Chapter 4:

STONE: FROM TECHNIQUE TO TECHNOLOGY

The Impact Of Technological Advances On Architectural Design

Of all of the materials that we will be referring to in the course, the study of stone
construction requires the deepest search back into the history of architectural design . By its
ancient nature, revelations concerning its structural characteristics are founded upon the type of
experimentation that were based on techniques developed by the Greeks and Romans for their
civic architecture. Even the majestic cathedrals constructed during the Gothic period relied on
experimentation and often failure. Such structures lacked accuracy and reliability. It was not
until the 1600's and 1700's that the mathematical and scientific fields which were to have a
profound effect on the architectural design of stone buildings had advanced to such a point to be
of value. It was knowledge in the fields of 'mensuration' and 'stereometry' which resulted in
significant technological advances in stone construction. Mensuration is the branch of
mathematics concerned with the accurate measurement of areas, lengths and volumes.
Stereometry is defined as solid geometry or the art of measuring solids. The application of
stereometry to stone or other types of construction requiring accurate cutting is referred to as
stereotomy, or the use of geometric projections in determining the shape and dimensions of
stone or wooden elements in arches, vaults, trusses, stairs and domes. Stereometry relies on the
use of horizontal and vertical projections in determining in two dimensions the precise
configuration of the complex parts of a building. Such accuracy was not possible in early times,
even up to the Gothic or Renaissance periods.

DEFINITIONS:

Mensuration: Measuring; branch of mathematics concerned with measurement of areas,

lengths and volumes

Stereometry: Art of measuring solids; solid geometry

Stereotomy: The use of geometric projections in determining the shape and dimensions of stone
or wooden elements in arches, vaults, trusses, stairs and domes. To use horizontal and vertical
projections in determining in two dimensions the precise configuration of complex parts
buildings.

Technology: Scientific study of practical or industrial arts; practical arts collectively;

terminology of a particular art of subject.

Science: Systematic and formulated knowledge; pursuit of this, principles regulating such
pursuit.

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THE ORIGINS OF THE ORDERS:

Much speculation and theorizing regarding the historical development of stone

construction transpired during the Enlightenment as archeological discoveries in Pompeii and
Herculaneum unearthed ancient Greek and Roman stone buildings. Although stone construction
had continued to be used throughout the ages, it was not until the Enlightenment that the field of
architectural theory started to search for an understanding of its style, form and meaning. Joseph
Rykwert in his book "On Adam's House in Paradise" talks at great length about the notion of 'the
primative hut', which scholars during the 1700's felt represented the origins of architectural
form, from ancient buildings of timber, as translated into the stone structures of the Greeks. It
was felt by scholars such as Auguste Choisy, Marc Antoine Laugier and Quatremere de Quincy
that the first buildings in history were wooden buildings, and the classical language of
architecture that resulted from the design of these structures reflected the early techniques in
wood joinery.

1. On Adam's House in Paradise (Rykwert):

Every art and every science is born of necessity, and receives from the desire for
improvement its slow and obscure growth. It is the business of philosophy to perfect
them.
The Primitive Hut: A belief espoused by Sir William Chambers, Quatremere de Quincy,
Marc Antoine Laugier Sir James Hall and Eugene Emmanuel Viollet le Duc that the first
buildings which were created were wooden dwellings, and that the architectural solution
and construction methods for wood were applied to stone construction (which came
second) therefore the form of stone construction.
Quatremere do Quincy: Before the hut could be imitated in stone it had to be reasoned
and developed.
Sir James Hall: The principle of imitation is essential to architecture. Stone, however,
has no ornamental forms proper to its nature, nor has the act of building any immediate
apparent forms to imitate.
The Rustic Hut: Laugier and Blondel.
2. The Rustic Hut: Chambers version.
3. Auguste Choisy: Stone and reconstructed timber origin of the Doric Order after Choisy.
The Rustic Hut: Milizia version.

PRINCIPLES OF STONE CONSTRUCTION:

4. Structure: The Essence of Architecture (Forrest Wilson) Needs to be an understanding of

the difference in properties of stone and timber nevertheless. Stone good in compression,
not good at all in tension. Lintel construction poor use of stone as it puts underside of
beam in tension, causing cracking -therefore only very short spans possible.
5. Arch construction because of the line of action of weight (force) of the stone above
coming down (gravity) makes the stone to act only in compression--therefore taking
advantage of the positive properties of stone -getting longer spans.
6. The Gothic Vault (Acland): Though the pointed gothic arch better fits the ideal line of
pressure, if too acutely pointed the crown tends to rise while the sides fall inwards.

