Journal of Cleaner Production 172 (2018) 3215e3224

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Ecology, sustainability and traditional wisdom

Sanjeeb Kakoty
RGIIM Shillong, Nongthymmai 793014, Meghalaya, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: During the last few years the world has witnessed severe climatic conditions, be it in the form of un-
Received 17 May 2017 precedented droughts or devastating floods, tornadoes, landslides along with major earthquakes and
Received in revised form Tsunamis. Are these natural calamities natural and normal or are these the manifestation of man's
5 November 2017
adverse impact on the environment? If the nature and frequency of numerous geo-climatic upheavals
Accepted 6 November 2017
that the earth is experiencing is compared to the worst case scenario of the climate change advocates, the
Available online 17 November 2017
resemblance seems amazingly similar. A plausible explanation for this could be the fact that mankind
does not know how to reign in its need for continuous economic growth without adversely affecting
Keywords:
Sustainability
ecological sustainability! This problem of achieving and maintaining sustained economic growth seems
Ecology to be a problem that is unique to the modern post industrial economy. It is being increasingly realized
Traditional wisdom that the ancient civilizations may have economic systems and practices that was based on living in
Ecological sustainability harmony with nature. Hence, there is a growing clamor to learn from the wisdom of the ancients and
incorporate their ideas and practices or in other words learn from the philosophies that have stood the
test of time.
That tribal wisdom may be better equipped to deal with natural calamity was vividly displayed a few
years ago in India. When the massive Tsunami of December 26th, 2004 ravaged Asia, one of the hardest
hit region was the remote chain of some 500 islands known collectively as the Andaman and Nicobar.
Inhabited by hunter gatherer tribes that have little contact with the outside world, anthropologists
initially feared the tribes could have been completely wiped out. However it was soon discovered that
the tribal community used their ancient knowledge of nature to escape the Tsunami. One of the tribes
that lives there are the Onge. They are estimated to have lived in the islands for 30000e50000 years.
Numbering some one hundred individuals, they are on the verge of extinction. However, in the Tsunami,
they suffered no casualties as their folklore speaks of large waves that follows earthquakes, so all of them
retreated to the high grounds.
As north east India is home to numerous traditional societies that have followed old age practices up to
the modern times, this region could make significant contribution to the sustainability discourse. Tribal
communities and indigenous religions the world over are accepted repositories of ancient knowledge
and wisdom. Significantly, with the tribal communities, such knowledge systems are living traditions.
Thus such living knowledge systems could be an important source of guidance for modern man in his
quest for sustainability. For the purpose of this paper, the Khasi sacred forest were used as a case study to
understand what lessons it can offer in our quest to conserve our forests and also achieve sustainability.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction calamities natural and normal? Or should one accept the argument
that these calamities have been invited by our own actions and
During the last couple of years, different countries of the world inaction that has resulted in severe climate change. Looking at the
have borne the brunt of severe climatic conditions, be it in the form nature and frequency of numerous geo-climatic upheavals that the
of unprecedented droughts or devastating floods, tornadoes, earth is experiencing it appears that the worst case scenario in the
landslides along with major earthquakes and tsunamis. Are these climate change advocates seems to be coming true. As observed by
Stephan Faris, the events of first decade of the century opened the
eyes of the world to climate change. While Hurricane Katrina
devoured New Orleans, fire often engulfed the Amazon and polar
E-mail address: sky@iimshillong.ac.in.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.036
0959-6526/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
3216 S. Kakoty / Journal of Cleaner Production 172 (2018) 3215e3224

bears drowned in the melting Arctic ice while Europe simmered in opined that the term sustainability originally belongs to ecology
unprecedented heat waves and America was struck by drought and but when the concept of development is added to it the paradigm of
the Glaciers were melting like never before! [Faris (2009)]. The ecology is shifted towards society and economy [Reboratti (2000)].
question which arises here is that if mankind is aware that its ac- This contention is further buttressed by Wolfgang Sachs when he
tions are directly contributing to climate change, why is it that opines that the concept of sustainability holds the promise to bring
corrective measures are not being taken? The answer probably lies harmony between ecological sustainability and economic devel-
in the socio-political and economic system created by man that opment interests. The efforts, especially of the last two decades
requires the achievement of a perpetual growth cycle which is have been to conceptualize sustainable development by stressing
based on ever growing production and consumption. Sheffield on the economic and social growth through science and technology
(2002) makes an interesting assessment regarding the future of a without adversely impacting the ecological balance of the universe.
world in which both population and energy usage continually in- The missing link in this effort could be the lack of incorporation of
creases. In the environmental sustainability discourse, while the existing traditional wisdom of indigenous communities in the
arguing that the availability of cheap and easily movable fuel is sustainability debate.
important, it is also a fact that it may be essential for the developing Interestingly, studies on sustainability clearly reveals that the
regions to increase their energy capacities, to improve their stan- production and distribution systems of ancient civilizations and the
dards of living, and to stabilize their populations. Yet long term philosophical basis of these were based on what constitutes the
ecological sustainability concerns would have to be addressed. Wilk modern day best practices of sustainability!
