Pumps –

Alternating Pumps
Secure the system and achieve equal wear by alternate pumps in parallel
Critical systems should always be equipped with more than one pump. Choosing
between the installation of one or more backup pumps depends on the costs of the
installation and

• how critical the operation of the system is - a water supply system for a hospital is more
critical than a chilled water cooling systems for homes.
• the delivery and installation time of a new pump.
If two or more pumps are used, the operation between the pumps should be
systematically altered to achieve equal wear.

Alternatives for Alternating Pumps

Pumps can be systematically altered by

• manual alteration - where the operator selects the lead pump and the sequence of the lag
pumps.
• duty alternation - where the lead pump change every time the pump or system is stopped.
• timed alternation - where the lead pump is switched by a timer or clock.
• equal run time - where the lead pump is switched to achieve the same operating time for
each pump.
Note! Running an automatic system for equalizing the wear of the pumps

• has the advantage of extending the time before repair and reinvestments.
• has the disadvantage that all pumps may wear out on at the same time - reducing the
operation safety for the whole system.
Classifications of Pumps
Pumps are in general classified as Centrifugal Pumps (or Roto-dynamic pumps) and
Positive Displacement Pumps.

Centrifugal Pumps (Roto-dynamic pumps)

The centrifugal or roto-dynamic pump produce a head and a flow by increasing the
velocity of the liquid through the machine with the help of a rotating vane
impeller. Centrifugal pumps include radial, axial and mixed flow units.

1
Centrifugal pumps can further be classified as

• end suction pumps

• in-line pumps
• double suction pumps
• vertical multistage pumps
• horizontal multistage pumps
• submersible pumps
• self-priming pumps
• axial-flow pumps
• regenerative pumps
Positive Displacement Pumps
The positive displacement pump operates by alternating of filling a cavity and then
displacing a given volume of liquid. The positive displacement pump delivers a constant
volume of liquid for each cycle against varying discharge pressure or head.

The positive displacement pump can be classified as:

• Reciprocating pumps - piston, plunger and diaphragm

• Power pumps
• Steam pumps
• Rotary pumps - gear, lobe, screw, vane, regenerative (peripheral) and progressive cavity
Selecting between Centrifugal or Positive Displacement Pumps
Selecting between a Centrifugal Pump or a Positive Displacement Pump is not always
straight forward.

Flow Rate and Pressure Head

The two types of pumps behave very differently regarding pressure head and flow rate:

• The Centrifugal Pump has varying flow depending on the system pressure or head
• The Positive Displacement Pump has more or less a constant flow regardless of the
system pressure or head. Positive Displacement pumps generally gives more pressure
than Centrifugal Pump’s.
Capacity and Viscosity
Another major difference between the pump types is the effect of viscosity on the
capacity:

• In the Centrifugal Pump the flow is reduced when the viscosity is increased
• In the Positive Displacement Pump the flow is increased when viscosity is increased
Liquids with high viscosity fills the clearances of a Positive Displacement Pump causing
a higher volumetric efficiency and a Positive Displacement Pump is better suited for high
viscosity applications. A Centrifugal Pump becomes very inefficient at even modest
viscosity.

Mechanical Efficiency
The pumps behaves different considering mechanical efficiency as well.

2
 • Changing the system pressure or head has little or no effect on the flow rate in the
Positive Displacement Pump
• Changing the system pressure or head has a dramatic effect on the flow rate in the
Centrifugal Pump
Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH
Another consideration is the Net Positive Suction Head NPSH.

• In a Centrifugal Pump, NPSH varies as a function of flow determined by pressure

• In a Positive Displacement Pump, NPSH varies as a function of flow determined by
speed. Reducing the speed of the Positive Displacement Pump pump, reduces the NPSH
Best Efficiency Point - BEP
Maximum designed pump efficiency
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A pump does not completely convert the kinetic to pressure energy. Some of the energy
is always lost internal and external in the pump.

Internal losses

• hydraulic losses - disk friction in the impeller, loss due to rapid change in direction an
velocities through the pump
• volumetric losses - internal recirculation at wear rings and bushes
External losses

• mechanical losses - friction in seals and bearings

The efficiency of the pump at the designed point is normally maximum and is called the

• Best Efficiency Point - BEP

It is possible to operate the pump at other points than BEP, but the efficiency of the
pump will always be lower than BEP.

Boiling Liquids - Pumping Flow Velocities

As a rule of thumb the following velocities can be used in design of piping and pumping systems
for boiling liquids:

3
 Pipe Dimensions Boiling Liquids

inches mm m/s ft/s

1 25 1 3.5

2 50 1.1 3.6

3 75 1.15 3.8

4 100 1.25 4

6 150 1.5 4.7

8 200 1.75 5.5

10 250 2 6.5

12 300 2 6.5

Cavitation - an Introduction
Cavitation is a common problem in pumps and control valves - causing serious wear and
tear and damage. Under the wrong conditions, cavitation reduces the component life
time dramatically.

What is Cavitation?
Cavitation may occur when the local static pressure in a fluid reach a level below the
vapor pressure of the liquid at the actual temperature.

According to the Bernoulli Equation this may happen when the fluid accelerates in a
control valve or around a pump impeller.

The vaporization itself does not cause the damage - the damage happens when the
vapor almost immediately collapses after evaporation when the velocity is decreased
and pressure increased.

Avoiding Cavitation
Cavitation can in general be avoided by

• increasing the distance between the actual local static pressure in the fluid - and the vapor
pressure of the fluid at the actual temperature
This can be done by:

4
 • reengineering components initiating high speed velocities and low static pressures
• increasing the total or local static pressure in the system
• reducing the temperature of the fluid
Reengineering of Components Initiating High Speed Velocity and Low Static Pressure
Cavitation and damage can be avoided by using special components designed for the
actual rough conditions.

• conditions as huge pressure drops can - with limitations - be handled by Multi Stage
Control Valves
• challenging pumping conditions - with fluid temperatures close to the vaporization
temperature - can be handled with special pumps - working after other principles
than centrifugal pumps
Increasing the Total or Local Pressure in the System
By increasing the total or local pressure in the system the distance between the static
pressure and the vaporization pressure is increased and vaporization and cavitation can
be avoided.

The ratio between static pressure and the vaporization pressure - an indication of the
possibility of vaporization, is often expressed by the Cavitation Number.

Unfortunately it may not always be possible to increase total static pressure due to
systems classifications or other limitations. Local static pressure in components may be
increased by lowering the component in the system. Control valves and pumps should in
general be positioned in the lowest part of the systems to maximize static head.

This is common solution for boiler feeding pumps receiving hot condensate (water close
to 100 oC) from condensate receivers.

Reducing the Temperature of the Fluid

The vaporization pressure depends of fluid temperature. Vapor pressure of Water, our
most common fluid, is indicated below:

Temperature Vapor Pressure

(oC) (kN/m2)

0 0.6

5 0.9

10 1.2

15 1.7

20 2.3

5
 Temperature Vapor Pressure
(oC) (kN/m2)

25 3.2

30 4.3

35 5.6

40 7.7

45 9.6

50 12.5

55 15.7

60 20

65 25

70 32.1

75 38.6

80 47.5

85 57.8

90 70

95 84.5

100 101.33
Note! - the possibility of evaporation and cavitation increases dramatically with the water
temperature.

Cavitation can also be avoided by locating components to the coldest part of a system. It
is common to locate pumps in heating systems in the “cold” return lines.

6
This is the same for control valves. If it is possible control valves should be located on
the cold sides of heat exchangers.

Centrifugal Pump Speed-Torque Curve

Centrifugal pumps characteristics - speed torque curve
The theoretical characteristic of a centrifugal pump is a parabola starting from the origin
and proportional to the square of the speed.

The torque can be expressed as

T = k n2 (1)

where

T = torque (Nm, lbf ft)

k = constant

n = pump speed or velocity (rpm)

With the discharge valve closed the torque amounts to 30 - 50 % of the nominal torque
at full speed.

Full Load Torque

The torque at full load can be calculated as

T = 30 P / (π n) (2)

where

T = torque (kN m)

7
P = power (kW)

Centrifugal Pumps
An introduction to Centrifugal Pumps
A centrifugal pump converts the input power to kinetic energy in the liquid by
accelerating the liquid by a revolving device - an impeller. The most common type is the
volute pump. Fluid enters the pump through the eye of the impeller which rotates at high
speed. The fluid is accelerated radially outward from the pump chasing. A vacuum is
created at the impellers eye that continuously draws more fluid into the pump.

The energy created by the pump is kinetic energy according the Bernoulli Equation. The
energy transferred to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the
impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, the higher will the
velocity of the liquid energy transferred to the liquid be. This is described by the Affinity
Laws.

Pressure and Head

If the discharge of a centrifugal pump is pointed straight up into the air the fluid will
pumped to a certain height - or head - called the shut off head. This maximum head is
mainly determined by the outside diameter of the pump’s impeller and the speed of the
rotating shaft. The head will change as the capacity of the pump is altered.

The kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is obstructed by creating

a resistance in the flow. The first resistance is created by the pump casing which
catches the liquid and slows it down. When the liquid slows down the kinetic energy is
converted to pressure energy.

• it is the resistance to the pump’s flow that is read on a pressure gauge attached to the
discharge line
A pump does not create pressure, it only creates flow. The gauge pressure is a
measurement of the resistance to flow.

In fluids the term head is used to measure the kinetic energy which a pump creates.
Head is a measurement of the height of the liquid column the pump could create
from the kinetic energy the pump gives to the liquid.

8
 • the main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pump’s
energy is that the pressure from a pump will change if thespecific gravity (weight) of
the liquid changes, but the head will not
The pump’s performance on any Newtonian fluid can always be described by using the
term head.

Different Types of Pump Head

• Total Static Head - Total head when the pump is not running
• Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) - Total head when the pump is running
• Static Suction Head - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is higher than
the pump impeller
• Static Suction Lift - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is lower than the
pump impeller
• Static Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with the pump off
• Dynamic Suction Head/Lift - Head on suction side of pump with pump on
• Dynamic Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with pump on
The head is measured in either feet or meters and can be converted to common units for
pressure as psi or bar.

• it is important to understand that the pump will pump all fluids to the same height if the
shaft is turning at the same rpm
The only difference between the fluids is the amount of power it takes to get the shaft to
the proper rpm. The higher the specific gravity of the fluid the more power is required.

• Centrifugal Pumps are “constant head machines”

Note that the latter is not a constant pressure machine, since pressure is a function of
head and density. The head is constant, even if the density (and therefore pressure)
changes.

The head of a pump in metric units can be expressed in metric units as:

h = (p2 - p1)/(ρ g) + v22/(2 g) (1)

where

h = total head developed (m)

p2 = pressure at outlet (N/m2)

p1 = pressure at inlet (N/m2)

ρ = density (kg/m3)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81) m/s2

v2 = velocity at the outlet (m/s)

Head described in simple terms

9
 • a pump’s vertical discharge “pressure-head” is the vertical lift in height - usually
measured in feet or m of water - at which a pump can no longer exert enough pressure to
move water. At this point, the pump may be said to have reached its “shut-off” head
pressure. In the flow curve chart for a pump the “shut-off head” is the point on the graph
where the flow rate is zero
Pump Efficiency
Pump efficiency, η (%) is a measure of the efficiency with wich the pump transfers useful
work to the fluid.

η = Pout / Pin (2)

where

η = efficiency (%)

Pin = power input

Pout = power output

Centrifugal Pumps - Minimum Flow

Centrifugal pumps and minimum continuous flow
A catastrophic failure of a centrifugal pump can occur if the liquid within the pump casing
is allowed to vaporize. To prevent flashing due to overheating of the fluid, a flow must be
maintained through the pump to keep the liquid below saturation temperature.

If a temperature rise of 15 oF is accepted in the casing - minimum flow through a

centrifugal pump can be calculated as

q = PBHP / 2.95 cp SG (1)

where

q = minimum flow rate (gpm)

PBHP = power input (BHP)

cp = specific heat capacity (Btu/lb oF)

SG = specific gravity of the fluid

10
Centrifugal Pumps and Standards
Centrifugal pumps design and dimensions standards
Standards of design and dimensional specifications are necessary to bring unity to
centrifugal pumps. Standards are provided by organizations like

• ISO - International Standards Organizations

• API - American Petroleum Institute
• ANSI - American National Standards Institute
• DIN - Deutsches Institut für Normung
• NPFA - National Fire Protection Agency
• BSi - British Standards institute
Some commonly used centrifugal pumps standards

• ANSI/API 610-1995 - Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Service - Covers the
minimum requirements for centrifugal pumps, including pumps running in reverse as
hydraulic power recovery turbines, for use in petroleum, heavy duty chemicals, and gas
industry services. The pump types covered by this standard can be broadly classified as
overhung, between bearings, and vertically suspended.
• DIN EN ISO 5199 - Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps
• ASME B73.1-2001 - Specification for Horizontal End Suction Centrifugal Pumps for
Chemical Process - This standard covers centrifugal pumps of horizontal, end suction
single stage, centerline discharge design. This Standard includes dimensional
interchangeability requirements and certain design features to facilitate installation and
maintenance. It is the intent of this Standard that pumps of the same standard dimension
designation from all sources of supply shall be interchangeable with respect to mounting
dimensions, size and location of suction and discharge nozzles, input shafts, baseplates,
and foundation bolt holes
• ASME B73.2-2003 - Specifications for Vertical In-Line Centrifugal Pumps for
Chemical Process
• BS 5257:1975 - Specification for horizontal end-suction centrifugal pumps (16 bar) -
Principal dimensions and nominal duty point. Dimensions for seal cavities and base plate
installations.
Centrifugal Pumps and Viscosity
When a liquid flow through a pump, hydrodynamic losses depends on fluid viscosity
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When a viscous fluid is handled by a centrifugal pump

• brake horsepower requirement increases

• the head generated is reduced
• capacity is reduced
• efficiency of pump is reduced and the Best Efficiency Point - BEP - is moved

11
The head, flow and capacity at other viscosities than used in the original documentation
can be modifying with coefficients.

