Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION TO PETROPHYSICS AND FORMATION

EVALUATION

1.1 Introduction
The search or economic accumulations of oil and gas starts with the recognition of likely geological
provinces, progresses to seismic surveying, and the drilling of one or more wild-cat wells. If one is
lucky, these wells may encounter oil, and if that is the case, measurements made down the hole with
wireline or LWD (Logging While Drilling) tools are used to assess whether sufficient oil is present,
and whether it can be produced. Clearly, the evaluation of sub-surface formations requires the
combined efforts of geologists, petrophysicists, drilling engineers, reservoir engineers and
geophysicists.

The geologist is interested in the lithology, stratigraphy and depositional environment of the sub-
surface strata penetrated by the drilling bit. The exploration geologist uses formation evaluation data in a
number of wells to create a large scale image of the sub-surface geology by correlating responses
that are characteristic of a given formation or horizon between formations. This picture is very useful
when carrying out initial reservoir modelling and in the decision where to drill new wells. Later the
production geologist carries out much the same process with much more well information, and adds
any extra information that has been gathered to produce a detailed geological model of the reservoir and
related sub-surface formations. This model will be the basis of reservoir modelling, and all major
reservoir management decisions from primary drainage through to enhanced oil recovery and shut-down.

The petrophysicist’s job is to use all available information to analyze the physical and chemical
properties of the rocks in the sub-surface, and their component minerals, with particular emphasis
given to the amount and distribution of water, oil, and gas. The petrophysicist will use extensively
wireline and LWD log data and data from experiments done on cores extracted from the well, and will
occasionally use other sources of information such as engineering and production logs, as well as mud
logging data. Initially, it is the aim of the petrophysicist to differentiate between oil, gas and water
bearing formations, estimate the porosity of the formations and the approximate amount of
hydrocarbons present in each formation. Ultimately, the petrophysicist also uses laboratory data to
estimate how easy it will be to extract the hydrocarbons in place and, with the reservoir engineer, to
design reservoir management strategies to optimize long term oil recovery.

There is a large database of information available to both the geologist and the petrophysicist, and as
time passes the amount and variety of information increases. Table 1.1 summarizes a few of the main
measurement that a geologist or petrophysicist will have access to, arranged in approximate
chronological order. It is the responsibility of the wellsite geologist or engineer to ensure that all this
data is properly collected and recorded.

This course is designed to introduce you to wireline and LWD formation evaluation logs and the simple
analysis of the data that they provide. The following sections cover the theory behind the operation of
each tool, how each tool operates, its advantages and limitations, and its main applications. There are a
huge number of tools available in the industry, too many to be covered individually. However, all are
variations on a small number of generic tool types, which will be described.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 1

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Introduction

Table 1.1 Main sources of data concerning sub-surface rocks.

Data Type
Source
Drilling Rate of penetration of drill bit (ROP)
(Mud logging) Analysis of drill cuttings
Analysis of drilling mud
Shows of gas, oil or water
Gains or losses of drilling mud
Wireline/LWD Mechanical logs (e.g., calipers)
Logs Electrical logs (e.g., laterologs, induction logs, SP logs)
Natural radiation logs (e.g., simple and spectral gamma ray logs)
Acoustic logs (e.g. Acoustic/Sonic logs)
Pressure and temperature logs
Artificial radiation logs (e.g., density and neutron logs)
Imaging logs (e.g., dipmeter, resistivity, ultrasonic)
Magnetic Resonance (e.g., NMR logs)
Cores Lithology
Hydrocarbon shows
Heterogeneity and fracturing
Porosity
Permeability (Klinkenberg, liquid and relative permeability)
Wettability and capillary pressure
Grain and pore size distributions
Production Logs Formation testing (e.g., RFT/FMT – (Repeat) Formation (Multi) Tester)
Drill stem tests
Production tests
Pressure build-up and spinner tests

It should be remembered at all times that the main job of the petrophysicist is to evaluate the amount
of hydrocarbons in place in the reservoir. Hence, the evaluation sequence for a straightforward
reservoir will be as follows:

For any given well interval:

1. Distinguish between reservoir and non-reservoir rock

(Reservoir rock contains a reasonably high connected porosity.)

