CONTENTS

NAVIGA

To Cafculate theTrueBearing of a Body ..........--...........2

AMPLITUDE.... ..........-.3
AZ|MUTH......... .....,......7
A B CB yC a l o l a t o r . . . . . . . . . .................-..-12
A z i m u tbhy P o l eS t a r . . . . . .....................12
Self A s s e s s m e Tnet s t
P N 3 / 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. .3. . . .
MARCQ S T .H | L A | R E . . . . . . . . . ....................14
Definitions........ ..........14
MarcqSt Hilaireor Intercept Method......... ................... 18
CosineFormulato FindtheCalculated Altitude ...........22
T o F i n dt h e| T P . . . . ... . . . . . ................22
H i n t sf o rP 1 o t t i n 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .z. z. . . . .
S e fAf s s e s s m eTnet s t P N 3 n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................24
S O U R C EO S F P O S I T I O1N1 N E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................25
PositionLinesObtained fromAstronomical Observations.- ...................25
Combination of Position Linesto FixtheShip'sPosition............ ...........26
PlottingTwoIntercepts andPositionLinesTakenFromSimultaneous Observations.....27
PlottingTwo Intercepts andPositionLinesfor SightsTakenat Different Times.............28
Plotting a MomingIntercept witha Runto a Noon Meridian
A|titude..............................30
S e fAf s s e s s m eTnet s tP N3 / 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................32
S T A RS T G H T S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. 3. .
WhichStarsShouldBe Used................. ??

Otherpractical considerations.. ...........34

Self A s s e s s m e Tnet s t
P N 3 1 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . .............37
UsefulHintsforObserving Stars...............- .................. 37
C E L E S T | AFL| X E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . ..38

Tables
APPENDIX:SightReduction
 Vocational
National cations
Qualifi
FORMVO
KNOWLEDGE
UNDERPINNING
LEARNINGOUTCOMES

WNI Plan and conduct a passage and determine position

WN1.l C€lestial Navigation

WN1. 1. 1 Know the canceptof the @lestial sphereand usethe Nautbal Almanac

(a) Useof planetand stardiagramsin the NauticalAlmanac

WN|.1.S Obtain the direction of a position tine and a position through which it passes tfom
ceIestiaI observ ations

(a) Marc St. Hilairemethod (by calculationor Short MethodTables)to obtain a

positionlineand a pointthroughwhichit passes
(b) PlottingPositionlines

WN1.1.6 ObtainCompassEror trom celestialobseryations

(a) Calculationof compassemorand deviationby meansof azimuthsof celestial

bodiesand amPlitudeof the Sun
(b) Polestar

WN1. 1.7 Fix tfre vesse/'spo sitionby meansof cebstial observatbns

(a) Positionfixingby simultaneous obseNationsand plottingpositionlines
(b) Positionfixingwith a run betweensights. Plottingtransfenedpositionlines

WN1.1.8 Se/ecfsuifaDlestars for observation

(a) Starchartsor ShortMethodTablesto pre-compute altitudesand azimuthsof

for positionfixing
starsto determineavailability
(b) NP323Starfinderand identifier
(c) Magnitudes and star conslellations

WNl.2 Terrestrial and coastal navigation

WNl.2.6 Knownavigationaltemsand useformulaeto calculateDR and EP

(f) Positionline,Positioncircle
 PRACTICALNAVIGATION
Celestail
Navigation

COMPASSERRORS
!.!L!hei!ssB!q:
The bearing of the body could be the bearingof
any celestialobjectsuch as the sun or a planetor
star.

True North at a place is the directionof the true

meridian,that is the direction of the semi-great
circle from South Pole to North Pole passing
throughthe place.

T representsthe directionof true north.

MagneticNorth is the directionof the northend of

a compass needle due to the Earth's magnetic
field, not influencedby any man-mademagnetism,
particularlynot influencedby the iron and steel of
the ship and wharvesnor electricalinstrument.
magnetism.

M representsthe directionof magnetic north.

Bearingof Body

CompassNorth is the directionof the northend of a compassneedleon a shipsubjectto the

earth'smagneticfieldand the magneticfieldsof the iron and steeland electricityof the ship.

C representsthe directionof compass north.

The true bearing of a body is the anglemeasuredclockwisefrom true northto the bearingof
the body. In the diagramabovethetruebearingis 137'(T)

The magnetic bearing of a body is the angle measuredclockwisefrom magneticnorthto the

bearingof the body. In thediagramabovethe magneticbearingis 117"(M)

The compass bearing of a body is the angle measuredclockwisefrom compassnorth to the

bearingof the body. In the diagramabovethe compassbearingis 147'(C)

Variation is the anglemeasuredeastor westfrom true northto magneticnorth.

In the diagramabovethe variationis 20'E

Deviationis the anglemeasuredeastor westfrommagneticnorthto compassnorth.

In the diagramabovethedeviationis 3o"W

Compass Error is the angle measuredeast or west from true northto compassnorth. In the
diagramabovethecompasserroris 10"W

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 NAVIGATION
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Celestail

To find the compass error, subtractthe compassbearingfrom the true bearing. lf the
compassbearingii 1essthan the true bearingthe enor is easterly. You shouldalwaysdraw a
sketchto see howto namethe enor.

True Bearing 137"Cr)

Bearing 147"rc\
Compass
Error
Compass 10'W
(Westbecause thecompass
bearingis greaterthanthetruebearing).

compassBest ErrorWest
Least
Compass EnorEast

Variation plus Deviation= Compass Error BeadrE of Body

Alwaysdrawa sketchto see howto namethis

Variation 2OE
Deviation ????
CompassEror 10'W

The deviation(frommagneticto
compassnorth)mustbe 30'W

In thismodule,variation willalwaysbe givenin the questionor example

ln practicevariationis foundon one of the chartscarriedon boardshap.
This topicarea is alsocoveredin CoastalNavigation.

Remember,one of the easiestways to obtaingyro or compasserror is by the use of TRANSIT

BEARINGS.

To Calculatethe True Elearingof a Body

Thereare two methodsof findingthe true bearingof a body

Amplitude

An amplitude is the bearingof the sun when it is just risingor just setting. Becauseof
refraction,the bearingor amplitudeshouldbe takenwhen the lowerlimb of the sun appearsto
be abouthalfthe sun'sdiameterabovethe horizon.

\,-<.- - Heightof sunabovehorizonat correcttime

of t;kingan amolitude.

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 PMCTICAL NAVIGATION
celeslail

Becauseof refractionthe mooncannotbe usedin thasway

Starsare not brightenoughto be seenwhen they are just risingor seftingand cannotbe used
for amolitudes.

Azimuths

An azimuth is the namegivento the bearingof a celestialbody at any time. lt is usual not to
includeamplitudeswith aiimuths becausethey are each calculateddifferently(and amplitudes
are a soecialcaseof azimuths.)

AMPLITUDE

Amplitudeis the arc of the horizon(or angle) betweenthe

EAST ooint and the sun at sunrise,or betv\€enthe WEST
oointand the sun at sunset. Unlikeothermethodsof naming
directions.an amplitudeis named from east at sunrise or
from west at sunset. lt wilt then be namednorthor southby
taking the same name as the declinationof the sun. For
example:lf the amplitudeof the sun at sunrisewas 10pand
the declinationof the sun was North,then the amplitude
wouldbe E (rising)10oN (declination).Convertedinto 3600
notation,this wouldbe 0800True.

The sun havingsouthdeclinationat sunsetwith an amplitude

of 50wouldgive an amplitudeof W 5oS or 2650True.

To calculatean amplitude,you will needto know:

I. ObservedsLatitude
2 GMT (in orderto calculatethe declination)
3 Vvhetherthe sun is risingor setting.
TIME
(see APPROXIMATE
lf the GMTis not givenin the questionit will haveto be calculated
OF SUNRISEon page46 of thismodule)

An amplitudecan be calculatedusingthe amplitudeformula

= Sin Declination
SinAmPlitude CosLatitude
Check your answersby the amplitudetables in the NauticalTables.
Readthe explanationon the use of thesetables.

the requiredaccuracyis 0.1'. lt is necessary

NOTE In amplitudeand azimuthcalculations, to
obtainLatitudes,LocalHourAngles and to
Declinations the sameaccurElcy, that is 0.1'.
Thiscanusuallybe doneby inspection.Timesneedto be to the nearestminute.

