water-pipe buried
has a half-life of 1622 years. Its radioactive 0.4 m below the surface of a field, an engineer
decay may be represented by the equation wishes to add a radioactive isotope to the water.
226
Ra → X +α + γ . Which sort of isotope should be chosen?
88
emitter half-life
where X is a daughter nuclide, a is an alpha-
A. β a few hours
particle and γ is a gamma ray, the atomic
B. β several years
number of X is
C. γ a few hours
A. 86 B. 88 C. 89 D. 224 E. 227
D. γ several years
J78/II/35
J80/II/33; 196/I/30
5. The nucleus of uranium (238
92U ) may undergo
9. Fig. 1 represents a series of radioactive changes
successive decays, emitting respectively an α- in which nuclide W forms nuclide X which then
particle, a β-particle and a γ-photon. The forms nuclide Y and finally nuclide Z.
resulting nucleus may be represented by
A. 237
92 U D. 232
91 Pa
234 234
B. 91 Pa E. 99 Ac
233
C. 91 Pa N78/II/36
 Which one of the following gives the total N82/II/37
change of mass number and of nuclear charge?
13. Which one of the following graphs could
represent the distribution p (E) of energies E of
Change of mass Change of α-particles emitted from a given source?
number from W nuclear charge A. D.
to Z from W to Z
A. -2 +1
B. -2 0
C. -2 -1 B. E.
D. -4 +1
E. -4 0
J81/II/34; N84/II/38 C.

10. A head on elastic collision between an α-

particle and a stationary helium nucleus would J83/II/36
be impossible to detect in a cloud chamber
because 14. Because of the random nature of the radioactive
A. no photons are emitted in the collision. emission process, the count-rate recorded by a
B. the helium nucleus is too light to deflect the Geiger-Muller tube or solid-state detector from
α-particle noticeably. a supposedly constant source is subject to
C. the track of the helium nucleus after the statistical fluctuations. For example, if the total
collision is indistinguishable from that of count recorded from such a source in a given
the a-particle before the collision. time is N, the variability of repeated
D. details of the interactions of individual measurements is of the order of √ N . For how
particles cannot be detected in a cloud many counts should counting continue in order
chamber. to obtain the mean count rate to a precision of
E. uncharged particles do not leave tracks in a about 1%?
cloud chamber. J82/II/35 A. 100 D. 100 000
B. 1000 E. 1 000 000
11. Bombardment of a certain material with α- C. 10 000 N83/II/35
particles produces an emission which
15. Methods of recording electrical impulses from
penetrates lead, ejects protons from paraffin
a Geiger-Muller tube include
wax, and travels at speeds up to 5 x 107 m s-1.
(i) an amplifier and loudspeaker,
What does this emission consist of?
(ii) a counter (scaler),
A. X-rays D. neutrons
(iii) a ratemeter.
B. α-particles E. ultraviolet light
Which one of the following statements is
C. β-particles
correct?
N82/II/36; J84/II/34
A. The loudness of an individual click from
12. An event on a distant star causes the emission the loud-speaker is a measure of the
of a burst of radiation containing β-particles, γ number of particles arriving per second.
rays and light. Which one of the following B. The pitch of the signal in the loudspeaker
statements about the order in which these may be used to distinguish between the
radiations arrive at the Earth is correct? types of radiation producing the impulses.
A. The light would arrive first. C. The reading on the counter is the
B. The γ-rays would arrive first. instantaneous value of the number of
C. The light and the γ-rays would arrive electrical impulses per unit time.
together, ahead of the β-particles. D. The reading on the ratemeter is the average
D. The light and the β-particles would arrive value of the number of electrical impulses
together, ahead of the γ-rays. per unit time.
E. All three would arrive together.
 E. For a counter and a ratemeter both D. 2 1
connected to the same G-tube, the relation E. 2 2 N92/I/28
between the readings c and r of the counter
and ratemeter respectively is c = dr/dt. 19. The table shows some properties of five nuclear
N83/II/36 particles. Which particle is a neutron?