Flow
qv = cq q (1)

where

qv = flow compensated for viscosity (m3/h, gpm)

cq = viscosity flow coefficient

q = original flow according pump curve (m3/h, gpm)

Head
hv = ch h (2)

where

hv = head compensated for viscosity (m, ft)

ch = viscosity head coefficient

h = original head according pump curve (m, ft)

Efficiency
µv = cµ µ (3)

where

µv = effciency compensated for viscosity

cµ = viscosity efficiency coefficient

µ = original efficiency according pump curve

12
Power - SI units
Pv = qv hv ρv g / (3.6 106 µv) (4)

where

Pv = power compensated for viscosity (kW)

ρv = density of viscous fluid (kg/m3)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

Power - Imperial units

Pv = qv hv SG / (3960 µv) (5)

where

Pv = power compensated for viscosity (bhp)

SG = specific gravity of viscous fluid

Condensate Pumping
High temperatures and danger of impeller cavitation is the major challenge of
condensate pumping
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Often its necessary to pump generated condensate from heat exchangers and other
consumers widely distributed in the plant, back to the condensate receiver in the boiler
house. A special challenge with hot condensate, which is often close to 212oF (100oC),
is cavitation of the pump and the pump impeller.

Centrifugal pumps generates lower pressure behind the wheels, and the hot condensate
temporarily evaporate and expand on the back side of the vanes - before it implodes and
condensate. Over time this will erode and destroy the pump impeller.

To avoid the problem there are two alternative solutions:

• Add pressure to the suction side of the pump

• Use a pressure powered pump instead of a centrifugal pump
Add Pressure to the Suction Side of the Pump
If the absolute pressure exceeds the vapor pressure at the actual temperature of the
fluid entering the pump, then the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is positive and its
theoretical possible to avoid cavitation.

A NPSH above the manufacturers specification is important to avoid the water start
boiling behind the impeller. The NPSH can be expressed as:

NSPH = 144 / ρ(pa - pvp) + hs - hf (1)

13
where

ρ = density of water at the appropriate temperature (lb/ft3)

pa = absolute pressure in the condensate receiver supplying the condensate pump. This
is the same as atmospheric pressure if the receiver is vented (psi)

pvp = absolute pressure of condensate at the liquid temperature (psi)

hs = total suction head in feet. Positive for a head above the pump and negative for a lift
to the pump.

hf = friction loss in the suction piping

According to (1) the NPSH can be increased by

• increasing the difference in the pressure in the receiver and the condensate pressure,
and/or
• extend the static difference hs by lifting the receiver or lowering the pump, and/or
• increasing the piping dimensions for minimizing the friction loss hf in the suction pipe
If it’s not possible to increase the suction pipe and lowering the pump regarding the
receiver, it’s possible to reduce the absolute pressure of the condensate Pvp, by reducing
the condensate temperature with a cooling exchanger on the suction pipe.

Use a Pressure Powered Pump

A pressure powered pump use steam or air pressure to push the condensate from the
receiver back to the boiler room. In principle its a simple mechanical construction
working in a cycle where a receiver is filled with condensate before the condensate is
pushed out and back to the boiler room.

The pump don’t need external power, it can use the available steam (or pressurized air),
and there is no danger for cavitation.

Other Liquids as LPG

The pumping of other boiling liquids - as LPG (-43oC in normal atmospheric pressure) -
offers the same challenges to the manufactures and users. LPG is stored at exactly its
boiling point (at the actual pressure in the tank) and any increase of temperature, as well
as any decrease in pressure, will cause the product to boil and form vapor. In many
installations, the suction friction head is equal or larger than the static suction head,
making the available NPSH a negative value. The pressure drop due to the flow
restrictions in the inlet piping system, e.g., excess flow valve, control valves, fittings,
strainer, etc., will induce the LPG vapor formation at the pumps suction port.

Converting Pump Head to Pressure

Converting head (ft or m) to pressure (psi or bar, kg/cm2) and vice versa
Sponsored Links
Since pump curves often are in head - feet or meters, its may be necessary with
a conversion to the common pressure scales used in pressure gauges - psi or bar.

14
Converting Head to Pressure
Converting head in feet to pressure in psi
Pump curves in feet of head can be converted to pressure - psi - by the expression:

p = 0.433 h SG (1)

where

p = pressure (psi)

h = head (ft)

SG = specific gravity

Converting head in meter to pressure in bar

Pump curves in meter of head can be converted to pressure - bar - by the expression:

p = 0.0981 h SG (2)

where

h = head (m)

p = pressure (bar)

Converting head in meter to pressure in kg/cm2

Pump curves in meter of head can be converted to pressure - kg/cm2 - by the
expression:

p = 0.1 h SG (2b)

where

h = head (m)

p = pressure (kg/cm2)

Converting Pressure to Head

Since pressure gauges often are calibrated in pressure - psi or bar, it may be necessary
with a conversion to head - feet or meter, commonly used in pump curves.

Converting pressure in psi to head in feet

h = p 2.31 / SG (3)

where

15
h = head (ft)

p = pressure (psi)

Converting pressure in bar to head in meter

h = p 10.197 / SG (4)

where

h = head (m)

p = pressure (bar)

Converting pressure in kg/cm2 to head in meter

h = p 10 / SG (4b)

where

h = head (m)

p = pressure (kg/cm2)

Example - Converting Pump Head - feet - to Pressure - psi

The pressure - psi - of a water pump operating with head 120 ft can be expressed as:

p = (120 ft) 1 / 2.31

= 52 psi

Feet of Head Water to psi

Feet Head psi

1 0.43

2 0.87

3 1.30

4 1.73

5 2.17

6 2.60

16
Feet Head psi

7 3.03

8 3.46

9 3.90

10 4.33

20 8.66

30 12.99

40 17.32

50 21.65

60 25.99

70 30.32

80 34.65

90 38.98

100 43.31

120 51.97

140 60.63

160 69.29

180 77.96

200 86.62

17
 Feet Head psi

250 108.27

300 129.93

350 151.58

400 173.24

500 216.55

600 259.85

700 303.16

800 346.47

900 389.78

1000 433.0
water at 62oF
Discharge Regulation of Centrifugal Pumps
Adapting pump capacities to process demand
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It is often necessary to adapt the pump capacity to a temporary or permanent change in
the process demand.

The capacity of a centrifugal pump can be regulated either at

• constant speed, or
• varying speed

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Capacity Regulating by Varying Speed

Speed regulating is energy efficient since the energy to the pump is reduced with the
decrease of speed.

The speed of the pump can be varied with

• hydraulic/hydrostatic drives - hydraulic coupling between input and output shaft - speed
ratio 5 to 1 is controlled by adjusting the volume of oil in the coupling
• mechanical drives - belt and sheave drive
• eddy current drive/clutch - magnetic coupling transfer load torque between input and
output shaft
• variable speed drives - inverters - AC drives - adjustable frequency drives - operates by
varying the frequency and voltage to the electric motor
The change in power consumption, head and volume rate can be estimated with
the affinity laws.

Capacity Regulating by Constant Speed

Capacity can be regulated at constant speed by

• throttling
• bypassing flow
• changing impeller diameter
• modifying the impeller
Throttling
Throttling can be carried out by opening and closing a discharge valve.

19
Throttling is energy inefficient since the energy to the pump is not reduced. Energy is
wasted by increasing the dynamic loss.

Bypassing Flow
The discharge capacity can be regulated by leading a part of the discharge flow back to
the suction side of the pump. Bypassing the flow is energy inefficient since the energy to
the pump is not reduced.

Changing the Impeller Diameter

Reducing the impellers diameter is a permanent change and the method can be used
where the change in process demand is not temporary. The method may be energy
efficient if the motor is changed and the energy consumption reduced.

The change in power consumption, head and volume rate can be estimated with
the affinity laws.

Modifying the Impeller

The flow rate and the head can be modulated by changing the pitch of the blades.
Complicated and seldom used.

Pump Regulation and Power Consumption

Power consumption of some of the regulating methods are compared in the figure
below:

20
Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity
An introduction to dynamic, absolute and kinematic viscosity and how to convert
between CentiStokes (cSt), CentiPoises (cP), Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU), degree
Engler and more
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The viscosity of a fluid is an important property in the analysis of liquid behavior and fluid
motion near solid boundaries.

The viscosity is the fluid resistance to shear or flow and is a measure of the
adhesive/cohesive or frictional fluid property. The resistance is caused by intermolecular
friction exerted when layers of fluids attempt to slide by one another.

• Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow

The knowledge of viscosity is needed for proper design of required temperatures for
storage, pumping or injection of fluids.

• Molasses is highly viscous

• Water is medium viscous
• Gases have a low viscosity
There are two related measures of fluid viscosity - known as dynamic (or absolute)
and kinematic viscosity.

Dynamic (absolute) Viscosity

Absolute viscosity or the coefficient of absolute viscosity is a measure of the internal
resistance. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to
move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a
unit distance apart by the fluid.

The shearing stress between the layers of non turbulent fluid moving in straight parallel
lines can be defined for a Newtonian fluid as:

21
The dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed like

τ = µ dc/dy (1)

where

τ = shearing stress

µ = dynamic viscosity

Equation (1) is known as the Newtons Law of Friction.

In the SI system the dynamic viscosity units are N s/m2, Pa.s or kg/m.s where

• 1 Pa.s = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/m.s

The dynamic viscosity is also often expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-
second) system as g/cm.s, dyne.s/cm2 or poise (p) where

• 1 poise = 1 dyne s/cm2 = 1 g/cm.s = 1/10 Pa.s = 1/10 N.s/m2

For practical use the Poise is to large and it’s usual divided by 100 into the smaller unit
called the centiPoise (cP) where

• 1 p = 100 cP
• 1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.01 gram per cm second = 0.001 Pascal second = 1 milliPascal
second = 0.001 N.s/m2
Water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) has an absolute viscosity of one - 1 - centiPoise.

Absolute Viscosity at Room

Liquid Temperature
(Pa.s)

Air 1.983 x 10-5

22
 Water 1 x 10-3

Olive Oil 1 x 10-1

Glycerol 1 x 100

Liquid Honey 1 x 101

Golden Syrup 1 x 102

Glass 1 x 1040
Absolute or Dynamic Viscosity of some common Liquids
Kinematic Viscosity
is the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to density - a quantity in which no force is
involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid
with it’s mass density

ν=µ/ρ (2)

where

ν = kinematic viscosity

µ = absolute or dynamic viscosity

ρ = density

In the SI-system the theoretical unit is m2/s or commonly used Stoke (St) where

• 1 St (Stokes) = 10-4 m2/s = 1 cm2/s

Since the Stoke is an unpractical large unit, it is usual divided by 100 to give the unit
called Centistokes (cSt) where

• 1 St = 100 cSt
• 1 cSt (centiStokes) = 10-6 m2/s = 1 mm2/s
Since the specific gravity of water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) is almost one, the kinematic
viscosity of water at 68.4oF is for all practical purposes 1.0 mm2/s (cSt).The kinematic
viscosity of water at 68°F (20°C) is 1.0038 mm2/s (cSt).

• Kinematic Viscosities of Some common Liquids and Fluids

Conversion from absolute to kinematic viscosity can also be expressed as:

ν = 6.7197 10-4 µ / γ (2a)

23
where

ν = kinematic viscosity (ft2/s)

µ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (cP)

γ = specific weight (lb/ft3)

Viscosity and Reference Temperatures

The viscosity of a fluid is highly temperature dependent and for either dynamic or
kinematic viscosity to be meaningful, the reference temperature must be quoted. In ISO
8217 the reference temperature for a residual fluid is 100oC. For a distillate fluid the
reference temperature is 40oC.

• For a liquid - the kinematic viscosity will decrease with higher temperature
• For a gas - the kinematic viscosity will increase with higher temperature

Other Commonly used Viscosity Units

Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS, SSU)
Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS) is used to measure viscosity. The efflux time is
Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS) required for 60 milliliters of a petroleum product to
flow through the calibrated orifice of a Saybolt Universal viscometer, under carefully
controlled temperature and as prescribed by test method ASTM D 88. This method has
largely been replaced by the kinematic viscosity method. Saybolt Universal Seconds is
also called the SSU number (Seconds Saybolt Universal) or SSF number (Saybolt
Seconds Furol).

Kinematic viscosity versus dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed as

νSSU = B µ / SG

= B νcentiStokes (3)

where

νSSU = kinematic vicosity (SSU)

B = 4.632 for temperature 100 oF (37.8 oC)

B = 4.664 for temperature 210oF (98.9 oC)

µ = dynamic or absolute viscosity (cP)

SG = Specific Gravity
νcentiStokes = kinematic viscosity (centiStokes)
• SSU at other temperatures

24
Degree Engler
Degree Engler is used in Great Britain as a scale to measure kinematic viscosity. Unlike
the Saybolt and Redwood scales, the Engler scale is based on comparing a flow of the
substance being tested to the flow of another substance - water. Viscosity in Engler
degrees is the ratio of the time of a flow of 200 cubic centimetres of the fluid whose
viscosity is being measured - to the time of flow of 200 cubic centimeters of water at the
same temperature (usually20oC but sometimes 50oC or 100oC) in a standardized Engler
viscosity meter.

