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FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PESTS

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IJCBS REVIEW PAPER VOL. 1 [ISSUE 6] SEPTEMBER, 2014 ISSN:- 2349–2724

FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PESTS

1Nafiu B. Sanda 2Mustapha Sunusi

Department of Crop Protection, Department of Crop Science,

Faculty of Agriculture, Bayero University, Faculty of Agriculture, Federal University,
Kano, Nigeria. Dutse, Jigawa, Nigeria.
Mail: nbszango@yahoo.com Mail: msunusi7@gmail.com

Abstract: Biological control is the use of non-chemical and environmentally friendly methods of controlling insect pests
and diseases by the action of natural control agents. In recent decades, the increase use of biological control is due to its
safety, species specific and long-term action on the target pests. Unlike chemical method, which kills non target species,
cause detrimental health effects to human beings and pollute environment. This paper is designed to cover major
aspects of biological control of pests with emphasis on different strategies employed for any successful control program
in farms, green houses, garden and forests. These includes, Conservation biological control, importation other wise
called Classical biological control; involves the introduction of non-native biocontrol agent into a new area or country
for permanent and long-term pests control. In addition, Augmentation biological control is the supplemental release of
natural enemy either by inundation or inoculation. The former involves release of large number of natural enemies for
immediate reduction of pest populations, the latter, involves release of small amount at an interval throughout the pest
period. However, the most common biological control agents used in the pest control are Predators, parasitoid and
microbial antagonists with emphasis on entomopathogenic nematodes, fungi, Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t) and
Baculovirus. They are manipulated and applied for various integrated pest control programs in Agriculture.
Unfortunately, the primary factors affecting adoption of biological control are efficacy, predictability and high cost.

Key words: biological control, biocontrol strategies, natural enemies/biocontrol agents.

Introduction development of more sustainable farming practices.

Second, a number of arthropod pests have developed
Biological control is an environmentally sound and
effective means of reducing or mitigating pests and pest resistance to one or more pesticides leaving growers to
effects through the use of natural enemies. It relies search for alternative management strategies (McCaffery,
on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural 1998). Finally, consumers increasingly demand products
mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human that are grown in a sustainable manner and are free of
management role (J. Brodeur et al. 2013). According to S. insecticide residue (Dabbert et al., 2004). Despite this,
H. Dreistadt, 2007 Biological control is the beneficial growers have been slow to adopt biological control as
action of predators, parasites, pathogens, and part of their pest management program. For example,
competitors in controlling pests and their damage. biological control is practiced in just 5% of the estimated
Biocontrol provided by these living organisms 741,290 acres of greenhouses world-wide (van Lenteren,
(collectively called natural enemies) is especially 2000). The primary factors affecting adoption of
important for reducing the numbers of pest insects and biological control are efficacy, predictability, and cost
mites. Biological control efforts against plants and insects (Van Driesche and Heinz, 2004).
have different histories, with insect biological control Basically there are three types of biological
being used for much of its first century largely against control strategies applied in pests control programs.
crop pests. Only in the1990s did insect biological control These are Importation (sometimes called classical
against environmental pests develop as an independent biological control), Augmentation and Conservation.
goal (Van Driesche, 2008). Classical biocontrol is defined; as the intentional
Biological control has been actively practiced for introduction of an exotic (nonnative), usually co-evolved
more than 100 years and the history of biocontrol, its biological control agent for permanent establishment and
failures and successes, has been extensively reviewed. long-term pest control (Van Driesche, 2008). This is
Interest in biological control has increased over recent usually done by government authorities. In many
decades for many reasons (Bailey et al., 2009). First, a instances the complex of natural enemies associated with
greater appreciation for environmental stewardship a pest may be inadequate, a situation that can occur
among regulators, growers, and the public has promoted when a pest is accidentally introduced into a new

