VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR A FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

AIM

To study the cut section of given four stroke single Cylinder, high speed diesel
engine mechanism and to draw the valve timing diagram.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

1. Feeler gauge
2. Measuring tape
3. Chalk piece

TEST RIG SPECIFICATIONS

Type : 4 stroke, high speed, single cylinder, vertical diesel engine

Power : 5 BHP / 3.6 KW

Bore : 80 mm

Stroke : 110 mm

C. R : 16:1

Speed : 1500 rpm

Make : Kirloskar

PREPARATION

THEORY

Important components and its functions

Connecting Rod

It interconnects the piston and the crank shaft and transmits the gas forces from the
piston to the crankshaft.
 TABULATION

Arc length Angle

Events Valve position
(cm) (Degrees)
IVO
IVC
EVO

EVC

Circumference of the flywheel = _____ cm

Crank Shaft

It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the
output shaft. The balancing mass is provided on the crankshaft for static and dynamic
balancing of the rotating systems.

Piston rings

Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston to provide a tight seal between
the piston and the cylinder walls, thus preventing leakages of combustion gases.

Cam Shaft

The cam shaft and its associated parts control the opening and closing of two valves.
The associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. The cam shaft
is driven by the crank shaft through timing gears.

Fly Wheel

In order to achieve a uniform torque an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is

attached to the output shaft and this wheel is called as flywheel.

DESCRIPTION

The actual cut section of the four stroke diesel engine is shown in Fig. 1.1. The
working cycle of the engine is completed in four strokes and diesel oil is used as fuel,
therefore it is known as 4-stroke diesel engine. The following strokes are taking place
during the operation of the engine.

1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Expansion stroke
4. Exhaust stroke
1. Suction Stroke

At the beginning of the suction the piston is at TDC and ready to draw fresh air
inside the cylinder. During this stroke the inlet valve is opened and exhaust valve is closed.
As the piston moves downward fresh air enters the cylinder through the inlet valve due to
the suction created.

2.Compression Stroke

During this stroke both inlet and exhaust valves are closed and the piston moves
upward and compresses the air enclosed in the cylinder. Due to the compression the
temperature of the air will increases up to 10000C, and this temperature is enough to ignite
the fuel.

3. Expansion Stroke

During this stroke, the inlet and exhaust valves are closed and fuel nozzle opens just
before the beginning of this stroke. The combustion of fuel is continued at constant
pressure. This high pressure and high temperature gases push the piston down towards
BDC.

4. Exhaust Stroke
During this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed and exhaust valve is opened. The
piston moves up in the cylinder and pushes out the burnt gases. The valve timing
diagram shows the position of the crank when the various operations begin and close.
EFFECTS OF VALVE TIMING
In the compression ignition engine the valve overlap at the top dead centre is
often limited by the piston to cylinder-head-clearance. Also the inlet valve has to close soon
after bottom dead centre; otherwise the reduction in compression ratio may make cold
starting too difficult. The exhaust valve opens about 400 before bottom dead centre (BBDC)
in order to ensure that all the combustion products have sufficient time to escape. This
entails a slight penalty in the power stroke, 400 BDC represents only about 12 percent of
the engine stroke. It should also be remembered that 50 after starting to open the valve may
be 1 percent of fully open, after 100, 5 percent of fully open and not fully open until 1200
after starting to open.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate internal combustion engine and external combustion engine?

2. What are the important components in an IC Engine?
3. Name the four strokes present in a 4 stroke IC engine?
4. What is the importance of valve timing?
5. How valves are opened and closed in an IC engine?

PROCEDURE

1. Find out the direction of rotation of the flywheel.

2. Identify the valves.
3. Mark the reference point on the wheel.
4. Mark the TDC and BDC position on the flywheel.
5. Find out the opening and closing point of the inlet and exhaust valves using feeler
gauge and mark on the flywheel.
6. Measure the circumference of the flywheel using the tape or thread.
7. Find out the arc length of IVO, IVC, EVO and EVC with respect to TDC or BDC (Which
is closer to that point).

OBSERVATION

CALCULATIONS

The arc length to the respective points can be converted into angles, using the
following formula and tabulate the values obtained.

360  X 360  X
1. Angle = =
2 r L

Where, - Circumference of the flywheel in m

r - Radius of the flywheel in ‘m’

X - Arc length of the corresponding points measured from the TDC or BDC in
‘m’
2. Angle of overlap = IVO angle + EVC angle
DIAGRAM

POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between four stroke CI and SI engines?

2. Discuss the various applications of IC engine.
3. What is the difference between 4-stroke engine and a 2-stroke engine?
4. What is meant by the following terms?
(a) Bore (b) TDC (c) BDC (d) Stroke length (e) Compression ratio
5. What are the two general classes of combustion engines, and how do they basically
differ in principle?
6. How many revolutions of the crank shaft are required to complete the cycle for a
four stroke engine?
7. Give a brief idea about 2-stroke diesel engine.
8. What do you mean by angle of overlap?

RESULT

The actual cut section and operations of the 4-stroke diesel engine has been carried
out and the valve timing diagram is plotted.
 PORT TIMING DIAGRAM FOR A TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE

AIM

To study the cut section of given two stroke variable speed engine mechanism and
to draw the port timing diagram.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

1. Measuring tape
2. A strip of paper

TEST-RIG SPECIFICATIONS

Type : 2 stroke, variable speed, single cylinder, vertical petrol

Engine.
Power : 9 BHP / 6.61 KW

Bore : 61.5 mm

Stroke : 58 mm

Speed : 5000 rpm

Piston Displacement : 173 CC

Compression Ratio : 6.6:1

Ignition : Magneto type

Starting : Kick starter pedal

Make : ESCORTS Ltd., (RAJDOOT)

 TABULATION

Circumference of the flywheel = ______cm

Events Port position Arc length (cm) Angle (Degrees)

IPO
IPC
TPO
TPC
EPO
EPC
PREPARATION

THEORY

The working cycle of the engine is completed in two strokes of the piston or in one
revolution of the crank shaft. During the upward stroke, the suction and compression
processes takes place and during the downward stroke the expansion and exhaust
processes takes place. It has no valves but consists of the inlet port, exhaust port, and
transfer port.

Here, the burnt gases are forced out through the exhaust port by a fresh charge of
the fuel which enters the cylinder nearly at the end of the working stroke through the
transfer port. This process is termed as SCAVENGING. The top of the piston is made of the
particular shape that facilitates the deflection of the fresh charge upwards and thus avoids
the escape along with the exhaust gases.

DESCRIPTION

The actual cut section of the two stroke petrol engine is shown in Fig. 2.1 (a, b, c, d).
The port timing diagram shows the position of the crank when the various operations
begin and close.

During the upward stroke of the piston, the inlet port (IP) opens and fresh charge
(air – fuel mixture) enters the crank case due to the suction created. The charge already
drawn already from the inlet port in the previous stroke is get compressed and the ignition
starts due to the spark given by the spark plug. Due to the expansion, gas is doing work on
the piston, so the piston is pushed downward. During this downward stroke the exhaust
port (EP) opens and the products of combustion escape to the atmosphere. Also, the piston
compresses the mixture stored in the crank case which will be supplied to the cylinder
through transfer port (TP). This pushes out the burnt gases out of the exhaust port. The top
of the piston is made of particular shape that facilitates the defection of the fresh charge
upwards and thus avoids escape along with the exhaust gases. After reaching the bottom
dead centre, when the piston moves up, first it closes the transfer port (TP) and then
exhaust port. The fresh charge gets compressed and then ignition starts by means of spark
plug. After the ignition of the charge, the piston moves downward for the power stroke and
the cycle is repeated as before. Fig shows a model port-timing diagram.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is the basic difference between two stroke engine and four stroke engine?
2. What are the important components in an IC Engine?
3. Name the four strokes present in an 4 stroke IC engine?
4. What is the importance of valve timing?
5. How valves are opened and closed in an IC engine?

PROCEDURE

1. Find out the direction of rotation of the flywheel.

2. Identify the ports
3. Mark the reference point on the flywheel.
4. Mark the TDC and BDC position on the flywheel.
5. Find out the opening and closing point of the inlet, exhaust and transfer port and
mark it on the flywheel.
 6. Measure the circumference of the flywheel by using a tape or thread.
7. Find out the arc length of IPO, IPC, EPO, EPC, TPO and TPC with respect to TDC or
BDC (which is closer to that point)
OBSERVATION

CALCULATIONS

The arc length to the respective points can be converted into angles, using the
following formula and tabulate the values obtained.