(2002) tries to make an interesting correlation between cultures The fact is that the basic economic model has become the de
and energy use. The possibility of placing energy consumption facto model for the modern world with an upward rising growth
within the broad context of culture to broaden the understanding curve in perpetuity. This is sought to be achieved by ever increasing
of sustainable energy problem opens up new perspectives. It ex- consumption which has to be equally matched by production.
amines the evolution of energy use, origins of consumer culture, However, the bottleneck to this model is the limited supply of
dynamics of consumer society, cycles of consumption, and prob- natural resources. While non renewable natural components such
lems of over consumption. It is shown that increase in energy ef- as minerals are fast running out, others natural resources are being
ficiency is normally offset by an increase in consumption. depleted at a rate faster than their ability to replenish. This has
Furthermore, modern culture and consumerism are expanding created legitimate fears about the ultimate and inevitable collapse
throughout the world. It is argues that different solutions to energy of the economic system. Under the circumstances, it has been the
problems will have to emerge, each within a different historical, endeavor of researchers to seek knowledge and answers from older
economic, political, and cultural context. Unfortunately, such a civilizations and gain from their traditional wisdom. A case study of
growth paradigm may not be possible to achieve in a scenario the Khasi sacred forest is part of this effort constitutes the primary
where the earth resources are limited as opined by the work of Club purpose of this paper.
of Rome. Thus it is apparent that the problem stems from the fact A key finding from this study is that the traditional knowledge
that mankind does not know how to reign in its need for contin- systems as seen from the study of the Khasi traditions and exam-
uous economic growth without adversely affecting ecological ination of the Khasi sacred forest holds important lessons for
sustainability. overcoming some of the major problems of the present world. For
Concerns about ecological sustainability has steadily grown instance, one may allude to traditional system of forest manage-
especially in recent decades [Bookchin (1987); Lemons et al. ment which consist of minute understanding of natural cycles and
(1997)]. Thankfully, the focus has not been confined to short term co-relation between microorganisms and plants etc. It also throws
issues but on medium and long long-term environmental, social, light on the medicinal value of particular tree species and their
and economic implications spanning both localized situations as probable uses. However, much of the traditional wisdom has to be
well as global concerns [Daly et al. (1994); Goodland (1995)]. corroborated by scientific studies. As a future direction to these
However, though the terms sustainable development and sustain- findings, active research into traditional belief systems backed by
able communities have gained wide currency [Mazmanian and scientific studies can provide answers to many a pressing problem
Kraft (2009); Bank (1997)], at the same time, a huge amount of being faced by mankind. These could effectively lead to develop-
ambiguity continues to be associated with the word sustainability ment of sustainable systems of growth where economy is properly
itself! [Holmberg and Sandbrook (1992)]. It has been acknowledged aligned to ecology.
that sustainability is a multifaceted concept that may defy simple Conceptually, the approach of this study can be understood with
explanations [Gupta and Raman (2009); Hahn and Figge (2011)]. Fig. 1.
Probably, the best acceptable explanation can be traced to the The rest of this paper is structured as follows - Section 2 gives
statement in the report (1987) on environment and development the purpose of this study, Section 3 elaborates the methodology,
which stated “Humanity has the ability to make development Section 4 discusses the Khasi sacred forests from the prism of
sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without traditional wisdom, Section 5 discusses the findings and Section 6
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own gives the conclusion and future direction of this research work.
needs”. Although defining sustainability cannot be done in simple
and straightforward terms [Pounder (2011)] yet it is generally seen 2. Purpose of the study
to be aligned with the concept of sustainable development which in
turn is based upon the concept of the triple bottom line or 3 P s The problem of achieving and maintaining sustained economic
consisting of people, profit, and planet [Goodland (1995); Elkington growth seems to be a problem that is unique to the modern post
(1998)]. This has led to the development of a more structured view industrial economy. Along with this is the growing realization that
of sustainability where the equation seems to be more clearly the world is fast running out of resources that is required to
enunciated. While the concepts of sustainability and ecological maintain the perpetual growth cycle. This has resulted in the
integrity has often been interpreted in differing ways depending on mainstreaming of concepts such as sustainability and sustainable
the context [Dobson (1995); Pepper (2002)], yet the major development. With sustainable development being understood as
emphasis has always been the judicious use of natural capital and the symbiosis between ecology and economy, what is also being
the reciprocity between humanity and nature. Jabareen (2004) realized is the difficulty of achieving this equation. This has led
 S. Kakoty / Journal of Cleaner Production 172 (2018) 3215e3224 3217

Fig. 1. Sustainable system for growth.

researchers to study the ancient civilizations which may have The traditional religion too is essentially a philosophy of living in
created economic systems and practices that was based on living in harmony with nature. The paper is aimed at critically examining
harmony with nature. The Khasi tribe, which belongs to the Mon the concepts of sustainability and sustainable development and
Khmer group of races can be found in the north east of India. One of contrast these concepts to the living knowledge system of the Khasi
the earliest tribes to have migrated to this region, the Khasis have a tribe and see if it could be an important source of guidance for
set of unique social and cultural practices. It is one of the few modern man in his quest for sustainability.
matrilinial tribes in the world that traces descent from the mother.