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 In a semicircular arch where the stones can slide the crown will fall while the sides are
pressed out above the spring point or at the spring point.
Rotational movement of stories during failure more normal
7. Barrel vault is an extrusion of a round arch. They exert continuous thrust out along their
sides (at the spring point especially). Could be reinforced with heavy walls at the side or
with tie bars across. Transverse arch rings used to reinforce barrel vault.
8. Development of the dome (rotation of a semicircular arch).
The first domes were developed from beehive corbelled domes by slightly canting the
courses. Later domes with steeply pitched radiating joints required centering.
Corbelling. Centering is the wooden formwork which supports and gives shaped to the
dome (or arch) during construction
Each ring of masonry in a dome is a structurally stable compression ring.
The double curvature of the dome with interlocking compression rings makes it a very
rigid form. Heavy loads at the crown will generate bursting forces just above the
haunching.
The bursting forces can be countered by loading down the shell with heavy buttresses or
by introducing a tension ring or chain.
9. In domes on pendentives the mason could rely on the stiffness of doubly curved surfaces.
In gothic cross vaults the folds at the groins act as stiffening ribs bracing the eritire
fabric.
Sacristy of San Lorenzo: Michaelangelo
Example of a semicircular dome on a pendentive.
10. The Gothic Vault (Acland)
Thin cylindrical barrel vaults fail when the crown falls, pushing out the sides. Thin
stiffening plates can reduce this flexure.
A pyramidal roof is rigid but requires support below the sides. The cross ridged roof can
rest on four isolated supports, channeling loads down the folded groins.
Folding along the crown can replace the longitudinal stiffener. Folded ridges set
transversely can brace the sides.
In the pointed Gothic cross vault the panels of vaulting were curved to wedge into
position.
11. History of Building (Jack Bowyer):
Key to the ability to construct with stone was the ability to move the pieces into position
after cutting. Levering machinery such as this was possible once pulleys were invented.
Medieval method of moving a pillar by the common lever principle ( W = F x d )
12. Greek Architects at Work (Coulton):
Colossal stone transportation: isometric restoration
a. Metagenes' method c. 550 BC
b. Paconius' method (first century)
Often stone not quarried at the building site.

IMPLEMENTATION: GREEK

13. Angle contraction in the Doric Order; elevation with oblique projection: illustrating the
placement of the parts, centering and proportional distances.

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 Propylaia at Athens, east facade (c. 437-432 BC) exploded isometric view showing
cantilevered frieze beams. Idea of cantilever in stone difficult as it is not designed to do
this very well.
14. Greek Architects at Work (Coulton):
Features of early Greek monumental masonry: a) U shaped hole; b) dove tail clamp; c)
band anathyrosis; d) orthostate; e) handling boss; f) preliminary dressing
15. Vitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture (first century BC)
“All things therefore appear to be made up and produced by the coming together of these
elements, so that they have been distributed by nature among an infinite number of kinds
of things. Hence I believed it right to treat of the diversity and practical peculiarities of
these things as well as of the qualities which they exhibit in buildings, so that persons
who are intending to build may understand them and so make no mistake, but may gather
materials which are suitable to use in their buildings.”

“The stone in quarries is found to be of different and unlike qualities. In some it is soft
.... in some it is hard, as in lava quarries. There are also numerous other kinds. (Tufa as
being noted as being able to be cut with a saw). All these soft kinds have their advantage
that they can be easily worked as soon as they have been taken from the quarries. Under
cover they play their part well; but in open and exposed situations the frost and rime
make them crumble, and they go to pieces. On the seacoast, too, the salt eats away and
dissolves them, nor can they stand great heat either. But travertine and all stone in that
class can stand injury ... But since, on account of the proximity of the stone quarries of
Grotta Rossa, Palla, and the others that are nearest to the city, necessity drives us to make
use of their products ...”

“This we may learn from several monuments in the environs of the city, which are built
of marble or dimension stone, but on the inside packed with masonry between the outer
walls. In the course of time the mortar has lost its strength, which has been sucked out of
it by the porousness of the rubble; and so the monuments are tumbling down and going to
pieces with their joints loosened by the settling of the material that bound them together.
He who wishes to avoid such a disaster should leave a cavity behind the facings, and on
the inside build walls two feet thick, made of red dimension stone or burnt brick or lava
in courses, and then bind them to the fronts by means of iron clamps and lead.”