For sextantwork (MarcqSt Hilaire)the requiredaccuracyfor LAT, DECand LHA is 0.1'

and the nearestsecondof GMT

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 PRACTICALNAVIGATION
celestailNavigation

,""r"-
1000
At O5h1Om15s GMT on 1 october 1977,in Latitude5oooo' N, the sun rose bearing
and the deviation
Corp"., and 094" Gyro. lf the variationwas 10oW, find the compassenor
for the directionof the ship'sheadand the Gyro enor'

GMT 01d05h10m15s
1d05h 10m15s
Declination 3.2oS by inspection

Sin Dec Sin3.2o =00868

=ffi;
SinAmp. =A:ff
Amp = 5.0o (workto nearesttenthof a degree)
Amplitude =E5.0oS (Bearing =095.0"Cf)

True Beafing = 095.00T

CompassBearing = 100.00

CompassEnor = 5.0oW (CompassBest EnorWest)

Variation = 10.0W
Deviation - aaa.>n') A littlethoughtwillshow
CompassError - a aro ,ra, the deviationto be 5.0oE
Answer
Compasserror 5.00w
Deviation 5.00E.

S.O0'Compass error
10.@"Vaiation
as necessary:
Tablesinterpolating
By Amplitude 5.00'Deviation
Amplitude =E5.0oS
T. Bearing = 095.00

True Bearing = 095.00T

Gyro Bearing = 094.0o

Gyro Error = 1.0oLow

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 NAVIGATION
PRACTICAL
Navigation
Celestail

F r o m a s h i p i n D R l a t i t u d e 3 6 0 1 2 ' S , l o n g i t u d eof1 3120

67"3 0'W
and o n 2 5gyro
269'by S e p Find
t e mthe
ber1977'an
ipXpryqtion'ot the Sunsettinggavea boaringby.compass gyro enor'
iiill"iring of the 6un and t[icleviation for lhedirectionof fhe ship'sheadand the
The variAtionwa635oW.

LMTSunset = 25d17h59m
W - = '11h
10m
I,ongitude
$MTSunset = 26d05hQ9m

26d05h09m = 1.20S by inspection

Clectination
Bycalculation:
1.2o
SinAmP. = SinDec -= $in ='o29?!
-
.80696
= .0259
CosLat e6s 362
Amplitude = W 1.5o$ (Settinganosouthdeclinatlon)

(ByAmplitude = W 1.5oS = 2685" (l)

Tables:Amplitude
True Bearing = 268.5o

CompassBearing = 312.0o
CompassError = 43.60W Compq6sbest,errorwq$l

Variation = 35.0P
W
Deviation = ?????t A littlethoughtwillshowthedevistion
CompassError = 43.50W to be 8.5oW
Answef
True bearingof the Sun = 268.5"
Deviation = 8.5oW

True Bearing = 268.5o

Gyro Bearing = ?€gpo

Gyrq F|,for = o.$:Hiqh

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 PRACTICALMVIGATION
celestailNavigation

--"rr" a

on 1 Decembe r 1977, in latitude48o 26' S, longitude59o 52' E, the sun rose bearing1160
compassandl23"bygyro.Findthecompasserrorandthedeviationforthedirectionofthe
ship;sheadand the gyroenor. The variationwas 9oE'

LMTSunrise = 1d 03h55m
LongitudeE = 03h 59m
GMTSunrise = 3Od23h 56m

Declinationfor 30d 23h 56m= 21.8oSby inspection

SinAmp. = Sin Dec -_ Sin21.8o = .37055 = .559

CosLat Cos48.4o 56349
AmP =3400

Amplitude = 1240" (T)

= E 34.0oS Risingandsouthdeclination
By AmplitudeTables: =
Amplitude E 33.90S

True Bearing = 124.Oo

CompassBearing = '116.00
CompassError = 8.0oE CompassLeast,Enor East

Variation = 9.0oE
Deviation A littlethoughtwill showthe deviationto be 1 0oW
CompassEnor = 8.0oE

Tables:
By Amplitude Amplitude=E33.90S

Answer
Compasserror = 8.0oE
Deviation = 1 . 0 oW

True Bearing = 124.Oo

Gyro Bearing = 123.00
Gyro Enor = 1.0oLow

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 PRACTICALNAVIGATION

*-r*
Azimuthistheang|eatthezenithorthearcofthehorizonbetweentheobserver,Smeridianand
is one angle of the PZX spherical
the verticalcircle (bearing)fi;"'nn "; Lcv rn" azimuth to calculatethe azimuth
trianqleand coutdbe calcd;;;; ;nericai tngonometry.tt is easier
oti 6oOvby usingthe ABC Tablesin the NauticalTables

ln orderto use thesetables,you needto know:

1 Nameof the bodY

2 Latitude
? e uf to ootain Declinationand LocalHourAngle(LHA)

Local Hour Angle is measuredWESTWARDS

from the observefs meridian so that a LHA
between0pand 18f meansthat the body has a
WESTERLYbearingand a LHA between 180o
and 3600 means that the body has an
EASTERLY bearing.

Declination
is the best estimationof
Latitudewill be givenin the question.on boardshipthe latitudeto use
the ship'slatitudebasedon GPSor by DR
writtendown the side of
Note that in the ABC tablesthe instructionsfor namingA and B are
e a c h p a g e a n d t h e i n s t r u c t t o n s o n h o w t o n a m e t h e A z i m u t h a r e g i v e n aif tthe
t h eLHA
b o tis
tomofthec
and east
tables. Rememberthe Azimuthis west if the LHA is betweenooand 18op
between180"and 360o.

|tshou|dbenotedthatthenamingofva|ueBisa|waysthesameasthenameofthedec|inati
is south,B is S.
thatis if the declination
if the LHA is from 270' to
It shouldbe notedthat the namingof valueA is oppositeto latitude
the value of A is the
360. and from 0oo" to 090". lf the LHA is from 090 through180 to 270
sameas the latitude.

CisA+8.
lf bothA and B are north,C is north.
lf bothA and B are southC is south greaterand call c
lf one of A or B one is nortnano tne othersouth,subtractthe smallerfromthe
the sameas the greater.
Theseinstruction!are writtenon the pagesof the ABC Tables'

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 PMCTICAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
Celestail

* Examole1

Observefspositionis latitude48o00'N,longitude 21o00W at 17h 15m 'l0s GMTon 15 June,

* 1977.
The compassbearingof the Sun was 2740,andthe variationwas 14oW.
Findthe deviationfor the directionof the ship'shead.

GHA 15d17h = 74" 53'.7 15d17h15m

Declination = 23.30N
fncrement15m10s = 3047'.5 by inspection
GHA = 78 41'.2
LongitudeW = 21o00'.0

LHA = 57o41'.2 (57.7.)

UsingABC Tables(Nories)

Table A. Hour Angle 57.70and latitude

By interpolationbetween 57o and 58o = 0.70 S (oppositeto latitudeexceptwhen hour
is between 90P- 270P)

Tabfe B. HourAngle57.7oanddeclination
23.
By interpolation
for bothhourangleand B = 0.52N (alwaysnamedsameas
declination)
''.
A=0.70S
B = 0 . 5 1N
C = 0.19 S Differentnamesso subtractand call thEsameas the greater.

Table C with 0.19 S and Liltitude48o N.

Azimuth= 82.8owhichis thennamedSouthas the C correction

andWestdueto the LHAbetng
between0oand 180o.

Therefore Azimuth = S 82.80W

True Bearing = 262.80
CompassBearing = 274.Oo
CompassEnor = 11.2oW Compassbest,enor west
Variation = 14.0oW
Deviation = ?????? A littlethoughtwillshowthisto be 2.8oE
CompassEnor = 11.2oW

AnswerDeviation= 2.8oE

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2
ExamDle

On 16 July,1977at about0915hoursat ship,the SUNbore145oby compassto an observerin

oi tatitucl oe" is' N, tongitude1o5o24' E. A chronometerwhichwas 1m 10sSLOWon GMT
showed1Oh22m 43s. lf the variationwas 70W, find the compassenor and the deviationfor
the diredionof ship'shead.

Approx.LMT = 16d09h 15m

E = - 11h01m
Longitude
Approx.GMT.= 15d22h 14m We do this becausethe chronometerdoesnot directlytell
us whatday it is or whetherit is a.m.or p.m.

Chronometer= 15d22h22m 43s

Enor =+ 1 m1 0 s
GMT = 15d22h23m 53s
GHA 15d22h = 148o31 '.0 Declination = 21.4' N
lncrement23m 53s = 50 58'.3 by insPection
GHA = 154029'.3
LongitudeE = 165" 24'.0

LHA = 319053'.3 319.9"

UsingABCTables(Nories)

TableA=2.98S oppositeto latitudebecauseLHA not between90 and 270

T a b l e B = 0 . 6N1 sameas declination
r\-t27c differentnamessubtractand call sameas the greater.