Particle affected by ass in terms of

16. When it disintegrates, a certain radioactive electric and tile proton mass
nuclide P emits γ-radiation and a single α- magnetic field mp
particle, forming a daughter product Q. Which A. yes 4mp
one of the following statements is true? B. yes 0
A. P and Q are isotopes of the same element. C. yes mp
B. The mass number of P is one more than D. no 0
E. no mp
that of Q.
N92/I/29
C. The mass number of P is one less than that
of Q. 238
20. 92 U decays through a series of transformations
D. P has more protons in its nucleus than Q.
to a final stable nuclide. The particles emitted
E. The atomic number of P is less than that of
in the successive transformations are
Q. N84/II/36
α β βα α
Which nuclide is not produced during this
17. Radiation from a radioactive source enters an
series of transformations?
evacuated region in which there is a uniform 228 234
magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the A. 88 Ra C. 91 Pa
230 234
diagram. This region is divided into two by a B. 90 Th D. 92U J96/I/29
sheet of aluminium about 1 mm thick. The
curved, horizontal path followed by the 21. Part of the actinium radioactive series can be
radiation is shown in the diagram below. represented as follows:

The symbols above the arrows indicate the

Which of the following correctly describes the modes of decay.
type of radiation and its point of entry? (a) Write clown the atomic numbers and mass
type of radiation point of entry numbers of Tl, Po and Pb in this series.
A. alpha X (b) What is a possible mode of decay for the
B. alpha Y stage Tl to Pb? N77/I/10
C. beta X
D. beta Y 22. A certain α-particle track in a cloud chamber
E. gamma X N87/I/27 has a length of 37 mm. Given that the average
energy required to produce an ion pair in air is
18. As a result of successive decays in a radioactive 5.2 x 10-18 J and that α-particles in air produce
series, the nucleon number (mass number) of an on average 5.0 x 103 such pairs per mm of
isotope decreases by 4 while its proton number track, find the initial energy of the α-particle.
(atomic number) is unchanged. How many α- Express your answer in MeV. N83/I/2
particles and β-particles are emitted?
number of panicles emitted 23. The nuclide 232
Th decays to a final stable
90
α β 208
A. 1 1
product, 86 Pb , through a series of radioactive
B. 1 2 nuclides. At each stage an alpha-particle or a
C. 1 4 beta-particle is emitted. Find the numbers of
 each type of particle emitted during the approximately the same length? Why are
complete decay process. J86/II/6 some of the particles deflected near the
ends of their tracks?
24. The table below shows some properties of the (b) Fig. 4 shows a track produced by a β-
ionising radiations alpha, beta and gamma. (e is particle in a chamber in which a magnetic
the elementary charge, c is the speed of light field was applied. The point of entry of the
and u is a unit of atomic mass.) particle is marked by an arrow. Explain as
Complete the table. many features of this track as you can.
An electron describes a circular path of
alpha beta Gamma radius 4.0 cm in a uniform magnetic field
Charge +2e of flux density 3.0 x 10-3 T Find the speed
Mass 1/1840u
of the electron.
Typical 0.1 c
speed [Charge of electron, e = -1.6 x 10-19 C; mass
Nature Particle of electron, me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg.]
Penetratin Stopped by a (c) Fig. 5 shows the result of the passage of γ-
g ability few mm of radiation through a chamber. Coordinate
alluminium axes have been drawn at the edges of the
N91/II/5 photograph for reference purposes. Give
the approximate coordinates of the points
25. A decay sequence for a radioactive atom of
of entry and exit of the γ-radiation.
radon-219 to a stable lead-207 atom is as
Summarize the properties of γ-radiation
shown in Fig 2.
and explain the appearance of the track.