16. Temple of Neptune at Paestum

Temple at Paestum showing the lintel construction, noting the Tuscan order of columns.
17. Temple of Hera at Paestum, noting the construction joints in the columns

IMPLEMENTATION: ROMAN

18. Roman Forum; note use of Ionic and Corinthian orders, lintel system
19. Roman Imperial Architecture (Ward Perkins):
Amphitheatrum Flavium (Coliseum), inaugurated in 80 AD.
Note use of different stone based materials, travertine where seen by important public,
tufa for less important visual (infill material) and concrete for large structural masses.
20. View of Coliseum: note arches and pilasters and holes in exterior where the iron was
removed: note barrel vault

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21. Interior of Coliseum
22. Roman Imperial Architecture (Ward Perkins):
Basilica of Maxentius 307-12, completed by Constantine after 312 AD
The central nave measured 260 x 80 feet. Of note are the coffered barrel vaults used to
lighten the weight of the structure.
23. Roman Imperial Architecture (Ward Perkins):
Pantheon, c. 118-128 AD
24. Roman Imperial Architecture (Ward Perkins):
Axonometric view and section. The stippled area in the section (here shown slightly
exaggerated) represents the masonry added below the structural intrados of the dome so
as to complete the visual curvature of the coffering. Coffering done to lighten the weight
of the dome.
The Architecture of the Roman Empire (MacDonald): Pantheon cross section
25. The Architecture of the Roman Empire (MacDonald) Pantheon, plan
The structural system of the Pantheon between level II and III
26. Palladio Four Books of Architecture:
Partial front section of the Pantheon. Palladio did numbers of engraving studies of the
buildings of antiquity during the Renaissance and published in his treatise on
Architecture.
27. Pantheon interior view: the formal scheme of the rotunda is a circular drum half the
height of its own diameter (142 feet) surmounted by a hemispherical dome, the crown of
which is thus, in accordance with the precepts of Vitruvius, exactly the same height
above the pavement as the diameter of the building.

IMPLEMENTATION: GOTHIC

28. The Gothic Vault (Acland):

Romanesque and early Gothic masons used small split rubble stones for the panels of
their vaults. Layout was a rough and ready affair with only a few controlling lines or
templates. The masons butted their coursing together at the groins, only occasionally
keying their stones in alternate projections. They relied upon a heavy coat of plaster to
make up irregularities. Evidently is was advantageous to first build a masonry rib as a
support and as a cover for this erratic line of intersection. The problem could have been
solved by carefully designing each voussoir stone at the groins as a seven sided wedge
keyed to the panels of vaulting to make a hidden rib. Eventually this was to be done
during the Renaissance but it did involve a disproportionate outlay of time and energy on
complex stereotomy or stone cutting. The vault had to be planned and laid out in
advance, by the use of three dimensional projective geometry, as a complex of precisely
shaped and fitted stones. This was beyond the technical capacity of masons during the
Middle Ages. Roughly shaped fieldstone or rubble, broken along the cleavage planes
into elongated cubes slightly larger than a brick, was the basic constructional material,
restricting their use of cut stone to facings in piers and walls.

External apparatus of the thirteenth century Gothic structural system: shell vaults
concentrated loads to the ribs and then to the piers. Vertical loads were carried down the
nave piers and thrusts spread through the flying arches to the mass of the buttresses,
outside the sheathing wall.