TableC Azimuth = 48.7"

= S 48.7'E (LHA between180o- 360o)

True Bearing = 131.3o

CompassBearing = 145.00
CompassEnor = 13.7oW

Variation = 7.0oW
Deviation = ?????t a littlethoughtwill show the deviationis 6'7oW
CompassError = 13.7oW

is 6.70W
Answerdeviation

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Example3

On 2 October,1977at GMT2OhOOmin latitude55o12' N, longitude4021' E' the starVEGA

bore 2580by compassand 252 by Gyro. Find the true azimuth,the compasserror and the
deviationfor the directionof the ship'sheadand the Gyroenor. The variationwas 6oW.

GMT = 2d 2Oh00m.
GHAAries20h = 311o25'.2
lncrement = 0 o Declination= 38.8oNby inspection
GHAAries = 311o25'.2
Long.E = 4021'.O
LHAAries = 3150 46'.2 Latitude55.2'N
SHAVega = 8Oo57'.2
LHAVega = 396043'.4
36e
LHAVEGA = ffi" 43'.4 (36.7")

UsingABCTables(Nories)

A = 1 . 9 3 S oppositeto latitudebecauseof the LHA

B = 1 . 3 5N sameas declination
C = 0 . 5 8 S differentnamessubtractand call sameas the greater.

Azimuth=S71.7oW SouthbecauseC is South

WestbecauseLHAis lessthan180'
True Bearing -- 251.70
CompassBearing -- 258.00
ComoassEnor = 6.30W

Variation 6.00w
Deviation ?????? is 0.3oW
a littlethoughtwillshowthe deviation
CompassEnor 6.30 W

Answer
Trueazimuth 251.70
Compassenor 6.30W
Deviation 0.30w

True Bearing = 251.7o

GyroBearing = 252.Oo
GyroError = 0.3oHigh

10
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PRACTICAL

o n l o c t o b e r , l g T T a t a b o u t 0 2 0 0 h o u r s a t s h i p i n D R l a t i t u d e 6 0 l 221s,
' N , lthe
o n gplanet
itudeT9o46' W
17m
*n"n tn" time by cfrronomlterwhich was conect on GMT showed7h
MARSbore06s"bycompass.Findthetrueazimuth'thecompasserorandthedeviationfor
the direclionof the shiP'shead.

The variationwas 5oE.

Approx.LMT = 1d02h@m
LongitudeW = 05h 19m
'td 07h19m
Approx.GMT =
Chronometer= 1d 07h 17m21s
Enor = Nil
GMT = 1d 07h 17m21s
GHA MARSO7h = 5044'-6 Declination = 22 9pNby inspection
fncrement17m21s = 4" 20'.3
'v' (1.0)corrn. = 0'.3 Latitude = 6'2'N

GHAMARS = 10o05''2
360
= 37Qo05'.2
W
Longitude = 79" 46'0
LHA MARS = 29Oo19'.2 LHA= 290 3"

UsingABCTables(Nories)

A = 0.04S oppositeto latitudebecauseof the LHA

B = 0.45N sameas declination
C = O.41N differentnamessubtractand call sameas the greater'

Azimuth= N 67.80E NorthbecauseC is north

EastbecauseLHA is morethan 180"

True Bearing = 067.80

ComPassBearing = 068'O0
CompassEnor = 0.2oW

Variation 5.0oE
Deviation ??????a littlethoughtwillshowthedeviationis 5'2oW
CompassEnor = 0.2oW

Answer
Trueazimuth 067.8o
Compasserror 0.2oW
Deviation 5.2oW

11
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 PPACTICALNAVIGATION
celestailNavigation

^* "*""r"*

We can a|soca|cu|atethe va|uesfor A, B and C usingformu|aeon our ca|culators.

'roundup' youranswersto 2 decimalplacesso thatthey coincidewith the
It will be necessaryto
tables.
Tan Lat .
/-r - TanoentLatitude (^ - Tan LHA'
TangentLHA
.. Tan Dec.
D - TanoentDeclination (b =
Sin LHA )
SineLHA

C is obtainedby addingor subtractingA and B in the normalway'

The Azimuthis obtainedby the formula

=
Azimuth
Tangenr Tan Az -- (C x Cos Lat)
Cxg"sirreTmt Gj
A, B and the Azimuthare namedby the samerulesas thosein the ABC tables'

Becauseof the fairlycomplicatednumbersto be inputinto the calculatorthe possibilityof error

is quite high. You shouldalwavs performeach calculationtwice to check your answer' and
checkwiththe tablesto ensure

a) thereis no discrepancyand

b) to nameeachPartcorrectly.

Now redo each example in this part using your calculatorand see if you obtain the same
answers.

Azimuthby Pole Star

See the exampleon page275 of the NauticalAlmanacExtracts.

and Nautical
Latitudeby PoleStaris coveredfullyin modulePN2,SextantAltitudes,Latitudes
Almanac.

You reouirethe LHAof Ariesandthe actualcompassor gyro bearingto obtainthe error.

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Celeslail

Self AssessmentTest PN 3/1

now. The answerswillbe foundat the endof thislesson-

pleaseaftemptthesequestions

1. On 'fl April,1977,al14h28m18sGMT,to an observerin DR latitude43' 15' N'

longitude62 12' W, the Sunbore142"Compassand 140"Gyro'

Findthe true bearing,the compassenor and the deviationfor the difectionof the ship's
head. The variationwas 40W.

z- on 2? september,1977,to an obsefverin DR latitude28o24' S, longitude159015' E,

at about0930at ship,the Sun boreO33oCompassand 058' by Gyro'
The chronometer wfiichwas 1m 18sSLOWon GMTshowed10h49m 24s'

Find the @mpasserror and the deviationfor the directionof the ship's head The
variationwas 24oE.

? On 16 June,1977,at aboutO3OO LMT in latitude45o24'S' longitude30o00' E, the

compass bearing of the Star ALTAIR was 328o and 347' by Gyro The time.by
chronometerwal OnSem4Oswhichwas 2m O8sFASTon GMT. Find the true bearing
of the star.the compasserrorand the deviationfor the directionof the ship'shead. The
variationwas21oE.

'16'S, longitude
4. On 11 September,1977,at about0600hrs-at shipin DR latitude27'
94o26' E, when the time by chronometerwhichwas 2m 43s FASTon GMT showed0h
02m 10s,JUpITERboreO32oby compass.Findthe compasseror andthe deviation for
was27oW.
of the ship'shead. Thevariation
the direc,tion

5. On 4 October,1977,in DR latitude5Oo52' N, longitude18o58' W, at 07h 22m 00s

GMT, the Sun rose bearing096.5oby compassand 096" by Gyro Find the gyro and
comDasserror and the deviationfor the directionof the ship'shead. The variationwas
60w.

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._ "**i:t:ufx:iil',?"7
* MARCQ ST. HILAIRE

Observationsof the Sunon the meridianwereexplainedin modulePN2to obtainthe observers

latitude.

The bearingof polarisis almostnorthand it too can be usedto obtainthe observe/slatitude.

along a parallelof latitude'at
position lines obtainedfrom these sights run almosteast^rvest
rightanglesto the beanng-

the body (Sun,staror planet)is not on the meridianor nearto it, positionlinescan stillbe
\y't'hen
obtainedand these run perpendidllarto the bearingand so do not run east^vest' By usinga
. methodknownas MarcqSt Hilairewe c€lntake altitudesof bodiesat timesotherthan meridian
passageto get positionlinesthat run otherthan east^i'est'

, The followingthree pages show the principleof how this is done and are includedas an

Definition6

Observe/s Zenith - is the pointon the celestialspherecut by a linefromthe centreof the earth
throughthe observer.

Observer,s Meridian(celestial)- is the greatcircleon the celestialspherepassingthroughthe

celestialpolesand the observeiszenith.
polar Distance - is the angleat the Earth'scentreor the arc of a meridian,measuredfrom the
elevatedPoleto the bodY.

Zenith Distance - is the angleat the Earth'scentreor the arc of the verticalcircle measured
from the observe/szenithto the body.
' joining
Geographicalposition (GP) of a body- is the pointon the Earth'ssurfacecut by a line
the centreof the bodyto the centreof the earth.

Latitudeof the GP = Declination

of the body

WESTLongitudeof the GP = GHAof the body

Figure1 showsthe Earthpqple and the CelestialspherePQP1E.

C the centreof the earthandthe celestialsphere.

X the positionof a bodyon the celestialsphere.