Newtonian Fluids
Fluids for which the shearing stress is linearly related to the rate of shearing strain are
designated as Newtonian Fluids.

Newtonian materials are referred to as true liquids since their viscosity or consistency is
not affected by shear such as agitation or pumping at a constant temperature.
Fortunately most common fluids, both liquids and gases, are Newtonian. Water and oils
are examples of Newtonian liquids.

Shear-thinning or Pseudoplastic Liquids

Shear-thinning or pseudoplastic liquids are those whose viscosity decreases with
increasing shear rate. Their structure is time-independent.

Thixotropic Fluids
Thixotropic liquids have a time-dependent structure. The viscosity of a thixotropic liquid
decreases with increasing time, at a constant shear rate.

Ketchup and mayonnaise are examples of thixotropic materials. They appear thick or
viscous but are possible to pump quite easily.

Dilatant Fluids
Shear Thickening Fluids or Dilatant Fluids increase their viscosity with agitation. Some of
these liquids can become almost solid within a pump or pipe line. With agitation, cream
becomes butter and Candy compounds, clay slurries and similar heavily filled liquids do
the same thing.

Bingham Plastic Fluids

Bingham Plastic Fluids have a yield value which must be exceeded before it will start to
flow like a fluid. From that point the viscosity will decrease with increase of agitation.
Toothpaste, mayonnaise and tomato catsup are examples of such products.

Example - Converting between Kinematic and Absolute Viscosity for Air

Kinematic viscosity of air at 1 bar (105 Pa, N/m2) and 40oC is 16.97 cSt (16.97 10-6 m2/s).

The density of air estimated with the Ideal Gas Law

ρ =p/RT

25
where

ρ = density (kg/m3)

p = absolute pressure (Pa, N/m2)

R = individual gas constant (J/kg.K)

T = absolute temperature (K)

ρ = (105 N/m2) / ((287 J/kg/K) ((273 oC) + (33 oC)))

= 1.113 (kg/m3)

Absolute viscosity can be expressed as

µ = (1.113 kg/m3) (16.97 10-6 m2/s)

= 1.88 10-5 (kg/m s, N.s/m2, P)

Viscosity of some Common Liquids

Saybolt Second
centiStokes
Universal Typical liquid
(cSt)
(SSU, SUS)

1 31 Water (20oC)

Milk
4.3 40 SAE 20 Crankcase Oil
SAE 75 Gear Oil

15.7 80 No. 4 fuel oil

20.6 100 Cream

43.2 200 Vegetable oil

SAE 30 Crankcase Oil

110 500
SAE 85 Gear Oil

Tomato Juice
220 1000 SAE 50 Crankcase Oil
SAE 90 Gear Oil

26
 Saybolt Second
centiStokes
Universal Typical liquid
(cSt)
(SSU, SUS)

440 2000 SAE 140 Gear Oil

Glycerine (20oC)
1100 5000
SAE 250 Gear Oil

2200 10,000 Honey

6250 28,000 Mayonnaise

19,000 86,000 Sour cream

Kinematic viscosity can be converted from SSU to Centistokes like

νCentistokes = 0.226 νSSU - 195 / νSSU

where

νSSU < 100

νCentistokes = 0.220 νSSU - 135 / νSSU

where

νSSU > 100

Viscosity and Temperature

Kinematic viscosity of liquids like water, mercury, oils SAE 10 and oil no. 3 - and gases
like air, hydrogen and helium are indicated below. Note that

• for liquids viscosity decreases with temperature

• for gases viscosity increases with temperature

27
Viscosity Measurements
Three types of devices are used in viscosity measurements

• capillary tube viscometer

• Saybolt viscometer
• rotatiting viscometer
Equation of Mechanical Energy
The equation of mechanical energy in terms of Energy per Unit Mass, Energy per Unit
Volume and Energy per Unit Weight involving head
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The Energy Equation is a statement of the first law of thermodynamics. The energy
equation involves energy, heat transfer and work. With certain limitations the mechanical
energy equation can be compared to the Bernoulli Equation.

The Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Mass

The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan can be written in terms of energy
per unit mass:

pin / ρ + vin2 / 2 + g hin + wshaft = pout / ρ + vout2 / 2 + g hout + wloss (1)

where

p = static pressure

ρ = density

28
v = flow velocity

g = acceleration of gravity

h = elevation height

wshaft = net shaft energy per unit mass for a pump, fan or similar

wloss = loss due to friction

The energy equation is often used for incompressible flow problems and is called the
Mechanical Energy Equation or the Extended Bernoulli Equation.

The mechanical energy equation for a turbine can be written as:

pin / ρ + vin2 / 2 + g hin = pout / ρ + vout2 / 2 + g hout + wshaft + wloss (2)

where

wshaft = net shaft energy out per unit mass for a turbine or similar

Equation (1) and (2) dimensions are

• energy per unit mass (ft2/s2 = ft lb/slug or m2/s2 = N m/kg)

Efficiency
According to (1) a larger amount of loss - wloss - result in more shaft work required for the
same rise of output energy. The efficiency of a pump or fan process can be expressed
as:

η = (wshaft - wloss) / wshaft (3)

The efficiency of a turbine process can be expressed as:

η = wshaft / (wshaft + wloss) (4)

The Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Volume

The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan (1) can also be written in terms
of energy per unit volume by multiplying (1) with fluid density - ρ:

pin + ρ vin2 / 2 + γ hin + ρ wshaft = pout + ρ vout2 / 2 + γ hout + ρ wloss (5)

where

γ = ρ g = specific weight

The dimensions of equation (5) are

• energy per unit volume (ft.lb/ft3 = lb/ft2 or N.m/m3 = N/m2)

29
The Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Weight involving Heads
The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan (1) can also be written in terms
of energy per unit weight by dividing with gravity - g:

pin / γ + vin2 / 2 g + hin + hshaft = pout / γ + vout2 / 2 g + hout + hloss (6)

where

γ = ρ g = specific weight

hshaft = wshaft / g = net shaft energy head per unit mass for a pump, fan or similar

hloss = wloss / g = loss head due to friction

The dimensions of equation (6) are

• energy per unit weight (ft.lb/lb = ft or N.m/N = m)

Head is the energy per unit weight.

hshaft can also be expressed as:

hshaft = wshaft / g = Wshaft / m g = Wshaft / γ Q (7)

where

Wshaft = shaft power

m = mass flow rate

Q = volume flow rate

Example - Pumping Water

Water is pumped from an open tank at level zero to an open tank at level 10 ft. The
pump adds four horsepowers to the water when pumping 2 ft3/s.

Since vin = vout = 0, pin = pout = 0 and hin = 0 - equation (6) can be modified to:

hshaft = hout + hloss

or

hloss = hshaft - hout (8)

Equation (7) gives:

hshaft = Wshaft / γ Q

= (4 hp)(550 ft.lb/s/hp) / (62.4 lb/ft3)(2 ft3/s)

30
 = 17.6 ft

• specific weight of water - 62.4 lb/ft3

• 1 hp (English horse power) = 550 ft. lb/s
Combined with (8):

hloss = (17.6 ft ) - (10 ft)

= 7.6 ft

The pump efficiency can be calculated from (3) modified for head:

η = ((17.6 ft) - (7.6 ft)) / (17.6 ft)

= 0.58

Flow Units Converter

Convert between volume flow units - gpm, liter/sec, cfm, m3/h - online flow unit converter
Sponsored Links
Online Fluid Flow Calculator
The calculator below can used to convert between common fluid flow units:

1
Value

m3/s m3/min m3/h liter/s liter/min liter/h US gpd

(gallon per day) US gpm (gallon per minute) CFM (cubic feet per minute,
3
ft /min) Imperial gpd Imperial gpm

Flow Units Converting Table

The tables below can used to convert between some common used flow units:

multiply by

Convert to
Convert from
US gpd US gpm cfm IMP gpd IMP gpm

m3/s 22800000 15852 2119 19000000 13200

m3/min 380000 264.2 35.32 316667 220

31
 multiply by

Convert to
Convert from
US gpd US gpm cfm IMP gpd IMP gpm

m3/h 6333.3 4.403 0.589 5277.8 3.67

liter/sec 22800 15.852 2.119 19000 13.20

liter/min 380 0.2642 0.0353 316.7 0.22

liter/h 6.33 0.0044 0.00059 5.28 0.0037

US gpd 1 0.000695 0.000093 0.833 0.000579

US gpm 1438.3 1 0.1337 1198.6 0.833

cfm 10760.3 7.48 1 8966.9 6.23

Imp gpd 1.2 0.00083 0.00011 1 0.00069

Imp gpm 1727.3 1.2 0.161 1439.4 1

multiply by

Convert to
Convert from
m3/s m3/min m3/h liter/sec liter/min liter/h

m3/s 1 60 3600 1000 60000 3600000

m3/min 0.0167 1 60 16.67 1000 60000

m3/h 0.000278 0.0167 1 0.278 16.67 1000

liter/sec 0.001 0.06 3.6 1 60 3600

32
 multiply by

Convert to
Convert from
m3/s m3/min m3/h liter/sec liter/min liter/h

liter/min 0.0000167 0.001 0.06 0.0167 1 60

liter/h 2.7 10-7 0.000017 0.001 0.00028 0.0167 1

US gpd 4.39 10-8 0.0000026 0.000158 0.000044 0.0026 0.158

US gpm 0.000063 0.00379 0.227 0.0630 3.785 227.1

cfm 0.00047 0.028 1.699 0.472 28.32 1698.99

Imp gpd 5.26 10-8 0.0000032 0.000189 0.0000526 0.00316 0.1895

Imp gpm 0.000076 0.0046 0.272 0.076 4.55 272.7

Select the “from” unit in the left column and follow the row until the “to” unit column.

• gpm = gallons per minute, gpd = gallons per day, cfm = cubic feet per minute
Example - Convert from m3/h to Imperial gallons per minute (Imp gpm)
Volume flow in m3/h must be multiplied with

3.67

to convert to Imp gpm.

Alternatively use the online fluid flow calculator above.

Related Mobile Apps from The Engineering ToolBox

• Flow Converter App
• free apps for offline use on mobile devices.

Alternative Flow Units

1 Cubic metres/second = 22643 Barrel (oil)/h
1 Cubic metres/second = 6.29 Barrel (oil)/s
1 Cubic metres/second = 3.6 109 Cubic centimeter/hour
1 Cubic metres/second = 6 107 Cubic centimetre/minute
1 Cubic metres/second = 106 Cubic centimetre/second
1 Cubic metres/second = 127133 Cubic feet/hour

33
1 Cubic metres/second = 2119 Cubic feet/minute
1 Cubic metres/second = 35.3 Cubic feet/second
1 Cubic metres/second = 3600 Cubic meters/hour
1 Cubic metres/second = 60 Cubic meters/minute
1 Cubic metres/second = 4709 Cubic yards/hour
1 Cubic metres/second = 78.5 Cubic yards/minute
1 Cubic metres/second = 1.31 Cubic yards/second
1 Cubic metres/second = 13198 Gallon water/minute (UK)
1 Cubic metres/second = 15850 Gallon water/minute (US)
1 Cubic metres/second = 951019 Gallons (FI)/hour (US)
1 Cubic metres/second = 15850 Gallons (FI)/minute (US)
1 Cubic metres/second = 264.2 Gallons (FI)/second (US)
1 Cubic metres/second = 19005330 Gallons/day (UK)
1 Cubic metres/second = 791889 Gallons/hour (UK)
1 Cubic metres/second = 13198 Gallons/minute (UK)
1 Cubic metres/second = 219.97 Gallons/second (UK)
1 Cubic metres/second = 3600000 Litre/hour
1 Cubic metres/second = 60000 Litre/minute
1 Cubic metres/second = 1000 Litre/second
1 Cubic meters/second = 131981 Pounds water/minute
1 Cubic meters/second = 86400 Ton of water (metric)/24hrs

• Convert between most commonly used Units

Head Rise and the Energy Equation for a Pump or a Fan
The energy equation can be used to calculate the actual head rise in a pump or fan
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Actual Head Rise of a Pump or Fan
Using the Energy Equation the head rise through a pump or fan can be expressed as:

ha = (p2 - p1) / γ + h2 - h1 + (v22 - v12) / 2 g (1)

where

ha = actual head rise

p = pressure

h = elevation height

γ = ρ g = specific weight

v = velocity

g = acceleration of gravity

The actual head rise can be expressed as:

ha = hshaft - hloss (2)

34
where

hshaft = shaft work in the pump or fan

hloss = head loss through the pump or fan

The head loss - hloss - through a pump or fan is related to the

• skin friction in the blade passages and is proportional with volume flow - q2.
• flow separation
• impeller blade casing clearance flows
• other three dimensional flow effects
Actual Head Rise for an Inline Pump
For a very common installation - the inline pump or fan - where the inlet velocity and the outlet
velocity are the same (v2 = v1), and the inlet and outlet elevation are the same (h2 = h1), the
generic equation (1) can be modified to:

ha = (p2 - p1) / γ (3)

Specific Work
By multiplying (3) with acceleration of gravity - g -, specific work - w - of the pump or fan may
be calculated:

w = ha g (4)

where

w = specific work

Example - Head Rise of an Inline Pump

An inline water pump works between the pressure 1 bar (1 105 N/m2) and 10 bar (10
105 N/m2). Density of water is 1000 kg/m3. The actual water head (water column) can be
calculated using (3):

hwater = (p2 - p1) / γ

= (p2 - p1) / ρ g

= ((10 105 N/m2) - (1 105 N/m2)) / (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 91.7 m - water column

Example - Head Rise of an Fan

An inline fan working with hot air with density ρ = 1,06 kg/m3 add a pressure of 400 Pa (N/m2) to
the flow.