360  X 360  X
3. Angle = =
2 r L

Where, - Circumference of the flywheel

- Radius of the flywheel in ‘m’

X - Arc length of the corresponding points measured from the TDC or BDC in
‘m’
DIAGRAM
POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is the function of carburettor?

2. How many piston strokes are required to complete the cycle for a 2-stroke engine?
3. Why the top of the piston usually has a projection?
4. What do you mean by scavenging?
5. Define the super charging of 2-stroke engines?
6. What are the disadvantages of 2-stroke engines?

RESULT
The actual cut section and the operations of the 2-stroke petrol engine has been
carried out the port timing diagram is also drawn.
DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF OIL USING RED WOOD VISCOMETER.

AIM

To determine the kinematics and absolute viscosity of a given sample of oil and to
study the variation of viscosity with temperature.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

1. Stop Watch

2. Thermometers

3. Sample of oil

4. 50 ml measuring flask

TEST-RIG SPECIFICATIONS

Cylindrical oil cup

Height – 90 mm

Diameter -46.5mm

Orifice

Diameter -1.62 mm

Internal length -10 mm

PREPARATION

THEORY:

Viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance to motion of a fluid and is mainly

due to the forces of cohesion between the fluid molecules. Viscosity is one of the most
important properties of lubricating oil. The formation of a fluid film of a lubricant between
the friction surfaces and the generation of frictional heat under particular conditions of
 TABULATION

Room Temperature TR = …………..OC

Time Taken For 50ml Absolute Kinematics

Temperature Density
S.No sample Collection Viscosity viscosity
°C (g/cm3)
(Sec) (Centipoises) (Centistokes)
load, bearing speed and lubricant supply mostly depend upon the viscosity of the lubricant
and to some extent on its oiliness.

If the viscosity of the oil is too low, the fluid lubricant film cannot be maintained
between the moving surfaces as a result of which excessive wear may take place. On the
other hand, if the viscosity of lubricating oil is too high, excessive friction due to the
shearing of oil itself would result. Hence, it is essential to have knowledge of the viscosity of
a lubricating oil. The viscosity of an oil decreases with increase of temperature as a result of
decrease in intermolecular attraction due to expansion. In case of IC engines, the lubricant
used must function both at low starting temperature as well as at very high operating
temperatures. It is impossible to select an oil having same viscosity over such a wide range
of operating temperatures. However one can select oil whose variation in viscosity with
temperatures is minimum. This variation can either by indicated by viscosity temperatures
current or by means of viscosity index. Viscosity index is the numerical expression of the
average slope of the viscosity temperature curve of lubricating oil between 100oF to 210oF.

Absolute dynamic viscosity may be defined as the tangential force per unit area
required to maintain unit velocity gradient between two parallel planes in the fluid at unit
distance apart. The units of absolute viscosity, η (eta) in C.G.S system are poise and
centipoises (1/100th of poise).

The ratio of absolute viscosity to density for any fluid is known as its Absolute
Kinematics Viscosity. It is denoted by ν (nu) and in C.G.S. system its units are stokes and
centistokes (1/100th of the stoke).

DESCRIPTION

The redwood viscometer shown in Fig 9.1 essentially consists of a standard

cylindrical oil cup made up of brass and silvered from inside. The cup is open at the upper
end. It is fitted with an agate jet in the base contains an orifice. The upper surface of the
agate is ground to concave depression into which a small silver plated brass ball attached
to a stout wire can be placed in such a way that the channel is totally closed and no leakage
of the oil from the cup through the orifice can take place. The cup is provided with a pointer
which indicates the level up to which the oil should be filled in the cup. The lid of the cup is
provided with an arrangement to fix a thermometer to indicate the oil temperature. The oil
cup is surrounded by a cylindrical copper vessel containing water which serves as a water
bath used for maintaining the desired oil temperature with the help of electrical heating
coils by means of a gas burner. A thermometer is provided to measure the temperature of
water.

A stirrer with four blades is provided in the water bath to maintain uniform
temperature in the bath and hence enabling uniform heating of the oil. The stirrer contains
a broad curved flage at the top to act as a shield for preventing any water splashing into the
oil cylinder. The entire apparatus rests on a sort of tripod stand provided with leveling
screw at the bottom of the three legs. The water bath is provided with an outlet for
removing water as when needed.

POST-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Define kinematic viscosity.

2. What is the SI unit of kinematic viscosity and dynamic viscosity?
3. What is the cgs unit of kinematic viscosity and dynamic viscosity?
4. List the type apparatus used for measuring the flash point of oil?

PROCEDURE

1. Level the instrument with the help of the leveling screws on tripod

2. Clean the cup and make it sure that the jet is free from dirt

3. Fill the water bath with water to the height corresponding to the tip of the indicator
up to which the oil is filled in the cylindrical cup

4. Keep the brass bath in position so as to seal the orifice

5. Fill the oil carefully into the oil cup up to the tip of the indicator

6. Keep the 50ml flask in position below the jet

7. Switch ON the heating coil

 8. Keep the oil and water well stirred and note their temperatures

9. When the temperature of the oil reaches 80oC, switch of the heating coil remove the
ball valve and simultaneously start taking time to collect 50 ml of oil in the flask

10. Replace the ball valve in position to seal the cup to prevent overflow of the oil in the
flask

11. Refill the oil up to the indicator tip of the oil cup

12. Repeat the experiment at five elevated temperatures say 90ºC,70oC,60oC,& 50oC and
note their respective times at each temperature.

CALCULATIONS:

1. Density of diesel oil (ρT) at temperature (T) is given by

T = R 1 − 0.000657(T − TR ) (g/cm3)

Where, ρR - Density of diesel oil at room temperature

- 0.831 g/cm3

T - Temperature of the diesel oil in oC

TR - Room temperature in oC

2. Absolute kinematics viscosity (ν) is given by


ν = ct − (centistokes)
t

where

ν(nu) - Absolute kinematics viscosity

c - Viscometer constant

t - Redwood seconds
 β - Co-efficient of kinetic energy may be determined
experimentally or

Eliminated by choosing long flow time

# For Redwood viscometer No.1 the values for the constants are as below

Time of flow ,t C β

40 to 85 seconds 0.264 190

85 to 2000 seconds 0.247 65

3. The absolute dynamic viscosity (η) is given by

η = ν × ρT (Centipoises)

η - Absolute dynamic viscosity

ν - Absolute Kinematics Viscosity

ρT - Density of oil at temperature Tin oC

GRAPHS

Plot the following graphs.

➢ Red wood seconds Vs temperature
➢ Kinematics viscosity Vs temperature
➢ Dynamic viscosity Vs temperature
POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. Why does the viscosity of gas and liquid behave differently with change in
temperature?

2. What is viscosity index? Where it is used?

3. What is the Newton’s law of viscosity?

4. What is the significance of finding viscosity at different temperatures?

RESULT

The Absolute kinematics and dynamic viscosity of the given sample oil were
determined at different temperatures and the required graphs were drawn.
 FLASH AND FIRE POINT

CLEAVE – LAND OPEN CUP

AIM

To determine the flash and fire points of the given lubricating oil by using cleave –
land (open Cup) apparatus

THEORY

A good lubricating oil should not volatalise under the working temperature even if
some volatalisation takes place, the vapours formed should not form inflammable mixture
with air under the conditions of lubricating. From inflammable mixture with air under the
conditions of lubrication. From this point of view, the flash points of lubricating oil are of
significance.

The flash – point of an oil is defined as the minimum temperature at which the oil
gives off sufficient vapour to ignite momentarily when a flame of standard dimension is
brought near the surface of the oil for a prescribed rate in an apparatus of specified
dimensions. The fire point of an oil is the lowest temperature at which the vapours of the
oil burn continuously for at least 5 seconds when the standard flame is brought near the
surface of the oil which is heated in a specified apparatus at a specified rate. In a majority of
the cases, the fire point of an oil is about 5 to 40°F higher than its flash point.

A lubricating oil selected for a job should have a flash – point which is reasonably
above its working temperature. This ensures safety against fire hazards during the storage,
transport and use of the lubricating oil. In addition, the flash point of an oil is often used as
a means of identification and for detection of contamination of the lubricating oils.