The radiusCX cutsthe earth'ssurfaceat the GP of the body.

pGpr and pgpr showthecelestialmeridianof Greenwichandthe Greenwichmeridian.

Latitudeand longitudeof the GP can be determinedas follows:

= Latitudeof GP-
AngleECX= the Decllnation

AngleGCE= AngleP = GHA= WesterlyLongitude

of GP.

14
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CelestailNavigation

Fig 1 Position Circle

\ \ r - - * r

I
I
I
I
I

The GP of a body can be determinedprovidedthat the date and GMT of observationare

known. The sextantis usedto measurethe TrueAltitudeof the body'

90" - True Altitude= TrueZenithDistance[ZD) which is the angulardistanceof the bodyfrom

the observe/szenith.

The observeiszenithis situatedon a smallcirclecentredat X whoseangularradiusis the TZD.

In the figure,A is the observe/szenithand the observe/spositionon the earth'ssurfaceis at B

wherethe radiusCA cutsthe earth'ssurface.

AngleXCA= AngleGPCB =TZD-

The observedspositionon the Earth'ssurfacelies on a small circle centredat the body'sGP

andwhoseradiusis the TZD.

This small circle is called a PositionCircle or circle of equal altitude. lf another body is
observedat the sametime, anotherpositioncircleis determinedwhichwill cut the first circlein
two places. one of theseplaceswill be far awayfrom the DR,the othernearthe DR. The near
positionis the observe/sposition.

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'

on the
In Figure2, the DR positionof the observeris shown. The True positionlies somewhere great
the positioncircle. Producethe
fosittn circte. The DR positionlies somewherenear
circlejoiningthe GP to the DR so that it cutsthe positioncircleat J
passing
Assumingthatthe actualship'spositionis closeto the DR,thenthe shiplieson a line
throughJ-,perpendicular the bearingof the body. (Beca!:ethe positioncirclehas a very large
circleneir to the DR canbe takenas a straightline)
r"Oiri, ttt"'rmbtlportionof the positi-on

'16

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i'e' ><Zt' fh? angu.lardistance

AZ1Bat 21. The angutarralius of this smallcircteis tne TZD'
intercept- Hencethe intercept
21 "qr"fJ tn. Oi"t"i"" from the DR to J and is knownas the
of Ang|e P, PX and.PZ and givingan
can be foundby so|vingtn"..pzxtriang|eusingan input
;tprt "it (azimuth)a;d ZX (calculate-czenithdistance),whichis then calledCZD'
the sextantaltitude'
The Truezenithdistiance(IZD) is obtainedfromthe altitude,by conecting

CZD - fZO = intercept

lies furtherawayfrom the
ln this diagram,TZD is morethan cZD and thereforethe positionline
lf the TZD is less than the
Gp than the DR and the Inteiceptis consequenflynamedAWAY.
the same,then the position
CZD the Interceptrs namedfOVinnOS. tt tire fZO and CZDwere
iin-"*oufO prr. ihroughthe DR positionand the intercept\ /ouldbe Zero.
Hencethe positionJ can
Anglez is the directionof J from the DR and is equalto the azimuth.
positioncirclenear J may be drawnas a
O"irf.[ea and the positionline drawn. The arc ol the
straightline at rightanglesto the directionof ZrX'

Thusince|estia|navigation,theposition|ineistakenasa|ineatg0ototheazimuth.

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ln this methodthe observer:

1. takesan altitudeof a bodyand findsthe TrueZenithDistanceOZD);

2. calculateswhatthe ZenithDistancewouldbe if he was at his DR (CZD)

The differencebetweenthe TZD and czD is knorn as the Intercept.lt is measuredin minutes
of arc and drawnas so manymileson a Ghartor plot.

The interceptis namedTowardthe Body from the DR or Away from the Bodyfrom the DR by
remembering

True Tiny Towards- TZD Tinierthan CZDthen InterceptTowards'

True GreaterAway - TZD Greaterthan CZD then InlerceptAway'

You onlyneedto rememberfiT becauseif it is not, it mustbe away!

The oositionline runs 90oto the azimuth. The end of the interceptis knownas the Intercept
TerminalPosition - lTP.

To achievethis, the PZX trianglehas to be solvedfor zx, knowingP, PZ and PX, by usingthe
COSINEFORMULAwhichin its rawform states:

Cos ZX = Cos angle ZPX x sin PZ x sin PX + Cos PZ x Cos PX and refersto the spherical
trianglePZX.
the LocalHourAngleLHA.
WhereangleZPXrepresents

whichis (90o- Latitude)

PZ representsthe co-Latitude,

whichis (90e+ or - Declination)

PX representsthe co-Declination

The formulathat we havejust shownis the one to be found in any sphericaltrigonometrybook

showingthe denvationand proof. lt is messyfor navigators,so we re-writethis way:

Cos CZD = Cos LHAx Cos Decx Cos Lat + sin Decx sin Lat

Usethe + when Decand Lat are SAMEname.

Usethe- whenDecand Latare DIFFERENT name.
'.4 3o 43"6 S Latitude47o30'.ON you will
ln the followingexampleLHA 39o31 Declination
noticethe Latitudeis N and Declinationis S, so when we write the formula,the t sign used is
minusin thiscasebecausethe Latand DechaveDIFFERENT names.

CosCZD = CosLHAx CosDecx CosLat- Sin Decx Sin Lat

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i"tth" ,"r" answer. 1-Figures

ffiIilffi
goodat this sort of thingyou will bi ableto omit severalof thesestages,but for now,see if
are roundedto five placesof decimalsandthis levelof
you
accuracy
6r bettermustbe used in all MarcqSt Hilairesights)

CosCZD = [Cos LHAx Cos Decx Cos Lat]- [sin Decx :in L]aqt^ --.
= iCosg9o31'.4x Cos3o43'.6xCos 47'30' I - [sin3043' 6 x sin47o30']
- [.06500x .73728]
= itt'tst x .99789x .675591
= [.s2003- .047921
= .47211
czD = 61049' .7

your calculator'
You will have seen that the numbers are fairly awkward to enter into
Experienceshowsthat it is alwaysbestto do eachcalculationtwice,as a check

once the cXD is worked out, it is then comparedto the TZD as found from the conecled
SextantAltitude.
the
The interceptis the differencebetweenthe TZD and cZD it is named eitherTOWARDS
the
bodyor AW'AYtrom the body,towardsbeingin the directionof the Azimuthof the bodyfrom
DR positionand awaybeingthe oppositedirection.
greater
The interceptis TowARDS if the TZD is less than the czD, and AWAY if the TZD is
than the CZD.

True Tiny Towards/TrueGreaterAwaY

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easierto use.
ffiffi
Fig. 3 To plot the Position line

Formulafor ABC

-
Tan Lat
A Tan LHA

o - Tan Dec
Sin LHA
A+/-B = C
(A, B, C and Azimuthto be
namedas statedin ABC tables)
I
tattrl. -cxcosLat

Scaleof miles

The plot cleady shows the positionof the InterceptTerminalPositionand the PositionLine
runningat righianglesto the bearing.The positionlineis a smallcirclebut the radiusis more
than lbOOmilesand over the shortiengthof positionline drawn,the line can be consideredto
be a straightline as longas the altitudeis lessthan 70"

Certainassumptionsare madewhen plottingthesepositionlines.

1. at all pointsnearthe ITP'

The bearingof the bodyor GP is constant

2. The P/L is laid off as a straightline- it is in fact the arc of a smallcircle'

do not introduceappreciableenors
Providedthatthe zD is large,theseassumptions

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Example1
positionthrough
From the followinginformation,find the directionof the positionline and a
whichit passes:

Timeat ship: 1429hrson 2 October1977

DR Position: Latitude47o30' N Longitude45"20' w

Sextiantaltitudeof Sun'slowerlimbwas 28o05'.

lndexEnor: 2'.0 ON the arc Heightof Eye:6.0 metres

Chronometershowed 5h 31m 13s Error: 2m 30s fast of GMT.

AppOXLMT 2d 14h 29m Chron 2d 17h31m 13s Sextantalt 28005'.0

LongW +3h 01m Enor - 02m30s IE -__o2.o.
ApproxGMT 2d 17h 30m GMT 2d 17h28m43s Obs.alt. 28003'.0
Dip - 04'.3
App alt. 270 58'.7
Maincon + 14'.5
True alt 280 13' .2
rzD 61.46'.8

GHA 770 40'.6 Declination 3043' .'l s

'd'(1.0) + 0'.5
lncr 7 01 0 ' . 8
GHA 84" 51' .4 Declination 3043' .6S
LongW 45020' .O
'.4
LHA 39031 Latitude 47030'.0N

It is stronglyrecommended that you alwaysobservethe formatof the abovelayout. lt has been

provedo;r the yearsto be the best,thus avoidingthe chanceof leavinganythingout or indeed
of mixingup units,like puftingminutesof time underminutesof arc!