3218 S. Kakoty / Journal of Cleaner Production 172 (2018) 3215e3224

3. Methodology forests have all but disappeared. Some of these can still be found in
the Khasi hills of Meghalaya. Scientific studies reveals that such
The methodology for the study included both primary and sacred forests are bio-diversity hotspots and a treasure house of
secondary sources. Primary research consisted of a case study unique flora and fauna species [Tiwari et al. (2010)]. Undoubtedly,
conducted on the largest sacred forest in Meghalaya, the Maw- these constitute one of the best examples of ancient wisdom in
phlang Sacred forest which is the best preserved traditional forest ensuring ecological sustainability. The amazing feat of ensuring the
in the entire region. It is located some 25 km away from Shillong survival of these forests through the centuries has been achieved
and have an area of 76.08 acres. The existence of numerous sacred not through the patrolling or armed guards, but though an
forests was noted way back in 1908 in the Imperial Gazetteer of enduring belief system. Like the world view of tribes in different
India which stated that the Khasi hills are ”clothed with clumps of parts of the world, for the Khasi too, forests, rivers and trees were
oak, chestnut, magnolia, beech and other trees, which superstition thought to personify gods and spirits. These were venerated and
has preserved from the axe of the wood cutter”. Sadly, most of these worshiped, and their places of dwelling, be it forests or caves were
forests that were reported in the Gazetteer of 1908 are no more in considered as sacred. Such places or objects, treated as the abode of
existence. Perhaps the best known of the Sacred Forest that con- the gods were not only revered but also worshiped and protected.
tinues to survive is that of Mawphlang, which was a small village The strength of tradition certainly succeeded in ensuring that for-
when the British established their headquarters at Cherrapunjee or ests designated as sacred were protected and preserved. This
Sohra. The Mawphlang sacred forest is at an average elevation of preservation was certainly helped by the belief system that made it
6000 ft and is situated at 25.34
North Latitude and 91.56
East taboo to pick up anything, which included even a tiny leaf and carry
Longitude. The verdant sacred forest itself is a thickly wooded area it out of the forest! The belief system also firmly proclaimed that
surrounded by a rocky grass covered landscape. The sacred grove is any disobedience of this would result in serious consequences such
looked after by a clan known as the Lyngdoh Mawphlang and is as ailments and disease. Interestingly, it was also believed that
under the overall care of the Lyngdoh or the priest of this clan who unless the transgression was atoned for through prescribed rituals,
stays nearby this grove. The rituals are performed inside the it would prove to be fatal. In addition, veneration to the deities was
sanctum sanctorum of the grove but the frequency of such rituals also prescriptive. It was a normal practice to pray to them in order
are decreasing day by day. The highest point of Mawphlang is the to pacify or seek the blessings of the forest gods. The forests spirits
Ring Kiew Mawiong which is at an altitude of 6138 feet. From atop were also appeased through rituals and sacrifices and in turn the
this mount can be seen the Lum Shyllong to the east, the Lum spirits ensured the welfare of the people. Today, such beliefs are
Rableng to the south east the Lum Swer to the south the Symper often ridiculed and derisively dubbed as animism and superstition.
Kma wan in the west and the Lum Dieng iei in the north East. The Moreover, due to the relentless pressure of more organized re-
Lum Ring Kiew Mawiong though being the highest of the peaks is a ligions, traditional belief systems are also fast disappearing. With
mountain consisting of very gentle slopes. them are disappearing a way of life that was instrumental in pre-
Extended field trips during 2004-5 and then again in 2015-17 serving the sustainability of human civilization. As a case in point
also included a number of interviews and discussions with the may be cited the example of these sacred forests of the Khasi tribe.
secretary of the Mawphlang village, the Lyngdoh or the Priest of the In the not too distant past, many forests of the Khasi and Jaintia hills
Forest, the local guides who take people inside the forests, the were designated as sacred. In fact, even the name of the capital city
village headman, and the locals of the surrounding villages. Inter- of the state, Shillong, is derived from the hill U Lum Shyllong, where
estingly, the audio visual documentation of the forest resulted in the present day Shillong Peak is located. It was considered a sacred
the author scripting and directing a 25 min documentary on the forest, where resided the spirit of the guardian deity, U Lei Shyllong
forest which was broadcast in 2006 by the state owned Television [Gurdon (1987): 115]. The location of this sacred forest seems to
Channel in India, Doordarshan. have been arrived at after careful deliberation. As an example, the
Secondary sources included books, articles and journal publi- Laitkor forest range which housed the sacred forests are today
cations. Attempts were made to posit the Khasi traditional recognized as an important rain catchment area for the Shillong
knowledge systems by comparing it to Traditional Ecological valley. It is due to this forest that most of the perennial springs that
Knowledge Systems (TEK)of Adi and the Monpa tribes of Arunachal supplies crystal clear water to a large part of Shillong round the year
Pradesh in India, and the first nations in Canada. owe their existence. Today, with the denudation of these forests,
numerous hill springs are drying up and water scarcity has become
4. The Khasi sacred forests much more common. Sadly, in a landscape that once boasted of
many such forests, only a few survives. Of those that exists, perhaps
Tribal communities and forests seemingly share a symbiotic the most celebrated is the one located at Mawphlang. It is consid-
relationship that extends from providing the basic necessities for ered to be an ecological and biodiversity hotspot. It is assumed that
the sustenance of the community to serving its temporal re- the core forest area has remained undisturbed for over five hundred
quirements and beliefs. While the forest itself is considered to be years and is home to various exotic species of flora and fauna.