Flash point of an oil is determined by either open – cup or closed – cup apparatus. In
the open – cup apparatus, the oil is heated with its upper surface exposed to the
atmosphere. The open – cup apparatus commonly employed is Cleveland’s Apparatus.
The closed – cup apparatus in common use are Abel’s apparatus and Pensky – Martens
apparatus. The closed – cup apparatus gives more reproducible result. The flash – point
obtained with an open – cup apparatus gives more reproducible results. The flash – point
 TABULATION

S.No Lubricant Flash Point Fire Point

obtained with an a open – cup apparatus is generally about 10 to 30°F higher than that
obtained with a closed – cup apparatus

Cleveland’s open – cup apparatus is generally used for determination of flash point
of fuel oils and other oils having flash – point below 175°F. the Abel’s closed – cup
apparatus is best used for oils having flash point below 120°F, while the Pensky Marten’s
apparatus is used for oils with flash points above 120°F.

DESCRIPTION

The apparatus consists of a brass cup with a mark showing the level upto which the
oil should be filled. The cup is supported by a metal plate made of brass of steel or cast iron
which has a circular opening at the centre, exactly enough to fit the cup in position. The
plate is covered with a sheet of hard asbestos board with a circular hole at the centre in
which the cup can be just fitted. An electrical heating device is provided in such a way that
the cup can be uniformly heated without any local super – heating. A clamp is provided to
hold the standard thermometer (0-400°C) supplied with the apparatus.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Open cup cleave land apparatus, Electric heater

2. Thermometer, Range 0°C to 360°C
3. Lamp

PROCEDURE

1. Fill the cleaned open cup with the given sample of oil up to the standard filling mark
in the cup.
2. Keep the thermometer in the holder such that the bulb is immersed in the oil and
does not touch the metallic parts.
3. Heat the sample oil at the rate of 10°C/min so that the sample oil gives out vapour.
4. As temperature rises, apply a test flame a short distance near the surface of the oil,
but the flame should not touch the oil. Watch for any flash with flickering sound.
Record the minimum temperature at which a distinct flash appears on the surface of
the oil.
 5. Blow out or expel the burnt vapour before introducing the next test flame. This
ensures that always fresh vapour alone is left over the surface of the oil.
6. Continue the process of heating and placing the flame at every 10°C rise in the
temperature from the first flash till you hear the peak flickering sound and note the
corresponding temperature as the flash point.
7. Continue the heating after obtaining the flash point and watch for the fire point. This
is noted when the oil vapour ignites and continuous to burn for atleast 5 seconds.

RESULT

The flash and fire point for this given sample of oil is determined as

Flash Point :__________°C

Fire Point :__________°C

 PERFORMANCE TEST ON SLOW SPEED WITH MECHANICAL DYNAMOMETER.

AIM

To conduct a performance test at Slow speed on single cylinder four stroke, CI

engine at various loads and plot the following performance characteristics curves.

TFC vs. BP

SFC vs. BP ηbth vs. BP

Bmep vs. BP ηith vs. BP

Imep vs. BP ηm vs. BP

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

Tachometer, stopwatch, engine with dynamometer and orifice meter setup.

TEST-RIG SPECIFICATIONS

Get the following details of the engine like,

No. of cylinders ‘n’ : 1

Bore diameter ‘D’ : 114 mm
Stroke length ‘L’ : 140 mm
Operating speed ‘N’ : 650 rpm
Rated power ‘P’ : 4.41 kW
Compression ratio : 16:1
Fuel oil : DIESEL
Sp. gravity of fuel ‘SF’ : 0.84
Cal. value of fuel ‘CV’ : 42500 kJ/kg
Orifice Diameter ‘d’ : 20 mm
Coeff.of discharge for orifice,’Cd’ : 0.6
 TABULATION

F.P = _________ kW from Graph

Time taken
Manometer (m) ith bth m v
Load for 10 CC of BP TFC IP qi Bmep Imep SFC
S. No. A/F
(kg) fuel (kW) (kg/s) (kW) (kW) (bar) (bar) (kg/kW-h)
h1 h2 hm (%) (%) (%) (%)
consumption
THEORY

Engine performance is a relative term.

The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between power developed,

speed and the specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within useful range of
speed and load.

It is represented by typical characteristic curves which are functions of engine operating

parameters. The term performance usually means how well an engine is doing its job in
relation to the input energy or how effectively it provides useful energy in relation to some
other comparable engines. The engine performance is indicated by the term efficiency, η.
Five important engine efficiencies and other related performances are given below.

1. Volumetric efficiency ηvol

2. Brake thermal efficiency ηbth
3. Indicated thermal efficiency ηith
4. Mechanical efficiency ηm
5. Mean effective pressure mep
6. Specific fuel consumption SFC
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. How do visually differentiate an air cooled engine and a water cooled engine?

2. What is the principle of electrical loading devices in engines?

3. What is the principle of mechanical loading devices?

4. What is known as frictional power of the engine?

5. What is meant by Mean Effective Pressure of the engine?

PROCEDURE
1. Calculate the maximum load that can be applied to the engine using the given formula
BPR  60 1000
Wmax = (kg) if the power output is in kW
2 NR  R  9.81
Where, BPR - Rated power in kW
R-Radius of the Brake Drum in m
NR- Speed of the rated power in rpm
2. Check the fuel level in the fuel tank and all the fuel valves in the line to the engine is
in open position.
3. Give the cooling water supply to the engine (only for water cooled engine).
4. Check the decompression lever is in open position (only for CI engines).
5. Check whether the engine in loaded or not.
6. Start the engine with all the precautions at no load
7. Allow the engine to run for about 3 minutes to attain steady condition.
8. Note down the time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumed by the engine at each load
(say 0 to 80% of the max load).

The above steps are common to both brake drum/ electrical dynamometer loading
device. The following steps should also be followed, in case of electrical
dynamometer.

9. Measure the pressure difference across the orifice plate mounted to the air tank by
noting the difference in heights of the manometer, at each load.
10. On completion of the experiment the load on the engine must be removed before
stopping the engine.

OBSERVATION CALCULATIONS

Brake Power(BP):
2NT
BP = (kW)
60  1000
Torque T = W. R x 9.81 (N-m)
Where, R - Radius of the brake drum in ‘m’
W - Net load on the drum in ‘kg’
Total fuel consumption (TFC):
10 
(TFC) = f  x10 −6  (kg/s)
 t 

kg kg
Where, F - Density of fuel in 3
= (840 3 )
m m

t - The time interval for 10 CC in seconds

Frictional Power (FP):

The fractional power lost can be calculated by Willan’s line method. A model graph
is shown in below by extrapolating the Willan’s line to meet X – axis. This method of finding
FP is suitable only for CI engines.

Indicated Power (IP):

IP = BP+ FP (kW)
Heat Input (qi):

qi = CV x TFC ( kW)

Where,
CV - Calorific value of fuel (42500 kJ/kg)
TFC - Total fuel consumption in kg/sec
Brake Mean Effective Power (Bmep):

BP  60
Bmep = bar
L  A 100  ( N / 2)n

Where,
B.P – Brake power in kW
N - Speed in rpm
n- No of cylinder

A - Area of the cylinder D 2 in m2
4
D- bore Diameter in m
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (Imep):

IP  60
Imep = bar
L  A 100  ( N / 2)n

Where,
I.P – Indicated power in kW
Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηbth):
BP
ηbth =  100
qi
Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ηith):
IP
ηith = x100
qi
Mechanical Efficiency (ηmech):
BP
ηmech = x100
IP
Actual volume of air intake:

Qact = Cd  A  2 gha (m3/s)


Where, A -area of the orifice plate d2 in m2
4

d- Diameter Of Orifice Meter (0.2 m)

 m
ha =  hm (m)
a
m3
Where, m - density of monomeric liquid. (1000 )
kg
m3
a - Density of air at room temperature. (1.17 )
kg
hm - Manometer reading in m
Theoretical volume of air intake:
 N
Qth = D2  L  n (m3/s)
4 2  60

Where, n - No. of cylinders

D - Bore diameter
L - Stroke length (0.140 m)
N - Speed in rpm
Air – Fuel Ratio (A/F):
A ma
=
F TFC
Actual mass flow rate of air
ma = a  Qact (kg/s)
Qact - Actual volume of air intake in m3/s
m3
a - Density of air at room temperature. (1.17 )
kg
Volumetric Efficiency ( v):

It is the ratio of actual volume of air intake to the theoretical volume of air intake.
Qact
v=  100
Qth
Specified Fuel Consumption (SFC):
SFC = TFC x 3600/BP kg/ kW-h
GRAPHS

Plot the above mentioned graphs (Refer Aim)

Nature of graphs shown in below

POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is mean effective pressure?

2. What is specific fuel consumption?
3. Why does the volumetric efficiency decreases with power output?
4. What is A/F ratio?
5. What is the heating value of the fuel?