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Cos CZD = Cos LHA x Cos Latx Cos Dec- sin Lat x sin Dec
= 0.77136x 0.67559x 0,99788[minusl0.73728x 0.06450
= O.4721O

czD 61049'.8
TrueAlt 61" 46'.8
Intercept = 3'.0 TOWARDS CIrueTiny Towards)

Forazimuth: A 1.32S
B 0.10
s
|. 1.425 Azimuth= S 46.2'W Bearing= 22620f

PositionLinepasses136.2l'- 316.20throughthe ITP (lnterceptTerminalPosition).

Fig.4 Plot of positionline

To Findthe ITP

Having fround the Intercept, the

azimuth and the direction of the
position line, it is now Possibleto
constructa plot to determinethe lTP.
You shouldalso be able to find the
ITP by use of TraverseTablesand bY a1
planesailing.
Scaleof miles

Hints for Plotting

1. Usegoodgraphpaper
z- use a largeprotractor
Do a thumbnail sketchto seehowyourplotshouldturnout. Thiswillhelpyou:
a) to choosewhichway roundto haveyour paper,and
b) to knowwhat scaleto use.
Markthe Northdirectionon your paper
Markyour scaleon your Paper
Markwhereyour DR is
Markthe azimuthdirection
ls the InterceptTowardsor AwaY?
Labelthe ITP
Labelthe P/L
Measurethe D.Lat
Measurethe Departure - noteDepNOTD.Long
ConvertDepto D.Long
ApplyD.Latand D.Longto the DRto findyourITP

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D.Lat. - O2'.1S D'Long 03' 2 W

ITPLat. 47"27'.g N ITPLong.= 45"23''2W

= 3'.2W
\Mth TraverseTablesusingLat and Dep2.2 milesmeasuredfromthe plot D.Long

ITP Lat.47o27'.5 N, Long.45o23'-2W

throughout
It is of coursepossibleto calculatethe positionof the ITP using TraverseTables
witn CourseS 4ooW and Distance(lntercept)3.0 D.Lat.2.1 S, Dep 2'2 W

DR 47o3o'.0N Long. 45o20'0w

D.Lat. o2'.1S D.Long. 03"2 W
ITP Lat. 47o27'.9 N ITP Long. 45o23''2W
Wth Lat. andDe?.2.2 D.Long.= 3.2

ITP LaI.47o27'.9 N, Long.45o23'2w

In this casethe Interceptwas TOWARDSso the 3'.0 was laid off (or calculated)in the direction
in the
of the azimuth. lf the Intercepthad been AWAYthen the 3'.0 would have been laid off
oppositedirectionto the azimuth,i.e. N 46oE or 0460

It is acceptableto use eitherplanesailingor polarand rectangularcoordinatesto calculatethe

ITP position,providingall workingsare shown.

NOTEAccuracyin the ITPshouldbe to onedecimalplace,i.e.0"1

23
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celestail

Self AssessmentTest PN 3/2

1. From the followinginformation and by the MARCQST. HILAIREmethod,find the

directionof the positionline and a positionthroughwhichit passes'

Timeat ship:0515hrs.on 15 April1977

DR Position:l.?l. 17012'N. Long.124' 19' E
Sextantaltitudeof star MARKABwas 29o03'
lndexError:2'.4 ON thearc.
Heightof Eye: 14.2metres
Chronometershowedth 01m 17s
Error: 2m 32s FASTon GMT.

, 2. From the following informationand by the MARCQ ST. HILAIREmethod,find the

directionof the positionlineand a positionthroughwhich it passes'

Timeat ship:1658hrs.on 8 MaY1977

DR Position: Lat-56000' N. Long.15026'W
" LLwas 22o17'
'.0of SUN's
Sextantaltitude
lndexError:1 OFFthearc.
I Heightof EYe:6.0 metres.
GMT: 17h58m25s.

\-
3. From the followinginformation,by the MARCQST. HILAIREmethod,find the direction
of the positionline and the latitudein whichit crossesthe DR Longitude.

Timeat ship:1145hrs.on 14April1977

DR Position:Lat.45o06' N. Long.32o15' W
Sextantaltitudeof SUN'sLL was 54o08'.8
lndexEnor.0'.4 OFFthearc
Heightof Eye:15.0metres
Chronometershowedt h 54m 12s
Error: 0m 20s FASTof GMT.

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L Self AssessmentTest PN 3/2

l.Fromthefo||owinginformationandbytheMARCQsT.H|LA|REmethod,findthe
It-- directionof the positionline and a positionthroughwhich it passes'

Timeat ship:0515hrs.on 15April1977

I DR Position:Lat. 17012'N. Long.124019' E
Sextantaltitudeof starMARKABwas 29o03'
lndexEnor:2-.4ON thearc.
Heightof Eye:14.2metres
Chronometershowedth 01m 17s
Enor: 2m 32s FASTon GMT.

2. From the following informationand by the MARCQ ST. HILAIREmehod, find the
directionof the positionline and a positionthroughwhichit passes.

Timeat ship:1658hrs.on 8 MaY1977

DR Position: Lat.56000'N.Long.15('26'W
lL was 22o17'
'.0of SUN's
Sextantaltitude
lndexError:1 OFF the arc.
Heightof Eye:6.0 metres.
GMT: 17h58m25s.

3. Fromthe followinginformation,by the MARCQST. HILAIREmethod,find the direction

of the positionline andthe latitudein whichit crossesthe DR Longitude.

Timeat ship:1145hrs.on 14April1977

DR Position: Lat.45o06' N. Long.32" 15'W
Sextant of SUN'SLLwas 54o08'.8
altitude
lndexEnor:0'.4 OFFthearc
Heightof Eye:'t5.0metres
'lh
Chronometershowed 54m 12s
Error: 0m 20s FASTof GMT.

24
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Navigation
Celestail

SOURCESOF POSITIONLINES
of
A positionline is a line uponwhichthe ship is situated. some of the more commonmethods
obtaininga positionlineare listedbelow.

Visualbearings
Radarbearings
Radarranges
Rangesobtainedby verticalsextantangles
Positioncirclesfrom horizontalsextantangles
Hyperboliclinesfrom radionavigationaids suchas , e'g' Loran'
Deothcontourlinesfromechosounderor leadline
Asironomicalpositionlinesobtainedfrom sextantobservations'

ln celestialnavigationwe are interestedonly in astronomicalpositionlines. The othersare dealt

with in the Chartworklessons.

Position Lines Obtainedfrom Astronomical Observations

The mainpurposeof a plot is to drawthe positionline in its conectplace. The positionline runs
or lTP.
at rightanglesthroughthe endof the intercept

Fig 5 Ploftingthe Positionline

Forexample:

is 5'.4TOWARDS
The intercept

The bearingof the bodyis 123oT.

Plotthe positionline
Scaleof miles

Althoughthe positionline from an observationof an astronomicalbody is reallythe arc of a

largecircle,in practicethe positionline is alwaysdrawnas a straightline on the chart. This is
beluse the radiusof the positioncircleis so huge that a small part of it may be mnsidereda
straightline as longas the altitudeis lessthan70".

lf two sightshad beentakenat more or less the sametime,then both interceptsand both
positioniinescouldbe drawnon the sameplot. Wherethe two positionlinescrossis the ship's
Dosition.

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a
Positionlinesfrom any sourcemay be combinedto fix the ship'sposition.For example, planet'
soundingcontourline may Oecrosied with the positionline obtainedfrom a sight of a
The mai-npoint to consiAer,apart from the accuracyof the observations,calculationsancl
plotting,is the angleat whichthe positionlinesintersect'

Referto figure7.

Fig. 6 Good and bad combinationsof position lines

Remember thatthe positionlinesmustbe obtainedat verynearlythe sameinstantif the shipis

makingway throughthe water. lf thereis sometime betweenthe takingof one observationand
fix (whereyou transferthe positionline)mustbe plotted. Runningfixes
the neit, tnin a ru-nning
using two astonomical observationsmay be plottedas well. We shall discussthis in more
detaillaterin the lesson.

Astronomicalpositionlines may be plotteddirectlyonto a navigationchart. However,the scale

of many ocean charts is not suitablefor accurateploftingof positionlines.and -so many
navigatorsuse specialplottingcharts. The examinersdo not provideplottingchartsfor use in
the examinationsand so graph paper must be used in all the examples,exercisesand
assignmentsthat are partof this guidedstudiescourse.

we shallnowconsiderthe variouspositionlineproblemsas set by the examiners.The easiest

way to do this is to do someworkedexamples.