The air head (air column) can be calculated with (3):

35
hair = (p2 - p1) / ρ g

= (400 N/m2) / (1.06 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 38.5 m - air column

The water head (water column) can be calculated with (3) using the density of water:

hwater = (p2 - p1) / ρ g

= (400 N/m2) / (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 0.041 m

= 41 mm - water column

Measuring pressure with water column in an U-tube manometer is common in air distribution
applications as ventilation and air condition systems.

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Light Oils - Pumping Flow Velocities
Recommended flow velocity required for light oil systems on the delivery side of the
pump
Sponsored Links
As a rule of thumb the following velocities can be used in design of piping and pumping
systems for light oil transport:

Pipe Dimension Light Oils

inches mm m/s ft/s

1 25 1 3.5

2 50 1.1 3.6

3 75 1.15 3.8

4 100 1.25 4

6 150 1.5 4.7

8 200 1.75 5.5

36
 Pipe Dimension Light Oils

inches mm m/s ft/s

10 250 2 6.5

12 300 2 6.5
More about light oils in Material Properties or Combustion
Light Oils - Recommended Suction Flow Velocity
Recommended flow velocity for the pump suction side
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Capacity problem, cavitations and high power consumption in a pump, is often the result
of the conditions on the suction side. In general - a rule of thumb - is to keep the suction
fluid flow speed below the following values:

Pipe bore Light Oils

inches mm m/s ft/s

1 25 0.5 1.5

2 50 0.5 1.5

3 75 0.5 1.6

4 100 0.55 1.8

6 150 0.6 2

8 200 0.7 2.3

10 250 0.9 3

12 300 0.9 3
More about NPSH suction problems can be read here:

• Cavitations and NPSH An introduction to cavitations and Net Positive Suction Head,
NPSH.
NEMA Frame Assignments

37
 NEMA Frame Assignments
Sponsored Links
NEMA Frame Assignments

• single-phase motors horizontal and vertical

• polyphase squirrel-cage motors horizontal and vertical - open time
• polyphase squirrel-cage motors horizontal and vertical - fan-cooled
are indicated below:

Single-phase motors horizontal and vertical

speed (rpm)
Power (hp)
3600 1800 1200

¾ - - 145T

1 - 143T 182T

1½ 143T 145T 184T

2 145T 182T -

3 182T 184T -

5 184T 213T -

7½ 213T 215T -

Polyphase squirrel-cage motors horizontal and vertical - open time

speed (rpm)
Power (hp)
3600 1800 1200 900

½ - - - 143T

¾ - - 143T 145T

1 - 143T 145T 182T

38
 speed (rpm)
Power (hp)
3600 1800 1200 900

1½ 143T 145T 182T 184T

2 145T 145T 184T 213T

3 145T 182T 213T 215T

5 182T 184T 215T 254T

7½ 184T 213T 254T 256T

10 213T 215T 256T 284T

15 215T 254T 284T 286T

20 254T 256T 286T 324T

25 256T 284T 324T 326T

30 284TS 286T 326T 364T

40 286TS 324T 364T 365T

50 324TS 326T 365T 404T

60 326TS 364TS 404T 405T

75 364TS 365TS 405T 444T

100 365TS 404TS 444T 445T

125 404TS 405TS 445T -

150 405TS 444TS - -

39
 speed (rpm)
Power (hp)
3600 1800 1200 900

200 444TS 445TS - -

250 445TS+ - - -

Polyphase squirrel-cage motors horizontal and vertical - fan-cooled

speed (rpm)
Power (hp)
3600 1800 1200 900

½ - - - 143T

¾ - - 143T 145T

1 - 143T 145T 182T

1½ 143T 145T 182T 184T

2 145T 145T 184T 213T

3 182T 182T 213T 215T

5 184T 184T 215T 254T

7½ 213T 213T 254T 256T

10 215T 215T 256T 284T

15 254T 254T 284T 286T

20 256T 256T 286T 324T

25 284TS 284T 324T 326T

30 286TS 286T 326T 364T

40
 speed (rpm)
Power (hp)
3600 1800 1200 900

40 324TS 324T 364T 365T

50 326TS 326T 365T 404T

60 364TS 364TS 404T 405T

75 365TS 365TS 405T 444T

100 405TS 405TS 444T 445T

125 444TS 444TS 445T -

150 445TS 445TS - -

NPSH - Net Positive Suction Head

A definition and an introduction to Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH
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Low pressure at the suction side of a pump can encounter the fluid to start boiling with

• reduced efficiency
• cavitation
• damage
of the pump as a result. Boiling starts when the pressure in the liquid is reduced to the
vapor pressure of the fluid at the actual temperature.

41
To characterize the potential for boiling and cavitation, the difference between the total
head on the suction side of the pump - close to the impeller, and the liquid vapor
pressure at the actual temperature, can be used.

Suction Head
Based on the Energy Equation - the suction head in the fluid close to the impeller can be
expressed as the sum of the static and the velocity head:

hs = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g (1)

where

hs = suction head close to the impeller

ps = static pressure in the fluid close to the impeller

γ = specific weight of the fluid

vs = velocity of fluid

g = acceleration of gravity

42
Liquids Vapor Head
The liquids vapor head at the actual temperature can be expressed as:

hv = pv / γ (2)

where

hv = vapor head

pv = vapor pressure

Note! The vapor pressure in fluids depends on temperature. Water, our most common
fluid, starts boiling at 20 oC if the absolute pressure in the fluid is 2.3 kN/m2. For an
absolute pressure of 47.5 kN/m2, the water starts boiling at 80 oC. At an absolute
pressure of 101.3 kN/m2 (normal atmosphere), the boiling starts at 100 oC.

Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH

The Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH - can be expressed as the difference between
the Suction Head and the Liquids Vapor Head and expressed like

NPSH = hs - hv (3)

or, by combining (1) and (2)

NPSH = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g - pv / γ (3b)

Available NPSH - NPSHa or NPSHA

The Net Positive Suction Head made available the suction system for the pump is often
named NPSHa. The NPSHa can be determined during design and construction, or
determined experimentally from the actual physical system.

The available NPSHa can be calculated with the Energy Equation. For a common
application - where the pump lifts a fluid from an open tank at one level to an other, the

43
energy or head at the surface of the tank is the same as the energy or head before the
pump impeller and can be expressed as:

h0 = hs + hl (4)

where

h0 = head at surface

hs = head before the impeller

hl = head loss from the surface to impeller - major and minor loss in the suction pipe

In an open tank the head at surface can be expressed as:

h0 = p0 / γ = patm / γ (4b)

For a closed pressurized tank the absolute static pressure inside the tank must be used.

The head before the impeller can be expressed as:

hs = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g + he (4c)

where

he = elevation from surface to pump - positive if pump is above the tank, negative if the
pump is below the tank

Transforming (4) with (4b) and (4c):

patm / γ = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g + he + hl (4d)

The head available before the impeller can be expressed as:

ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g = patm / γ - he - hl (4e)

or as the available NPSHa:

NPSHa = patm / γ - he - hl - pv / γ (4f)

Available NPSHa - the Pump is above the Tank

If the pump is positioned above the tank, the elevation - he - is positive and
the NPSHa decreases when the elevation of the pump increases.

At some level the NPSHa will be reduced to zero and the fluid starts to evaporate.

44
Available NPSHa - the Pump is below the Tank
If the pump is positioned below the tank, the elevation - he - is negative and the
NPSHa increases when the elevation of the pump decreases (lowering the pump).

It’s always possible to increase the NPSHa by lowering the pump (as long as the major
and minor head loss due to a longer pipe don’t increase it more). This is important and it
is common to lower the pump when pumping fluids close to evaporation temperature.

Required NPSH - NPSHr or NPSHR

The NPSHr, called as the Net Suction Head as required by the pump in order to prevent
cavitation for safe and reliable operation of the pump.

The required NPSHr for a particular pump is in general determined experimentally by

the pump manufacturer and a part of the documentation of the pump.

The available NPSHa of the system should always exceeded the required NPSHr of the
pump to avoid vaporization and cavitation of the impellers eye. The available
NPSHa should in general be significant higher than the required NPSHr to avoid that
head loss in the suction pipe and in the pump casing, local velocity accelerations and
pressure decreases, start boiling the fluid on the impeller surface.

Note that the required NPSHr increases with the square capacity.

Pumps with double-suction impellers has lower NPSHr than pumps with single-suction
impellers. A pump with a double-suction impeller is considered hydraulically balanced
but is susceptible to an uneven flow on both sides with improper pipe-work.

Example - Pumping Water from an Open Tank

When increasing the the elevation for a pump located above a tank, the fluid will start to
evaporate at a maximum level for the actual temperature.

At the maximum elevation NPSHa is zero. The maximum elevation can therefore be
expressed by (4f):

NPSHa = patm / γ - he - hl - pv / γ = 0

45
For optimal theoretical conditions we neglect the major and minor head loss. The
elevation head can then be expressed as:

he = patm / γ - pv / γ (5)

The maximum elevation or suction head for an open tank depends on the atmospheric
pressure - which in general can be regarded as constant, and the vapor pressure of the
fluid - which in general vary with temperature, especially for water.

The absolute vapor pressure of water at temperature 20 oC is 2.3 kN/m2. The maximum
theoretical elevation height is therefore:

he = (101.33 kN/m2) / (9.80 kN/m3) - (2.3 kN/m2) / (9.80 kN/m3)

= 10.1 m

Due to the head loss in the suction pipe and the local conditions inside the pump - the
theoretical maximum elevation is significantly decreased.

The maximum theoretical elevation of a pump above an open water tank at different
temperatures can be found from the table below.

Suction Head as Affected by Temperature

Temperature Vapor Pressure Max. elevation

(oC) (oF) (kN/m2) (m) (ft)

0 32 0.6 10.3 33.8

5 41 0.9 10.2 33.5

10 50 1.2 10.2 33.5

15 59 1.7 10.2 33.5

20 68 2.3 10.1 33.1

25 77 3.2 10.0 32.8

30 86 4.3 9.9 32.5

35 95 5.6 9.8 32.2

46
 Temperature Vapor Pressure Max. elevation

(oC) (oF) (kN/m2) (m) (ft)

40 104 7.7 9.5 31.2

45 113 9.6 9.4 30.8

50 122 12.5 9.1 29.9

55 131 15.7 8.7 28.5

60 140 20 8.3 27.2

65 149 25 7.8 25.6

70 158 32.1 7.1 23.3

75 167 38.6 6.4 21

80 176 47.5 5.5 18

85 185 57.8 4.4 14.4

90 194 70 3.2 10.5

95 203 84.5 1.7 5.6

100 212 101.33 0.0 0

Pumping Hydrocarbons
Be aware that the NPSH specification provided by the manufacturer in general is for use
with cold water. For hydrocarbons these values must be lowered to account for the
vapor release properties of complex organic liquids.

Vapor Pressure
Fluid Temperature (oC)
(kPa abs)

Ethanol 20 5.9

47
 65 58.2

20 22.8
Methyl Acetate
55 93.9
Note that the head developed by a pump is independent of the liquid, and that the
performance curves for water from the manufacturer can be used for Newtonian liquids
like gasoline, diesel or similar. Be aware that required power depends on liquid density
and must be adjusted.

NPSH and Liquids with Dissolved Gas

Be aware that NPSH calculations might have to be modified if there are significant
amounts of dissolved gas in the liquid. The gas saturation pressure is often much higher
than the liquid’s vapor pressure.

• Solubility of Gases in Water

Positive Displacement Pumps
An introduction tutorial to the basic operating principles of positive displacement pumps
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Positive Displacement Pumps has an expanding cavity on the suction side and a
decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the cavity on the
suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses.
The volume is constant given each cycle of operation.

The positive displacement pumps can be divided in two main classes

• reciprocating
• rotary
The positive displacement principle applies applies whether the pump is a

• rotary lobe pump

• progressing cavity pump
• rotary gear pump
• piston pump
• diaphragm pump
• screw pump
• gear pump
• vane pump
• regenerative (peripheral) pump
• peristaltic
Positive Displacement Pumps, unlike a Centrifugal or Roto-dynamic Pumps, will produce
the same flow at a given speed (RPM) no matter the discharge pressure.

• Positive Displacement Pumps are “constant flow machines”

48
A Positive Displacement Pump must not be operated against a closed valve on the
discharge side of the pump because it has no shut-off head likeCentrifugal Pumps. A
Positive Displacement Pump operating against a closed discharge valve, will continue to
produce flow until the pressure in the discharge line are increased until the line bursts or
the pump is severely damaged - or both.

A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the Positive Displacement Pump is
therefore absolute necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external. The pump
manufacturer has normally the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The
internal valve should in general only be used as a safety precaution, an external relief
valve installed in the discharge line with a return line back to the suction line or supply
tank is recommended.

Reciprocating Pumps
Typical reciprocating pumps are

• plunger pumps
• diaphragm pumps
Plunger pumps comprise of a cylinder with a reciprocating plunger in it. In the head of
the cylinder the suction and discharge valves are mounted. In the suction stroke the
plunger retracts and the suction valves opens causing suction of fluid into the cylinder. In
the forward stroke the plunger push the liquid out the discharge valve.

With only one cylinder the fluid flow varies between maximum flow when the plunger
moves through the middle positions, and zero flow when the plunger is in the end
positions. A lot of energy is wasted when the fluid is accelerated in the piping system.
Vibration and “water hammers” may be a serious problem. In general the problems are
compensated by using two or more cylinders not working in phase with each other.

In diaphragm pumps the plunger pressurizes hydraulic oil which is used to flex a
diaphragm in the pumping cylinder. Diaphragm valves are used to pump hazardous and
toxic fluids.