the abode of gods and spirits, certain plants, animals rivers and Withstanding the tremendous pressure of population and ever
rocks, could be deified and worshiped. This created a relationship of growing hunger for resources, perhaps the only reason that the
mutual benefit in which forests were used for survival of man, and forest has survived is because it is designated as sacred. It is the
in turn man looked after the upkeep of the forests [Kharkongor and respect of the people towards the Khasi faith and the vibrant belief
Tiwari (2017)]. This constitutes a good example of a symbiotic system of the indigenous people that continues to protect it. This
relationship of mutual benefit based on respect. Not surprisingly, verdant forest is also considered a rain catchment area and prob-
select forests, in different parts of the world has been consecrated ably, it is no co-incidence that much of Shillong's growing water
as sacred and treated with veneration and respect. In the case of supply needs are met from the Mawphlang dam, fed from the
India and especially in the tribal regions of central and the north nearby perennial river ! The pristine sacred forest of Mawphlang is
eastern region, there were a number of forests that were designated home to an amazing range of flora and fauna. Much of the species
as sacred. However, with the onset of modernity, most of these that can be found there is yet to be properly documented. None the
 S. Kakoty / Journal of Cleaner Production 172 (2018) 3215e3224 3219

less, it is accepted that these forests are home to many exotic and sustainability, yet it shares a close affinity with the basic postulates
endemic species. A recent discovery that greatly excited the sci- of sustainability. For instance, traditional communities and indig-
entific community was the medicinal plant known as the Taxus enous religions the world over are accepted repositories of ancient
Baccata. In recent times, the plant had become extremely impor- knowledge and wisdom, as has been discussed and illustrated in
tant for the medical world as it was a rare plant species that had a Section 4 while discoursing on the Khasi sacred forests. Signifi-
huge anti cancer property. Interestingly, in the Khasi tradition, this cantly, with the tribal communities, such knowledge systems are
tree was always venerated and called the Ksesh Blei which may be living traditions. Thus such living knowledge systems could be an
literally translated as god's tree or the sacred tree [Kakoty (2012)]. It important source of guidance for the modern man in the quest for
is certainly worth asking as to why was it so named? Was it because sustainability.
the ancients had knowledge about its medicinal properties? Wis- Ecology and environment are two of the facets that have been
dom of the traditional societies may have the answer to many a driving the sustainability discourse to a great extent. Faris (2009)
problem of modern day civilization. It is time we learn from their and others have clearly demonstrated the growth of conflicts,
wisdom. unrest and wars due to ecological reasons. An interesting article
Khasi traditional wisdom would certainly encompass a wide by Homer-Dixon et al. (1993) and others in Scientific American
gamut of knowledge systems. The two essential postulates of Khasi shows how natural resource scarcities and distributive inequities
philosophy and world view are the concepts of tip briew tip blei often leads to environmental degradation and violent human
which may be translated as know your fellow being to realize god conflicts, especially in developing countries. It cautions about the
and the other is the injunction of ka kamai ia ka hok or ensuring that possibility of worsening environmental conditions and escalating
ones livelihood is earned only through righteous means. Out of violence in coming decades, and recommends increased inter-
these have grown an entire philosophy of life and living that in- national cooperation to provide for sustainable development.
corporates respect to nature and specific rules of conduct which ~
Another writer MartAnez-Alier (1997) also dwells on ecological
includes conservation of consecrated forests as sacred forests and distribution linked conflicts throughout the world. He shows the
natural healing systems, through use of herbs, plants and in- linkages between local environmental movements and global
cantations. The concept of property too is extremely interesting. ecological problems. There is also the growing trend of linking
Most forests, rivers and lakes would be held as belonging to the international ecological concerns such as the struggle against
commons. Individuals who displayed signs of extreme prosperity toxic imperialism. Others seek to link issues of environment to
were viewed with suspicion as worshipers of the snake devil or the issues of ecological justice. It has also been argued by writers such
thlen. As this devil could be propitiated only with human blood, the as Low and Gleeson (1998) that since the environment is funda-
suspected devil worshipers often face social ostracism if not mentally shared by all living entities any attempts to speak of
outright violence. Probably such practices evolved to discourage environmental justice would entail the recognition of the funda-
extreme social disparities from emerging. Though much of the mental right of all living creatures to the same environment.
knowledge of traditional healing methods and systems of man- Bryner (2002) advocates that the understanding of environmental
nature interaction have faded due to lack of patronage, yet, justice and ecological sustainability has to be seen from the same
strong remnants remain especially in the rural areas. The system of prism. Touche (2002) too has emphasized on linking environ-
commons seem to have been greatly usurped by the elite of the mental justice with ecological sustainability. According to
Khasi society. Goodland (1995) environmental sustainability seeks to sustain
global life-support systems indefinitely. In specific terms, this
5. Discussion would entail achieving environmental sustainability by stabilizing
and also reducing the environmental burdens [Singh (2009)].