2. For the reservoir intervals only, distinguish between hydrocarbons and water filling the
pores, hence calculate water saturation in reservoir rocks
(Hydrocarbons are electrical insulators, while water conducts.)

3. For the hydrocarbon fraction, distinguish between oil and gas, hence calculate gas and
oil saturations in reservoir rocks
(Gas has a much lower density than oil.)

Geoff Page 2010 Page 2

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Introduction

1.2 Conditions Allowing the Accumulation of Hydrocarbons in a

Reservoir
Oil and gas reservoirs have come into being over large periods of time as the result of geological
processes. The gasses and oils have been formed from organic remains, have migrated into the
reservoir rock, and then have been trapped there by overlying rock formations with very low
permeability. Hence, for a hydrocarbon reservoir to exist we need the following to be available at the
same location:

1. A source rock containing the original organic remains.

2. Pressure and temperature conditions suitable to convert the organic remains into oil and gas.
3. A porous, permeable reservoir rock where the hydrocarbon can accumulate.
4. A migration pathway from the source rock to the reservoir rock for the hydrocarbons.
5. A suitable trap to keep the hydrocarbons in the reservoir rock until we wish to exploit it.

These processes can take extremely long periods of time. Most formations that contain reservoirs are
sedimentary rocks, where the deposition of organically rich material has been followed by clean
sandstones that form high porosity well connected pore systems, and are subsequently capped by
shales with very low permeabilities. Here the burial of the initial deposition provides the pressures and
temperatures to produce hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons are less dense than water, so migrate
upwards into the sandstones, replacing the water that originally occupied the reservoir sandstone,
where the hydrocarbons are constrained from rising further by the shale cap. The hydrocarbon then
waits until we decide to produce it.

The depositional and post-depositional history of the reservoir rock, and particularly its diagenetic
history (compaction, cementation and dissolution), all contribute to the mineralogical composition of
the rock, and hence its grain size distribution, porosity, pore size distribution and the connectivity of
its pores. Note that in the process of migration the hydrocarbon replaces water in the reservoir rock
because it is less dense than water. In practice, the replacement is almost never complete, with some
water associated with even the best oil accumulations. The reason for the remaining water is that the
grains comprising the reservoir rock are usually water-wet, i.e., having a chemical preference to be
covered in water rather than hydrocarbon, hence they retain a thin film of water when the hydrocarbon
replaces most of the water in the pores. Oil-wet rocks do exist, and the ability to distinguish between
oil and water wet rocks is extremely important in reservoir management, especially in the final stages
of reservoir production. In general, any given reservoir rock the pore space will be occupied by a
water saturation Sw, a gas saturation Sg, and an oil saturation So.

Since gas is less dense than oil, which is less dense than water, the fluids separate in hydrocarbon
reservoirs with the gas occurring just below the trapping lithology, oil a little deeper, and water at the
bottom. The fluids are commonly immiscible and so we can define a gas-oil contact (GOC) and an oil-
water contact (OWC). Since, gravity is the force that separates the fluids into these layers, the GOC
and OWC are horizontal providing that horizontal and vertical permeability is good in the reservoir
and there are no complicating structures or fractures. Note that it is not compulsory to have all three
fluids occurring together. Hence in gas reservoirs the oil is missing and there is a gas-water contact
(GWC). Similarly, oil reservoirs can exist without a gas cap.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 3

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Introduction

1.3 Calculating Hydrocarbon Volumes in a Reservoir

We can define a reservoir rock as one that has a porosity and permeability that allows it to contain a
significant amount of extractable hydrocarbon, AND contains hydrocarbons. A non-reservoir rock
may have a porosity that is too low, a permeability that is too low, or a low or zero hydrocarbon
saturation. The major control is often the basic lithology. For example, shales often contain
hydrocarbon with high saturations, but have porosities and permeabilities that are much too low for the
hydrocarbon to be extractable. Shales are considered to be non-reservoir rock. In contrast a high
porosity, high permeability sandstone could be a reservoir rock providing that the hydrocarbon
saturations are sufficiently high, i.e., above the oil water contact.