RESULT

The performance test of the single cylinder Slow Speed Diesel engine has been
conducted for the various graphs were plotted.
 Optimum cooling water temperature of IC engine
AIM:
To determine best cooling water temperature when the engine is working at
constant speed and constant load by plotting the curve cooling water temperature vs Brake
thermal efficiency.
ENGINE DETAILS:
Make : Kirloskar
No of cylinder : 1
No of strokes : 4
Fuel : Diesel
Rated power : 5.2 kW
Calorific value : 42500 kj/kg
Density of fuel : 840 kg/m3

PROCEDURE:
1. Insufficient cooling as well as excess cooling will affect the engine performance
therefore a moderate temperature limit is necessary for any IC engine to suit the
best operating conditions.
2. Calculate the maximum load that can be applied to the Engine
3. Start the engine after taking all the precautions.
4. Allow the engine to develop half the full load. Keep the cooling water circulation as
low as possible. Wait until the cooling water outlet temperature become steady.
5. Find out the time required for consuming 10 cc of fuel and the cooling water
temperature for inlet and outlet.
6. The experiment is repeated for different rate of cooling water circulation keeping
the speed and load of the engine constant.
7. Plotting the curve cooling water temperature vs brake thermal efficiency gives the
best cooling water temperature.
 TABULATION

Ammeter reading =

Voltmeter reading =

Inlet cooling water temperature =

Temperature of cooling Time for 10 cc fuel Brake thermal

S.No Total fuel
water outlet (°C) consumption (sec) consumption Efficiency (%)
PRECAUTIONS:
❖ The cooling water supply should never be closed when the engine is working
❖ The temperature of cooling water should never exceed 60°C

CALCULATIONS

Brake Power (BP):

V I
BP= (kW)
1000

Where ,

V – Volt meter reading

I – Ammeter reading
Total fuel consumption (TFC):

10 
TFC = f  x10−6 
 t  (kg/s)

kg kg
Where, F - Density of fuel in 3
= 840 3
m m

t - The time interval for 10 CC in seconds

Heat input (qi):

qi = CV x TFC ( kW)

Where,

‘CV’- Calorific value of fuel (42500 kJ/kg)

TFC - Total fuel consumption in kg/sec

Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηbth):

BP
ηbth =  100
qi
Graph:

❖ Plot the curve cooling water temperature Vs brake thermal efficiency.

❖ The best water temperature is corresponding to the maximum brake
thermal efficiency

Review questions

Discuss how cooling water temperature affects the engine performance when it goes below
and above optimum level.

Result

The optimum cooling temperature has been calculated. Best cooling

temperature=_____°C
 PERFOMANCE TEST ON PETROL ENGINE WITH ELECTRICAL
DYNAMOMETER

AIM

To conduct a performance test at constant speed on single cylinder four stroke,

spark ignition at various loads and plot the following performance characteristics curves.

TFC vs. BP

SFC vs. BP ηbth vs. BP

Bmep vs. BP ηith vs. BP

Imep vs. BP ηm vs. BP

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

Tachometer, stopwatch, engine with dynamometer and orifice meter setup.

TEST-RIG SPECIFICATIONS

Get the following details of the engine like,

No. of cylinders ‘n’ : 1

Bore diameter ‘D’ : 76mm

Stroke length ‘L’ : 60 mm

Operating speed ‘N’ : 3600 rpm

Rated power ‘P’ : 2.94 kW

Compression ratio : 8:1

Fuel oil : PETROL

Density of fuel ‘ F ’ : 740kg/m3

Cal. value of fuel ‘CV’ : 45000 kJ/kg

 TABULATION

F.P = 0.5 kW assumed value

Time taken
Voltmeter Ammeter ith bth m
for 10 cc of BP TFC IP qi SFC Bmep Imep
S. No. reading reading
fuel (kW) (kg/s) (kW) (kW) (kg/kW-h) bar bar
(V) (I) (%) (%) (%)
consumption
PREPARATION

THEORY

Engine performance is a relative term.

The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between power

developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within
useful range of speed and load.

It is represented by typical characteristic curves which are functions of engine

operating parameters. The term performance usually means how well an engine is doing its
job in relation to the input energy or how effectively it provides useful energy in relation to
some other comparable engines. The engine performance is indicated by the term
efficiency, η. Five important engine efficiencies and other related performances are given
below.

Brake thermal efficiency ηbth

Indicated thermal efficiency ηith

Mechanical efficiency ηm

Mean effective pressure mep

Specific fuel consumption SFC

Pre-lab Questions

1. How do visually differentiate an air cooled engine and a water cooled engine?

2. What is the principle of electrical loading devices in engines?

3. What is the principle of mechanical loading devices?

4. What is known as frictional power of the engine?

5. What is meant by Mean Effective Pressure of the engine?

PROCEDURE

1. Check the fuel level in the fuel tank and all the fuel valves in the line to the engine is
in open position.

2. Check whether the engine in loaded or not.

3. Start the engine with all the precautions at no load

4. Allow the engine to run for about 3 minutes to attain steady condition.

5. Note down the time taken for 10CC of fuel consumed by the engine at each load
(say 0 to 80% of the max load).

a. The following steps should also be followed, in case of electrical

dynamometer.

b. Two stroke petrol engine – keep the voltage constant at 230V and then
increase load from 0 – 80% of the maximum load.

c. Note down the ammeter reading (current I) at each load for the above said
engines.

6. On completion of the experiment the load on the engine must be removed before
stopping the engine.

OBSERVATION

CALCULATIONS

Break Power (BP):

Electrical dynamometer test rig.(Swinging field type)

Brake power, BP = VI/1000 (kW)

Where, V - Voltmeter reading

I - Ammeter reading
Total fuel consumption (TFC):

  10
TFC = 10 −6 (kg/s)
F

Where, F - Density of fuel in kg/m3

Frictional Power (FP):

FP = 0.5kW(Assume)

Power Developed (pi):

Pi = IP = BP+ FP (kW)

Heat Input (qi):

qi = CV x TFC (kJ/s or kW)

Break Mean Effective Power (Bmep):

BP  60
Bmep = bar
N
L  A  100  ( ) n
2

Where, N - for 2 stroke engine

N/2 - for 4 stroke engine


A - Area of the cylinder = D2
4

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (Imep):

IP  60
Imep = bar
N
L  A  100  ( ) n
2

Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηbth):

BP
ηbth =  100
qi
Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ηith):

IP
ηith =
qi

Mechanical Efficiency (ηmech):

BP
ηmech = or Bmep / Imep
IP

Specified Fuel Consumption (SFC):

SFC = TFC x 3600/BP kg/ kW-h

Air Standard Efficiency (ηair):

ηair =1-(1/r)( -1)

Where , r= Compression Ratio=8 =1.4

GRAPHS

Plot the above mentioned graphs (Refer Aim)

Nature of graphs shown Fig

NATURE OF GRAPHS
POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is mean effective pressure?

2. What is specific fuel consumption?

3. Why does the volumetric efficiency decreases with power output?

4. What is A/F ratio?

5. What is the heating value of the fuel?

RESULT

The performance test of the single cylinder petrol engine has been conducted for the
various graphs were plotted.
 MORSE TEST ON MULTI CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE

Aim

To conduct morse test on given multi cylinder petrol engine in order to determine
the indicated power developed in the each cylinder of the engine and to determine the
mechanical efficiency.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Multi cylinder petrol engine with ignition cut off arrangement

2. Loading arrangements

TEST-RIG SPECIFICATIONS

Engines make : Maruti

Orifice diameter d : 0.035 m

Cylinder diameter D : 0.0665m

Stroke L : 0.0725 m

Dynamometer .Arm length La : 0.2 m

Coefficient of discharge Cd : 0.6

No of cylinders : 3

Fuel density : 740kg/m3

Fuel Calorific value : 45000 KJ/kg

Pre-lab Questions

1. Define frictional power

2. What is air fuel ratio requirement of petrol engine at idling and low speed?

3. Define pre ignition SI engine

4. Define Detonation

5. Mention few Methodology to find friction power in IC engines.

 TABULATION

Speed Load Brake Power Indicated Power

Cut off cylinder number
(RPM) (Kg) (Kw) (Kw)

All cylinders are working TBP= TIP=

First cylinder was cut off and

BP1= IP1=
remaining are in working
Second cylinder was cut off
BP2= IP2=
and remaining are in working

Third cylinder was cut off and

BP3= IP3=
remaining are in working

Friction power
(kW)
Mechanical
Efficiency%
PROCEDURE:

1. Check the engine for fuel availability, lubricant and cooling water connections .

2. Release the load completely on the engine and start the engine in no load conditions
and allow the engine to run for few minutes to attain the rated speed.
3. Apply the load and increase the load up to maximum load . Now note the load on the
engine and speed of the engine say the speed is ‘N’ rpm
4. Cut-off the ignition of first cylinder, Now the speed of engine decreased . Reduce the
load on the engine and bring the speed of the engine to ‘N’ rpm. Now note the load
on the engine.