There is a growing clamor to learn from the wisdom of the an- These environmental burdens could be global warming, depletion
cients and incorporate practices and philosophies that have stood of stratospheric ozone layer, pollution of sea and rivers, noise and
the test of time. The need to incorporate traditional knowledge was light pollution, acid rain and desertification [Ramlogan (1997)].
brought home after the Tsunami of 2004. When the massive Constantly growing industrialization and globalization along with
Tsunami of December 26th, 2004 ravaged Asia, one of the hardest increasing numbers of Multinationals (MNCs) around the world
hit region were the remote chain some 500 islands known collec- are mainly held responsible for environmental damages in several
tively as the Andaman and Nicobar. These islands are predomi- ways [Kumar et al. (2011)]. Now it requires organizations to
nantly inhabited by hunter gatherer tribes that have little contact address issues related to environmental degradation in order to
with the outside world. As the Tsunami unleashed major damage in develop a sustainable vision [Walker (2008)] and achieve
the developed regions, anthropologists feared that the backward competitive advantage in long-run.
tribes of this region may have been completely wiped out. Thank- While seeking solutions to the growing sustainability issues,
fully, researchers after the Tsunami discovered that the tribal there is a trend of reexamining the body of knowledge known as
community used their ancient knowledge of nature to escape the Buddhist economics. This is seen as one of the major repositories
Tsunami. For instance, one of the tribes are the Onge. They are of traditional wisdom. The cornerstone of the concept of Buddhist
estimated to have lived in these islands for some 30000e50000 economics is probably the concept of right livelihood. The concept
years. Today their population stands at some one hundred in- of livelihood is one of the primary component of the Buddha's
dividuals and they are on the verge of extinction. However, in the noble eight fold path, as well as a postulate for much of its phil-
Tsunami, they suffered no casualties as their folklore speaks of large osophical moorings. As a concept it is often sought to be compared
waves that follows earthquakes. So true to their tradition, all of with ethical behavior both individually and in dealings with
them retreated to high grounds after the earthquake. This ensured others. When applied to business, ethics and business are not seen
that they escaped the violence of the Tsunami that followed. It is as complimentary forces and hence becomes difficult to incor-
apparent that the aboriginals know about Tsunamis and they also porate into mainstream economics. For the modern economist,
know how to deal with them, as evidenced in news reports the standard yardstick of measuring development has been the
[Bhaumik (2005), Geographic (2005)]. Juxtaposing traditional standard of living which assumes that a man who consumes more
wisdom in the context of the sustainability discourse reveals that is better off than a man who consumes less. A Buddhist economist
though traditional wisdom does not specifically deal with
3220 S. Kakoty / Journal of Cleaner Production 172 (2018) 3215e3224

would consider this approach excessively irrational, since con- human and environmental systems and relationships between
sumption is merely a means to human well being, the aim should sustainability and democracy.
be to obtain the maximum of well being with the minimum of Sollner (1997) examines the major weaknesses in the neo-
consumption. This also succeeds in focusing attention on the classical version of environmental economics and argues that
importance of understanding sustainability vis-a-vis develop- neoclassical economics is deficient because the value theory, copied
ment, growth, neoclassical economics and market liberalization, as it were, from classical mechanics is incompatible with the en-
in addition to ecology and environment. An interesting study was tropy law of thermodynamics. To achieve the proper integration of
done by Singh et al. (2010) and others to look at the traditional thermodynamics into environmental economics it would require a
knowledge and related bio cultural resources among Adi and fundamental restructuring of economic theory itself. The author
Monpa tribes from Arunachal Pradesh and Khasi tribe from also stresses the importance of entropy in seriously addressing the
Meghalaya. Other studies [Kakoty (2012)] have looked at tradi- energy supply problems and how thermodynamics could serve a
tions followed by tribes such as the Apatanis of Arunachal Pra- heuristic function in identifying shortcomings of neoclassical eco-
desh, the Angamis of Nagaland and the Khasis of Meghalaya. All nomics. Deleage (1989) too was unsparing in his criticism of both
these studies point to the prevalence of traditions and practices capitalism and socialism in evaluating concepts of energy and the
that have not only stood the test of time but could provide viable relationship between humanity and nature. He looks at how nature
answers to many a modern day problem and enhance the well is finite, how economic activity is essentially entropic in character
being quotient of sustainability. Natural methods of soil regener- and what is the linkage between exploitation of nature and
ation and enrichment among the Angamis and the Apatanis are exploitation of humans. The author discusses the systems of pro-
certainly worth examining. Among the Khasis, the huge number duction that were born of the industrial revolution, and highlights
of patients flocking to herbal healers is testimony to the efficacy of how capitalism is destroying nature on a planetary scale. At the
the traditional knowledge system. While many of the herbal same time he finds fault with the socialist system for having equally
healers are dying without passing on their knowledge to the next ignored civilizations ecological and thermodynamic constraints.
generation, there is also the lack of institutional mechanisms that Interestingly, prior to the enactments of environmental legislation
would facilitate the transfer of such knowledge. There still exists a in 1970s, it was absolutely legal to pollute the natural environment
lot of animosity and antipathy between the traditional systems of [Rogers and Hudson (2011)]. Unless we revisit the basic postulates
healing and the allopathic systems that have become main- of economics, it will be difficult to incorporate sustainability into
streamed. Yet, there have been cases where traditional bone set- the development model in any meaningful manner.