The calculation of hydrocarbon volume requires us to know the volume of the formations containing
the hydrocarbons, the porosity of each formation, and the hydrocarbon saturation in each formation. In
practice each reservoir will be made up of a number of zones each with its own thickness, areal extent,
porosity and hydrocarbon saturation. For example, reservoir sandstones may alternate with non-
reservoir shales, such that each zone is partitioned. Such zonation is mainly controlled by lithology.
Hence, it is an early requirement to identify the lithologies in a particular well, identify which
formations have the required porosity to enable it to be a reservoir rock, and determine whether the
formation contains hydrocarbons. Reservoir rocks containing hydrocarbons are allocated a zone code.

The volume of reservoir rock in a single zone depends upon the area of the zone A, and the thickness
of reservoir rock in the zone h. The area is obtained usually from seismic data (from the reservoir
geologist), and is the only data used in the calculation of hydrocarbon volumes in place that is not
derived from petrophysical techniques. The thickness of reservoir rock is derived from the zonation of
the reservoir based upon an initial lithological interpretation and zonation of the reservoir from the logs.
The bulk volume of the reservoir Vbulk =A × h.

The majority of this volume is occupied by the solid rock matrix, and the remainder is made up of the
pore space between the minerals. The relative amount of pore space to the bulk volume is denoted by
the porosity, where the porosity is the fraction of the bulk volume occupied by pore volume, and is
expressed as a fraction or as a percentage; Φ =Vpore/Vbulk. However, note that the fractional form is
used in ALL calculations. The pore volume in any given zone is therefore Vpore= Φ x A x h.

In general the porosity is completely occupied by either water or hydrocarbon, where the saturation of
the water is Sw, and that of the hydrocarbon is Sh, and Sw + Sh = 1. In most reservoirs the
hydrocarbon has replaced all the water that it is possible to replace, and under these conditions the
water saturation is termed the irreducible water saturation Swi. Now we can write the hydrocarbon
saturation as Sh = (1 – Sw). Hence the volume of hydrocarbons in place can be written as

Vh = AhΦ (1−Sw ) (1.1)

The determination of this value is the primary job of the petrophysicist, and requires a lithological
assessment and zonation of the reservoir. At a later stage the petrophysicist may also be called upon to
assess the permeability of the reservoir under various conditions. However, the primary function of the
petrophysicist is to assess the amount of hydrocarbons initially in place.

All the parameters in Eq. (1.1) except the area are derived from measurements made in the borehole
using wireline tools or increasingly using data obtained from tools that measure the rock formations
during drilling (measurement/logging while drilling: MWD/LWD).

Figure 1.1 illustrates the derivation of Eq. (1.1) diagrammatically.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 4

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Introduction

A
(1-Sw)
Hydrocarbon Volume Φ
Ah Φ (1-Sw) Sw h
Water Volume Ah Φ S w
Ah (1- Φ)
Matrix Volume

Figure 1. Volume of hydrocarbons in place

Equation (1.1) gives the volume of hydrocarbons in ft3 or m3, and the calculated values are often
unwieldy. The oil industry uses a range of industry standard units, in which all calculations should be
carried out. Commonly the volume of oil is measured in barrels, the amount of gas in cubic feet,
thickness in feet, and area in acres. Conversions for these are given in Table 1.2 below.

Table 1.2 Common oil-field units.