(a) What do the numbers on the symbol 207

82 Pb
represent?
(b) (i) Write down a nuclear equation
219
representing the decay of 86 Rn to
215
84 Po
(ii) Write down the name of the particle N74/I/10
which is emitted in this decay.
(c) (i) What particle is emitted when 211
83 Bo
27. Explain what is meant by the terms in italics in
decays? the following statements:
238
(ii) What happens within the nucleus to U is an alpha-emitter of half life 4.5 x 10 9
cause this decay? years;
235
J92/II/7 (part) U is made to undergo fission by thermal
neutrons.
Long Questions Outline the process by which a nuclear chain
reaction may be maintained in natural uranium.
26. Figs. 3-5 are photographs of traces obtained in
Summarize the factors that make such a
cloud chambers under certain conditions.
reaction unlikely to take place in nature.
(a) Fig. 3 shows α-particle tracks. What
Assuming that each fission of a 235U atom
conclusions can you draw from the Net that
releases 3 x 10-11 J of energy and eventually
the traces are all nearly straight and of
 results in the formation of one 239Pu atom, Fig. 6 State and explain what can be
calculate to the nearest month how long a deduced from each of the following
reactor of total output 100 MW would take to observations:
produce 10 kg of plutonium. (i) Tracks D and E are straight and not
[The Avogadro constant = 6 x 1023 mol-1, 1 visible.
month = 2.6 x 106 s.] J77/III/6 (ii) Tracks C and G curve in opposite
directions.
28. Give a summary of the changes that occur (iii) The curvature of track G is greater than
within atoms when they emit (a) α-, (b) β-, (c) that of track C.
γ-radiation. (iv) Track B appears to be straight even
One gram of radium emits 1.4 x 1011 α-particles though charge must be conserved at the
each second. In the course of a year, these intersection of tracks B, C and D.
particles form 0.16 cm3 of helium gas, (c) The particle responsible for track F in Fig.
measured at s.t.p. Use these data to estimate the 6 was a proton travelling at 3.5 x 10 7 m s-1
number of helium atoms in one gram of helium. at an angle of 3.0° to the direction of track
Show whether your result is consistent with the E. You may also assume that the particle
known value of the Avogadro constant. responsible for track G had an initial
[Density of helium at s.t.p. = 0. 18 kg m -3, The velocity of 2.4 x 107 m s-1 in a direction
Avogadro constant = 6.0 x 1023 mo1-1, 1 year = making an angle of 29° to the direction of E
3.2 x 107 s.] N80/III/6 (part) Calculate the mass of the particle
responsible for track G and comment on the
29. (a) Describe the principles of an experiment result you obtain. J89/II/11
which could be performed in a school
laboratory to determine the speed of the 30. (a) Naturally occurring radioactivity results in
electrons in a beam travelling through a the emission of three types of ionising
vacuum. Give the theory which would radiation - alpha, beta and gamma.
enable you to calculate the speed. Distinguish between the three types in
(b) In a particle detector such as a cloud terms of their relative charges, masses and
chamber, sub-nuclear particles leave tracks speeds.
which can be photo-graphed. One such (b) In the early years of this
photograph in sketched in Fig. 6. The century Mdm Curie drew
sketch shows a series of events started by an illustration similar to
the particle responsible for track A. Tracks Fig; 7 which, indicated
D and E were not visible in the original how the three radiations
photograph but have been added to the travelled in air in a
sketch. Such tracks are always straight. uniform magnetic field.
Other tracks are curved due to a uniform The illustration and Fig.