ters have used modern devices such as X rays to help in their Linking growth rates to development has always been prob-
diagnosis and treatment. But such instances are few and far be- lematic. It is also accepted that development in order to be mean-
tween. What is needed is a Systemic approach to learn from the ingful has to be sustainable. Though it is argued that market
wisdom of traditional knowledge systems. Unfortunately, com- liberalization would lead to higher growth rates and thereby propel
munities and their traditional practices and knowledge systems development, the reality has been different. Taylor and Pieper
are under increasing pressure. For instance, knowledge exchange (1996) provides an excellent critique on the outcomes of the mar-
in tribal societies follow the oral route as they are pre literate. This ket liberalization principles known as the Washington Consensus.
was achieved through an organizational structure called the Initiated in the 1980s to guide the stabilization and adjustment
Bachelor Dormitories. Known as Morungs among the Nagas or programs of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank,
Nokpante among the Garo tribes, the youth of these tribes spent these measures did have some success in initiating conventional
their time here under the supervision of elders, learning crafts and growth but failed miserably in eradicating either poverty or
picking up lores and stories packed with wisdom. Today, these inequality, and improving gender relations, education, and human
have all but disappeared and hence the very vehicle for sharing health. A similar approach can be seen in Beckenbach (1994) where
community knowledge and values also disappeared. This leads to social costs of structures and reproductive patterns that are typical
the natural concern that the disappearance of the true elders will in developed capitalist countries are evaluated. The author in-
lead to complete loss of traditional knowledge. However, some dicates the shifting of social costs from individual economic agents
opine that this pessimism may be somewhat misplaced [Sherry to society is common. The author sorts through definitions of social
and Myers (2002)]. In spite of facing challenges from numerous costs, theorizes social costs in context of capitalist production, an-
quarters, traditional knowledge systems are still vital and active. alyzes determinants of social costs, argues social costs are both
At the same time, it is also a natural process that subtle changes monetary and non monetary phenomena, provides a classification
are incorporated and change in tradition also affected [Johnson of social costs, and concludes with implications for decision mak-
(1992)]. ing. With regard to energy, the discussion highlights treatment of
Constanza and Daly (1987) emphasizes the crucial distinction energy as a commodity, waste of energy, burdens of energy use on
between the concept of growth which usually implies a quantita- humans and nature, and government involvement in energy
tive increase in size and the concept of development that implies a markets.
qualitative improvement in organization. The authors further ar- The modern parameters of development measurement, skewed
gues that quantitative growth is not sustainable, but qualitative as they are towards measurement of GDP/GNP, ensures that the
development may be sustainable. The biological-physical limits and modern industrial societies easily appear more developed than
the ethical-social limits to growth need to be considered. The traditional societies. Goodland makes a strong case for dis-
problem of sustainability may presuppose utilization of the moral tinguishing environmental sustainability from social sustainability
knowledge inherited from the past. Holmberg and Sandbrook and economic sustainability. While environmental sustainability is
(1992) review the problems in defining sustainable development seen in terms of maintaining natural capital, there is the persistent
and goes on to identify inter generational equity as a generally effort to link the crucial issues of growth, its limits and scale with
recognized priority. At the same time, they also acknowledge that sustainability. The failure to address intra-generational sustain-
important questions regarding economic development, social ability in the present will make it more difficult to achieve inter
welfare, and the environment remain unanswered. Some of the generational sustainability in the future. In other words, short term
major dilemmas include limits to quantitative economic growth, growth cannot replace long term sustainability. Daly et al. (1994)
measurement of qualitative development, trade-offs between critiques standard economic theory and bemoans the fact that
 S. Kakoty / Journal of Cleaner Production 172 (2018) 3215e3224 3221

conventional economics has led humanity toward environmental govern the behavior of all who partake of resources and their
catastrophe. They focus on the discipline of economics as a benefits. In addition, traditional management dwells not merely
deductive science with huge limitations. Instead, what is presented with resource use but also to relationships with the community and
is an alternative approach to the subject which would be largely the environment. Without a doubt, many of the traditional man-
people centric. When one widens the scope of the discourse and agement systems are under tremendous stress and breaking down
include concepts such as quality of life and the happiness index, the under the impacts of modern technology, competition, globaliza-
equation could significantly alter. Heinberg makes an interesting tion, education, population growth, and resource depletion
observation when he points out that in the scenario where the [Murphree (1993); Dyer (1994)]. The views of local communities
nation's economic health, the GDP, is calculated in terms of mon- regarding environment and resource use represents only a small
etary transactions, a country which has happy families is not re- part of the learning that indigenous communities have to bring to
flected in the GDP. But in case of the country suffering a war or a resource management decisions [Kendrick and Manseau (2008)].
natural disaster, the subsequent increase in monetary transactions The narratives and cumulative experience of elders provide a
would boost the GDP! [Heinberg (2011): 40]. It is an accepted fact wealth of knowledge and interpretive skills to understand subtle
that after Bhutan successfully argued for the inclusion of what has nuances that may defy proper explanation in conventional map-
been termed as the happiness quotient into the development ping exercises. It has to be accepted that understanding and
paradigm, it resulted in a significant and qualitative change in the explaining changes in the environment with any in-depth analysis
understanding of development measurement indices [Lloyd or geographical context is exceptionally challenging. It is also
(2012):171]. In a couple of years, the happiness index has become difficult to differentiate between the signs of adaptive change and
an integral part of the development measurement indices being that of ecological crisis. Incomplete knowledge concerning studies
adopted all over the world and is gradually emerging as a corner of vast landscapes is a reality. Applying the generalization from one
stone of the development debate. Unfortunately, there still does not area to another is often not appropriate. The challenge is even
exist a model for prosperity without growth [Sanwal (2015): 31]. greater in the highly remote areas. Attempts at mapping and dis-
After the concept of happiness established itself as an important cussion of community-based observations are considered essential
component of measuring development, it was hardly surprising to understand how best to prevent the negative impact of
that other qualitative concepts soon followed. Of these, the two anthropogenic activities or how to best plan for sustainable land
major concepts that slowly gained ground in developmental eco- use activities on these vast landscapes [Kofinas and communities of
nomics are sustainability and quality of life. Sustainability slowly Aklavik Arctic Village Old Crow Fort McPherson (2002); Huntington
emerged as the key focus of the modern world especially after the et al. (2002)].