Equivalent in foot-units SI Equivalent
Unit

1 acre 43560 sq.ft 4047 m 2

1 barrel (bbl) 5.6154 cu.ft 159 litres
1 acre foot 43560 cu.ft 1233522 litres = 7758 bbl

Hence, for an oil reservoir zone of A acres and h feet thickness, the volume of oil in place (OIP) is

OIP = 7758 AhΦ (1−Sw) bbl. (1.2)

and for a gas reservoir of the same dimensions, the volume of gas in place (GIP) is

G I P = 4 3 5 6 0 AhΦ (1−Sw) bbl. (1.3)

Note that sometimes these values are phrased as the amount of oil originally in place (OOIP) and gas
originally in place (GOIP).

If the area is not known, the amounts of oil or gas are quoted in bbl/acre or cu.ft/acre respectively,
and if the reservoir zone thickness is also not known, the values are given in bbl/acre.foot and cu.ft/acre.ft
respectively.

These calculations are done for reservoir zones, which are thicknesses of formation of the same
lithology, with similar cleanness (i.e., containing little clay), porosity, permeability, and hydrocarbon
saturation (i.e., deep resistivity). The zonation of a reservoir is a qualitative exercise that often depends
upon the individual petrophysicist. There will often be a minimum thickness for a zone that depends
upon the study, however zones are rarely defined less than 5 ft. thick.

Dr. Paul Glover Page 5

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Introduction

The thickness of the reservoir zone used in this calculation is the net sand. The net sand is the
thickness of clean, permeable, hydrocarbon-containing sand in the reservoir zone. The gross is the
thickness of the reservoir zone irrespective of whether it is clean, its permeability or its fluid
saturation. The net to gross ratio (thickness of net sand divided by the gross thickness) is often used to
represent the quality of a reservoir zone.

Also note that the oil and gas will be at raised temperature and pressure in the reservoir. The
compressibility of oil and especially gas, and their coefficients of expansion with temperature means
that they will occupy different volumes at surface pressure and temperature conditions, or those
present in the stock tank at the surface. For this reason reserves are often quoted corrected for the
changes in temperature and pressure at the conditions of the stock tank. If this has been done the stock
tank oil and gas originally in place is given as STOOIP and STGOIP.
The expansion or reduction in volume undergone by oil and gas as its temperature and pressure
conditions change from that in the reservoir to that in the stock tank depend upon the changes in
pressure and temperature and the composition of the oil or gas. The change is expressed by what are
called formation volume factors. The oil formation volume factor Bo is the ratio of the volume of a
standard mass of oil at reservoir conditions to that at stock tank conditions, and has no units. Hence,
we can calculate now the amount of oil originally in place in the reservoir when measured at the
pressure and temperature conditions prevailing in the stock tank (i.e., during production).

STOOIP = 7758 AhΦ (1-Sw ) bbl. (1.4)

Bo

Similarly, the gas formation volume factor Bg is the ratio of the volume of a standard mass of gas at
reservoir conditions to that at stock tank conditions, and also has no units. Hence, we can calculate
now the amount of gas originally in place in the reservoir when measured at the pressure and
temperature conditions prevailing in the stock tank (i.e., during production).

STGOIP = 43560 AhΦ (1-Sw ) cu. ft. (1.5)

Bg

Oil Field Example

Area of zone, A 2000 acres

Thickness, h 150 ft
Porosity, Φ 15%
Water saturation, Sw 30%
Oil formation volume factor, Bo 1.65 (reservoir bbl per stock tank bbl)

Note that Bo>1, hence the volume of oil is less at the surface than at depth. This is because the
compressibility of oil with pressure for the range of pressures usually found in reservoirs is less than
the thermal expansion of the oil caused by reservoir temperatures. Therefore, when hot, pressurized oil at
depth is brought to the cooler, lower pressure stock tank it contracts due to the lowering of
temperature more than it expands due to the lowering of pressure.