Rotary Pumps
Typical rotary pumps are

• gear pumps
• lobe pumps
• vane pumps
• progressive cavity pumps
• peripheral pumps
• screw pumps
In gear pumps the liquid is trapped by the opening between the gear teeth of two
identical gears and the chasing of the pump on the suction side. On the pressure side
the fluid is squeezed out when the teeth of the two gears are rotated against each other.
The motor provides the drive for one gear.

The lobe pumps operates similar to the gear pump, but with two lobes driven by external
timing gears. The lobes do not make contact.

49
Progressive cavity pumps consist of a metal rotor rotating within an elastomer-lined or
elastic stator. When the rotor turns progressive chambers from suction end to discharge
end are formed between the rotor and stator, moving the fluid.

Power Gained by Fluid from Pumps or Fans

The power gained by fluid from operating pumps or fans
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Power Gained by Fluid
The power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be expressed as:

P=mw (1)

where

P = power

m = mass flow rate

w = specific work

Specific Work
Specific work - w - can be expressed:

w=gh (2)

where

h = head

g = acceleration of gravity

Mass Flow Rate

Mass flow rate - m - can be expressed:

m=ρQ (3)

where

ρ = density

Q = volume flow rate

Combining (1), (2) and (3) the power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be
expressed as:

P=ρQgh (4)

50
With specific weight expressed as:

γ=ρg (5)

where

γ = specific weight

equation (4) can be modified so the power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be
expressed as:

P=γQh (6)

Since head can be expressed as

h = (p2 - p1) / γ (7)

equation (4) can be modified so the power gained by the fluid from a pump or fan can be
expressed as:

P = Q (p2 - p1) (8)

Example - Head Rise of a Inline Pump

An inline water pump works between measured pressure 1 bar (1 105 N/m2) and 10 bar
(10 105 N/m2). Density of water is 1,000 kg/m3. The volume flow is measured to 1 10-
3
m3/s.

The actual water head (water column) can be calculated using (7):

h = (p2 - p1) / γ

= (p2 - p1) / ρ g

= ((10 105 N/m2) - (1 105 N/m2)) / (1,000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 91.7 m - water column

The power gained by the fluid can be calculated using equation (4):

P=ρQgh

= (1,000 kg/m3) (1 10-3 m3/s) (9.81 m/s2) (91.7 m)

= 899.6 kg.m2/s3 (W)

= 0.9 kW

Pressure Units Online Converter

51
Convert between common pressure units like Pa, bar, atmosphere, pound square feet,
psi and more
Sponsored Links
Pressure Converter
The calculator below can be used to convert between some common pressure units

1
Value (use period as decimal point)

Pa (N/m2) bar atmosphere mm Hg mm H2O m

2
H2O kg/cm pound square feet (psf) pound square inches
(psi) inches Hg inches H2O ft H2O

Pressure Converting Tables

The tables below can be used to convert between some common pressure units:

Multiply by

Convert to
Convert from
Pa (N/m2) bar atmosphere mm Hg mm H2O m H2O kg/cm2

Pa (N/m2) 1 10-5 9.87 10-6 0.0075 0.1 10-4 1.02 10-5

bar 105 1 0.987 750 1.0197 104 10.197 1.0197

atmosphere 1.01 105 1.013 1 759.9 10332 10.332 1.03

mm Hg 133.3 1.33 10-3 1.32 10-3 1 13.3 0.013 1.36 10-3

mm H2O 10 0.000097 9.87 10-5 0.075 1 0.001 1.02 10-4

m H2O 104 0.097 9.87 10-2 75 1000 1 0.102

kg/cm2 9.8 104 0.98 0.97 735 10000 10 1

pound square feet 47.8 4.78 10-4 4.72 10-4 0.36 4.78 4.78 10-3 4.88 10-4

pound square inches (psi) 6894.76 0.069 0.068 51.7 689.7 0.690 0.07

52
 Multiply by

Convert to
Convert from
Pa (N/m2) bar atmosphere mm Hg mm H2O m H2O kg/cm2

inches Hg 3377 0.0338 0.033 25.4 337.7 0.337 0.034

inches H2O 248.8 2.49 10-3 2.46 10-3 1.87 25.4 0.0254 0.0025

Multiply by

Convert to
Convert from
pound square feet pound square inches (psi) inches Hg inches H2O

Pa (N/m2) 0.021 1.450326 10-4 2.96 10-4 4.02 10-3

bar 2090 14.50 29.61 402

atmosphere 2117.5 14.69 29.92 407

mm Hg 2.79 0.019 0.039 0.54

mm H2O 0.209 1.45 10-3 2.96 10-3 0.04

m H2O 209 1.45 2.96 40.2

kg/cm2 2049 14.21 29.03 394

pound square feet (psf) 1 0.0069 0.014 0.19

pound square inches (psi) 144 1 2.04 27.7

inches Hg 70.8 0.49 1 13.57

inches H2O 5.2 0.036 0.074 1

53
1 Torr = 1 mm Hg
Example - Convert from 10 psi to Pa
From the table above - to convert from psi, multiply psi with 6894.76:

10 (psi) = 6894.76 10 (Pa) = 68947.6 Pa = 68.95 kPa

Some other Pressure Units

• Pressure vs. Head
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0000102 Atmosphere (metric)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0000099 Atmosphere (standard)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.00001 Bar
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10 Barad
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10 Barye
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0007501 Centimeter of mercury (0 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0101974 Centimeter of water (4 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10 Dyne/square centimeter
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0003346 Foot of water (4 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10-9 Gigapascal
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.01 Hectopascal
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0002953 Inch of mercury (0 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0002961 Inch of mercury (15.56 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0040186 Inch of water (15.56 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0040147 Inch of water (4 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0000102 Kilogram force/centimetre2
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0010197 Kilogram force/decimetre2
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.101972 Kilogram force/meter2
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10-7 Kilogram force/millimeter2
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10-3 Kilopascal
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10-7 Kilopound force/square inch
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10-6 Megapascal
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.000102 Meter of water (4 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10 Microbar (barye, barrie)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 7.50062 Micron of mercury (millitorr)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.01 Millibar
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0075006 Millimeter of mercury (0 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.10207 Millimeter of water (15.56 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.10197 Millimeter of water (4 C)
1 Pa (N/m2) =7.5006 Millitorr
1 Pa (N/m2) = 1 Newton/square meter
1 Pa (N/m2) = 32.1507 Ounce force (avdp)/square inch
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0208854 Pound force/square foot
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.000145 Pound force/square inch
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.671969 Poundal/square foot
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0046665 Poundal/square inch
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0000099 Standard atmosphere
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0000093 Ton (long)/foot2
1 Pa (N/m2) = 10-7 Ton (long)/inch2
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0000104 Ton (short)/foot2
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.64 10-7 Ton/inch2
1 Pa (N/m2) = 0.0075006 Torr

54
Pressure to Head Unit Converter
Converting between common units for pressure and head - lb/in2, atm, inches mercury,
bars, Pa and more ..
Sponsored Links
The table below can be used to convert between commonly used units for pressure and
head.

Multiply by

to
from
in. water
lb/in2 lb/ft2 Atm kg/cm2 kg/m2
(68oF)

lb/in2 1 144 0.068046 0.070307 703.070 27.7276

lb/ft2 0.0069444 1 0.000473 0.000488 4.88241 0.1926

Atm. 14.696 2116.22 1 1.0332 10332.27 407.484

kg/cm2 14.2233 2048.155 0.96784 1 10000 394.38

kg/m2 0.001422 0.204768 0.0000968 0.0001 1 0.03944

in. water
0.036092 5.1972 0.002454 0.00253 25.375 1
(68oF)

ft. water
0.432781 62.3205 0.029449 0.03043 304.275 12
(68oF)

in. mercury (32oF) 0.491154 70.7262 0.033421 0.03453 345.316 13.6185

mm mercury
0.0193368 2.78450 0.0013158 0.0013595 13.59509 0.53616
(32oF)

Bars 14.5038 2088.55 0.98692 1.01972 10197.2 402.156

MPa 145.038 20885.5 9.8692 10.1972 101972.0 4021.56

55
 Multiply by

to
from
ft. water in. mercury mm mercury
Bars MPa
(68oF) (32oF) (32oF)

lb/in2 2.3106 2.03602 51.7150 0.06895 0.006895

lb/ft2 0.01605 0.014139 0.35913 0.000479 0.0000479

Atm 33.9570 29.921 760 1.01325 0.101325

kg/cm2 32.8650 28.959 735.559 0.98067 0.098067

kg/m2 0.003287 0.002896 0.073556 0.000098 0.0000098

in. water
0.08333 0.073430 1.8651 0.00249 0.000249
(68oF)

ft. water
1 0.88155 22.3813 0.029839 0.0029839
(68oF)

in. mercury
1.1349 1 25.40005 0.033864 0.0033864
(32oF)

mm mercury
0.044680 0.03937 1 0.001333 0.0001333
(32oF)

Bars 33.5130 29.5300 750.062 1 0.10

MPa 335.130 295.300 7500.62 10.0 1

Pump Affinity Laws

Turbo machines affinity laws are used to calculate volume capacity, head or power
consumption in centrifugal pumps when changing speed - rpm - or wheel diameters
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The Affinity Laws of centrifugal pumps or fans indicates the influence on volume capacity,
head (pressure) and/or power consumption of a pump or fan due to

56
 • change in speed of wheel - revolutions per minute (rpm)
• geometrically similarity - change in impeller diameter
Be aware that there are two sets of affinity laws

• affinity laws for a specific centrifugal pump - to approximate head, capacity and power
curves for different motor speeds and /or different diameter of impellers
• affinity laws for a family of geometrically similar centrifugal pumps - to approximate
head, capacity and power curves for different motor speeds and /or different diameter of
impellers
Pump Affinity Laws for a Specific Centrifugal Pump
Volume Capacity
The volume capacity of a centrifugal pump can be expressed like

q1 / q2 = (n1 / n2) (d1 / d2) (1)

where

q = volume flow capacity (m3/s, gpm, cfm, ..)

n = wheel velocity - revolution per minute - (rpm)

d = wheel diameter

Head or Pressure
The head or pressure of a centrifugal pump can be expressed like

dp1 / dp2 = (n1 / n2)2 (d1 / d2)2 (2)

where

dp = head or pressure (m, ft, Pa, psi, ..)

Power
The power consumption of a centrifugal pump can be expressed as

P1 / P2 = (n1 / n2)3 (d1 / d2)3 (3)

where

P = power (W, bhp, ..)

Changing the Wheel Velocity

57
If the wheel diameter is constant - change in pump wheel velocity can simplify the affinity
laws to

Volume Capacity
q1 / q2 = (n1 / n2) (1a)

Head or Pressure
dp1 / dp2 = (n1 / n2)2 (2a)

Power
P1 / P2 = (n1 / n2)3 (3a)

58
Note! If the speed of a pump is increased with 10%

• the volume flow increases with 10%

• the head increases with 21%
• the power increases with 33 %
If we want to increase the volume flow capacity of an existing system with 10% we have
to increase the power supply with 33%.

Pump Affinity Laws Calculator - Changing Wheel Velocity

Replace the default values with the actual values. The calculator is generic and can be
used with all common units as long as the use is consistent.

100
q1 - volume capacity - (m3/s, gpm, cfm, ..)

100
dp1 - head or pressure (m, ft, Pa, psi, ..)

5
P1 - power (W, bhp)

1750
n1 - initial wheel velocity (rpm)

3500
n2 - final wheel velocity (rpm)

Changing the Impeller Diameter

If wheel velocity is constant a change in impeller diameter can simplify the affinity laws to

Volume Capacity
q1 / q2 = d1 / d2 (1b)

Head or Pressure
dp1 / dp2 = (d1 / d2)2 (2b)

Power
P1 / P2 = (d1 / d2)3 (3b)

59
Pump Affinity Laws Calculator - Changing Wheel Diameter
Replace the default values with the actual values. The calculator is generic and can be
used with all common units as long as the use is consistent.

100
q1 - volume capacity - (m3/s, gpm, cfm, ..)

100
dp1 - head or pressure (m, ft, Pa, psi, ..)

5
P1 - power (W, bhp)

8
d1 - initial wheel diameter (m, in, ft ...)

6
d2 - final wheel diameter (m, in, ft ..)

Example - Pump Affinity Laws - Changing Pump Speed

The pump speed is changed when the impeller size is constant. The initial flow is 100
gpm, the initial head is 100 ft, the initial power is 5 bhp, the initial speed is 1750 rpm and
the final speed 3500 rpm.

The final flow capacity can be calculated with (1a):

q2 = q1 n2 / n1

60
= (100 gpm) (3500 rpm) / (1750 rpm)

= 200 gpm

The final head can be calculated with (2a):

dp2 = dp1 (n2 / n1)2

= (100 ft) ((3500 rpm) / (1750 rpm))2

= 400 ft

The final power consumption can be calculated with (3a):

P2 = P1 (n2 / n1)3

= (5 bhp) ((3500 rpm) / (1750 rpm))3

= 40 bph

Example - Pump Affinity Laws - Changing Impeller Diameter

The diameter of the pump impeller is reduced when the pump speed is constant. The
diameter is changed from 8 to 6 inches.