5. Bring the all four cylinders are in working conditions and cut off the 2nd , 3rd and
4th cylinder in turn and adjust the load to maintain same ‘N’ rpm and note the load .
CALCULATION
Total Brake power (when three cylinders are running)

2 NLaW 9.81
TBP = (kW)
60000

Where, La- Dynamo.Arm length -0.2m

N - Speed in rpm
W- Weight in kg

Brake power of the engine where 1st cylinder cut-off (BP1)

2 N1 LaW1 9.81
BP1 = (kW)
60000

Where, W1 -Weight at 1st cylinder cut-off in kg

N1-speed at 1st cylinder cut-off in rpm

Brake power of the engine where 2nd cylinder cut-off (BP1)

2 N 2 LaW2 9.81
BP2 = (kW)
60000
Where, W2 -Weight at 2ndcylinder cut-off (kg)

N2-speed 2nd cylinder cut-off in rpm

Brake power of the engine where 3rdcylinder cut-off (BP1)

2 N 3 LaW3 9.81
BP3 = (kW)
60000

Where, W3 -Weight at 3rd cylinder cut-off in kg

N1-speed at 3rd cylinder cut-off in rpm

Indicated power of the engine where 1st cylinder cut-off (BP1)

IP1 = TBP − BP1 (kW)

Indicated power of the engine where 2nd cylinder cut-off (BP1)

IP2 = TBP − BP2 (kW)

Indicated power of the engine where 3rdcylinder cut-off (BP1)

IP3 = TBP − BP3 (kW)

Total Indicated power (TIP) of the engine

TIP = (IP) 1+ (IP) 2+ (IP) 3 (kW)

Frictional power of the engine (FP)

FP =TIP –TBP (kW)

Mechanical efficiency of the engine (  m )

TBP
m =  100
TIP

Post Lab Questions.

1. What is compression ratio for diesel engine and petrol engine and mentions its
thermodynamic cycle.

2. What is octane number, cloud point, pour point for petrol engine

3. What is flash point, fire point and viscosity for petrol engine

4. Write short note Williams line method to find Frictional power

Result

Morse test was conducted on given petrol engine and indicated powers developed in
each cylinder are determined and mechanical efficiency is also determined.
 RETARDATION TEST ON SLOW SPEED ENGINE WITH MECHANICAL
DYNAMOMETER.

AIM

To conduct a retardation test on a given slow speed IC engine and to find out the
frictional power.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

1. Digital Tachometer

2. Stop Watch

3. Measuring Tape

TEST RIG SPECIFICATIONS:

Get the following details

No. of cylinders ‘n’ : 1

Bore diameter ‘D’ : 114 mm
Stroke length ‘L’ : 140 mm
Operating speed ‘N : 650 rpm
Rated power ‘P’ : 4.41 kW
Compression ratio : 16:1
Fuel oil : DIESEL
Sp. gravity of fuel ‘SF’ : 0.84
Cal. value of fuel ‘CV’ : 42500 kJ/kg
Orifice Diameter ‘d’ : 20 mm
 TABULATION

Retardation time at no load to = _______ sec.

Time of fall Frictional Load Frictional
Load to Load Torque-
Sl. No in speed Torque-FLT Power FP
W (kg) t LT (N-m)
(sec) (N-m) (kW)

Average Frictional Power

PREPARATION

THEORY

When an engine is stopped suddenly its retardation or reduction in speed is directly

related to the frictional resistance inside the engine. Thus measuring the retardation rate
by which the frictional power lost in the engine can be calculated.

This test involves the method of retarding the engine by cutting the fuel supply. The
engine is made to run at no load and rated speed by taking all usual precautions. When the
engine is running under steady operating conditions, cut the fuel supply and
simultaneously start taking time to fall in speed say 20 %, 40%, 60 %, 80 % of the rated
speed. (For convenience 50 % may be chosen i.e. 300 rpm). The test is repeated at different
loads.

Draw a graph connecting time for fall in speed (say 300 rpm) (x-axis) and speed (y-
axis). From the graph the time required to fall through the same range (say 100rpm) in
both, no load and load conditions are found. Let t1 and t2 be the time of fall at 25 % and 50
% of the maximum load conditions respectively. The frictional torque and hence the
frictional power can be calculated using the given formulas.

1. What is the result you get from a retardation test on an IC engine?

Retardation test is conducted on an IC engine to find out the friction power lost in the
engine.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is the principle of mechanical loading devices?

2. What is known as frictional power of the engine?
3. What is meant by Mean Effective Pressure of the engine?
4. What is the need of high pressure injection of diesel in a diesel engine?
5. Why the heavy engines are generally diesel operated?
PROCEDURE

1. Calculate the maximum load that can be applied to the engine using the given
formula

BPR  60 1000
Wmax = (kg) if the power output is in kW
2 NR  R  9.81
Where, BPR - Rated power in kW
R -Radius of the Brake Drum in m
NR- Speed of the rated power in rpm

Give the water supply to the engine.

2. Start the engine by taking all the precautions as in the case of performance test.

3. Allow the engine to run for about 3 minutes to attain steady condition.

4. Cut the fuel supply and simultaneously start taking time of fall in speed (say
about 300 rpm) at no load, then give the fuel supply to run the engine
continuously.

5. Note down the time for the same fall of speed at different load conditions.

6. On completion of the experiment, the load on the engine must be removed

gradually before stopping the engine.

OBSERVATION

CALCULATION

Retardation time at no load [to] = ___sec

Load torque on the brake drum [LT] = W x R x 9.81 (N-m)

LT
Frictional load torque [FLT] = N-m
 to 
 t − 1

2πN  FLT 
Frictional power [FP] = Kw
60 x 1000
GRAPH

Draw the following graph

Speed [X-axis]

Time for fall in speed [Y-axis]

650 Full Speed

Speed
(RPM)
50 % Speed

Time (sec)
POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by frictional power?

2. How does frictional power vary with the increase in load of the engine?

3. How is fuel feed into petrol engine?

4. How is diesel feed into the engine?

5. Why the engine output is is called brake power?

RESULT

Retardation test on single cylinder slow speed diesel engine has been carried out at
different loads and the frictional power was found to be ______ kW.
 HEAT BALANCE TEST WITH CALORIMETER IN FOUR STROKE DIESEL
ENGINE WITH MECHANICAL DYNAMOMETER

AIM

To conduct a heat balance test on an High speed diesel engine and to study how the
heat input to the engine is utilized and also, Prepare heat balance sheet, histogram and pie
chart using the experimental data obtained.

INSTRMENTS REQUIRED:

Thermometer, Measuring Jar, Stop Watch, Tachometer

TEST-RIG SPECIFICTIONS:

Get the engine details like

Stroke length ‘L’ : 0.110 m

Bore diameter ‘D’ : 0.080 m

Speed ‘N’ : 1500 rpm

Rated Brake power BPR : 3.67 kW

Calorific value of the fuel CV : 42500 KJ/Kg

Sp. gravity of fuel ‘SF’ : 0.84

Coefficient .of discharge ‘Cd’ : 0.6

Orifice diameter ‘d’ : 0.20 m

Type of dynamometer : Rope Brake dynamometer

Radiuses of the brake drum ‘R’ : 0.159m

THEORY

Energy supplied to an engine is the heating value of the fuel consumed. Only a part
of this energy is transformed into useful work. The two main parts of heat not available for
works are for work are the heat carried away by the exhaust gases and the cooling medium.
 TABULATION FOR OBSERVATION

Cooling water Temp. Cooling water Exhaust Gas Temperature

Mass Flow Rate of Cooling
supplied to engine Temp.supplied to
Time taken for 10 CC Water
°C Calorimeter °C
Load (kg) fuel consumption (t) Before Before
S. No Engine Colorimeter Inlet Outlet
sec Inlet Outlet Calorimeter Calorimeter
twe (LPH) twc(LPH) T1 T2 TC1 TC2 Tg1 Tg 2

Speed of the Engine =_________ rpm

Room Temperature TR =_________°C

TABULATION FOR HEAT BALANCE RESULTS

SI.No. Load (kg) % of BP % of Cooling water loss % of Exhaust gas loss % of Un accounted loss
 To give sufficient data for the preparation of a heat balanced sheet, a test should
include a method of determining the friction power and the measurement of speed, load,
fuel, consumption, air consumption, exhaust gas temperature, rate of flow of cooling water
and its temperature rise while flowing through the water jackets. Besides, the small losses,
such as radiation and incomplete combustion, the above enumerated data makes it
possible to account for the heat supplied by the fuel and indicate its distribution.
DESCRIPTION
Only up to 40% of the input energy to the IC engine is utilized to produce brake
power. Remaining energy is lost through exhaust gas, lubricating oil, engine cylinder walls
etc. Cooling water and exhaust gas carry away a major portion of energy. Frictional losses
and radiation losses come about 10% of total heat input. The total heat produced inside the
cylinder must be equal to the sum of the various heat losses and the heat utilized for useful
work. This is tabulated to get the heat balance sheet. The heat balance may be external or
internal. Typical external heat balance shown in fig 4.1 usually the amount of heat carried
by lubricating oil is comparatively small and are normally not included.