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plotting Two Interceptsand Position Lines Taken From simultaneous observations

Examole1

A shipwas in DR position31o47' N, 49o49'W-

of two starsgavethe followingresults:
Simultaneousobservations

Hamal,bearing0770T, intercept5' away.

Fomalhaut,bearing1600T, intercept10' towards.

Findthe ship'sposition.

It is stronglyrecommendedthat a preliminarysketchis made,not to scale,frorall positionline

problems.in this way the situationcan be appraisedvery quicklyand the best scaleto use and
ih" rost effectivelayouton the graphpapereasilydecided. Referto figure7. (P/L is usedas
;'positionline',) Ensureyou indicatewhich way is N' State scale used'
an abbreviationfor
Labeleveryhing! FigureI

Fig.7 A preliminary
sketchto illustrateexample1

On figure I the D.Lat and Departure

between the DR and the fix are
shown by broken lines. Note that
east-westdistanceson graph paper
representDepartureand not D.Long
This is becausethere is no D.Long
scaleon graphpaper. The only scale
used is a scale of DISTANCE in
nauticalmiles,whichis alsothe same
scaleas the D.Latand Departure.

When drawing an accuratediagram

to scale on graph Paper, use the
largestpossiblescalethat will enable
the diagramto fit on the g€ph paper.

Nowreferto figure8, whichis

the scaledrawing. Scaleof miles

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To find the latitude and longitudeof the fix.

From the plot on graph paper, between the DR and the fix

D . L a=t 1 1 ' . 5S = 2' .5 W

Departure
D.Long=DEP+ CosM Lat = 2'.9 W

DR 31047'.0 N 49049' .0 W
D.Lat. 11'.5S D.Long 2'.9 W
'.9
Ftx 31"35'.5N 49.51 W

Plotring Two lntercepts and Position Lines for Sights Takenat DifferentTimes
"run
lf sightsare takenat differenttimes the positionline obtained,from the first sight mustbe
up' ind a transfenedpositionline plottedfor the sametime as the secondsight.
'Tii' at the time of the semnd observationdependsnot only upon the
The accuracyof the
accuracyof the observations themselves,but also uponhow accuratethe ship'strackhas been
for the time intervalbetweenthe sights.

Example2

At 0630a shipwasin DR position33o21' N,60018'W.

A sightof Venusbearing2650T gavean interceptof 3'.0 Towards.

At 1OOO a sight of the sun was taken, which resultedin an interceptof 0'.9 Towards,on a
bearingof 12-6"T. The positionusedfor the looo sightwas the 0630 DR run up on a trackof
2230f for a distanceof 57 miles.

Findthe positionof the shipat 1000.

We shallagaindrawa preliminarysketch,notto scale,to illustratethis example-Seefigure9.

"run up" positionmust not be done by

NOTEThe run from the 0630 DR to the 1O00
measurement andpositionlinesaredrawn.
on the sameplotas the intercepts

This is becausethe scalewouldhaveto be so smallto accommodate the run of 57 miles

that the interceptsof 3'.0 and 0'.9 would have to be drawn to an unacceptably small
scale.

By plottingonlythe sectionwhich is indicatedon figureI the interceptsmay be drawnto

a largescaleand the accuracyof the runningfix thereforeshouldbe good

Seefigure10for the requiredscaledrawing.

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Fig. I An annotatedpretiminarysketch to illustrate

Workingfor example2
'.0 60018'.0w
0630DR 33021 N
Run(223x .57miles)D.Lat 41'.7S D.Long 46'.4W Dep.38'.9W
'l0O0"runup" position 32039'.3 N 61004' .4W
Fromplot(Fig.10) D.Lat 5'.1 S D.Long 3'.0W W
Dep.2'.5
1 0 0 0F l x 320u'.2N 6 1 "0 7 ' . 4W

Fig. 10 Scalediagramfor ExamPle2

Scaleof miles

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Plotting a Morning Interceptwith a Run to a Noon MeridianAltitude

This type of runningfix is very similarto that whichwas shownin example2.

It is usualin this type of sightto calculatethe ITP fromthe first or momingsightand run this IPT
up to noonand d;aw the transfenedP/L throughthis run up lTP. This P/L is then crossedwith
the noonP/Lwhichis a latitudeobtainedfrom the MeridianAltitude.

ExamDle3

At 0745a shipin DR position45.20' N, 15o25'W, steamingat 15 knotson a courseof 0620T.

A sightof the Sun bearing1010T gavean interceptof 2.2 away-

At 1205. when the Sun was on the meridian,the latitudeby observationwas found to be
45045' N.

Findthevessel'spositionat 1205.

Fig. 11 An annotatedpreliminary sketch to illustrate Example3

"lTP run up" has

In practice,figure11 cannotbe drawnuntilthe latitudeand longitudeof the
been calculated.This is becausewe need to knowwhere to draw in the observedlatitudeof
45o45' N relativeto the positionof the ITP runup.

Once again,the only part of the preliminarysketchwhich shouldbe plottedis that part in the
vicinityof the 1205fix.

Workingfor example3.

0745DR 45.20' .0 N 1 5 . 2 5 ' . 0W

2.2away,bearing1010T: D.Lat
Intercept 0'.4 N D.Long 3'.1W DeP.2'.16W
ITP 45020'.4 N 15028'.1W

Run0620T x 65 miles D.Lat 30'.5N D.Long1o21'.8E E

Dep.57'.4
ITP runup 45o50'.9N 14006'.3W

Fromplot(Fig.12) De. = 1'.1 and .'. D.Long 1'.6W

1205 FtX 45045' N 14007'.9 W

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Referto Fig.12:

In practice,becausethis diagram is a simple triangle,it is usually quicker to calculateby

-departure.
trigbnor"try the value of the In this case a scale diagramis not required,but the
preliminarysketchis very usefulto sort out the details.

Fig. 12 Scalediagramfor ExamPle3

Scaleof miles

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Self AssessmentTest PN 3r3

1. Using DR Position16" 38' S, 159' 39' E, the navigator obtains the following
intercepts:
simultaneous

Star"A"bearing3510T, intercept5'.4 away.

Star"8" bearing0530T, intercept4'.4 towards.

Findthe positionof the shiP.

2. At 1430a shipwas in DR position 43o13' N, 150046' E. A sightof the Sun bearing

'.6
2170T gave of
an intercept 1 towards.

At 18OOa sightof the Moonwas taken,whichresultedin an interceptof 5'.0 awayon a

bearingof 1oC T. The positionusedfor the 1800sightwas the 1430 DR run up on a
trackof 2900T for a distanceof 60 miles.

Findthepositionof the shipat 1800.

At 0857GMTa shipwas in DR position58o09' N, 12o22'W.

The navigatortook a sightof the sun, bearing1o5oT and obtainedan interceptof 5'.5
away. At 1251 GMT, when the Sun was on the meridian,the latitudeby observation
'.4
wasfoundto be 58o31 N.

Findthe vessel'spositionat 1251,if the ship madegooda trackof 0660T for a distance
L_

of 40 milesbetween0857and 1251.

4. At 2055BSTa shipon a passagein the EnglishChannelwas in DR position50o17' N,

0 01 8 'E .

were made:
observataons
The followingsimultaneous

Polaris,bearing3590T gave a latitudeof 50p16'.4 N. Aldebaran,bearing276oT gave

ol 11'.2away,usingthe DR position
an intercept for the calculation.

Findthe2055oosition.

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STAR SIGHTS

One of the most reliablemeansof positionfixingat sea, whenout of sightof land,is by means
of starobservations.Severaldifferentstarsare observedwithina few minutes' Theseare then
computedand ploftedto givethe ship'sposition.

ln order to observethe star accurately,the horizoflmust be cleadyvisibleand thereforethe

brightstarsappearratherfaint in the sky- lt is possibleto observea star as you wouldthe Sun,
thr6ughthe ie{ant, by movingthe sextantarm away from the body and bringingthe reflected
imag6down to the i.rorizon.H-owever, the easiestmethodis to set the approximatealtitudeof
the itar on the sextant,then scanthe horizonin the directionof the star. Vvhenit is observedin
the minor,final adjustmentis madewith the micrcmeter,rockingthe sextantuntilthe reflected
imageis bisectedby the horizonand the readingand time taken.