The final flow capacity can be calculated with (1b):

q2 = q1 (d2 / d1)

= (100 gpm) ((¨6 in) / (8 in))

= 75 gpm

The final head can be calculated with (2b):

dp2 = dp1 (d2 / d1)2

= (100 ft) ((6 in) / (8 in))2

= 56.3 ft

The final power consumption can be calculated with (3b):

P2 = P1 (d2 / d1)3

= (5 bhp) ((6 in) / (8 in))3

= 2.1 bph

61
Pump Affinity Laws for a Family of Geometrically Similar Pumps
The volume capacity can be expressed like

q1 / q2 = (n1 / n2)(d1 / d2)3 (4)

where

q = volume flow capacity (m3/s, gpm, cfm, ..)

n = wheel velocity - revolution per minute - (rpm)

d = wheel diameter

Head or Pressure
The head or pressure of a centrifugal pump can be expressed like

dp1 / dp2 = (n1 / n2)2 (d1 / d2)2 (5)

where

dp = head or pressure (m, ft, Pa, psi, ..)

Power
The power consumption of a centrifugal pump can be expressed as

P1 / P2 = (n1 / n2)3 (d1 / d2)5 (6)

where

P = power (W, bhp, ..)

Note that the affinity laws for fans are not identical with pumps.

Pump Power Calculator

Calculate pump hydraulic and shaft power?
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Hydraulic Pump Power
The ideal hydraulic power to drive a pump depends on the mass flow rate, the liquid
density and the differential height

62
• either it is the static lift from one height to an other, or the friction head loss
component of the system - can be calculated as

Ph = q ρ g h / (3.6 106) (1)

where

Ph = power (kW)

q = flow capacity (m3/h)

ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)

g = gravity (9.81 m/s2)

h = differential head (m)

Example - Power pumping Water

1 m3/h of water is pumped a head of 10 m. The theoretical pump power can be
calculated as

Ph = (1 m3/h) (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2) (10 m) / (3.6 106)

= 0.027 kW

Shaft Pump Power

The shaft power - the power required transferred from the motor to the shaft of the pump
- depends on the efficiency of the pump and can be calculated as

Ps = Ph / η (2)

where

Ps = shaft power (kW)

η = pump efficiency

63
Online Pump Calculator - SI-units
The calculator below can used to calculate the hydraulic and shaft power of a pump:

135
q - flow capacity (m3/h)

1000
ρ - density of fluid (kg/m3)

9.81
g - gravity (m/s2)

33
h - differential head (m)

0.6
η - pump efficiency

Reset!

Online Pump Calculator - Imperial units

The calculator below can used to calculate the hydraulic and shaft power of a pump
using Imperial units:

600
q - flow capacity (gpm)

62.4
ρ - density of fluid (lb/ft3)

32.174
g - gravity (ft/s2)

110
h - differential head (ft)

0.6
η - pump efficiency

Reset!

• Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

Related Mobile Apps from The Engineering ToolBox
• Pump Calculator App
• free apps for offline use on mobile devices.

64
Pump and Fan Efficiency
Overall pump and fan efficiency is the ratio - power actually gained by the fluid - to shaft
power supplied
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For a fluid flow process involving a pump or fan the overall efficiency is related to the

• hydraulic

65
 • mechanical
• volumetric
loss in the pump or fan.

Hydraulic Loss and Hydraulic Efficiency

Hydraulic loss relates to the construction of the pump or fan, and is caused by the
friction between the fluid and the walls, acceleration and retardation of the fluid and the
change of the fluid flow direction.

The hydraulic efficiency can be expressed as:

ηh = w / (w + wl) (1)

where

ηh = hydraulic efficiency

w = specific work from the pump or fan

wl = specific work lost due to hydraulic effects

Mechanical Loss and Mechanical Efficiency

Mechanical components - as transmission gear and bearings - generates a mechanical
loss that reduces the power transferred from the motor shaft to the pump or fan impeller.

The mechanical efficiency can be expressed as:

ηm = (P - Pl) / P (2)

where

ηm = mechanical efficiency

P = power transferred from the motor to the shaft

Pl = power lost in the transmission

Volumetric Loss and Volumetric Efficiency

Due to leakage of fluid between the back surface of the impeller hub plate and the
casing, or through other pump components - there is a volumetric lossreducing the pump
efficiency.

The volumetric efficiency can be expressed as:

ηv = q / (q + ql) (3)

where

66
ηv = volumetric efficiency

q = volume flow out of the pump or fan

ql = leakage volume flow

Total Loss and Overall Efficiency

The overall efficiency is the ratio of power actually gained by the fluid to the shaft power
supplied. The overall efficiency can be expressed as:

η = ηh ηm ηv (4)

where

η = overall efficiency

The losses in the pump or fan converts to heat transferred to the fluid and the
surroundings. As a rule of thumb the temperature increase in a fan transporting air is
approximately 1 oC.

Example - Hydraulic Efficiency for a Pump

An inline water pump works between pressure 1 bar (1 105 N/m2) and 10 bar (10
105 N/m2). Density of water is 1000 kg/m3. The hydraulic efficiency ηh = 0.91.

The actual water head (water column) can be calculated as:

h = (p2 - p1) / γ

= (p2 - p1) / ρ g

= ((10 105 N/m2) - (1 105 N/m2)) / (1,000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 91.7 m - water column

The pump must be constructed for the specific work:

wc = g h / ηh

= (9.81 m/s2) (91.7 m) / 0.91

= 988.6 m2/s2

The construction or design head is:

h = wc / g

= (988.6 m2/s2) / (9.81 m/s2)

67
= 100.8 m - water column

Pumping Water - Horsepower Requirements

Horsepower requirements pumping water
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The energy imparted to the water by a pump is called water horsepower and can be
calculated as

Pwhp = q h sg / 3960 (1)

where

Pwhp = water horsepower (hp)

q = flow (gal/min)

h = head (ft)

sg = specific gravity

Horsepower can also be calculated as:

Pwhp = q dp / (1715 µ) (2)

where

Pwhp = water horsepower (hp)

dp = delivered pressure (psi)

µ = pump efficiency, fraction

• convert between power units

The table below can be used to estimate the power requirements when pumping water.

Horsepower Required to lift water at 60oF (hp)

Volume
Flow Height (ft)
(gpm)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50

5 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06

10 0.011 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.13

68
 Horsepower Required to lift water at 60oF (hp)
Volume
Flow Height (ft)
(gpm)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50

15 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.19

20 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.25

25 0.03 0.06 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.22 0.25 0.32

30 0.04 0.08 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.30 0.38

35 0.04 0.09 0.13 0.18 0.22 0.27 0.31 0.35 0.44

40 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.51

45 0.06 0.11 0.17 0.23 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 0.57

50 0.06 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.32 0.38 0.44 0.50 0.63

60 0.08 0.15 0.23 0.30 0.38 0.46 0.53 0.61 0.76

70 0.09 0.18 0.27 0.35 0.44 0.53 0.62 0.71 0.88

80 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.61 0.71 0.81 1.0

90 0.11 0.23 0.34 0.46 0.57 0.68 0.80 0.91 1.1

100 0.13 0.25 0.38 0.50 0.63 0.76 0.88 1.00 1.3
Note! Individual pump curves should always be used for exact calculations.

69
Pumps - Specific Suction Speed
Specific Suction Speed may be used to determine what general pump design to use for
maximum efficiency
Sponsored Links
Specific Suction Speed may be used to determine what pump geometry - radial, mixed
flow or axial - to use for maximum efficiency and prevent cavitation. Suction Specific
Speed is commonly used as a basis for estimating the safe operating range of a pump.

Suction Specific Speed is dimensionless and can be expressed as

Nss = ω q1/2 / NPSHr3/4 (1)

where

Nss = Suction Specific Speed

ω = pump shaft rotational speed (rpm)

q = flow rate capacity (m3/h, l/s, m3/min, US gpm, British gpm) at Best Efficiency Point
(BEP)

70
NPSHr = Required Net Positive Suction Head for the pump at the best efficiency point (m,
ft)

Specific Suction Speed can be compared with Specific Speed but instead of using
the total head of the pump, the Required Net Positive Suction Head (NPSHr) is used.

As a rule of thumb the Specific Suction Speed should be below 8500 (calculated with US
gpm) to avoid cavitation.

Online Specific Suction Speed Pump Calculator

The calculator below can used to calculate pump specific speed:

1750
ω - pump shaft rotational speed (rpm)

500
q - flow rate (m3/h, l/s, m3/min, US gpm, British gpm)

20
NPSHr - Required Net Positive Suction Head (m, ft)

Note! When comparing pumps and their documentation be aware of the units used.

Suction Specific Speed - Ss - is useful in determining the required operating conditions

on the suction side of the pump. For geometrically similar pumps theSs have the same
value.

Empirical studies indicates that higher Suction Specific Speed is, the narrower is the
safe operating range from its Best Efficiency Point (BEP). Pump models with Ssd (US
units) less than 11000 have more stable operation and are more reliable.

Convert between Imperial units (gpm) and Metric units (m3/h, l/s)
• Nss (US gpm) = 1.63 Nss (metric l/s) = 0.86 Nss (metric m3/h)
• Nss (Metric l/s) = 0.614 Nss (US gpm)
• Nss (Metric l/s) = 0.67 Nss (British gpm)
Example - Specific Suction Speed
The available Net Suction Head - NPSHa - of a pump is determined to be 20 ft. With a
rotational speed of 1750 rpm and a flow rate of 500 US gpm the Specific Suction Speed
can be calculated as

Nss = (1750 rpm) (500 gpm)1/2 / (20 ft)3/4

= 4138

Well below the limit 8500 to avoid cavitation.

Double Suction Type Pumps

For a double suction pump the flow at the inlet is divided by two. Using a double suction
pump is one way of meeting system NPSH and obtaining a higher head.

71
Pumps in Parallel or Serial Connection
For pumps in serial - add head, for pumps in parallel - add flowrates
Sponsored Links
Pumps can be arranged in serial or parallel to provide an additional head or flow rate
capacity.

Pumps in Serial - Head Added

When two (or more) pumps are arranged in serial their resulting pump performance
curve is obtained by adding their heads at the same flow rate as indicated in the figure
below.

Centrifugal pumps in series are used to overcome larger system head loss than one
pump can handle alone.

• for two identical pumps in series the head will be twice the head of a single pump
at the same flow rate - as indicated in point 2.

With a constant flowrate the combined head moves from 1 to 2.

Note! In practice the combined head and flow rate moves along the system curve to
point 3.

• point 3 is where the system operates with both pumps running

• point 1 is where the system operates with one pump running

Series operation of single stage pumps is seldom encountered - more often multistage
centrifugal pumps are used.

Pumps in Parallel - Flow Rate Added

When two or more pumps are arranged in parallel their resulting performance curve is
obtained by adding their flowrates at the same head as indicated in the figure below.

72
Centrifugal pumps in parallel are used to overcome larger volume flows than one pump
can handle alone.

• for two identical pumps in parallel, and the head is kept constant, the flowrate
doubles as indicated with point 2 compared to a single pump

Note! In practice the combined head and volume flow moves along the system curve as
indicated from 1 to 3.

• point 3 is where the system operates with both pumps running

• point 1 is where the system operates with one pump running

In practice, if one of the pumps in parallel or series stops, the operation point moves
along the system resistance curve from point 3 to point 1 - the head and flow rate are
decreased.

Pumps, Compressors, Blowers and Fans

Comparing pumps, compressors, blowers and fans
Sponsored Links
A generic definition of a Pump is

"A machine or device for raising, compressing, or transferring fluids."

In practice - it is common to differentiate between

• pumps
• compressors
• blowers
• fans

as summarized below:

73
Pumps

• A pump is a machine for raising a liquid - a relatively incompressible fluid - to a

higher level of pressure or head.

Compressors

• A compressor is a machine for raising a gas - a compressible fluid - to a higher

level of pressure.

Blowers

• A blower is a machine for moving volumes of a gas with moderate increase of

pressure.

Fans

• A fan moves large amounts of gas with low increase in pressure.

Pumps, Fans and Turbines - Horsepower

Definition of British Horse Power for pumps, fans and turbines - how to convert to other
common units
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Horsepower
Horsepower is the imperial (British) unit of power. A horsepower is the ability to do work
at the rate of

• 33,000 ft.lb per min or

• 550 ft.lb per second

Note that Power is "Work per unit time" and work is "Force through distance". In gravity
systems Force is Weight - mass multiplied with gravity.

The total horsepower developed by water falling from a given height is the product of the
mass flow rate in pounds per minute times the falling height in feet divided by 33,000. It
can be expressed as:

Php = mmin h g / 33000 (1)

where

Php = power (horsepower, hp)

mmin = mass flow rate per minute (lbm/min)

h = head or height (ft)

74
g = acceleration of gravity (32 ft/s2)

(1) can alternatively be expressed as:

Php = msec h g / 550 (1b)

where

msec = mass flow rate per second (lbm/s)

(1) can also be expressed as:

Php = γ Q h / 33000 (1c)

where

Q = volume flow rate (ft3/min)

γ = specific weight (lbf/ft3) (weight is force)

Water Horsepower for Flow in gal/min

Water horsepower for flow in gal/min can be expressed as:

Pwhp = SG Qgal h / 3960 (1d)

where

Q = volume flow rate (gpm)

SG = specific gravity

h = head (ft)

SG for water is 1.001 at 32oF and 0.948 at 240oF.

• Specific Gravity for some common Fluids and Liquids

1.001
SG - Specific Gravity

100
Qgal - Volume Flow (imp gpm)

100
h - head (ft)

Horsepower due to Certain Head of Water

Horsepower of 1 cubic foot of water per minute - efficiency 85%.

75
 • 1 hp (English horse power) = 745.7 W
• 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m

Shaft or Brake Horsepower

The brake horsepower is the amount of real horsepower going to the pump, not the
horsepower used by the motor. In the metric system kilowatts (kW) is used.

Due to hydraulic, mechanical and volumetric losses in a pump or turbine the actual
horsepower available for work on or from the fluid is less than the total horsepower
supplied.