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geographic area, without its associated natural enemies. (Kogan, 1998). Second, a number of arthropod pests have
In recent years, classical biological control has come developed resistance to one or more pesticides leaving
under increasing scrutiny for its nontarget effects growers to search for alternative management strategies.
(Coryand Myers, 2000). On the other hand, augmentation Finally, consumers increasingly demand products that
involves; the supplemental release of natural enemies, are grown in a sustainable manner and are free of
boosting the naturally occurring population. Relatively insecticide residue (Dabbert et al., 2004).
few natural enemies may be released at a critical time of Following the Green Revolution in the second
the season (inoculative release) or millions may be half of the 20th Century, biological control has resurfaced
released (inundative release). An example of inoculative with renewed force in recent years, especially by the
release occurs in greenhouse production of several crops. adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.
The conservation of existing natural enemies in an These programs were implemented as a consequence of
environment is the third method of biological pest the indiscriminate use of agrochemicals, which led to a
control. Natural enemies are already adapted to the number of problems, such as insect and mite resistance
habitat and to the target pest, and their conservation can to insecticides and acaricides, as well as environmental
be simple and cost-effective, through vegetation contamination (Parra et al. 2002, Guillon 2008).
manipulation, Classical Biological Control can provide Unfortunately, growers have been slow to adopt
control of both primary and secondary pests, while biological control as part of their pest management
reducing the likelihood of pest outbreaks and program. For example, biological control is practiced in
resurgences (Naranjo and Ellsworth, 2009, Godfray et al., just 5% of the estimated 741,290 acres of greenhouses
2010). worldwide. The primary factors affecting adoption of
Similarly, natural enemies of insect pests, biological control are efficacy, predictability, and cost
(biological control agents) include the following; (Parrella et al., 1992; Van Driesche and Heinz, 2004).
predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control However, for biological control to be fully utilized, it is
agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as essential for the user to have insects available whenever
antagonists, where as Biological control agents of weeds they are required, in order to use them in inoculative
include herbivores and plant pathogens. Predators are (classical biological control), inundative (applied
mainly free-living species that directly consume a large biological control), or seasonal inoculative releases
number of preys during their whole lifetime. A parasite (biological control in protected crops) (van Lenteren
is an organism that lives and feeds in or on a larger host. 2000) to control the target pest.
Insect parasites (more precisely called parasitoids) are
smaller than their host and develop inside, or attach to Biological Control Strategies
the outside, of the host’s body (S. H. Dreistadt, 2007).
Pathogenic micro-organisms include bacteria, fungi, As mentioned early in my introduction, there are 3 basics
and viruses. They kill or debilitate their host and are strategies in biological control of pests, these are;
relatively host-specific. Populations of some aphids, Classical Biological Control (Importation), Augmentation
caterpillars, mites, and other invertebrates are and Conservation. The aim is to highlight the concept of
sometimes drastically reduced by naturally occurring each strategy as it’s used in integrated pest control
pathogens, usually under conditions such as prolonged programs.
high humidity or dense pest populations (S. H. Dreistadt,
2007). Classical Biological Control (Importation)

Development of Biological Control Classical biological control is the importation of pest

natural enemies from other countries, to a new locale
In 16th century Chinese were the first to use natural where they do not occur naturally. It is the international
enemies to control insect pests were nests of the ant introduction of an exotic, usually co-evolved, biological
Oecophylla smaragdina were sold near Canton in the control agent for permanent establishment and long
third century, for use in control of citrus insect pest such term pest control (Pickrell 2004). The goal of classical
as Tesseratoma papillosa- Lepidoptera. Date growers in biological control is to find useful natural enemies,
Yemen went to North Africa to collect colonies of introduce them into the area of the target pest, and
predaceous ants which they colonized in date groves to permanently establish them so that they will provide
control various pests (R. G. and T. S. Bellows, Jr. 1996). continuing pest control with little or no additional
Interest in biological control has increased over recent human intervention. The search for natural enemies in
decades for many reasons (Bailey et al., 2009). First, a other countries is often referred to as foreign exploration.
greater appreciation for environmental stewardship The process of importation involves;
among regulators, growers, and the public has promoted  Determining the origin of the introduced pest
development of more sustainable farming practices