Dr. Paul Glover Page 6

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Introduction

Using Eq. (1.4) gives

STOOIP = 7758 x 2000 x 150 x 0.15 x (1-0.3) = 148.10727 Mbbl

1.65

Whereas, the calculation for reservoir OOIP from Eq. (1.2) would have given 244.377 Mbbl.

Gas Field Example

Area of zone, A 2000 acres

Thickness, h 150 ft
Porosity, Φ 15%
Water saturation, Sw 30%
Gas formation volume factor, Bg 0.0035 (reservoir cu.ft per stock tank cu.ft)

Note that Bg<<1, hence the volume of gas is much greater at the surface than at depth. This is because
the compressibility of gas with pressure for the range of pressures usually found in reservoirs is enormous
compared to the thermal expansion of the gas caused by reservoir temperatures. Therefore, when hot,
pressurized gas at depth is brought to the cooler, lower pressure stock tank it expands considerably
more due to the lowering of pressure more than it contracts due to the lowering of temperature. This is
the opposite of the case for oil.

Using Eq. (1.5) gives

STGOIP = 43560 x 2000 x 150 x 0.15 x (1-0.3) = 392.04 billion cu. ft

0.0035

Whereas, the calculation for GOIP from Eq. (1.3) would have given 1.372 billion cu.ft. The huge
difference in the volume of the gas at stock tank conditions compared with that at depth indicates the
importance of taking full account of the formation volume factor for gas.

It should, however, be noted that gas and oil cannot usually be taken as independent as in the two
examples above. In practice, gas is dissolved in oil, and comes out of solution as the oil is brought to
the surface. This results in additional shrinkage in the apparent oil volume, and this is taken into
account in quoted figures for the oil formation volume factor. The reservoir then also produces gas,
and the exsolved gas adds to the volume of the gas produced.

The complex interplay between gas and oil phase behaviours will be covered in formation evaluation
course later in the MSc.

1.4 Uncertainties
Note that errors in any of the measurements leads to errors in the final value, and that the porosity and
water saturation are in some ways inter-dependent, which can lead to larger error than might otherwise
be expected.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 7

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Introduction

The error in the area of a reservoir zone is usually quite small because seismic surveys can delineate
the extent of reservoirs with great accuracy now. A greater error can be introduced from petrophysical
measurements. These values are derived from a small number of wells that intersect the reservoir.
There arises, therefore, the possibility that the well information is not representative of the reservoir as
a whole. Clearly, the greater the number of wells, the smaller the possible errors from this source.
However, early in the development of a field, when the result of reservoir management decisions can
have a large impact upon the reserves and life of a field, the amount of petrophysical data is small, and
the resulting errors can be quite large. It is therefore, always important to realize the impact that
uncertainty in the knowledge of the petrophysical parameters can have in the final value of STOOIP.

Table 1.3 shows the impact that a 10% variation in the petrophysical parameters can have in the
calculation of STOOIP.

Table 1.3 Propagation of errors in calculations of STOOIP.

Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Parameter Base Case

Area, acres 2000 2000 2000

Thickness, ft 150 135 165
Porosity, % 15 13.5 16.5
Water saturation, % 30 33 27
Oil formation volume factor 1.65 1.815 1.485
STOOIP, Mbbl 148 104 208
Percentage relative difference, % 0 -30 40

These errors can be analyzed statistically to give a probability curve from which the most likely value
of STOOIP can be judged. As more and better quality data become available, we can reduce the
possible error on the STOOIP analysis, generating probability curves with less variation. Figure 1.2
shows an example of probability curves for an initial appraisal, followed by two other curves made 8
and 15 years later. Note that there has been great improvement in the first 8 years, when appraisal
drilling added much more data to the data base, followed by less improvement in the subsequent 7
years, when appraisal drilling was reduced significantly, and hence there was less new data added to
the database. As with all things, there is an economic balance between added value generated from
new data and the cost of obtaining the new data.