Comparison of heat balance for SI and CI engines

Heat expenditure SI Engine CI Engine

Shaft work 20-28 32-40

Cooling water loss 35-32 33-30

Exhaust gas loss 37-30 30-23

Unaccounted loss 8-10 5-7

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is Heat Balance Sheet?

2. What is need of cooling system in IC engine? Mention its types of cooling systems

3. What is purpose of calorimeter in Heat balance test?

4. How do visually differentiate an air cooled engine and a water cooled engine?

5. Mention few instruments used for measuring temperature?

PROCEDURE:

1. Calculate the maximum load that can be applied to the engine using the given
formula

BPR x 60 x 1000
Wmax = kg If power output is in kW
2N R x L A x 9.81

Where, BPR - Rated power in kW

LA-Dynamometer Arm Length in mm
NR- Speed of the rated power in rpm

2. Take all precautions as listed in the performing test

3. Note down the time taken for collecting 1000 CC water outlet from the engine and
calorimeter.

4. Start the engine and allow it to run for about 3 mins. To attain the steady condition.

5. Note down the time taken for 10 CC of fuel consumed by the engine.

6. Measure the pressure difference across the orifice plate mounted to the air tank by
noting the difference in heights of the manometer.

7. Increase the load gradually from 0 to 80% of the max load and repeat the steps 5
and 6 at each load.

8. Measure the cooling water temperature at inlet and outlet of the engine and
calorimeter at each load.

9. On completion of the experiment the load on the engine must be removed before
stopping the engine.

(Heat balance test can be carried out with/without calorimeter. If the experiment is
done without the calorimeter the readings of the calorimeter need not be recorded.)
OBSERVATION

CALCULATIONS

IP
Percentage of power output = x100
qi

Heat input to the engine:

Mechanical brake test rig.

Brake power (BP):
2NT
BP = (kW)
60  1000
Speed (N) = 1500rpm
Torque( T) = W. LA x 9.81 (N-m)
Where, LA – Dynamometer Arm Length
W - Net load on the drum in ‘kg’
Total Fuel Consumption (TFC):
10 
(TFC) = f  x10 −6  (kg/s)
 t 

kg
Where, F =840
m3

t - The time interval for 10 CC in seconds

Frictional Power (FP):

The fractional power lost can be calculated by Willan’s line method. A model graph
is shown in below by extrapolating the Willan’s line to meet X – axis. This method of finding
FP is suitable only for CI engines.
Power Developed (IP):
IP = BP+ FP (kW)
 BP 
Percentage of Brake Power (%BP) =   100
 qi 
Heat Input (qi):
qi = CV x TFC (kW)
Where,
‘CV’- Calorific value of fuel (42500 kJ/kg)
TFC - Total fuel consumption (kg/sec)

q 
Percentage of cooling water loss =  w  x100
 qi 

Heat carried away by cooling water:

t we
Mass flow rate of cooling water m we = (kg/s)
3600

Where, twe - Mass Flow rate Engine cooling water

Heat carried away by cooling water (qwc) = mwc Cp T (kJ/s)

Where, T = change in temperature of cooling water in ᵒC

Cpw- Specific heats of Water =4.2 (kJ/kgK)

q 
Percentage of exhaust gas loss =  e  x100
 qi 

With Calorimeter

Heat carried away by exhaust gas:

Heat carried by exhaust gas is equal heat carried by water flowing in calorimeter

Measure the inlet and outlet temperature of water and exhaust gas in the calorimeter are
Tc1 Tc2 and Tg1, Tg2 respectively
  Tg − TR 
qe =  1
 Tg − Tg (
  m  CP TC2 − TC1 ) (kg/s)
 1 2 

t wc
Where, m wc =
3600

Cpw- Specific heats of Water =4.2 (kJ/kgK)

Percentage of Unaccounted loss = 100 – (Percentage of exhaust gas loss +

Percentage of cooling water loss + Percentage

of power output)

GRAPH

Prepare the following graphs.

Histogram or Pie chart model graph shown below

Model Pie Chart (% to degree conversion )

 %ofq w 
Angle for % Heat carried by brake power Ɵbp =   x360
 100 
  %ofq w 
Angle for % Heat carried by Water Ɵw =   x360
 100 

 %ofq w 
Angle for % Heat carried by Water Ɵw =   x360
 100 

POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is the significance of calculating the heat balance for any engine?

2. Which losses remain constant throughout the loading of the engine?

3. What is unaccounted losses?

4. What is the best economic load range of the engine?

5. How much % of heat is lost in engine cooling water during 40% load condition.

RESULT

The heat balance test on single cylinder four stroke diesel engine with calorimeter
has been carried out and the required graphs were drawn.
 HEAT BALANCE TEST WITHOUT THE CALORIMETER IN FOUR STROKE
DIESEL ENGINE

AIM
To conduct a load test on an IC engine and to study how the heat input to the
engine is utilized and also, Prepare heat balance sheet, histogram and pie chart using the
experimental data obtained.

INSTRMENTS REQUIRED:

Thermometer, Measuring Jar, Stop Watch, Tachometer

TEST-RIG SPECIFICATIONS
Get the following details of the engine like,

1. No. of cylinders ‘n’ = 1

2. Bore diameter ‘D’ = 80 mm
3. Stroke length ‘L’ = 110 mm
4. Orifice Diameter ‘d’ = 20 mm
5. Operating speed ‘N’ = 1500 rpm
6. Radius of the brake drum ‘R’ = 0.159 m
7. Rated power ‘P’ = 3.7 kW
8. Compression ratio = 16:1
9. Fuel oil = DIESEL
10. Sp. gravity of fuel ‘SF’ = 0.84
11. Cal. value of fuel ‘CV’ = 42500 kJ/kg
12.

TEST-RIG SPECIFICTIONS:
Get the engine details like
Stroke length, (mm)
Bore diameter, (mm)
Speed, (mm)
Brake power (kw)
Calorific value of the fuel (KJ/Kg)
 TABULATION

Time taken for Cooling water temp. Exhaust gas temp % of % of % of un

Time taken 1000 CC of supplied to engine °C supplied to % of
Load for 10 CCfuel Cooling Exhaust gas accounted
S. No water collection calorimeter °C IP
( kW) consumption water loss loss loss
(t) sec Inlet (T1) Outlet (T2) Inlet (Tg)
Engine (twe)

Speed of the engine =__________rpm

Room temperature TR = __________°C

THEORY

Energy supplied to an engine is the heating value of the fuel consumed. Only a part of
this energy is transformed into useful work. The two main parts of heat not available for works
are for work are the heat carried away by the exhaust gases and the cooling medium.

To give sufficient data for the preparation of a heat balanced sheet, a test should include a
method of determining the friction power and the measurement of speed, load, fuel,
consumption, air consumption, exhaust gas temperature, rate of flow of cooling water and its
temperature rise while flowing through the water jackets. Besides, the small losses, such as
radiation and incomplete combustion, the above enumerated data makes it possible to account for
the heat supplied by the fuel and indicate its distribution.

DESCRIPTION

Only up to 40% of the input energy to the IC engine is utilized to produce brake power.
Remaining energy is lost through exhaust gas, lubricating oil, engine cylinder walls etc. Cooling
water and exhaust gas carry away a major portion of energy. Frictional losses and radiation
losses come about 10% of total heat input. The total heat produced inside the cylinder must be
equal to the sum of the various heat losses and the heat utilized for useful work. This is tabulated
to get the heat balance sheet. The heat balance may be external or internal. Typical external heat
balance shown in fig 4.1 usually the amount of heat carried by lubricating oil is comparatively
small and are normally not included.