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 Collecting appropriate natural enemies effectively (van Lenteren 2000). The practice of
associated with the pest or closely related augmentation is based on the knowledge or assumption
species. that in some situations there are not adequate numbers
 Selected natural enemies are then passed or species of natural enemies to provide optimal
through a rigorous assessment, testing biological control, but that the numbers can be increased
and quarantine process, to ensure that they (and control improved) by releases
will work and that no unwanted organisms (http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu). This relies on an ability
(such as hyper parasitoids) are introduced. to mass-produce large numbers of the natural enemy in a
 Mass production and release of selected natural laboratory or by companies to produce and sell them.
enemies. There are two general approaches to
 Follow-up studies are conducted to determine augmentation: inundative releases and inoculative
if the natural enemy becomes successfully releases.
established at the site of release, and to assess
the long-term benefit of its presence Inundative Releases
(http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu, 2013).
Inundation involves releasing large numbers of natural
Historically, the first attempt by man at classical enemies for immediate reduction of a damaging or near
biological control of an arthropod pest was a spectacular damaging pest population. It is a corrective measure; the
success. The cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi expected outcome is immediate pest control. The
Maskell) program in California over the period 1877- inundative approach is achieved by flooding the crop
1879 was the first scientifically and institutionally with multiple releases of insectary-reared natural
backed biological control program. Foreign exploration enemies. The released insects control pests present at
by Arthur Koebele resulted in the importation and the time, but there is little expectation that later
release of two natural enemies, the vedalia beetle generations will persist at sufficient levels to provide
(Rodolia cardinalis [Mulsant]) and a parasitic fly control (http://www.entomology.wisc.edu). In practice,
(Cryptochaetum iceryae [Williston]) from Australia for releases are often repeated if pest populations were not
cottony cushion scale control in California. The combined all present in a susceptible stage during the previous
impact of these two natural enemies drove cottony application, if new pests disperse into the crop, or if the
cushion scale densities to almost undetectable levels and crop is long lived, increasing the length of time it could
by saving the young citrus industry from imminent become infested (Eilenberg et al., 2001).
destruction, put California on an economic trajectory Moreover, Inundative release of natural enemies
towards unprecedented wealth and prosperity (M.S. is undertaken; causing effects similar to the use of
Hoddle, 2003). conventional insecticides, as there is a knockdown effect
In recent years, classical biological control has come of the target host population. Therefore, it may be used in
under increasing scrutiny for its nontarget effects (Cory the field and in greenhouse as seasonal release (Cohen
and Myers, 2000; Hawkins and Marino, 1997; Howarth, 2004, Schneider 2009). However, because of the nature
1991). However, there are many examples of successful of natural enemy activity, and the cost of purchasing
biological control (Bellows, 2001), and the need for them, this approach using predaceous and parasitic
biological control is increasing (Cory and Myers, 2000). insects is recommended only in certain situations, such
Lastly, Classical biological control is a powerful tool for as the mass release of the egg parasite Trichogramma for
suppression of invasive plants and insects in natural controlling the eggs of various types of moths.
ecosystems. It will play an increasingly important part in Trichogramma evenescen Westwood, T. brassicae
ecological restoration because; it provides a means to Bezdenko, T. cacoeciae Marchal, and T. dendrolimi
permanently suppress invaders over large landscapes Matsumura are sold in Europe to control lepidopterans
without long-term resource commitments and hence is in greenhouses, Ostrinia nubilalis Hubner in corn, and
sustainable. As such, it merits use against many invasive other Lepidopterans in orchards (van Lenteren 2003).
plants and insects that are environmental pests in The utilization of some microbial insecticides (such as
sensitive landscapes (Morin et al., 2009). those containing Bacillus thuringiensis) is also inundation.

Augmentation Biological Control Inoculative Releases

Augmentation is the periodic release of a natural Inoculation on the other hand; involves releasing small
enemy that does not occur naturally in sufficient numbers of natural enemies at prescribed intervals
numbers to keep a pest below damaging levels. It’s also throughout the pest period, starting when the pest
defined as the release of additional numbers of a natural population is very low. The natural enemies are expected
enemy when too few are present to control a pest to reproduce themselves to provide more long-term