World Commission on Environment and Development known as Traditional knowledge systems have been built with the com-
the Brundtland Commission, published its report in 1987. Following munity as the primary stake holder and a symbiotic relationship
this, the United Nations adopted it thereby bringing to the center between man and nature is it's cornerstone. This model seeks to
stage the new paradigm of the three pillars of economic growth, promote the well being of both the individual as well as the com-
social equality and environmental sustainability [Muff et al. (2013): munity as opposed to the concept of measuring development
4]. However, the quality of life debate is yet to develop universally through the scale of growth rates and GDP.
accepted measurement indices. None the less, what is pertinent is
that the concept of sustainability would necessarily encompass the 6. Conclusions and future directions
quality of life component within its discourse. It is seen in the
traditions of indigenous communities that the well being of the Richard Heinberg succinctly sums it up [Heinberg (2011): 2e3],
individual as a part of the larger ecosystem is primary. Incorpora- when he says that there are three factors that adds up to a crisis
tion of such a philosophy in co management of environment has situation looming large - (a) the depletion of important resources
produced good results. Studies show that conservation efforts coupled with the proliferation of negative environmental impacts;
could be more effective with the inclusion of local interests (b) inevitable financial disruption due to the innate inability of the
[Freeman (1997)]. Unfortunately, the goal of integrating traditional monetary, banking and investment systems to adjust to growing
knowledge systems with state policies has proved elusive. In some resource scarcity and soaring environmental costs; (c) private and
cases, co management has succeeded in improving the level of governmental bad debts. The negative environmental impacts
communication and understanding between aboriginal and non essentially arises out of both extraction and over use of important
aboriginal groups [Osherenko (1988)] and has even emerged and resources. This problem of achieving and maintaining sustained
functioned as a mechanism for dispute resolution. However, in the economic growth seems to be a problem that is unique to the post
end it is also apparent that Western science and state management industrial economy. Dixon identities five major areas or concern
priorities and procedures tend to predominate. Aboriginal people which he terms as tectonic stresses that could emerge as potent
have found scanty acceptance for their traditional knowledge and threats to the global order. He points to energy scarcity and over
ideology in bureaucratic institutions [Nakashima (1991)]. Sherry dependence on fossil fuel, economic meltdown and resource and
and Myers (2002) has identified two models of resource manage- income inequities. The other stress factors he elucidates are de-
ment that are in active use throughout Canada, the aboriginal mographic problems, environmental issues and climate change
system and the state system. Several authors have characterized challenges. He calls upon the need to ensure deep reform and
and compared these two models [Osherenko (1988); Berkes (1994); renewal of institutions, social relations, technologies, and
Johnson (1992); Dyer (1994); Kofinas (1998)]. Aboriginal manage- entrenched habits of behavior in order to prevent catastrophe. It is
ment is a local or regional-level system based on customary au- being increasingly realized that the ancient civilizations may have
thority, traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), and communal economic systems and practices that was based on living in har-
management principles [Kofinas (1998)]. makes the interesting mony with nature. Christopher Lloyd extrapolates the phenome-
observation that the local aboriginal systems of management often non of Hinduism being the longest surviving religion in all human
reduces information into useful knowledge through the judicious history and talks about its veneration for nature. The deep philo-
conjunction of their distinctive worldview, cultural practices and sophical basis provided by religious texts such as the Vedas, the
normative values. It is essentially a system of rules, norms, and Upanishads and the Gita, coupled with the preaching of people like
customs concerning rights and responsibilities that are intended to the Buddha deeply influenced how humans found out that it was
3222 S. Kakoty / Journal of Cleaner Production 172 (2018) 3215e3224

possible to adapt its civilization to live in harmony with the natural expanding markets and the required critical mass to ensure sus-
world [Lloyd (2012): 167]. tainability. Incidentally, the traditional knowledge systems are
When one tries to understand and explain the modern day extremely democratic and the community character of resource use
concepts of sustainability there is a growing realization that pre and management could hold important lessons for policy planners.
industrial and ancient civilizations could boast of practices that In the traditional Khasi belief system, the rules of interacting
were eco friendly and sustainable. For instance, in the case of the with nature were well laid down. Natural cycles and seasonality
Himalayan region of Ladhak, it was beautifully pointed out that in were understood and respected. For instances, certain months in
every grain of Ladhaki life can be seen the Buddhist teachings the year were considered taboo for cutting trees or even bamboos.