Comparison of heat balance for SI and CI engines

Heat expenditure SI engine CI engine

Shaft work 20-28 32-40

Cooling water loss 35-32 33-30

Exhaust gas loss 37-30 30-23

Unaccounted loss 8-10 5-7

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

1. Why the engine output is is called brake power?

2. What is indicated power?
3. In four stroke engines, how many revolutions of crank shaft gives a power stroke?
4. How do visually differentiate an air cooled engine and a water cooled engine?
5. What is the principle of electrical loading devices in engines?

PROCEDURE:

1. Take all precautions as listed in the performing test

2. Note down the time taken for collecting 1000CC water outlet from the engine.

3. Start the engine and allow it to run for about 3 mins. To attain the steady condition.

4. Note down the time taken for 10CC of fuel consumed by the engine.

5. Measure the pressure difference across the orifice plate mounted to the air tank by noting
the difference in heights of the manometer.

6. Increase the load gradually from 0 to 80% of the max load and repeat the steps 5 and 6 at
each load.

7. Measure the cooling water temperature at inlet and outlet of the engine and Exhaust gas
temperature at each load.

8. On completion of the experiment the load on the engine must be removed before stopping
the engine.

CALCULATIONS

Percentage of power output

Heat input to the engine:

Mechanical brake test rig.
Brake power
2NT
BP = (kW)
60  1000
Speed (N) = 1500rpm
Torque( T) = W. R x 9.81 N-m
 Where,
R - Radius of the brake drum in ‘m’
W - Net load on the drum in ‘kg’
Total fuel consumption (TFC):
10 
(TFC) = f  x10 −6  (kg/s)
 t 

kg
Where, F =840
m3
t - The time interval for 10 CC in seconds
FRACTIONAL POWER (FP):

The fractional power lost can be calculated by Willan’s line method. A model graph is
shown in below by extrapolating the Willan’s line to meet X – axis. This method of finding FP is
suitable only for CI engines.

Power developed (IP):

IP = BP+ FP (kW)
Heat input (qi):
qi = CV x TFC (kW)
Where,
‘CV’ - Calorific value of fuel (42500 kJ/kg)
TFC - Total fuel consumption in kg/sec
 IP
Percentage of power output = x100
qi

Percentage of cooling water loss

1
Mass flow rate of cooling water (m wc ) = (kg/s)
t wc

Where, twc - time taken for collecting 1000 CC cooling water

Heat carried away by cooling water (qwc) = mwc Cp T (kJ/s)

Where, T = change in temperature of cooling water in ᵒC

Cpw- Specific heats of Water =4.2kJ/kgK

q 
Percentage of cooling water loss =  w  x100
 qi 

q 
Percentage of exhaust gas loss =  e  x100
 qi 

Heat carried away by exhaust gas:

Without the calorimeter

Air head causing flow

w
ha = x hm (m)
a

Density of air at room temperature

P
a = (kg/m3)
R(273 + TR )

Where, P = Atmospheric pressure in (kN/m2)

R = Characteristic gas constant in (kJ/kg.k)

a = Density of air
Volume flow rate of air

Qa = a x Cd 2gh a (m3/s)

Where, Cd - co-efficient of discharge = 0.6

a - cross sectional area of orifice plate

d - dia of orifice (20mm)

Mass flow rate of air

ma = a x Qa (kg/s)

Mass flow rate of fuel TFC = mf

Mass flow rate of exhaust of gas (mg) = (ma + mf) (kg/s)

Heat carried away by exhaust gas (qe) = mg Cpg (Tg1-TR)

Where, Cpg – Refer heat transfer data book =0.71kJ/kgK

GRAPH

Prepare the following graphs.

Histogram or Pie chart model graph shown below

.
Model Pie Chart (% to degree conversion )
 %ofq w 
Angle for % Heat carried by brake power Ɵbp =   x360
 100 
 %ofq w 
Angle for % Heat carried by Water Ɵw =   x360
 100 

 %ofq w 
Angle for % Heat carried by Water Ɵw =   x360
 100 

POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is the significance of calculating the heat balance for any engine?

2. Which losses remain constant throughout the loading of the engine?

3. Define IP in an IC engine?

4. What is the best economic load range of the engine?

5. Define volumetric efficiency?

RESULT

The heat balance test on single cylinder high speed engine without calorimeter has been
carried out and the required graphs were drawn.
 PERFOMANCE TEST ON TWIN CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE WITH
HYDRAULIC DYNAMOMETER

AIM

To conduct a performance test at constant speed on multi cylinder four stroke,

compression ignition at various loads and plot the following performance characteristics
curves.

TFC vs BP

SFC vs. BP ηbth vs. BP

Bmep vs. BP ηith vs. BP

Imep vs. BP ηm vs. BP

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED & INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

Stopwatch, Engine with Hydraulic dynamometer and orifice meter setup.

TEST-RIG SPECIFICATIONS

Get the following details of the engine like,

✓ No. of cylinders ‘n’ = 2

✓ Bore diameter ‘D’ = 83 mm
✓ Stroke length ‘L’ = 84 mm
✓ Operating speed ‘N’ = 3600 rpm
✓ Rated power ‘P’ = 18.4 kW
✓ Compression ratio = 18.5:1
✓ Fuel oil = DIESEL
✓ Sp. gravity of fuel ‘SF’ = 0.84
✓ Cal. value of fuel ‘CV’ = 42500 kJ/kg
✓ Dynamometer Arm Length ‘La’ = 200 mm
✓ Orifice Diameter ‘d’ = 35 mm
 TABULATION

F.P = _______ kW by graph

Time taken for 10

Bmep Imep ith (%) bth (%) m (%)
S. No. Load (kg) cc of fuel BP (kW) TFC (kg/s) IP (kW) qi (kW) SFC (kg/kW-h)
(bar) (bar)
consumption
PREPARATION

THEORY

Engine performance is a relative term.

The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between power

developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within useful
range of speed and load.

It is represented by typical characteristic curves which are functions of engine

operating parameters. The term performance usually means how well an engine is doing its
job in relation to the input energy or how effectively it provides useful energy in relation to
some other comparable engines. The engine performance is indicated by the term efficiency,
. Five important engine efficiencies and other related performances are given below.

1. Brake thermal efficiency ηbth

2. Indicated thermal efficiency ηith
3. Mechanical efficiency ηm
4. Mean effective pressure mep
5. Specific fuel consumption SFC
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
1. Apply law of thermodynamics to internal combustion engine operation.
2. How is fuel feed into petrol engine?
3. How is diesel feed into the engine?
4. Why the engine output is is called brake power?
5. What is indicated power?

PROCEDURE

1. Calculate the maximum load that can be applied to the engine using the given formula
( BP) R  60 1000
Wmax = (kg) if the power output is in kW
2 NR  La  9.81

Where, ( BP ) R - Rated power in kW

LA= Dynamometer Arm length in m (0.185)
N=Engine speed in rpm
 2. Check the fuel level in the fuel tank and all the fuel valves in the line to the engine is
in open position.
3. Give the cooling water supply to the engine (only for water cooled engine).
4. Check the battery of the engine .
5. Check whether the engine in loaded or not.
6. Start the engine with all the precautions at no load
7. Allow the engine to run for about 3 minutes to attain steady condition.
8. Note down the time taken for 10CC of fuel consumed by the engine at each load
(say 0to 80% of the max load).
9. The following steps should followed for Twin cylinder diesel engine increase the
load from 0 – 80% of the maximum load.
10. Measure the pressure difference across the orifice plate mounted to the air tank by
noting the difference in heights of the manometer, at each load.
11. On completion of the experiment the load on the engine must be removed before
stopping the engine.
OBSERVATION
CALCULATIONS
Brake power
Electrical dynamometer test rig.(Swinging field type)
2    N  9.81 W  La
Break power, BP = (kW)
60 1000
Where, N – Speed of the Engine
La – Dynamometer Arm Length
Total fuel consumption (TFC):
10 
(TFC) = f  x10 −6  (kg/s)
 t 

kg kg
Where, F - Density of fuel in 3
= 840 3
m m

t - The time interval for 10 CC in seconds

Fractional Power (FP):

The fractional power lost can be calculated by Willan’s line method. A model graph is
shown in below by extrapolating the Willan’s line to meet X – axis.