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 Thirteenth century Gothic masonry engineering in the nave wall of Notre Dame, Dijon c.
1225 (after Viollet-le-Duc)
29. At Chartres cathedral after 1194 a three tiered buttressing arrangement let the clerestory
expand to carry large windows.
30. Chartres Cathedral, view of ceiling of nave, noting vaulting and ribs expressed. Gothic
architecture was later perceived of a structuralist as the architectural expression was in
the structure of the building Chartres Cathedral, interior. The change in the attitude of
society in respect to the Church and the desire to have the character of the space god-like
and upward lifting lead to experimentation in the shape of the arch. These types of
arches could be constructed with greater span and height than standard round arches, and
the flying buttresses supported the walls to permit glazing, the ribbing in the vaults
concentrating the load away from the glazed area.
31. Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris used flying buttresses which stretched the technique to its
maximum potential.
32. St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, William Vertue, 1506-1511
St. George's Chapel, strictly speaking the Windsor vault is not a real fan vault, the ribs
did not develop from a conoid surface. William Vertue cut the elaborate interlace of
liernes from a thin masonry barrel constructed of carefully interlocked large stones.
(Acland)
33. The Gothic Vault (Acland)
The architect in coordinating the construction of a Medieval cathedral church had to draw
upon the skills of many trades and the technical capacities of specialist artisans. Note the
use of centering and hoists.
VIA 7 The Building of Architecture:
Illustration of Wood Centering for stone vault construction from the Encyclopedie of
Diderot and D'Alambert.
34. On Adam's House in Paradise (Rykwert)
Sir James Hall, the origins of Gothic Architecture: Small variations in the joining of the
willow rods provide the models for the varieties of arching and vaulting. Hall assumes
the complexity to have been progressive: so the pointed arch, the clustered column, the
branching roof, "the three leading characteristics of Gothic Architecture" have been
accounted for. Hall's motive in going through this elaborate exercise is his conviction
that before the rise of Gothic Architecture proper, its principal features had appeared in
"a more ancient style", and he hopes to restore to Gothic architecture its due share of
public esteem" by showing how it derives from a simple timber original, and is
consequently systematic, "its authors have been guided by principle, and not, as many
have alleged, by mere fancy and caprice."

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: The stones and beams obey the laws of gravity, press
downwards, and so high walls are carried up. Thus the elements are made use of
according to their nature, and yet cooperate for a product by which their operation is
limited.
35. Antonio Gaudi (1852-1926): Sagrada Familia, Barcelona (begun in 1884).
Executed in a Gothic style under the influence of Art Nouveau but elaborated with
absolute originality. Sagrada Familia uses images of tree forms on windows -- these
calling the image of the bent willow forms that were speculated to form the origins of the
shape of the Gothic arch. The frontal columns use tree forms with the benefits of
engineering knowledge in order to cant them. Gaudi left a model at 1:25 of the proposed
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 nave; note the reference to trees and the forest ceiling. Construction slowed down after
Gaudi’s deatch and continues to this date. The nave area presently under construction
following the completion of the towers (12 constructed in all).

IMPLEMENTATION: RENAISSANCE

36. Filippo Brunelleschi, Pazzi Chapel, Firenze (1430) Renaissance return to classical forms,
dome, pendentive. Note plastered surfaces which do not require exact cutting of stones.
37. Andrea Pallidio San Giorgio Maggiore (begun 1566) Combination of classical temple
forms and round arches and vaulting. San Giorgio, interior view, dome and pendentive.
Clean forms, little or no structural expression. Reoccurrence again of plastered surfaces
not requiring exact cutting of stone.
38. Palladio Four Books of Architecture:
Palladio's treatise on architecture is in keeping with the Renaissance's reexamination of
classical architecture, particularly a reflection on the writings of Vitruvius. Palladio does
not prescribe anything new in stone wall construction, simply presents an analysis of all
of the different types of construction he has 'discovered'.
Engraving of Palladio's illustrating the geometry of the capital and base of the Ionic
column. The Renaissance illustrated an interest in architectural representation and
drawing, in two dimensions, and in perspective, and in the areas of mathematics as
geometry, that was key for further developments of the 18th century.

THE EFFECTS OF MENSURATION ON STONE:

The Development Of Stereotomy And Stereometry During The Enlightenment

39. Greek Architects at Work (Coulton):

It would seem that the application of mathematics and geometry (mensuration) to the art
of stonecutting (stereometry and stereotomy) separated the activity of the masons from
the ancients up to the Renaissance from the activities of the masons in the 17th century
onwards.
40. Versailles, Louis Le Vau, Jules Hardoin Mansart, 1669-85
It was the Baroque era which brought about the introduction of mensuration, stereometry
and stereometry into the building industry.
Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science (Perez Gomez)
The use of practical geometry for the tracing of walls and foundations (in order to ensure
verticality or symmetry) is obviously as old as the building craft itself. Only toward the
end of the Renaissance, however, did concerns with mensuration and topography become
more dominant, as the theoretical universe of these sciences acquired greater specificity.
The initial attempt to systematize these processes of measurement appeared in Leone
Battista Alberti's Ludi Matematici. In 1565 Silvio Belli's Libro del Misurar con la Vista
taught to measure using an instrument, the quadrate qeometrico, employing the law of
similar triangles. Cataneo's publication on mensuration in 1584 was a forerunner of
Descarte's analytic geometry but showed how difficult it was to conceive mathematics as
an abstract science, apart from reality.