Figure 1.2 is read by taking the ordinate (y-axis) and reading across. For example in 1972 there was
100% probability that the reservoir contained greater than 80 Mbbl, and 75% probability that it
contained more than 250 Mbbl. By 1980 there was 100% probability of the reservoir containing
greater than 220 Mbbl and 75% probability of it containing greater than 310 Mbbl of oil. Thus, as time
progresses the range of possible STOOIP decreases from a possible range of 80 Mbbl<STOOIP<600
Mbbl in 1972 to 260 Mbbl <STOOIP<470 Mbbl in 1987.

The data represented by Fig. 1.2 is shown in the Table 1.3 below.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 8

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Introduction

Table 1.3 Probability vs. STOOIP data for Fig. 1.2

Probability (%) STOOIP Greater Than (Mbbl)

1972 1980 1987

100 80 220 260

75 250 310 320
50 350 360 360
25 450 420 400
0 600 500 470

Most critical financial and reservoir management decisions usually have to be made early in the life of a
field when data is at a premium and errors in the estimated STOOIP are greatest. This is particularly true
of offshore fields, where the cost of top-side production structures is a significant factor in the
economic viability of the field. For example, globally, the Norway and UK sectors of the North Sea
are the two most expensive oil provinces to produce from due to their deep off-shore nature combined
with inhospitable conditions. In these cases it is critical to obtain as much high quality data as possible
from the first few appraisal wells in each prospective reservoir.

Figure 1.2 STOOIP Probability Curve

Since it is clear that the main interests of petrophysicists are porosity and permeability, the following
few chapters (Chapters 2 and 3) will deal with these parameters. Fluid saturations are also critical, and
these depend upon capillary pressure, which is described in Chapter 4.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 9

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

2. POROSITY

2.1 Theory
The porosity of a rock is the fraction of the volume of space between the solid particles of the rock to
the total rock volume. The space includes all pores, cracks, vugs, inter- and intra-crystalline spaces.
The porosity is conventionally given the symbol ф, and is expressed either as a fraction varying
between 0 and 1, or a percentage varying between 0% and 100%. Sometimes porosity is expressed in
‘porosity units’, which are the same as percent (i.e., 100 porosity units (pu) = 100%).
However, the fractional form is ALWAYS used in calculations.
Porosity is calculated using the relationship

where: Vpore = pore volume

Vbulk = bulk rock volume
Vmatrix = volume of solid particles composing the rock matrix
Wdry = total dry weight of the rock
ρmatrix = mean density of the matrix minerals.

It should be noted that the porosity does not give any information concerning pore sizes, their
distribution, and their degree of connectivity. Thus, rocks of the same porosity can have widely
different physical properties. An example of this might be a carbonate rock and a sandstone. Each
could have a porosity of 0.2, but carbonate pores are often very unconnected resulting in its
permeability being much lower than that of the sandstone. A range of differently defined porosities are
recognized and used within the hydrocarbon industry. For rocks these are:

(i) Total porosity Defined above

(ii) Effective porosity The total porosity minus the volume of clay bound water.
(iii) Connected porosity The ratio of the connected pore volume to the total volume.
(iv) Primary porosity The porosity of the rock resulting from its original deposition.
(v) Secondary porosity The porosity resulting from diagenesis.
(vi) Microporosity The porosity resident in small pores (< 2 µm) commonly associated
with detrital and authigenic clays
(vii) Intergranular porosity The porosity due to pore volume between the rock grains.
(viii) Intragranular porosity The porosity due to voids within the rock grains
(ix) Dissolution porosity The porosity resulting from dissolution of rock grains
(x) Fracture porosity The porosity resulting from fractures in the rock at all scales.
(xi) Intercrystal porosity Microporosity existing along intercrystalline boundaries usually
in carbonate rocks.
(xii) Moldic porosity A type of dissolution porosity in carbonate rocks resulting in
molds of original grains or fossil remains.
(xiii) Fenestral porosity A holey (‘bird’s-eye’) porosity in carbonate rocks usually
associated with algal mats.
(xiv) Vug porosity Porosity associated with vugs, commonly in carbonate rocks.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 10

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

2.2
Controls on Porosity
The initial (pre-diagenesis) porosity is affected by four major microstructural parameters. These are
grain size, grain packing, particle shape, and the distribution of grain sizes. However, the initial
porosity is rarely that found in real rocks, as these have subsequently been affected by secondary
controls on porosity such as compaction and geochemical diagenetic processes. This section briefly
reviews these controls.