Indicated Power (IP):

IP = BP+ FP (kW)
Heat input (qi):
qi = CV x TFC ( kW)
Where,
‘CV’ - Calorific value of fuel (42500 kJ/kg)
TFC - Total fuel consumption in kg/sec
Specified fuel consumption (SFC):
SFC = TFC x 3600/BP kg/ kW-h
Brake Mean Effective Power (Bmep)

BP  60
Bmep = bar
L  A 100  ( N / 2)n

Where, B.P – Brake power in kW

N - Speed in rpm
n- No of cylinder

A - Area of the cylinder D 2 in m2
4
D- Bore Diameter in m
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (Imep)

IP  60
Imep = bar
L  A 100  ( N / 2)n

Where, I.P – Indicated power in kW

N - Speed in rpm
N - No of cylinder

A - Area of the cylinder D 2 in m2
4
D- Bore Diameter in m
Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηbth):
BP
ηbth =  100
qi
Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ηith)
IP
ηith = x100
qi
Mechanical Efficiency (ηmech)
BP
ηmech = x 100
IP

GRAPHS

Plot the below mentioned graphs (Refer Aim)

POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is mean effective pressure?

2. What is specific fuel consumption?

3. Why does the volumetric efficiency decreases with power output?

4. What is A/F ratio?

5. What is the heating value of the fuel?

RESULT

The performance test of the Twin cylinder diesel engine has been conducted for the
various load and graphs were plotted.
Determination of Boiler Efficiency in a Steam Power Plant Test Rig

Aim:

To determine the efficiency of the Boiler

Boiler Specifications:

Model No : FW–20 Minor

Type : “SUPERTHERM” 2- Pass, Forced

Circulation Coil Type, Water Tube,
Fully Automatic Downward Fired, Oil
Fire (Diesel)

Evaporation Capacity : 200 Kgs/hr

Maximum working pressure : 14 kg/cm2

Fuel : LDO / HSD

Thermal Efficiency : 88%

Fuel Consumption : 12 kgs/hr

Loading Type : Electrical

Feed Pump Motor : 0.5 HP

Blower & Oil Pump Motor : 0.5 HP

Fuel gas outlet : 168 mm

Overall Dimensions:

Length : 1300 mm

Width : 750 mm

Height : 1200 mm

Dry Weight : 1100 Kgs

Boiler status : Non-IBR

 TABULATION

Tabulation

Mass Mass of water

Time taken Steam
water Flue Gas collecting calorimeter
for 5cc fuel
supplied to Temperature
consumption
Boiler Pressure Temperature Throttling Separating
STEAM POWER PLANT LAY OUT
 In India 65% of total power is generated by the Thermal Power Plants.
➢ A thermal power plant basically works on Rankine cycle.

Components:

Coal Conveyor:

This is a belt type of arrangement. With this coal is transported from coal storage place in
power plant to the place nearby boiler.

Stoker:

The coal which is brought nearby boiler has to put in boiler furnance for combustion. This
stoker is a mechanical device for feeding coal to a furnace.

Pulverizer:

The coal is put in the boiler after pulverization. For this pulverizer is used. A pulverizer is a
device for grinding coal for combustion in a furnace in a power plant. An impact mill is used
for this purpose.

Water Softener:

The first is processing of boiler water influent. To avoid boiler scale, power plants usually
utilize a multi-step process to remove hardness of incoming water, including either chemical
treatment or ion exchange and several less advanced methods such as multimedia filtration.

Boiler:

A boiler or steam generator is a device used to create steam by applying heat energy to water.
The main function of a boiler is to heat water to generate steam. Steam produced in a boiler
can be used for a variety of purposes including space heating, sterilisation, drying,
humidification and power generation.

Superheater:

Superheater is a component of a steam-generating unit in which steam, after it has left the
boiler drum, is heated above its saturation temperature. The amount of superheat added to the
steam is influenced by the location, arrangement, and amount of super heater surface
installed, as well as the rating of the boiler. Superheaters are classified as convection, radiant
or combination of these.
Reheater:

Reheater is also steam boiler component in which heat is added to this intermediate-pressure
steam, which has given up some of its energy in expansion through the high-pressure turbine.
The steam after reheating is used to rotate the second steam turbine where the heat is
converted to mechanical energy.

Condenser:

Steam after rotating steam turbine comes to condenser. Condenser refers here to the shell and
tube heat exchanger installed at the outlet of every steam turbine in Thermal power stations.
These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid
state. In so doing, the latent heat of steam is given out inside the condenser.

Cooling Towers:

The condensate water after condensation is initially at high temperature. This hot water is
passed to cooling towers. It is a tower in which atmospheric air circulates in direct or indirect
contact with warmer water and the water is thereby cooled. Water, acting as the heat-transfer
fluid, gives up heat to atmospheric air, and thus cooled, is recirculated through the system.

Economiser:

Flue gases coming out of the boiler carry lot of heat. Function of economiser is to recover
some of the heat from the heat carried away in the flue gases up the chimney and utilize for
heating the feed water to the boiler. It is placed in the passage of flue gases in between the
exit from the boiler and the entry to the chimney.

Air Preheater:

The remaining heat of flue gases is utilised by air preheater. It is a device used in steam
boilers to transfer heat from the flue gases to the combustion air before the air enters the
furnace.

Electrostatic Precipitator:

It is a device which removes dust or other finely divided particles from flue gases by charging
the particles inductively with an electric field, then attracting them to highly charged collector
plates.
`Smoke Stack (Chimney):

A chimney is a system for venting hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace or
fireplace to the outside atmosphere. They are typically almost vertical to ensure that the hot
gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion through the chimney effect.

Generator:

An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to alternating

current electrical energy. Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field. Any AC generator
can be called an alternator, but usually the word refers to small rotating machines driven by
automotive and other internal combustion engines.

Transformers:

It is a device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-current circuit to one or more
other circuits, either increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the voltage.

IBR ACT:

Any pressure vessel with heating, producing steam with pressure, and its water holding
capacity is more than 22.5 liters comes under purview of IBR act.

The steam boiler used is coil type, and water flows inside coil and steam is generated at the
end of coil. Total water volume from pump side up to steam stop valve, is less than 22 liters,
hence this boiler is OUT OF IBR ACT .Hence no necessity of any permission, test, approval,
annual inspection, etc, from Factory and Boiler Inspection.
Producer

1. Check the soft water tank is full

2. Check the fuel oil (diesel) tank

3. Put on electrical main switch

4. Closed the main stop wall

5. Open by pass auxiliary valve

6. Open the feed water inlet valve

7. Check the oil blown down is fully closed

8. Press the ignition switch the fuel should be fired the water converted to steam

after reaching the steam temperature 180°C Pressure at 10 kg/cm2.

9. Now Open the butterfly valve the stem passed through a steam pipe Line and it

will rotate the turbine the power will be generated

Observations and calculations

Boiler
Water flow meter reading : W lts
Time for Above : t1 sec
Initial level in diesel tank : L1 cm
Final level in diesel tank : L2 cm
Time for above : t2 sec
Steam pressure : P1 bar
Boiler room temperature : Tr °C
Calorific value of diesel : Cv =43000 kj/kg
Maximum flow of air from blower : 1200 cfm
Operating of blower suction : 30 % = 0.3
Thermocouple detail
T1 : condenser inlet temperature
T2 : condenser outlet temperature
T3 : steam inlet temperature
T4 : steam outlet temperature
T5 : condensate temperature
T6 : water inlet temperature
T7 : flue gas temperature
Calculation
Weight of water evaporated per hour WW
kg/hr
W  3600
WW =
t1

Ww – water flow for 10 liters

t1 – time taken for 10 liters water

Weight of fuel consumed per hour

a  b  ( L1 − L2 )   f  3600
Wf = kg/hr
t2 1000

Where,
a×b area of tankin cm2
45×45 =2025 sq.cm
L1 and L2 in centi meters
f Fuel density =0.82 kg/lit

t2 Time required for fuel consumed from L1 to L2 in seconds

Amount of Steam Generated We
WW
We = kg per kg of fuel
Wf

In put power to boiler I bp

W f  CV
I bp = kW
3600
Dryness fraction of steam
 M
x=
M +m
Where M -mass of throttling water
m -mass of separating water
Enthalpy at outlet condition @ inlet temperature & Pressure
h1 = h f 1 + ( X .h fg ) kj/kg

where x=dryness fraction of steam

Enthalpy at inlet condition @ inlet temperature & pressure
h2=hf2
Boiler output B bp
WW (h1 − h2 )
B bp = kW
3600
Boiler efficiency ηth
B bp
th =  100
I bp

Result:

Efficiency of boiler is determined