magnetic field acting at right angles to the 7 were not drawn to
plane of the sketch. All the tracks are in the scale.
plane of the sketch. (i) Identify the radiations X, Y and Z.
(ii) What is shown by the fact that the
lines for X all have approximately the
same length?
(iii) What is shown by the fact that the
lines for Z have different curvatures?
(iv) In what direction does the magnetic
field exist?
(c) One particle of radiation Z has a mass of
9.1 x 10-31 kg, a velocity of 4.8 x 10 7 m s-1
and a charge of -1.60 x 10-19 C. Find the
 radius of curvature of its circular path in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.32
T.
(d) By reference to information you have given
in (a) estimate the radius of curvature of the
path of a particle of radiation X in this
magnetic field.
(e) Give two reasons why it is difficult, if not The relationship between Nt and t is
impossible, to take a photograph which is A. Nt = 1000 e-(20t/s)
like Fig. 7. J91/III/6 B. Nt = 20 e(20t/s)
C. Nt = 3 e-(0.05t/s)
31. (a) Compare the properties of a photoelectron D. Nt = 20 e-(0.05t/s)
and a β-particle by making reference to E. Nt = 1000 e-(0.05t/s) J85/II/19
(i) the origin,
(ii) the process of emission, 36. The equations
(iii) the energy of the particles. dN
N95/III/6 (part)
=− λN and N=N0e-λt
dt
describe how the number N of undecayed
32. (a) Explain what is meant by atoms in a sample of radioactive material,
(i) the radioactive decay of a nucleus, which initially (at t = 0) contained N0
(ii) nuclear fission. N97/III/6 (part) undecayed atoms, varies with time t.
Which one of the following statements about X
Law of Decay
is correct?
33. The rate of decay, dN/dt, of the number, N, of A. λδt gives the fraction of atoms present
nuclei present in a sample of a radioactive which will decay in the next small time
element at time t interval δt.
A. is proportional to t. B. λ is the time needed for N to fall from N0 to
B. is proportional to N. the value N0/e.
C. is proportional to 1/t. C. λ is equal to the half-life of the sample.
D. is proportional to 1/N. D. λ is the number of atoms left after a time
E. is constant and equal to X, the decay equal to e seconds.
constant. J77/II/36 E. λ is the chance that any one atom will still
be undecayed after one second.
34. The `14C : 12C ratio of living material has a J81/II/35
constant value during life but the ratio
37. The half-life of a certain radioactive element is
decreases after death because the 14C is not
such that 7/8 of a given quantity decays in 12
replaced. The half-life of 14C is 5600 years.
days. What fraction remains undecayed after 24
The 14C content of a 5 g sample of living wood
days?
has a radioactive count rate of about 100 per
1 1 1 1
minute. If the count rate of a 10 g sample of A. 0 B. C. D. E.
ancient wood is 50 per minute, the age of the
128 64 32 16
sample is about N81/I/28
A. 1400 years D. 11200 years
B. 2800 years E. 22400 years 38. The activity from a radioactive source is found
C. 5600 years N77/II/35 to fall by 0.875 of its initial activity in 210 s.
What is the half-life of the source?
35. The graph below (Fig. 8) shows the number of A. 30 s D. 105 s
particles Nt emitted per second by a radioactive B. 60 s E. 120 s
source as a function of time t. C. 70 s J82/II/36
39. What is the relationship between the decay J90/I/30
constant λ and the half-life t1/2 of a radioactive 44. The graph represents the decay of a newly-
isotope? prepared sample of radioactive nuclide X to a
A. λ = t1/2 D. λ \ (ln 2) / t1/2 stable nuclide Y. The half-life of X is T. The
1 growth curve for Y intersects the decay curve
B. λ = 1/ t1/2 E. λ=
t 1 /2 ln 2 for X after time T.
C. λ = t1/2 ln 2 J84/II/35