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control. However, the expected outcome of inoculative Crambidae) and Helicoverpa armigera -Lepidoptera:
releases is to keep the pest at low numbers, never Noctuidae (Cory S. Straub et al, 2007). As an example of
allowing it to approach an economic injury level; conservation biological control, alternative habitats for
therefore, it is more of a preventive measure natural enemies are provided, in the form of ‘beetle-
(http://www.entomology.wisc.edu). banks’ in Britain or ‘sown seed strips’ in Switzerland in
The separation of inoculation from inundation is cereal crops. These practices are highly successful and
clear. A release with the expectation that the released are among the few documented uptakes of a biological
organism will control the target after multiplication is control option in temperate open-field arable agriculture
inoculation. In glasshouses, the early release of (Landis et al., 2000).
parasitoids and predators, often with alternative food
sources, is inoculation biological control. Examples of Biological Control Agents
this are the releases of Encarsia formosa Gahan
(Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) and other natural enemies, Biological control agents or natural enemies are
now commonly practiced in glasshouses (Eilenberg et al., organisms such as Insects or plants disease that are use
2000; van Lenteren, 2000). The number of insects to control pest species. Natural enemies of insect pests,
released is insufficient to control the pest insects, and also known as biological control agents, include
success depends on the ability of the released organisms predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control
to multiply and reduce the target population. At the end agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as
of the season, the glasshouse is emptied, and no antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include
permanent establishment of the biological control herbivores and plant pathogens.
organisms is achieved. When the next generation of
plants is grown in the glasshouse, the predators and Predators
parasitoids should be released again. This type of release
or application to control pest insects is strongly Predatory insects are beneficial because they feed
dependent on population regulation and density directly on other insects like aphids. Common predatory
dependent processes. insects include lacewings, ladybugs, and praying mantids.
Ladybugs or lady beetles (Coleomegilla maculata) have
Conservation Biological Control been recognized by many cultures for their predatory
behaviors for centuries. Adults of these insect predators
Conservation biological control is defined as modification are some of the most widely recognized insects in the
of the environment or existing practices to protect and United States. As early as the late 1800s, lady beetles
enhance specific natural enemies of other organisms to were being used in biological control programs in the
reduce the effect of pests. Habitat manipulation often United States (http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu). Adult and larvae
involves increasing the species diversity and structural feed on large numbers of small, soft-bodied insects such
complexity of agro ecosystems. Habitat manipulation as aphids but they will also eat other small, soft-bodied
approaches provide natural enemies with resources such insect larvae, insect eggs, and mites
as nectar, pollen, physical refugia, alternative prey and (www.gardeningsolutions.ifas.ufl.edu). Example of
alternative hosts and operate to reduce pest densities via predatory insect commonly found in garden is Green
an enhancement of natural enemies lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea Stephens) the adult,
(http://www.rkmp.co.in). primarily feed on nectar and other fluids, but some
However, although conservation biological species also consumes a few small insects. The larvae
control often increases natural enemy abundance, sometimes called aphid’s lions; are voracious predators
reduced pest abundance or increased yield has rarely capable of feeding on small caterpillars and beetles, as
been demonstrated (Johnson et al., 2008). For example, well as aphids and other insects. They possess excellent
flowering strips and other shelter habitats, as searching qualities, exhibit high dispersal ability.
conservation biological control tactics, increase Predatory stink bug, Euthyrhynchus floridanus (Linnaeus),
predation, parasitism, or yield in some cases but not is considered a beneficial insect because most of its prey
others (Pfiffner and Wyss, 2004 and Griffiths et al., 2008). consists of plant-damaging bugs, beetles, and caterpillars.
In addition to natural enemies, conservation biological Nymphs of the Florida predatory stink
control tactics, such as habitat manipulation, attract and bug, Euthyrhynchus floridanus (Linnaeus) feeding on an
sustain a diverse suite of herbivores, detritivores, and earwig (Anthony Ditro, 2013).
plant provided foods (Landis et al., 2000; Frank and
Shrewsbury, 2004). Parasitoids
Research has been done on myriad arthropod
pests, including species with high levels of insecticide The term parasite is frequently used for insects that
resistance such as Chilo suppressalis (Lepidoptera: parasitize other insects. Parasites are usually much