The method outlined requires some preparationprior to the time of observationand the
followingstagesare involved-

1. obtain the approximatepositionof the ship. Assumestar time is 6 am or 6 pm Ship's

Time,but you may havea betteridea usingyour experienceof the pastfew days'sights.
2. Workout the time of civiltwilight.
3. Workout ship'sDR positionfor this time.
4. Workout LHAfor this time.
5. Set latitudeand LHA on star globe,selectedstar sight reductiontables,or star identifier
charts(Np323)and obtainthe approximatealtitudesand bearingsof starsof interest.
6. Draw a small plan, relative to the ship's head, showing this informationfor easy
reference.

Which Stars Should Be Used

Usinga startidentifierit is usuallypossibleto identifyseveralstars,in somecaseup to 15 or

more. \ /hat you are lookingfor are three starsall with a brightnessfactor(magnitude)of less
'lndex to SelectedStars near the back of the
than 2.0 and preferablyless than 1.5. See the
Almanac.

1.5or brighter,
Starsof magnitude (List1)
togetherwiththeirmagnitudes.

Achemar 0.6 Acrux 1.1 Aldebaran 1.1

Altair. 0.9 Antares 1.2 Arcturus O.2
Betelgeuse 1.2 Canopus -0.9 Capella O.2
Deneb 1.3 Fomalhaut 1.3 Hadar 0.9
Pollux 1.2 Procyon 0.5 Regulus 1.3
Rigel 1.3 RigilKentaurus 0.3 Sirius- -1.6
Spica 1.2 Vega 0.1

Starsof magnitude1.5to 2.0 (List2)

Adhara 1.6 Alioth 1.7 Alkaid 1.9

Alnilam. 1.8 Atria 1.9 Avior 1.7
Bellatrix 1.7 Elnath 1.8 Gacrux 1.6
Miaplacidus 1.8 Mirfak 1.9 Shaula 1.7

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The sta/s altitudeshouldbe more than 20' in order to avoid unreliablerefractioneffects,and

lessthan 70". Starswith altitudesmorethan 70' havea smallzenithdistancesand the position
linestendto becomecurved.

\ly'hatis evenmoreimportantis the bearingof the stars.

ldeallyeach star shouldbe separatedin azimuthfrom the othertwo by an angleof about 120"
This ii sometimesnot easyto achievebut what mustbe avoidedis the haveall starsin one half
of the sky. Theyshouldbe all roundthe horizon.

3 examplesof well placedstars. Eachstar is separatedfrom its neighbourby about120"

eachadiacentstaris lessthan90'and
3 examplesof badlyplacedstars. The anglebetvveen
all threestarsare in onlyhalf of the horizon

Otherpracticalconsiderations
"backups".
It is a goodideato selectthreestarsand two or moreas

Havingtaken the time and altitudesof the three stars, take all three again if there is time
"workout'.
availablein caseone doesnot seemto

In the morning,the Sun rising in the east obscuresthe eastem stars first becauseof its
brightrress, so try to take eastemstiarsfirst. Also take the brighteststars last and fainterstars
first in the moming.

At pm stars,the easternhorizonis the first to go so try to take easternstarsfirst in the evening.

Alsotakethe brighteststarsfirstandfainterstarslastat night.

In heavyweathertry to observestarsfrom as near to the centre line of the ship as possible.

There will be verticalmovementaffectingheightof eye. Keep clear of funnel exhaustswhen
viewingstarswith yoursextant.

Take starsas quicklyas possibleto avoidruneffects.

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the approximatealtitudesof starsthereare threemethodsby wltichthis can be

To pre-calculate

1 Usinga star globe. Theseare now collectors'itemsand onlyto be foundin expensive

antiqueshops,so we will givestarglobesa miss.
2 Usingthe Rudestar ldentifier(Namedafter commanderRudeus Navywhothoughtit
out manyyearsago). lt is now publishedby the HydrographicOfficeas NP323.
3 Usingsightreductiontablesfor Air Navigationof whicha copyof relevantpagesis
includedwiththismodule.

EXAMPLE
'16December1977. Course12s'O)
A shipexpectsto be near35"N 10"Wat momingstarson

Selecl a number of stars suitable for observationat evening twilight, together with their
approximatealtitudesand bearings.

LMTCivilTwilight 16d06h 33m

LongWest + 40m
GMTCivilTwilight 16d07h 13m GHAAiresl6dOTh 189' 4A'
lncAires 13 m 3' 15'
GHA 16d07h13m 193' 03'
LongWest 10 00
LHAAries 182' 03

lf you go to Bowditch(at http://www.irbs.com/bowditchand look up Chapter15 ) and tum to

page27Oyouwill see a pictureof Rude'sStar ldentifierset up for 35"N and LHAAries

The star identifierconsistsof a circularwhite plasticdisc with stars markedin their respective
positionand severalclearplastictemplatesfor 5", 15', 25', 35" etc latitudes,N and S.
The appropriatelatitudeis placedover the disc aligningthe anow with the LHA Aries and the
altitudesof all the brighterstarscan be pickedoff by inspection.
You shouldmakea list of the starsshowntogetherwith theiraltitudesand azimuths

See howyour list agreeswith mine.

Star Altitude Azimuth

Veqa 17 054
Kochab 46 014
Alioth o/ 015
Alkaid o/ 041
Ettanin 29 045
Alphecca 47 086
Arc{urus 59 111
Zubenelgenubi 27 137
spi€ 41 4R7

Requlus 53 240
Procyon 20 261
Pollux 33 284
Dubhe OU 343

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on the right I have drawneach stars bearingand selectedthe three that I would use. These
"orr".potio to Vega,Spicaand Pollux. Notethat these are all amongthe 20 brighteststarsin
list 1, andnotethewaythattheyall seemto be 120"apartin azimuth

The third methodof selectingwhich stars to take is to use the Sight ReductionTablesfor Air
Navigation.

Tumingto the pageconespondingto Lat 35'N and LHAAries 183you will see that sevenstars
havebeenselected

lAt 35"N
.YEEA l|gfH .s?tct mmiurs
180 1500 05t 4t 59oat 2t t9t2 rst 5540 235 t 5 5 ' 6tt6 346
r0l l5,ro 05t itf aS 085 t /loL rtf il59 Ab :t5 05 612ata5
r82 16 19 054 t517 @6 t9 rorS 1555a182rE tau 6r lr ,{,t
183 1659 05f f626 086 a5 tto5t 1565tt6 2t9 t v ,
.i; ti','itt -.;

r85 r8 rl 055'180f 00t 60u ua ar t, $9 52 ll 2{1 tttl N 60 27 Hl 85

.t8
186 18 59 055 53 08E 6100 1t5 4r 50 1605128 212 tl 06 284 60 11 'al n6
187 l9 '10 056 a9'ft 08!, 6144 U? 42 06 161 n $ z a t t0 19 28t 5954 ttlo m
r88 20 2l 056 50t2 oat 62 2E U8 rfil 2l l6t 50 0l 2tL 2931 28t 5917 "i ns
189 2t02 057 5r zl 090 6t rr ll9 f2 16 164 19t6 2a5 284t 286 59 t9 3t6 m
r90 2l at oq? B2 tO Oin 6!t tl l2l a2 ae lA5 aSrr raa 27 q7 re6 leor l!|n ?''|

Hc meansAltitudein degreesand minutes

Zn meansBearing

The starswrittenin capitalleftersare the brighteststars

for the bestcut usingthree
The starswith asterisksin front of them are the three recommended
SIATS.

Notethat Vega has a low altitude(lessthan 20") but becauseits bearingis in just the rightplace
and becauseit is the thirdbrighteststar in the sky, it has beenselected.

The Sight ReductionTablesrecommendations are the same as my selectionin this instance.

My selectionwas madebeforelookingat the tables.

NP323 Siqht Reduc{ionTables

Star Altitude Azimuth Altitude Azimuth
Vega 17 054 17 054
Alphecca 47 086 46 086
Arcturus 59 111 Eq 112
Spica 41 157 41 156
Regulus E2 240 54 239
Pollux 2? 2U ?? 283
Dubhe 60 343 61 343

of thetwo tablesbeingwithin1' at all times.

Notethe excellentagreement

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Ask the officer of the watcfi if you can use the ship's star identifierto check the above
information. lf short methodtabies are available,try to use them. You will find them very
simpleto use for star identification.

Now you knowwhat starsto takeand their bearingand altifude,it is now a matterof takingthe
stars.

Becauseall three selectedstarsare brightthereshouldbe no difficulty.Startwith Spicaon the

starboardbow, becauseit is the leastbrightand in the east,then take Polluxon the starboard
quarter,and finallytakeVegawfrichis the brightestof the threestars.