Shaft or Brake Horsepower for a Pump or Fan

The brake horse power - bhp - for a pump or fan can be expressed as:

Pbhp = ( γ Q h / 33000 ) / η (2)

where

Pbhp = brake horse power (horsepower, hp)

Q = volume flow rate (ft3/min, cfm)

η = overall efficiency

Shaft or Brake Horsepower for a Turbine

The brake horse power - bhp - for a turbine can be expressed as:

76
Pbhp = η ( γ Q h / 33000 ) (2b)

Input Horsepower to the Electrical Motor

The input horsepower to the electrical motor for a pump or fan can be expressed as:

Php_el = Pbhp / ηe (3)

or

Php_el = (m h / 33000) / (η ηe) (3b)

where

Php_el = input power to the electrical motor

ηe = mechanical efficiency of the electrical motor

Horsepower in Kilowatts and other Units

Horsepower can be converted to other common units as:

• 1 hp (English horse power) = 745.7 W = 0.746 kW = 550 ft.lb/s = 2545 Btu/h =

33000 ft.lb/m = 1.0139 metric horse power

Transforming horsepower to kiloWatt can be expressed as:

PkW = 0.746 Php (4)

where

PkW = power (kW)

Together with the equations above it's possible to express (4) in many common
combinations as:

PkW = 0,746 (m h / 33000) / η ηe (5)

Shut-off Head
Centrifugal pumps and maximum - or shut-off - head
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The maximum or "shut-off" head of a centrifugal pump can be expressed as

hs = (d n / 1840)2 (1)

where

h = head (feet)

77
d = outside diameter impeller (inches)

n = wheel velocity - revolution per minute - (rpm)

Specific Speed - Pumps

Specific speed may be determined independent of the pump size
Sponsored Links
Specific speed is a number characterizing the type of impeller in a unique and coherent manner.
Specific speed are determined independent of pump size and can be useful comparing different
pump designs. The specific speed identifies the geometrically similarity of pumps.

Specific speed can be expressed as

Ns = ω q1/2 / h3/4 (1)

where

Ns = specific speed

ω = pump shaft rotational speed (rpm)

q = flow rate (m3/h, l/s, l/min, m3/min, US gpm, British gpm) at Best Efficiency Point (BEP)

h = head rise (m, ft)

Online Specific Speed Pump Calculator

The calculator below can used to calculate pump specific speed:

1760
ω - pump shaft rotational speed (rpm)

1500
q - flow rate (m3/h, l/s, l/min, m3/min, US gpm, British gpm)

100
h = head rise (m, ft)

Note! When comparing pumps and their documentation be aware of the units used.

Typical values for specific speed - Ns - for different designs in US units (US gpm, ft)

• radial flow - 500 < Ns < 4000 - typical for centrifugal impeller pumps with radial vanes -
double and single suction. Francis vane impellers in the upper range
• mixed flow - 2000 < Ns < 8000 - more typical for mixed impeller single suction pumps
• axial flow - 7000 < Ns < 20000 - typical for propellers and axial fans

Convert between US units (gpm) and Metric units (m3/h)

• Ns(US gpm, ft) = 0.861 Ns(m3/h, m)

78
 • Ns(British gpm, ft) = 0.787 Ns(m3/h, m)

when

• 1 US gpm = 0.2271 m3/h

• 1 British gpm = 0.2728 m3/h
• 1 ft = 0.3048 m

Example - Specific Speed for a Pump - with different units

A pump has a capacity of 1500 US gal/min (1249 British gpm, 340 m3/h, 94.4 liters/min) at 100
ft (30.5 m) of head and is rotating at 1760 rev/min. Specific speed can be expressed as:

US gpm, ft
Ns(US gpm, ft) = (1760 rev/min) (1500 gal/min)1/2 / (100 ft)3/4

= 2156

British gpm, ft
Ns(British gpm, ft) = (1760 rev/min) (1249 gal/min)1/2 / (100 ft)3/4

= 1967

m3/h, m
Ns(m3/h, m) = (1760 rev/min) (340 m3/h)1/2 / (30.5 m)3/4

= 2500

liter/min, m
Ns(liters/min, m) = (1760 rev/min) (94.4 m3/h)1/2 / (30.5 m)3/4

= 1317

Sponsored Links
Specific Work of Turbo Machines - Pumps, Compressors and Fans
Specific work of pumps, fans, compressors and turbines
Sponsored Links
Specific work is work per unit weight. Specific work in turbo machines as fans, pumps,
compressors or turbines has the SI-units

• Nm/kg = J/kg = m2/s2

Specific Work of a Pump or Fan

Specific work of a pump or fan working with an incompressible fluid can be expressed
as:

79
w = (p2 - p1) / ρ (1)

where

w = specific work (Nm/kg = J/kg = m2/s2)

p = pressure (N/m2)

ρ = density (kg/m3)

Specific Work of a Turbine

Specific work of a turbine with an incompressible fluid can be expressed as:

w = (p1 - p2) / ρ (2)

Specific Work of a Compressor

A compressor works with compressible fluids and the specific work for an isentropic
compressor process can be expressed with the help of

p1 v1κ = p2 v2κ (3)

where

v = volume (m3)

κ = cp / cv - ratio of specific heats (J/kg K)

Specific work:

w = κ / (κ -1) R T1 [( p2 / p1)((κ-1)/κ) - 1] (4)

where

R = individual gas constant (J/kg K)

T = absolute temperature (K)

Specific Work of a Gas Turbine

A gas turbine expands a compressible fluid and the specific work can be expressed as

w = κ / (κ -1) R T1 [1 - ( p2 / p1)((κ-1)/κ)] (5)

Head in Turbomachines
The specific work can on basis of the energy equation be expressed with the head as:

w=gh (6)

80
where

h = head (m)

g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

Transformed to express head:

h=w/g (7)

Example - Specific Work of a Water Pump

A water pump works between 1 bar (105 N/m2) and 10 bar (10 105 N/m2). The specific
work can be calculated with (1):

w = (p2 - p1) / ρ

= ((10 105 N/m2) - (105 N/m2)) / (1000 kg/m3)

= 900 Nm/kg

Dividing by acceleration of gravity the head can be calculated using (7):

hwater = (900 Nm/kg) / (9,81 kg/s2)

= 91,74 (m) water column

Example - Specific Work of an Air Compressor

An air compressor works with air at 20 oC compressing the air from 1
bar absolute (105 N/m2) to 10 bar (10 105 N/m2). The specific work can be expressed
with (4):

w = κ / (κ -1) R T1 [( p2 / p1)((κ-1)/κ) - 1]

= ((1.4 J/kg K) / ((1.4 J/kg K) - 1 )) (286.9 J/kg K) ((273 K) + (20 K)) [((10 105 N/m2) /
(105 N/m2))(((1.4 J/kg K) - 1)/(1.4 J/kg.K)) - 1 ]

= 273826 Nm/kg

where

κair = 1.4 (J/kg K) - ratio of specific heat air

Rair = 286.9 (J/kg K) - individual gas constant air

Dividing by acceleration of gravity the head can be calculated using (7):

hair = (274200 N m/kg) / (9.81 kg/s2)

81
 = 27951 (m) air column

Stable and Unstable Centrifugal Pumps

Characteristics of stable and unstable centrifugal pumps
Sponsored Links
For stable head-flow characteristics the differential head - h - progressively falls with
increasing flow rate - q.

For unstable head-flow characteristics the differential head - h - rises to a maximum and
then progressively falls with increasing flow rate - q.

An unstable pump may start to oscillate between the two possible combinations of head-
flow. The flow rate will modulate and the pipeline vibrate.

It is recommended that centrifugal pumps are designed and operated under stable
conditions.

Static Pressure and Pressure Head in Fluids

Static pressure and pressure head
Sponsored Links

82
The pressure indicates the normal force per unit area at a given point acting on a given
plane. Since there is no shearing stresses present in a fluid at rest - the pressure in a
fluid is independent of direction.

For fluids - liquids or gases - at rest the pressure gradient in the vertical direction
depends only on the specific weight of the fluid.

How pressure changes with elevation can be expressed as

dp = - γ dz (1)

where

dp = change in pressure

dz = change in height

γ = specific weight

The pressure gradient in vertical direction is negative - the pressure decrease upwards.

Specific Weight
Specific Weight can be expressed as:

γ=ρg (2)

where

γ = specific weight

g = acceleration of gravity

In general the specific weight - γ - is constant for fluids. For gases the specific weight -
γ - varies with the elevation.

The pressure exerted by a static fluid depends only upon

• the depth of the fluid

• the density of the fluid
• the acceleration of gravity

Static Pressure in a Fluid

For a incompressible fluid - as a liquid - the pressure difference between two elevations
can be expressed as:

p2 - p1 = - γ (z2 - z1) (3)

where

83
p2 = pressure at level 2

p1 = pressure at level 1

z2 = level 2

z1 = level 1

(3) can be transformed to:

p1 - p2 = γ (z2 - z1) (4)

or

p1 - p2 = γ h (5)

where

h = z2 - z1 difference in elevation - the dept down from location z2.

or

p1 = γ h + p2 (6)

Example - Pressure in a Fluid

The absoute pressure at water depth of 10 m can be calulated as:

p1 = γ h + p2

= (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2) (10 m) + (101.3 kPa)

= (98100 kg/ms2 or Pa) + (101300 Pa)

= 199.4 kPa

where

ρ = 1000 kg/m3

g = 9.81 m/s2

p2 = pressure at surface level = atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kPa

The gauge pressure can be calulated setting p2 = 0

p1 = γ h + p2

= (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2) (10 m)

84
 = 98.1 kPa

The Pressure Head

(6) can be transformed to:

h = (p2 - p1) / γ (6)

h express the pressure head - the height of a column of fluid of specific weight - γ -
required to give a pressure difference of (p2 - p1).

Example - Pressure Head

A pressure difference of 5 psi (lbf/in2) is equivalent to

(5 lbf/in2) (12 in/ft) (12 in/ft) / (62.4 lb/ft3)

= 11.6 ft of water

(5 lbf/in2) (12 in/ft) (12 in/ft) / (847 lb/ft3)

= 0.85 ft of mercury

when specific weight of water is 62.4 (lb/ft3) and specific weight of mercury is 847 (lb/ft3).

Heads at different velocities are indicated in the table below:

Velocity Head Water

(ft/sec) (ft)

0.5 0.004

1.0 0.016

1.5 0035

2.0 0.062

2.5 0.097

3.0 0.140

3.5 0.190

4.0 0.248

85
Velocity Head Water
(ft/sec) (ft)

4.5 0.314

5.0 0.389

5.5 0.470

6.0 0.560

6.5 0.657

7.0 0.762

7.5 0.875

8.0 0.995

8.5 1.123

9.0 1.259

9.5 1.403

10.0 1.555

11.0 1.881

12.0 2.239

13.0 2.627

14.0 3.047

15.0 3.498

16.0 3.980

86
 Velocity Head Water
(ft/sec) (ft)

17.0 4.493

18.0 5.037

19.0 5.613

20.0 6.219

21.0 6.856

22.0 7.525

• 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m = 12 in = 0.3333 yd

Suction Flow Velocities of Water

Recommended water flow velocity on suction side of pump
Sponsored Links
Capacity problem, cavitation and high power consumption in a pump, is often the result
of the conditions on the suction side. In general - a rule of thumb - is to keep the suction
fluid flow speed below the following values:

Pipe bore Water

inches mm m/s ft/s

1 25 0.5 1.5

2 50 0.5 1.6

3 75 0.5 1.7

4 100 0.55 1.8

6 150 0.6 2

8 200 0.75 2.5

87
 Pipe bore Water

inches mm m/s ft/s

10 250 0.9 3

12 300 1.4 4.5

More about NPSH suction problems can be read here:

• Cavitations and NPSH An introduction to cavitations and Net Positive Suction

Head, NPSH.

Suction Head affected by Altitude

Pump suction head as affected by altitude
Sponsored Links
Suction head affected by altitude as:

Pressure
Elevation above Sea Level Practical Suction Lift

(ft) (m) (psig) (ft H2O) (bar) (ft H2O) (m H2O)

0* 0* 14.71 33.95 1 22 6.7

1320 402 14.02 32.38 0.97 21 6.4

2640 805 13.33 30.79 0.92 20 6.1

3960 1207 12.66 29.24 0.87 18 5.5

5280 1609 12.02 27.76 0.83 17 5.2

6600 2012 11.42 26.38 0.79 16 4.9

7920 2414 10.88 24.13 0.75 15 4.6

10560 3219 9.88 22.82 0.68 14 4.3

System Curve and Pump Performance Curve

88
To select a proper pump for a particular application it is necessary to utilize the system
curve and the pump performance curve
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The System Curve
A fluid flow system can in general be characterized with the System Curve - a graphical
presentation of the Energy Equation.

The system head visualized in the System Curve is a function of the elevation - the static
head in the system, and the major and minor losses and can be expressed as:

h = dh + hl (1)

where

h = system head

dh = h2 - h1 = elevation (static) head - difference between inlet and outlet of the system

hl = head loss

A generic expression of head loss is:

hl = k q2 (2)

where

q = flow rate

k = constant describing the total system characteristics - including all major and minor
losses

Increasing the constant - k - by closing some valves, reducing the pipe size or similar -
will increase the head loss and move the system curve upwards. The starting point for
the curve - at no flow, will be the same.

89
Pump Performance Curve
The pump characteristic is normally described graphically by the manufacturer as a
pump performance curve. The pump curve describes the relation between flowrate and
head for the actual pump. Other important information for proper pump selection is also
included - efficiency curves, NPSHr curve,pump curves for several impeller diameters
and different speeds, and power consumption.