which decry waste and encourage the efficient husbanding of land On interviewing some of the elders of the tribe it transpired that
and water, an amazing frugality that arises from respect and grat- certain months were considered unsuitable for harvesting trees
itude for the limited resources of the land [Norberg-Hodge and bamboos because timber and bamboo cut in certain months
(1991):xii]. Deeper examination of the production and distribu- was prone to insect attack. Peter Wohlleben, in his amazing
tion systems of ancient civilizations and the philosophical tenets research on tree life alludes to the fact that in certain seasons the
that supported it, were based on what constitutes the modern day water pressure in trees is the highest, such as before the leaves
best practices of sustainability. The study of the Ladhaki society by opens up in spring. The water pressure is used to transport large
Norberg drew enormous interest and Stuart Hart goes along with quantities of sugar from the roots to the leaves, buds and blossoms.
the argument that the traditional nature based society, with all its People and insects take advantage of this phenomenon. For
flaws and limitations, was probably more sustainable, both socially instance, people in USA and Canada use this natural cycle of sugar
and environmentally, for the Ladhakis [Hart (2007):173]. Not sur- distribution in trees during this season to harvest the sap from
prisingly, of late, there is a renewed interest to research and learn sugar maples [Wohlleben (2016)]. Arguably when the trees devote
from the wisdom of the ancients and incorporate philosophies and their entire energy to growth, they surely cut down on their pro-
practices that have stood the test of time. It is in this context regions duction of chemicals to repel insects! To make worse, the abundant
that have considerable populations of traditional communities, sugar made available for growth would also attract the insects. It is
such as the north eastern region of India, could make significant interesting to dwell on the Khasi taboo of cutting tress in particular
contribution to our understanding of sustainability. In this region, seasons and link it to this natural phenomenon. The other notable
there are as many as 217 tribes listed as scheduled tribe [Singh facet of the Khasi belief system is their deep veneration of partic-
(2008) Reprint):29], though unofficial listing of tribal commu- ular species of trees and plants. Modern research is showing that
nities would raise the number significantly. Each community not many of the species that were venerated in the traditional belief
only speaks a different language but also has unique cultural system, has medicinal properties. The Khasi sacred forest at Maw-
practices. These communities had simple economies that were phlang is home to a tree locally known as Ksesh Blei, which literally
essentially in a pre-industrial stage. Many of these communities means the God's Tree. This tree is nothing but the wonder tree for
were also in a pre-literate stage and had world views and belief fighting cancer: Taxus Bacatta.
systems that may be compared to nature worship [Singh (1991): What is being noticed in the Khasi traditions is a strong reviv-
13e20]. All over the world such communities, their belief systems alist movement. Known as the Seng Khasi movement, it has revival
and religions are recognized as being repositories of ancient and propagation of the indigenous faith as its main agenda. With it
knowledge and wisdom. Significantly, with most tribal commu- could emerge a better understanding of its philosophy and appre-
nities, such knowledge systems are not a part of history but are a ciation of the traditional knowledge system of the Khasis. An
living tradition that continue to be practiced. Thus such living instance of this could be the traditional system of Khasi healing,
knowledge systems are considered to be an important source of known as Kynbat, which consists of the use of herbs, animal parts,
guidance for modern man in his quest for sustainability. massage and incantations. While modern medicine may term the
Hart makes a strong case for holistic thinking by recounting the practice as quackery, yet demonstrated efficacy of certain treat-
phrase “Thinking Like a Mountain” used by Aldo Leopold in his ments holds important possibilities for medical researchers.
1949 classic A Sand Country Almanac [Leopold (1949)]. It was used Certain commandments for social life, such as the principle of Ka
in relation to the phenomena of exterminating wolves which Kamai Ia Ka Hok which roughly could mean righteous living
solved the sheep farmers problem in the short run, but led to huge through right livelihood or the principle of Tip Briew Tip Blei, which
overpopulation of deer, leading to large scale environmental could mean that realization of God can be achieved by knowing and
problems. This led to the growth of the idea that one has to serving fellow humans. These may be understood as injunctions of
incorporate the practice of thinking like a mountain that would life that may be termed as wisdom which emerges out of the
entail appreciation of the holistic character of natural systems and traditional knowledge systems. It stands to reason that such take
the intricate inter connections in the eco system. This had led always from traditional knowledge systems and different facets of
writers such as Khanna and Palepu (1997) to argue that focused Buddhist economics, shows the possibility that mainstreaming
strategies may not really work in the long run. Moreover, It can be sustainability could be the way ahead for the global economy. The
seen that though much effort may be expended in building markets more important issue in this case is how and in what ways can this
as a tool for economic and social development, yet what is often route of sustainability be taken by the global economy. The time
overlooked are the impediments of social exclusion and poverty tested ecological sustainability, as shown to us by the Khasi sacred
that prevent growth. Building on data from rural Bangladesh and forests and the traditional wisdom held in it gives us some answers.
analyzing the work of a prominent intermediary organization, Mair A dedicated discourse on this is a future direction of possible
et al. (2012) discovers some serious institutional voids that research.
contribute actively towards market exclusion and identify two sets
of activitiesdredefining market architecture and legitimating new
Funding sources
actors as being critical for building inclusive markets. Trying to
understand economic systems through broader perspectives may
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
be important. Inclusive growth would include greater participation,
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 S. Kakoty / Journal of Cleaner Production 172 (2018) 3215e3224 3223

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