40. At time t = 0 some radioactive gas is injected

into a sealed vessel. At time T some more of
the same gas is injected into the same vessel.
Which one of the following graphs best
What is the time t.
represents the variation of the logarithm of the
A. τ/2 D. ln (2τ)
activity A of the gas with time t?
B. ln (τ/2) E. 2τ
A. D.
C. π N90/I/30

45. Radioactive 14C dating was used to find the age

of a wooden archaeological specimen.
B. D. Measurements were taken in three situations for
which the following count rates were obtained:

Speciment Count rate

C. 1 g sample of living 80 counts per minute
wood.
1 g sample of 35 counts per minute
archaeological
N85/I/27 specimen
no sample 20 counts per minute
41. The radioactive decay of a certain nuclide is
governed by the following relationship: If the half-life of 14C is known to be 5700 years,
dn what was the approximate age of the
=−λn where λ = 2.4 x 10-8 s-1 archaeological specimen?
dt
What is the half-life of the nuclide? A. 2500 years D. 13 000 years
A. 2.9 x 107 s D. 3.4 x 10-8 s B. 7000 years E. 23 000 years
7
B. 1.3 x 10 s E. 8.0 x 10-8 s C. 11 000 year J91/I/30
C. 1.2 x 10-8 s N86/I/27
46. In a cancer therapy unit, patients are given
42. The half-life of a certain radioactive isotope is treatment from a certain radioactive source.
32 hours. What fraction of a sample would This source has a half-life of 4 years. A
remain after 16 hours? particular treatment requires 10 minutes of
A. 0.25 D. 0.71 irradiation when the source is first used.
B. 0.29 E. 0.75 How much time is required for this treatment,
C. 0.50 J89/I/28 using the same source, 2 years later?
A. 7 minutes C. 14 Minutes
43. A radioactive source consists of 6.4 x 1011 B. 10 minutes D. 20 minutes
atoms of a nuclide of half-life 2 days. A second N91/I/30; J95/I/30
source consists of 8 x 1011 atoms of another
nuclide of half-life 3 days. After how many 47. The table shows the count-rate recorded at a
days will the numbers of active atoms in the point in a laboratory at various times, with and
two sources be equal? without a source in position.
A. 6 B. 9 C. 12 D. 15 E. 18
 Time/days Count-rate/s-1 λML
C. . N93/I/29
With source Without source m
10 60 20
50. A radioactive source contains the nuclide 187 74 W
30 30 20
90 20 20 which has a half-life of 24 hours.
In the absence of this source, a constant
From these readings, what is the half-life of the average count-rate of 10 s-1 is recorded.
source? Immediately after the source is placed in a
A. 10 days D. 30 days fixed position near the counter, the average
B. 5 days E. 50 days count-rate rises to 90 s-1
C. 20 days N92/I/30 What average count-rate is expected with the
source still in place 24 hours later?
48. A radioactive isotope decays by •a one-stage A. 30 s-1 B 40 s-1 C. 45 s-1 D. 50 s-1
process into a stable nuclide. Which graph J94/I/30
could represent the activity A of the isotope
plotted against time t? 51. Samples of two radioactive nuclides, X and Y,
A. D. each have equal activity A0 at time t = 0. X has
a half-life of 24 years and Y a half-life of 16
years. The samples are mixed together. What
will be the total activity of the mixture at t = 48
years?

1 1
B. E. A. A0 C. A0
12 4
1 3
B. A0 D. A0
16 8

N94/I/30

52. A newly prepared radioactive nuclide has a

decay constant λ of 10-6 s-1. What is the
C. approximate half-life of the nuclide?
A. 1 hour C. 1 week
B. 1 day D. 1 month J97/I/30

53. A source contains initially N0 nuclei of a

radioactive nuclide. How many of these nuclei
have decayed after a time interval of three half-
J93/I/30 lives?
N0 N0 2 N0
49. A radioactive isotope has a decay constant λ A. B. C. D.
and a molar mass M. 8 3 3
Taking the Avogadro constant to be L, what is 7N0
the activity of a sample of mass in of this 8
isotope? J98/I/30
mL 54. The following information concerns a sample
A. λmML D.
λM of a certain radioisotope:
λmL mλ - the activity at time zero is A0;
B. . E. .
M ML - the activity at time t is A ;
 - the number of undecayed nuclei at time t is
N; 59. A particular medical application requires a
- the decay constant is λ, the half-life is t1/2. radioactive source with an activity of 3.90 x 10 3
Which relationship is not correct ? Bq at the start of the treatment. The nuclide
A. A = A0 exp (-λt) selected has a half-life of 1.80 x 10 5 s and is
B. A = λN prepared at a Radio-isotope Centre 1 week
C. A = t1/2 N (6.05 x 105 s) before the treatment is due to
D. N = 1.44 t1/2 A N98/I/30 commence. What should be the activity of the
source at the time of preparation?
55. The initial activity of a sample of a radioactive [ 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second. ]
isotope containing N0 nuclei is A0. N84/I/11
What is the number of unchanged nuclei when
32
A 60. 15 P is a beta-emitter with a decay constant of
the activity has declined to 0 ?
2 5.6 x 10-7 s-1. For a particular application the
N0 initial rate of disintegration must yield 4.0 x 10 7
A. 0.69 N0 C. beta particles every second. What mass of pure
2
32
0.69 N 0 N0 15 P will give this decay rate?
B. D.
2 1.38 J85/II/7
61. An alpha-emitting radioactive source, placed
N99/1/30 inside an ionisation chamber, produces an
ionisation current of 2.4 x 10-6 A. If each alpha
56. A radioactive source produces 106 α-particles particle produces, on average, 2.0 x 105 on
per second. When all the ions produced in air pairs, find the activity of the source.
by these α-particles are collected, the ionisation (Assume that the ions are singly-charged and
current is about 0.01 µA. If the charge on an that all are collected.) N85/II/6
ion is about 10-19 C, what is the best estimate of
the average number of ions produced by each a- 62. An experiment is carried out in which the count
particle? rate is measured at a fixed distance from a
A. 105 B. 106 C. 107 D. 108 sample of a certain radioactive material. Fig. 9
J2000/I/30 shows the variation of count rate with time that
was obtained.
57. Which of the following defines the decay
0
constant λ of a radioactive nuclide?
activity
A.
number of undecayed nuclei
half −life
B.
0.693
C. the number of nuclei that decay per unit
D. time the time for the activity of the nuclide
to be reduced by a factor of 2.
N2000/1/30