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smaller than their host and have a shorter life cycle than for control of insect pests was proposed by notable early
their host. Usually they do not kill their host. Examples pioneers in invertebrate pathology such as Agostino
include tapeworms and ticks (http://insects.about.com). Bassi, Louis Pasteur, and Elie Metchnikoff (L. A. Lacey et
While a parasitoid is an organism that spends a al., 2001).
significant portion of its life history attached to or within Naturally occurring entomopathogens are
a single host organism in a relationship that is in essence important regulatory factors in insect populations. Many
parasitic. However, unlike a true parasite, it ultimately species are employed as biological control agents of
sterilizes or kills, and sometimes consumes, the insect pests in row and glasshouse crops, orchards,
host. When the parasitoid completes its life cycle, it ornamentals, range, turf and lawn, stored products, and
becomes a free-living insect, no longer dependent on the forestry and for abatement of pest and vector insects of
host (Consoli, 2010). Parasitoids may comprise up to veterinary and medical importance. The advantages of
25% of all insects (Parasitoids, Nick Mills, University of use of microbial control agents are numerous. These
California, and Berkeley). Most parasitoids belong to include safety for humans and other nontarget organisms,
the Hymenopterans or Dipterans orders. Parasitoid reduction of pesticide residues in food, preservation of
attacked different life stages of pest, i.e. egg parasitoid. other natural enemies, and increased biodiversity in
Similarly, Egg parasitoids, by definition, are managed ecosystems (R.R. Sharma, et al., 2009).
parasitoids that both attack and complete their Similarly, microbial control agents can be
development within a host eggs. They may be either effective and serve as alternatives to broad-spectrum
solitary or gregarious, but in all cases prevent the host chemical insecticides. However, their increased
egg from hatching and use only a single host individual to utilization will require-, increased pathogen virulence
complete their development. This distinguishes true egg and speed of kill improved pathogen performance under
parasitoids from other guilds of parasitic Hymenoptera challenging environmental conditions (cool weather, dry
such as egg-pre-pupal parasitoids that attack the host egg conditions, etc.); greater efficiency in their production;
but delay development to kill the host just before improvements in formulation that enable ease of
pupation and egg predators that consume multiple eggs application, increased environmental persistence, and
within an ovisac or egg pod (van Lenteran 2003). longer shelf life; better under- standing of how they will
Example of egg parasitoid is Trichogramma Spp. It’s used fit into integrated systems and their interaction with the
to control Corn borer (Ostrinia spp) in the farm, environment and other integrated pest management
especially in developed countries like China and USA. (IPM) components; greater appreciation of their
Dennise Medina and Arelys Rodriguez, 2010 environmental advantages; and acceptance by growers
categorized parasitoids with respect to its effect on host and the general public (L. A. Lacey et al., 2001).
as; Idiobiont parasitoids are those that prevent further
development of the host after initially immobilizing it, Entomopathogenic Nematodes
and, almost without exception, develop outside the
host. Koinobiont parasitoids allow the host to continue Nematodes are simple roundworms, colorless,
its development while feeding upon it, and may unsegmented, and lacking appendages. They may be free-
parasitize any host life stage. In turn, Koinobiont can be living, predaceous, or parasitic. Many of the parasitic
subdivided further into endoparasitoids; which develop species cause important diseases of plants, animals, and
inside body of the host, and ecto- parasitoids; which humans. Other species are beneficial in attacking insect
develop outside the host body, though the parasitoids pests, mostly sterilizing or otherwise debilitating their
frequently are attached or embedded in the host's tissues. hosts (Stuart, R. J. et al., 2006). Entomopathogenic
nematodes in the families Steinernematidae and
Pathogens Heterorhabditidae have been used to suppress
populations of insects pest in a variety of agro
Pathogens are microorganisms including certain bacteria, ecosystems, and in several cases their positive effects on
fungi, nematodes, protozoa, and viruses that can infect crop yield have been shown (Mráček, 2002; Georgis et al.,
and kill the host. Populations of some aphids, caterpillars, 2006).
mites, and other invertebrate are sometimes drastically However, entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN)
reduced by naturally occurring pathogens, usually under are mass produced for use as biopesticides using in
conditions such as prolonged high humidity or dense vivo or in vitro methods (Shapiro-Ilan, et al., 2010). In
pest populations. In addition to naturally occurring vivo production (culture in live insect hosts) requires a
disease outbreaks, some beneficial pathogens are low level of technology, has low startup costs, and
commercially available as biological or microbial resulting nematode quality is gene rally high, yet cost
pesticides. These include Bacillus thuringiensis or B.t, efficiency is low. In vivo production may be improved
entomopathogenic nematodes, and granulosis viruses (S. through innovations in mechanization and streamlining.
H. Dreistadt, 2007). The application of microorganisms A novel alternative approach to in vivo methodology is