Increasing the impeller diameter or speed increases the head and flow rate capacity -
and the pump curve moves upwards.

The head capacity can be increased by connecting two or more pumps in series, or the
flow rate capacity can be increased by connecting two or morepumps in parallel.

Selection of Pump
A pump can be selected by combining the System Curve and the Pump Curve:

The operating point is where the system curve and the actual pump curve intersect.

Best Efficiency Point - BEP

The best operating conditions will in general be close to the best efficiency point - BEP.

90
Special consideration should be taken for applications where the system conditions
change frequently during operation. This is often the situation for heating and air
conditioning system or water supply systems with variable consumption and modulating
valves.

Carry Out
When a pumps operates in the far right of its curve with poor efficiency - the pumps carry
out.

Shutoff Head
Shutoff head is the head produced when the pump operates with fluid but with no flow
rate.

Churn
A pump is in churn when it operates at shutoff head or no flow.

Vapour Pressure
Vapour and saturation pressure for some common liquids
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The vapour pressure of a liquid is defined as the pressure exerted by the molecules that
escapes from the liquid to form a separate vapor phase above the liquid surface.

The pressure exerted by the vapor phase is called the

• vapour or saturation pressure

Vapor or saturation pressure depends on temperature.

If a fluid consist of more than one component (a solution), components with

• higher vapour pressure are called light components

• lower vapour pressure are called heavy components

Temperature and Vapour or Saturation Pressure for some common Fluids

At atmospheric pressure saturation temperature of

• water : 100oC
• ethyl alcohol : 78.5oC

Liquids - Vapour Pressure

Vapour pressure at 20oC for some liquids:

Fluid Name Vapour Pressure (kPa)

Acetone 30

91
 Fluid Name Vapour Pressure (kPa)

Allyl alcohol 2.4

Allyl chloride 30

Aluminium chloride [5% sol] 2.4

Aluminium nitrate [10% sol] 2.4

Aluminium sulphate [10% sol] 2.4

Amyl acetate 1.3

Aniline 0.5

Beer 2.4

Benzene 14

Benzyl alcohol 0.5

Bromine 48

Butyl acetate 3.3

Butyl alcohol 5.4

Butyric acid n 0.5

Calcium chloride [25% sol] 2.4

Calcium chloride [5% sol] 2.4

Carbon disulphide 48

Carbon tetrachloride 20.7

92
 Fluid Name Vapour Pressure (kPa)

Chloroform 30

Cyclohexanol 0.5

Cyclohexanone 0.5

Ethyl acetate 14

Ethyl alcohol 9

Ethyl glycol 0.5

Ethylene glycol 0.5

Formic acid 5.4

Furfurol 0.5

Heptane 0.05

Hexane 0.05

Kerosine 0.5

Methyl acetate 48

Methyl alcohol 30

Methylene chloride 72

Milk 2.4

Nitro benzine 0.5

Nonane 0.5

93
 Fluid Name Vapour Pressure (kPa)

Octane 0.5

Paraffin oil 0.5

Pentane 72

Phenol 0.5

Propanol 2.4

Propionic acid 0.5

Sea water 2.4

Sodium chloride [25% sol] 2.4

Sodium hydroxide [20% sol] 2.4

Sodium hydroxide [30% sol] 2.4

Styrene 0.5

Sulphuric acid 2.4

Tetrachloroethane 1.3

Tetrachloroethylene 3.3

Toluene 5.4

Trichloroethylene 14

Water 2.4

Acetaldehyde 105

94
 Fluid Name Vapour Pressure (kPa)

Acetic acid 3.3

Acetic acid anhydride 1.3

Viscosity Converting Chart

A viscosity converting table between units like Centiposes, milliPascal, CentiStokes and
SSU
Sponsored Links
The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance to shear or flow, and is a measure of the fluids
adhesive/cohesive or frictional properties. This arises because of the internal molecular
friction within the fluid producing the frictional drag effect. There are two related
measures of fluid viscosity which are known as dynamicand kinematic viscosity.

Dynamic viscosity is also termed "absolute viscosity" and is the tangential force per unit
area required to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity
when maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid.

• Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity

Saybolt Seconds Universal

centiPoise (CPS) (SSU)1)
Poise Centistokes Stokes
Millipascal seconds
(P) (cSt) (S)
(mPas) at 100 oF at 210oF
(37.8 oC) (98.9 oC)

12) 0.01 1 0.01

2 0.02 2 0.02 32.6 32.8

4 0.04 4 0.04 39.2 39.5

7 0.07 7 0.07 48.8 49.1

10 0.1 10 0.1 58.8 59.2

95
 Saybolt Seconds Universal
centiPoise (CPS) (SSU)1)
Poise Centistokes Stokes
Millipascal seconds
(P) (cSt) (S)
(mPas) at 100 oF at 210oF
(37.8 oC) (98.9 oC)

15 0.15 15 0.15 77.4 77.9

20 0.2 20 0.2 97.8 98.5

25 0.24 25 0.24 119.4 120.2

30 0.3 30 0.3 141.5 142.5

40 0.4 40 0.4 186.8 188.0

50 0.5 50 0.5 233 234

60 0.6 60 0.6 279 280

70 0.7 70 0.7 325 327

80 0.8 80 0.8 371 373

90 0.9 90 0.9 417 420

100 1 100 1 463 467

120 1.2 120 1.2 556 560

140 1.4 140 1.4 649

160 1.6 160 1.6 741

180 1.8 180 1.8 834

200 2 200 2 927

220 2.2 220 2.2 1019

96
 Saybolt Seconds Universal
centiPoise (CPS) (SSU)1)
Poise Centistokes Stokes
Millipascal seconds
(P) (cSt) (S)
(mPas) at 100 oF at 210oF
(37.8 oC) (98.9 oC)

240 2.4 240 2.4 1112

260 2.6 260 2.6 1204

280 2.8 280 2.8 1297

300 3 300 3 1390

320 3.2 320 3.2 1482

340 3.4 340 3.4 1575

360 3.6 360 3.6 1668

380 3.8 380 3.8 1760

400 4 400 4 1853

420 4.2 420 4.2 1946

440 4.4 440 4.4 2038

460 4.6 460 4.6 2131

480 4.8 480 4.8 2224

500 5 500 5 2316

550 5.5 550 5.5

600 6 600 6

700 7 700 7

97
 Saybolt Seconds Universal
centiPoise (CPS) (SSU)1)
Poise Centistokes Stokes
Millipascal seconds
(P) (cSt) (S)
(mPas) at 100 oF at 210oF
(37.8 oC) (98.9 oC)

800 8 800 8

900 9 900 9

1000 10 1000 10

1100 11 1100 11

1200 12 1200 12

1300 13 1300 13

1400 14 1400 14

1500 15 1500 15

1600 16 1600 16

1700 17 1700 17

1800 18 1800 18

1900 19 1900 19

2000 20 2000 20

2100 21 2100 21

2200 22 2200 22

2300 23 2300 23

2400 24 2400 24

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 Saybolt Seconds Universal
centiPoise (CPS) (SSU)1)
Poise Centistokes Stokes
Millipascal seconds
(P) (cSt) (S)
(mPas) at 100 oF at 210oF
(37.8 oC) (98.9 oC)

2500 25 2500 25

3000 30 3000 30

3500 35 3500 35

4000 40 4000 40

4500 45 4500 45

5000 50 5000 50

5500 55 5500 55

6000 60 6000 60

6500 65 6500 65

7000 70 7000 70

7500 75 7500 75

8000 80 8000 80

8500 85 8500 85

9000 90 9000 90

9500 95 9500 95

15000 150 15000 150

20000 200 20000 200

99
 Saybolt Seconds Universal
centiPoise (CPS) (SSU)1)
Poise Centistokes Stokes
Millipascal seconds
(P) (cSt) (S)
(mPas) at 100 oF at 210oF
(37.8 oC) (98.9 oC)

30000 300 30000 300

40000 400 40000 400

50000 500 50000 500

60000 600 60000 600

70000 700 70000 700

80000 800 80000 800

90000 900 90000 900

100000 1000 100000 1000

125000 1250 125000 1250

150000 1500 150000 1500

175000 1750 175000 1750

200000 2000 200000 2000

1)
The Saybolt Universal SUS viscosity equivalent (SSU or SUS) to a given kinematic
viscosity varies with the temperature at which the determination is made. Check ASTM
D 2161 "Standard Practice for Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt Universal
Viscosity or to Saybolt Furol Viscosity"
2)
Water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) has an absolute viscosity of one - 1 - centiPoise.

Note! The viscosities are based on materials with a specific gravity of one (1).

Saybolt Universal Viscosities at temperatures other than 100 or 210oF

At temperatures other than 100 or 210°F, convert kinematic viscosities to Saybolt
Universal viscosities with

100
Ut = U100°F (1 + 0.000061 (t - 100)) (1)

where

Ut = Saybolt Universal viscosity at temperature t (°F)

U100°F = Saybolt Universal viscosity at 100°F in Saybolt Universal seconds equivalent to

kinematic viscosity in centistokes at temperature t (°F)

Viscous Fluids - Recommended Suction Flow Velocity

Recommended suction flow velocity of viscous fluids
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Avoid high velocities in the suction pipes. Higher velocities increases the pressure loss
in the pipe and there may be a chance that the pump start to cavitating. As a rule of
thumb the suction velocity in front of a pump should be below:

Pipe bore Viscous Liquids

inches mm m/s ft/s

1 25 0.3 1

2 50 0.33 1.1

3 75 0.36 1.2

4 100 0.4 1.3

6 150 0.43 1.4

8 200 0.45 1.5

10 250 0.5 1.7

12 300 0.5 1.7

These values depends a lot of the fluid pumped. More about viscosity and viscosities of
different fluids can be read here:

• Viscosity Conversion Factors Convert between Centistokes, Centiposes, SSU

and Degree Engler
• A Viscosity Converting Chart Converting table between Centiposes, milliPascal,
CentiStokes and SSU

101
 • Viscosity of Several Fluids Viscosity of fluids as motor oil, diesel fuel, peanut oil
and many more

Viscous Liquids - Recommended Delivery Flow Velocities

Normal flow velocities on the delivery side of the pump in viscous systems
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As a rule of thumb the following velocities can be used in design of piping and pumping
systems for viscous liquids:

Pipe Dimension Viscous Liquids

inches mm m/s ft/s

1 25 1 3.5

2 50 1.1 3.6

3 75 1.1 3.7

4 100 1.15 3.8

6 150 1.2 3.9

8 200 1.2 4

10 250 1.3 4.5

12 300 1.4 4.5

Volume Flow and Temperature Rise in Pumps

Calculate temperature rise in pumps
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No pump is perfect with 100% efficiency. The energy lost in friction and hydraulic losses
are transformed to heat - heating up the fluid transported through the pump.

102
The temperature rise can be calculated as

dt = Ps (1 - µ) / cp q ρ (1)

where

dt = temperature rise in the pump (oC)

q = volume flow through the pump (m3/s)

Ps = brake power (kW)

cp = specific heat capacity of the fluid (kJ/kgoC)

µ = pump efficiency

ρ = fluid density (kg/m3)

Typical relation between the centrifugal pump flow, efficiency and power consumption, is
indicated in the figure below:

Example - Temperature rise in water pump

The temperature rise in a water pump working at normal conditions with flow 6 m3/h
(0.0017 m3/s), brake power 0.11 kW and pump efficiency of 28% (0.28), can be
calculated as

103
dt = (0.11 kW) (1 - 0.28) / (4.2 kJ/kgoC) (0.0017 m3/s) (1000 kg/m3)

= 0.011 oC

If the flow of the pump is reduced by throttling the discharge valve, the temperature rise
through the pump will increase. If the flow is reduced to 2 m3/h (0.00056 m3/s), the brake
power is slightly reduced to 0.095 kW and pump efficiency reduced to 15% (0.15), the
temperature rise can be calculated as

dt = (0.095 kW) (1 - 0.15) / (4.2 kJ/kgoC) (0.00056 m3/s) (1000 kg/m3)

= 0.035 oC

With the standard documentation provided by a manufacturer it should be possible to

express the temperature rise as a function of volume flow as shown in the figure below:

Water Delivery Flow Velocities

Required flow velocities in water transport systems - on the delivery side of the pump
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As a rule of thumb the following velocities can be used in design of piping and pumping
systems for water:

Pipe Dimension Water

inches mm m/s ft/s

1 25 1 3.5

2 50 1.1 3.6

3 75 1.15 3.8

104
 Pipe Dimension Water

inches mm m/s ft/s

4 100 1.25 4

6 150 1.5 4.7

8 200 1.75 5.5

10 250 2 6.5

12 300 2.65 8.5

More about Water Systems, Pumps or Piping Systems.

Water Pump Calculator

Calculate Pressure Head, Total Dynamic Head, Bowl Horsepower, Total Trust acting on
Driver Thrust Bearing, Field Head, Power Loss due to Shafting, Power Loss in Thrust
Bearings, Motor Load, Field Efficiency, Input Horsepower (Power Supplied to Driver) and
Shaft Elongation
Water Pumping Costs
Costs pumping water
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The costs of pumping water can be calculated as

C = 0.746 Q h c / (3960 µp µm) (1)

where

C = cost per hour

Q = volume flow (gpm)

h = head (ft)

c = cost rate per kWh

µp = pump efficiency

µm= motor efficiency

105
Pumping Cost Calculator
10
Q - Volume flow (gpm)

10
h - head (ft)

0.1
c - cost rate per kWh

0.9
µp = pump efficiency

0.9
µm= motor efficiency

106