58. (a) Write down the equation which relates the

rate of decay -dn/dt in a sample of n
radioactive nuclei to their decay constant λ.
What are the dimensions (or units) of λ? Use the graph to estimate the half-life of the
(b) Initially, a sample contains 1.0 x 106 material. Explain how you dealt with the
radioactive nuclei of half-life t. About how problems of
many will remain after a time 0.5 t? (a) the random nature of the count rate,
N81/I/11 (b) the background radiation. N91/II/7
63. (d) The half-life of 219
86 Rn is 4.0s. At time t = 20
(b) Discuss whether the student's statement is
s, what fraction of the radon atoms present valid. N94/II/6
at time t = 0, will be undecayed?
J92/II/7 (Part) 67. The activity of a piece of radioactive material is
4.3 x 105 Bq at time t = 0. The number of
64. In a radioactive decay, the number n of atoms undecayed atoms in the material at time t = 0 is
undecayed at time t is given by 7.9 x 1015. Calculate .
n = n0 exp (-λt) (a) (i) the activity after 4.0 half-lives have
where no is the number of atoms present at the elapsed,
start of the decay and λ is the decay constant. (ii) the number of undecayed atoms after
(a) Sketch, on the axes in Fig. 10, a graph 4.0 half-lives,
which shows qualitatively how the number (b) the decay constant λ,
of undecayed atoms varies with time. (c) the half-life t1/2. N95/II/7

68. (a) Distinguish between the count-rate as

measured by a detector, and the activity of
a source.
count-rate : ……..
(b) For a particular radioactive source, λ= 1.83 activity : ……..
x 10-9 s-1 and N0 = 3.72 x 1021. (b) A radioactive source of activity 3.7 x 10 3
(i) Calculate the number of undecayed Bq emits γ-ray photons uniformly in all
atoms when t = 3.16 x 107 s (1 year). directions. In order to shield the source, it
(ii) Calculate the half-life of the source. is placed at the centre of a hollow lead
(iii) Calculate the activity of the source at sphere, as shown in Fig. 11.
the start of the decay (t = 0).
N93/II/7

65. (a) What is meant by

(i) the decay constant λ of a radioactive
material,
(ii) the half-life t1/2?
(b) The decay constant and the half-life are
related by the equation The inner and outer radii of the sphere are
0.693 0.80 cm and 20 cm respectively. Lead
λ=
t 1/ 2 absorbs γ-ray photons such that, for every
The half-life of 60
27 C o is 5.26 years. 1.2 cm thickness of lead through which
(i) What do the numbers 27 and 60 photons pass, half the total number of
represent? photons entering that thickness of lead are
(ii) Calculate the decay constant of 60 absorbed.
27 C o .
(i) Show that the fraction of the total
(iii) Calculate the activity of 1.00 gram of
60
number of photons emitted by the
27 C o . (60 grams of 60
27 C o contain 6.02 source which emerge from the lead
x 1023 atoms.) J94/II/7 1
sphere is
65536
66. A student stated that 'radioactive materials with
(ii) Hence calculate the count-rate per unit
a short half-life always have a high activity'.
area at the surface of the sphere.
(a) What is meant by
(c) The absorption of the γ-ray photons
(i) half-life,
produces a heating effect in the lead.
(ii) activity?
Suggest, with a reason, which region of the
sphere is likely to experience the greatest
 heating effect due to the absorption of γ-ray (b) The decaying potassium nucleus emits a
photons. N 96/II/7 particle γ.
(i) Write down the nuclear equation
69. (a) What is meant by the random nature of representing this decay.
radioactive decay? (ii) Suggest the identity of λ.
(b) The thickness of a sheet of aluminium foil (c) Assume that when the rock was formed,
is to be monitored using β-radiation as there was no Argon-40 present in the
illustrated in Fig. 12. sample and that none has escaped
subsequently.
(i) Estimate the age of the rock. (age = …
years)
(ii) State, with a reason, whether your
answer in (i) is an overestimate or an
The separation of the rollers is controlled underestimate of the age of the rock if
by the output from the detector with the some escape of argon has occurred.
intention of maintaining a constant foil N99/II/7
thickness.
(i) State what would happen to the Long Questions
separation of the rollers if the output
from the detector were to increase. 71. Define half-life and decay constant for a
(ii) Suggest why a γ-radiation source radioactive substance. State the relationship
would not be satisfactory for between them.
monitoring changes in thickness of the Outline an experiment to determine the half-life
foil. of a radioactive gas (such as radon) that has a
(iii) A β-particle source of half-life 14 days half-life of about 1 min. Explain how the half-
is installed in the monitor and then life is obtained from the readings.
used for a working day of 8.0 hours. The sodium atom 24 11 Nais radioactive. It can be