Only toward the end of the 17th century did treatises on practical geometry begin to
reveal an interest to relate it directly and effectively to actual problems of building. They
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 were used with unprecedented importance, becoming essential for tile success of any
building task.

During the enlightenment mathematics was seen only as a practical tool in texts
concerned with building techniques, and its instrumental value in construction programs
was recognized by most French architects. The general interest in technical problems
and the quantitative methods needed to solve these problems increased considerably
throughout the 18th century. Not used as extensively outside France. Began to be taught
in the French technical schools during the second half of the 18th century.

The culmination of this process only took place during the early half of the 19th century
when the science of measurement and geometrical drawing, the two disciplines that could
implement the reduction of the reality of building practices to two dimensions, had
become sufficiently systemized.
Versailles, L'orangerie.
41. Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science (Perez Gomez):
Geometric projections applied to the stereotomic description of a vault, from F. Derand's
L'Architecture des Voutes (1643).
Stereotomic virtuosity in the vaulting of the orangerie in the Palace of Versailles,
designed by J.H. Mansart (1681-86).
42. Stereotomy, the use of geometric projections in determining the shape and dimensions of
stone or wooden elements in arches, vaults, trusses ' stairs ' and domes, was specifically a
French concern. De l'orme, 1567, in his book devoted several chapters to illustrate the
use of horizontal and vertical projections in determining in two dimensions the precise
configuration of complex parts of buildings.
The geometry implicit in vault construction and other stereometric marvels constituted
both the structure of the work and the ultimate source of its meaning. G. Desargues,
booklets 1640 and 1643, but not discovered until the 19th century. Recognized three
aspects of any activity: first, the theory (a framework in which to invent and make rules
of practice), secondly, the rules themselves as derived from the theory, thirdly, practice,
the execution of the rules. Conscious of the fact that no one before 'him had reduced the
art of stonecutting to a set of methodical and universal principles. Felt that the architect
should provide the craftsmen with precise stereotomic tracings to cut every piece of the
stone--to maintain control of the design.

Architects of the Enlightenment not interested in this subject.

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF STEREOMETRY DURING THE

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

43. The Rudiments of the Art of Masonry (Dobson): Published in 1863 (after the exhibition
of 1851), one of a rather large series of books of a technological nature.
Idea of projections and drawings illustrated in a simple straightforward manner finally so
that anyone could understand them. Development of a surface projections to describe the
vault.
44. Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science (Perez Gomez):

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 Illustration of De la Hire’s hypothesis applied to diverse problems in the design of
arches, from F. Milizia's Architettura Civile (1781)
The creation of the field of engineering and the derivation of the study of Statics and
Strength of Materials led designers to be 'more daring' in the design of stone and other
buildings. Previous structures were over designed due to the inability to calculate exactly
how large piers had to be (for example) to support the load. Now structures could be
lightened up.

THE REINFORCEMENT OF STONE WITH IRON: SOUFFLOT

45. Jacques Germain Soufflot, Ste. Genevieve (Pantheon) c. 1770

Frontal view. Designed to be very different from churches at that time. Adopted the
Greek cross plan, versus the latin cross plan. The knowledge of structures allowed the
lightening of the structure to support the dome which brought on much criticism. The
main support port piers actually did crack and in 1806 reinforcement was desired by
Rondelet.
46. Claude Perrault. The Louvre.
47. Place de la Concorde. Ange Jacques Gabrielle. Reinforced stone.

MODERN USE OF STONE:

The structural use of stone in architecture has all but disappeared this century. Load
bearing construction has been replaced by rain screen walls which apply thin sheets of
cut stone to the faces of buildings. These are typically either hung from a steel or
concrete structure using stainless steel anchors, or laid up in courses. New technologies
have been developed to ensure the durability of this type of stone construction --
preventing water damage, corrosion to the ties and resistance to deflection as a result of
wind. Virtually no use is made of the compression techniques developed by stone
masons of the past.

The use of stereometry in the shaping of stone pieces is critical in ensuring accurate
construction in the modern use of stone. Computers are now attached to diamond tipped
blades used in the stone saws to shape intricate multi curved stone shapes.

48. Stone in Buildings: Its Use and Potential Today. Bonded ashlar walls.
Solid stone walls and windows.
49. Modern use of stone has largely been relegated to that of a cladding material. Stone is
cut in thin veneers (25 to 75 mm thick) and is hung from the structure of the building
using stainless steel anchors as a rain screen curtain wall.

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