Set your sextantto 41" and svveepthe horizonabout 10"onthe starboardbow and you should
soo; see Spica twinklingin your sextianttelescopeif the sky is reasonablyclear. Take the
sight,then notethe exacttime and then readthe sextantaltitude.

Repeatfor Polluxand Vega.

Self AssessmentTest PN 3/4

'1200shipstime positionas 36025' N,
A ship on a voyagefrom Fleetwoodto curacao logs the
18"40' W, course238"T, speed16 knots.

GMT= ship'stime+ t hour; date: 3 March1977

Select the stars suitablefor observationat evening twilight,togetherwith their approximate

altitudesand bearings.Drawa diagramwith the threebest starsto use.

Useful Hints for Observing Stas

Prepareu€ll beforethe time of observation.

Prior to observation,check the sextantfor error and focus the telescopeon a mediumbright
slar.

Havingtaken an observation,take great care to recordthe chronometertime, the star and the
altitudeconeclly (in that order). Checkthe degreesare conect beforegoing to take the next
sight.

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we have shownyou how to plot the vessel'spositionusingsimultaneousstar sights,.and the

methodshown is adequateto prove competence. However,the follorving. must be bome in
purposes.
mind in a practical sense and is included-forinformation You will not be exarnined
on this.

CELESTIAL FIXES

Sun and starshavehistoricallybeenusedto determinethe positionof ships.

Astro-navigationis still used as a secondarymethod of fixing positionon ships fitted with

-position
electronic fixing aids. O,fficersand Mastersshouldregularlypracticetiakingsights in
accordancewith companies'operdingprocedures

To obtain a fix, at leasttwo positionlines are required. Usingcelestialbodie6,these position

linescan be generatedby the Sun, Moon,starsand planets. Duringdaylight,when the sun is
abovethe horizOn,it is rareto see a celestialbodyotherthan the MoOn- and the Mooncannot
be seenat all times. lf the Moonis not visible,and the Sun is the onlybodyvisible,a runningfix
will haveto be usedto fix the ship'sposition.lt couldbe any of the followingcombinations:

Sun-run-Sun
Sun - run- MeridianAltitudeof Sun
MeridianAltitudeof Sun- run- Sun
Sun - run- Moonor Moon- run- Sun

The accuracyof a runningfix dependson the accuracyof the course and speed used to
lines.
transferthe Dosition

Sightsof starsand planetscan onlybe takenat twilightwhenthe staror planetis visibleand the
horizoncan be seendistinctly.
In the moming,beforetwilight,the horizoncannotbe seen properlyand after twilight,it is too
lightand the starscannotbe seen.
In the evening,after twilight,the horizoncannotbe seen properlyand beforetwilight'it is too
lightandthe starscannotbe seen.

The periodduringwhich stars can be taken is about ten minutesin the tropicsand longerin
higherlatitudes.

For a fix to be reliable,the selectionof stars and planetsneeds some consideration.The

followingpointsshouldbe considered whenplanninga momingor an eveningsight:

. Usinga star identifieror starglobe,determinethe starsand planetsto be used.

. Alwaysuse 3 starsand/orplanetsto givethe bestcuts.
. The bestcombinationis 3 starsand/orplanets1200apaftin azimuth
. Choosestarswithaltitudesbetween10' and 70o.
. Select4 standbystarsin addition,in caseof partlycloudysky.

It is very importantto be able to identifythe stars or planetsin order to minimisethe time

betweenobservations.The followingshouldbe considered.

. Makea noteof the weatherand the directionin whichthe horizonis likelyto be clearest.
. Makea roughsketchof the approximatealtitudesand bearingsof the chosenstars/planets,
relativeto the ship'shead,for identification.
. Set the sextantto thesealtifudesand thenscanthe horizonin directionof star.

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to get a goodfix'
Care needsto be exercisedwhiletakingobservations

. In the moming,startwiththe fainteststar,as it will not remainvisiblefor long.

. ln the evening,startwith the brighteststar,as you will see it first and the best horizonwill be
available.
. start taking sightsffom the easternhorizonfirs! and then west, as in the momingeastern
first'
Jtarswittfaiaeiway first and in the evening,the eastemhorizonwill becomeindistinct
. observe stars as early as possibleat eveningtwilightand as late as possibleat momlng
twilightin orderto makeuse of the besthorizon.

Generalprecautionsfor sightstakenat any time of the day are as follows:

. ln clearweathertake observationsfrom the highestconvenientposition,to take advantage

of the cleardistanthorizon.This avoidsetTorsdue to highwavesobscuringthe horizon.
to
. ln hazeor mist,take observationsffom the lowestconvenientposition. sights are liable
be lessaccuratebecauseof the effectof waves..
of
. With an indistinct,cloudyor hazysun,alignthe middleof the diskwith the horizoninstead
be applied separately This method
UL or LL. (Altitudeconections,iess thanfor SD, must )
should only be used if a positionfix is urgentlyneeded'
. Whenpossible,checkthe sextiantfor sideenor beforetakingsights'
. Whenpossible,takethe indexenor beforeand aftertakingthe sights'
. when observingthe sun, use sufficientlystrongshadesto avoidany possibilityof dazzle
. Whenpossible,takeobservations equal
of a heavenlybodyin setsof threeat approximately
time intervals.
. Alwaysswingthe sextanta few degreeseach side oJverticalplane,as the bodyis brought
to tn6 norizon. Adjustmentsto the altitudeshouldthen be made by micrometer,until the
starjust touchesthe horizon.
. when the horizonis poor,it is essentialto take severalaltitudesof eachbodyand to set the
sextantto a givenincreaseor decreasebetweeneachobservation.lf time intervalsare not
equal,sights;houldbe eitherdiscardedor usedwith extremecaution'
. lf the identityof a bodyis uncertainaftertakingaltitude,take its bearing'
. when tne ship is rollingheavily,observationsshouldbe takenfrom closeto the centreline
of the vesselto minimiseerrorsdue to changingheightof eye'

All the positionlinesrequiredfor ptottinga fix usingstarsand planetscannotbe ta!9n together-

There will be a small time lapse between one observationand the next. Normallythe
movementof the ship betweenihe sightscan be neglected,but on a fast ship and if the time
intervalbetweenthe first and last sighi is morethan five minutes,then the positionlinesshould
be run on or run backto a commoniime. All star sightpositionsare improvedif this adjustment
is made-

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EXAMPLE

On I May 19ZZthe following interceptswere obtained

Time Star Bearing Intercept

1932 Vega 070 3.87
1934 Arcturus 157 2.5A
1936 Deneb 0216 3.97
1939 Pollux 286 0.67

TheDRposition at 1936was50'03' N 47" 21'W

Shipwas steering289"(T)at 18 knots.

Findthe ship'spositionat 1936allowingfor the ship'smovementbetweenthe starsights.

The first sightwas taken at 1932. The sightwill have to be run forwatd4 minutesto the DR
time. 4 minuteat 18 ktsis 1.2miles
From the DR move alongthe track1.2' and from this positiondraw the interceptof 3.8 T Brg
070" as shown.

The secondsightwas takenat 1934. The sightwill haveto be runforward2 minutesto the DR
time. 4 minutesat 18 Ks is 0.6 miles
Fromthe DR movealongthe track0.6' and fromthis positiondrawthe interceptof 2.5 A Brg
157' as shown.

The thirdsightwas takenat 1936. Plotthe interceptfromthe DR. 3.9 T Brg 046"as shown.

The last sightwas takenat 1939. The sightwill haveto be run backwards3 minutesto the DR
time. 3 minutesat 18 ktsis 0.9 miles
Fromthe DR movebackalongthe track0.9' andfromthis positiondrawthe interceptof 0.6 T
Brg286"as shown.

From the end of each interceptdraw the positionline at right angles to the conesponding
intercept.Wherethesefour positionlinesmeetis the observedpositionof the ship(Fix) lf the
lines do not meet at a point, choosethe positionthat representsthe best intersectionof the
lines.

See plot

DR 5 0 . 3.0'N 47. 21.O'W

DLat 3.8'N Dlong 1.9-E D e P =1 . 7 ' 7
l- tx 50" 6.8'N 47" 19.1'W

40
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2 3 4 5
I i t
Scaleof NauticalMiles

^{F
"t''L''
q-'ka^
Frd$FF
' F

ob 3'
€ z Y e >
',' j q
.r- o-r

gA/ --;r '..'\

DRPosnus€d19OG

Tine $ar Bearirg lntercept

1932 Vega 070 3.87
1934 ArdLnF 157 2.5A
1936 Deneb 046 3.97
1939 Polltx 286 0.67

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