- Calculate the ratio activity of produced at a constant rate K from the stable
source at end of working clay isotope 23Na placed in a nuclear reactor.
activity of source at start of Construct an equation relating δ N, the small
working day 20cm increase in the number of 24Na atoms, in time δt
ratio = ………………… to λ, the decay constant of 24Na, and K, the rate
- Estimate the percentage change in of production of 24Na.
foil thickness during one working Hence show that the number of 24Na atoms
day if no allowance is made for present in the reactor will eventually tend to a
radioactive decay. State whether constant value. J78/III/6
the change is an increase or a
decrease. 72. (a) What do you understand by half live T1/2,
change = …………% and decay constant λ, for a radioactive
J97/II/8 substance? Deduce the relationship
40
70. One isotope of potassium, 19 K , has a half-life between them.
of 1.4 x 109 years and decays to form argon, 1( (b) (i) The first part of the decay series of the
40 artificially produced neptunium
18 Ar , which is stable. A sample of rock taken
isotope 23793 Np involves the following
from the Sea of Tranquillity on the Moon
contains both potassium and argon in the ratio: sequence of emissions : α β α α β α.
number of Potassium−40 atoms 1 Illustrate these changes on a plot of N,
= the number of neutrons in the nucleus,
number of Argon−40 atoms 7
against Z, the atomic number. Using
(a) Define half-life.
the table of elements below, identify
(by its symbol) the last element in this
 portion of the decay series, and make half-life and show how the half-life is related to
clear which isotope of this element is the decay constant.
produced. A recent theory suggests that the proton may be
unstable with a half-life of the order of 1034
Elemen Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U
t years. How many of the 3 x 10 33 protons in a
Atomic 83 84 85 86 8 88 89 90 91 92 swimming bath would you expect to decay in 5
number 7
years?
After such decays, γ-rays of wavelength 2.4 x
(ii) Three other nuclides also initiate decay 10-12 m would be expected. Calculate the ratio
series. The half lives and abundances of the mass of such a γ-ray photon to the rest
are as shown below. mass of an electron. N82/III/6