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production and application of nematodes in infected host implicated them in plant growth, herbivore resistance,
cadavers; the cadavers (with nematodes developing and disease resistance. It is estimated that 750 to over
inside) are distributed directly to the target site and pest 800 (Thackar, 2002) fungal species from more than 90
suppression is subsequently achieved by the infective genera have been described as pathogenic against
juveniles that emerge. In vitro solid culture, i.e., growing different insect species. But only a dozen of
the nematodes on crumbled polyurethane foam, offers an entomopathogenic fungus species are available for pest
intermediate level of technology and costs. In vitro liquid management at grower level (Amir Cheraghi, et al, 2013).
culture is the most cost efficient production method but Similarly, the biological plant protection with
requires the largest startup capital. Liquid culture may be entomopathogenic fungi has key role in sustainable pest
improved through progress in media development, management program. Entomopathogens as biocontrol
nematode recovery, and bioreactor design. agents have several advantages when compared with
Furthermore, entomopathogenic nematodes are conventional insecticides. These include low cost, high
extraordinarily lethal to many important insect pests, yet efficiency, safety for beneficial organisms, reduction of
are safe for plants and animals. This high degree of safety residues in environment, and increased biodiversity in
means that unlike chemicals, or even B.t, nematode human managed ecosystems (Lacey et al., 2001). Fungal
applications do not require masks or other safety biocontrol agents have unique mode of infection. In
equipment; and re-entry time, residues, groundwater contrast to bacteria and viruses, they do not need to be
contamination, chemical trespass, and pollinators are not ingested and can invade their host directly through the
issues. Most biological control agents require days or cuticle. That is why entomopathogenic fungi are capable
weeks to kill, yet nematodes, working with their of infecting non feeding mesh like eggs (Ujian and
symbiotic bacteria, can kill insects within 24-48 hours. Shahzad, 2007; Anand and Tiwary, 2009) and pupae of
Dozens of different insect pests are susceptible to insects (Nguyen et al., 2007; Anand et al., 2008).
infection, yet no adverse effects have been shown against Moreover, Fungal biological control agents have
beneficial insects or other non targets in field studies demonstrated efficacy against a wide range of insect
(Akhurst and Smith, 2002). pests including Spodoptera species (Purwar and Sachan,
Lastly, it has been reported that the beneficial 2005; Lin et al., 2007; Amer et al., 2008). Application of
entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema entomopathogenic fungi against termites has the
carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis indica were effective in minimum negative impact on the environment. There
infecting and killing soil-dwelling larval (Yan et al., 2013) have been a number of studies evaluating the efficacy of
and possibly pupal stages of the striped flea the hypocrealean Hyphomycete Beauveria bassiana (Bals.)
beetle, Phyllotreta striolata and helping to reduce the vuillemin, against subterranean termites. Similarly,
emergence of future generation adult flea beetles from Ascomycete, Metarhizium anisopliae Metsch) Sorokin,
pupae. Similarly, the efficacy of EPNs against the cucurbit present in the soil also acting as a causal agent for green
fly, Dacus ciliatus Loew (Diptera: Tephritidae) using high muscardine of insects, is an important pathogen for the
virulence native strain of Heterorhabditis biological control of pests. Sharma R. R., et al., 2009
bacteriophora Poinar (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) reported several post harvest diseases of fruits and
and a commercial strain of Steinernema vegetables can now be controlled by microbial
carpocapsae Weiser (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). The antagonists. The basic approaches are; the use of
efficacy of S. carpocapsae and H. bacteriophora was microorganisms which already exist on the produce itself,
higher at 25 and 30°C than at 19°C. The results indicated which can be promoted and managed, or those that can
that S. carpocapsae had the best potential as a biocontrol be artificially introduced against postharvest pathogens.
agent of D. ciliatus, based on its higher virulence and Different microbial antagonists like Debaryomyces
better ability to locate the fly larvae within infected fruits hansenii Lodder & Krejer-van Rij, Cryptococcus laurentii
(Shokoofeh Kamali, et al. 2013). Kufferath & Skinner, Bacillus subtilis (Ehrenberg) Cohn,
and Trichoderma harzianum Rifai, are being used.
Entomopathogenic Fungi Lastly, the use of symbiotic fungal endophytes as
biological control agents against fungal pathogens in
Entomopathogenic fungi act as parasites of insects – cereals was first described in timothy (Phleum pratense
these fungi can kill, or seriously disable insect pests. L.) where plants containing the Epichlo typhina
Fungal entomopathogens are important regulators of endophyte (E+) were less susceptible to disease by the
insect populations with considerable potential as fungus Cladosporium phlei (C.T. Greg.) G.A. de Vries,
mycopesticides. Only recently, however, have fungal 1952 than E-plants (Karen A. O’Hanlon, et al., 2012).
entomopathogens been shown to occur as endophytes, Elsewhere, Tian et al. (2008) carried out a study to
both naturally and in response to various inoculation investigate the effect of Neotyphodium lolii against 10
methods. The ecological function of endophytic fungal pathogens, including five fusarium species, on detached
remains largely unknown, but some studies have leaves and/or living plants of perennial ryegrass. Overall,

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the endophyte appeared to have inhibitory effects Moreover, B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis de
against pathogens on leaves and intact plants, however, Barjac (Bti) is used exclusively or in combination with
the extent of inhibition varied with the specific pathogen other interventions for the control of larvae of dozens of
tested. species of medically important and pestiferous black flies
Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t) and mosquitoes around the world (Lacey and Undeen,
1986; Skovmand et al., 2000). A prime example of the
Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t) is a spore forming bacterium successful use of Bti occurred in the onchocerciasis
that produces crystals protein (cry proteins), which are control program in West Africa. High levels of resistance
toxic to many species of insects. Bacillus thuringiensis, or to the organophosphate insecticides that were originally
simply B.t, is a naturally occurring soil bacterium that, employed for control of the Simulium vectors of
when sprayed on plants, is toxic to certain pest insects. onchocerciasis were threatening the future of the
For years, farmers and home gardeners have used B.t as program (Lacey et al., 2001).
a microbial spray pesticide to control caterpillars, certain
types of beetles, as well as mosquitoes and black flies Baculoviruses
(http://www.bt.ucsd.edu).
However, B.t occurs commonly in soils, and most Baculoviruses are a large group of double-stranded DNA
insecticidal strains have been isolated from soil samples. viruses (almost 1000 species have been described); the
Bacterial insecticides must be eaten by target insects to majority have been isolated from a few insect orders:
be effective; they are not contact poisons. Insecticidal Lepidoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera. Viral
products composed of a single Bacillus species or genome ranges in size from 80 to 200 kb. Individual
subspecies may be active against an entire order of baculoviruses usually have a narrow host range limited
insects, or they may be effective against only one or a few to a few closely related species. The most widely studied
species. For example, products containing Bacillus baculovirus is the Autographa californica
thuringiensis var. kurstaki kill the caterpillar stage of a Nuclepolyhedron-virus (AcMNPV). Baculovirus
wide array of butterflies and moths. In contrast, Bacillus insecticides have been used in a wide range of situations
popilliae var. popilliae (milky disease) kills Japanese from forests and fields to food stores and greenhouses
beetle larvae but is not effective against the closely (Kost et al., 2005).
related annual white grubs (masked chafers) that infest Additionally, these viruses are excellent
lawns in much of the Midwest. Indeed, commercial candidates for species-specific, narrow spectrum
insecticides derived from this bacterium have a long insecticidal applications. They have been shown to have
history of successful use in the biocontrol of insect pests no negative impacts on plants, mammals, birds, fish, or
(Bravo et al., 2011; Federici, 2005; al., 2011; Sanchis, even on non-target insects. This is especially desirable
2011), in agriculture (Navon, 2000; Sanchis and when beneficial insects are being conserved to aid in an
Bourguet, 2008; Sauka and Benintende, 2008) and overall IPM program, or when an ecologically sensitive
forestry (van Frankenhuyzen, 2000), and disease vectors area is being treated
(Becker, 2000). B.t Cry toxins constitute the active (www.biocontrol.entomology.cornell.edu).
ingredient in the most widely used biological insecticides However, Baculoviruses have several advantages
and insect-resistant transgenic crops (Cannon, 2000; over conventional insecticides that make them highly
Ferré et al., 2008; James, 2010; Shelton et al., 2002). acceptable control agents. Probably the most important
However, Antagonistic bacteria such as Bacillus is their specificity. They have narrow host ranges
licheniformis (Govender et al., 2005), Pseudomonas (sometimes limited to one or two species), and do not
fluorescens (Vivekananthan et al., 2004) and Bacillus spp. infect beneficial insects, making them very suitable for
(Jager et al., 2001) or fungi such as Trichoderma use in integrated control programs. Most also possess the
harzianum or yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae capacity to persist in the environment, which can be
(Vivekananthan et al., 2004) and Rhodotorula minuta utilized in the development of more ecologically based
(Patinovera et al., 2005) have been found effective for the long-term control programs. At present, commercial
control of the anthracnose of mango under controlled production of baculoviruses has been carried out only in
research conditions. Another group of B.t isolates, vivo, either by applying the virus against the host insect
including those from Bacillus thuringiensis var. sandiego in the field and collecting diseased or dead larvae, or by
and Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis are toxic to producing the target insect in the laboratory on an
certain beetles. Within the order Coleoptera, species artificial diet. The latter is the most commonly used
exhibit great differences in susceptibility to these isolates, method for producing baculoviruses in many countries
presumably because of differences in the receptor sites but both methods have been used successfully for
in the gut wall of the insects where the bacterial toxins commercial production of the Anticarsia gemmatalis
must attach (Weinzerl, R. and T. Henn, 2013). baculovirus (AgMNPV) in Brazil (Moscardi, 2007)