Element Half Natural 75. What do you understand by α, β and γ

life/year abundance
232 radiation? When an isotope of boron 105B is
Th 1.4 x 1010 abundance
235
U 7.1 x 108 rather rare irradiated by slow neutrons, two reactions may
237
Np 2.2 x 106 not found take place. In each reaction, an α-particle and
238
U 4.5 x 109 abundant another nucleus are produced but, in one, the
total kinetic energy of the particles after the
reaction is 2.31 MeV and a γ ray is observed
Comment on the age of the Earth in
whereas, in the other, the energy is 2.79 MeV
the light of these data. J79/III/6
and no γ ray is emitted. Write down nuclear 78
73. Uranium-238 is an alpha-emitter of half-life 4.5 equations to represent these reactions, identify
x 109 years. Uranium-239 is fissionable by the other nucleus formed and calculate the
thermal neutrons. Explain the terms in italics. frequency of the γ ray.
Explain also what is meant by decay constant Living material contains a fairly constant small
and calculate its value for uranium-238. fraction of a radioactive isotope 14C. After
A certain coal-fired power station burns 80 death, the activity from the 14C present in the
megatonnes of coal a year. The coal contains a material decays with a half-life of 5.7 x 10 3
0.0002% impurity of uranium-238 of which years. A certain quantity of carbon converted
10% is discharged into the atmosphere as dust from recently dead organic matter to carbon
during combustion. Assuming that, on average, dioxide and placed in a GM tube gave 12
the dust takes one year to fall to earth, calculate counts per minute above background. If the
the mass of uranium-238 in the air at any one same quantity of carbon were taken from a
time and the number of alpha-particles linen shroud and similarly treated, what count
produced each second from this source. rate would you expect if the shroud were
Alpha-particle can be stopped by tissue paper. (c) a relic dating from the early Christian era,
Discuss whether this implies that alpha-emitters about A.D. 33,
present no health hazard in a school laboratory. (d) a medieval forgery dating from about A.D.
[1 year =3.15 x 107 s; In 2= 0.693; I 1100? N83/III/6 (part)
megatonne= 1 x 109 kg.] J81/III/6
76. Explain the meaning of the words in italics in
90
74. Radioactivity is often said to be a random the following statement. The nuclide 38 Sr is a
process. What is the meaning of the word β-emitter of half-life 28 years but the nuclide
random in this context? 238
94 Pu emits two groups of α-particles which
Write down the equation for the activity of a
differ in energy by 0.045 MeV. Explain the
pure radioactive source in terms of the number
of radioactive nuclei present. Show how this is significance of the symbols in 238
94 Pu .

consistent with the random nature of the Express the energy difference in joules and
process. Hence define decay constant. Define calculate the mass of this energy. Discuss how
mass is conserved in the two types of
 plutonium (Pu) disintegration, despite there 238
The half-life of U is 1.42 x 1019 s. What
92
being this difference in the energies of the α- mass of this nuclide would give an emission of
particles produced. one alpha-particle per second? N87/II/12
If a 90Sr source emits many β-particles in one
second today, how long will it take to emit the 79. The table below gives the activities measured
same number of β-particles in the year 2040 over a period of 15 days of two separate
A.D.? radioactive sources, A and B, made from
In what year will the source take the whole year different nuclides.
to emit the same number of β-particles as it
emits in one second today? J84/III/6

77. The decay of radioactive nuclei is said to be a

random phenomenon. What does random mean
Time/day Activites / Bq
in this context? How does the rate of decay R at A B
a given instant depend on the number N of 0 10 428 76 300
radioactive nuclei present at that instant? 1 9 135 44 490
(Assume N to be large.) 2 7 996 25 940
A certain beta-emitter has a half-life of 3 7 010 15 120
approximately one hour. Describe an 4 6 132 8 815
5 5 372 5 140
experiment to measure this half-life, and show
6 4 706 3 000
how the result would be obtained from the 7 4 128 1 747
readings you had taken. 8 3 613 1 018
A student performs this experiment and 9 3 163 594
measures the half-life as 3300 ± 200 s. When 10 2 770 346
readings are completed, the activity is 7.4 x 10 5 11 2 423 203
Bq. Safety regulations permit such emitters to 12 2 126 120
13 1 860 67
be disposed with domestic waste provided that
14 1 630 40
the activity is 3.7 x 104 Bq or less. Find the 15 1 431 20
minimum time T after the end of the [1 Bq = 1 becquerel = 1 disintegration per
experiment for which the source should be second]
retained before disposal.
[1 Bq (1 becquerel) represents an activity of 1 (a) Without plotting a graph, deduce the half-
disintegration per second.] J86/II/11 life of B.
(b) Why is it necessary to ensure that the
78. Explain the principle of operation the detection readings are taken at the same time each
of alpha-radiation. The equation of any device day?
suitable for [4] (c) Explain what is meant by the term decay
238
U → 234 constant. State the equation relating it to the
92 90 Th+ α
half-life and find the value of the decay
represents the decay, by alpha-emission, of a
constant for source B.
uranium nucleus. Show how atomic number
(d) Explain how you could still find the half-life
and mass number are conserved in this decay.
of each of the nuclides if, instead of being
Give a qualitative explanation of how energy
separate, they had been thoroughly mixed
and mass are conserved.
with one another to form a composite source
Explain what is meant by the decay constant λ
so that the only readings which could have
and the half life t1/2 of a radioactive substance,
been taken would have been the sum of the
and show that these quantities are connected by
activities of A and B.
the relation λ = 0.6938 / t1/2