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Similarly, the activity of baculoviruses against 4. Akhurst, R. and K. Smith, 2002. Regulation and
their natural hosts may be enhanced by introduction of safety. In: Gaugler, R. (Ed.), Entomopathogenic
insect-specific toxins or by interference with insect Nematology. CABI, New York, NY, pp. 311-332.
physiology (Inceoglu et al., 2001). Most of the research 5. Anthony Ditro, 2013. Florida predatory stink
was devoted to the studies of arthropod toxin genes bug, Euthyrhynchus floridanus (Linnaeus).
isolated from the scorpion or spiders (Inceoglu et al., http://entnemdept.ifas.ufl.edu.
2007). The most potent insect-specific toxin gene used 6. Aronstein, K., Oppert, B. and Lorenzen, M.D. (2011)
for construction of baculovirus recombinants was the RNAi in agriculturally-important arthropods. RNA
gene coding for a toxin from scorpion Androctonus Processing (ed. P. Grabowski), pp. 157–180.
australis. The feeding damage caused by larvae infected InTech. Rijeka, Croatia.
with this modified baculovirus was reduced by about
7. Bailey, A. S., Bertaglia, M., Fraser I.. M. and
60% in comparison to a wild type baculovirus (Inceoglu
et al., 2001). Sharma A. Douarin, 2009. Integrated Pest

Conclusion Management portfolios in UK arable farming:

results of farmers survey. Pest Management
Biological control of pest is the use of pathogens,
predator and parasitoid to kills pests by reducing their Science 65, 1030-1039.
populations or eliminating them completely from our
farms, garden and forest, their by increasing productivity 8. Baum, J.A., Bogaert, T., Clinton, W., Heck, G.R.,
and safety of the consumers and environments. In recent Feldmann, P., Ilagan, O., Johnson, S., Plaetinck, G.,
years, microbial antagonists are used for the control of
pest and diseases. Typical example abounds on the Munyikwa, T., Pleau, M., Vaughn, T. and Roberts, J.
Bacillus thuringiensis which are toxic to many species of (2007) Control of coleopteran insect pests
insects. In addition, Entomopathogenic nematodes in the
families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae have through RNA interference. Nature
been used to suppress populations of pest insects in a Biotechnology, 25, 1322–1326. Bellés, X. (2010)
variety of agro ecosystems, and in several cases their
positive effects on crop yield have been shown. Lastly, Beyond Drosophila: RNAi in vitro and functional
the advantages of use of microbial control agents include
genomics in insects. Annual Review of Entomology,
safety for humans and other no target organisms,
reduction of pesticide residues in food, preservation of 55, 111–128.
other natural enemies, and increased biodiversity in
9. Boettner, G. H., J. S. Elkinton, and C. J. Boettner.
managed ecosystems.
2000. Effects of biological control introduction
on three nontarget native species of saturniid
Acknowledgement
moths. Conservation Biology 14: 1798-1806.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to B. S. Wudil and
10. Bravo, A., Likitvivatanavong, S., Gill, S.S., Soberón,
Dr. A Lado for helping me with relevant papers.
M., 2011. Bacillus thuringiensis: a story of a
successful bioinsecticide. Insect Biochem. Mol.
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