2.2.1 Grain Packing

The theoretical porosities for various grain packing arrangements can be calculated. The theoretical
maximum porosity for a cubic packed rock made of spherical grains of a uniform size is 0.4764, and is
independent of grain size. The maximum porosity of other packing arrangements is shown in Table 2.1
and Figure 2.1.

Cubic Hexagonal Rhombohedral Orthorhombic Tetragonal Triclinic

47.6% 39.5% 26.0% 39.5% 30.2% 26.0%

Figure 2.1 Ordered packing arrangements.

Table 2.1 Maximum porosity for different packing arrangements

Packing Maximum Porosity (fractional)

Random ≥0.399 (dependent on grain size)
Cubic 0.476
Hexagonal 0.395
Orthorhombic 0.3 95
Rhombohedral 0.260
Tetragonal 0.302
Triclinic 0.260

Geoff Page 2010 Page 11

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

The calculations of these ideal porosities is relatively simple. For example, taking the cubic
arrangement of identical spheres of radius r occupying a cubic unit cell of length L, as shown in Fig.
2.2, the following calculation is possible.

L r

Figure 2.2 Cubic packing of identical spheres.

The bulk volume of the cell Vbulk = L3, and the number of spheres in the cell n =(L/2r)3. Hence the
volume of the matrix V matrix = (4 n r3 )/3 = (L/2r)3 (4 r3)/3 = ( L3)/6. The porosity can now be
calculated from Eq. (2.1) as

(2.2)

which is independent of the sphere size. Most of the other values in Table 2.1 can be calculated
similarly, although with a little more difficulty as a result of their different packing geometries. There
are 6 different ways that identical spheres can be packed, and these are shown in Fig. 2.1.

2.2.2 Grain Size

It was noted above that the ordered cubic packing of identical sphere leads to a porosity that is grain
size independent. This is also true for the other ordered packing lattices, but not true for the random
arrangement of spheres. In real depositional environments, ordered packings are not formed because
they are energetically unstable, and the grains become randomly distributed.

The equilibrium porosity of a porous material composed of a random packing of spherical grains is
dependent upon the stability given to the rock by frictional and cohesive forces operating between
individual grains. These forces are proportional to the exposed surface area of the grains. The specific
surface area (exposed grain surface area per unit solid volume) is inversely proportional to grain size.
This indicates that, when all other factors are equal, a given weight of coarse grains will be stabilized

Geoff Page 2010 Page 12

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

at a lower porosity than the same weight of finer grains. For a sedimentary rock composed of a given
single grain size this general rule is borne out in Figure 2.3. It can be seen that the increase in porosity
only becomes significant at grain sizes lower than 100 µm, and for some recent sediments porosities
up to 0.8 have been measured. As grain size increases past 100 µm, the frictional forces decrease and
the porosity decreases until a limit is reached that represents random frictionless packing, which
occurs at 0.399 porosity, and is independent of grain size. No further loss of porosity is possible for
randomly packed spheres, unless the grains undergo irreversible deformation due to dissolution-
recrystallisation, fracture, or plastic flow, and all such decreases in porosity are termed compaction.

0.8
Angular Grains
Rounded Grains
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
Limit of uncompacted
random packing
0.3
0 100 200 300 400 500
Grain Diameter (microns)

Figure 2.3 Relation between porosity, grain size and grain shape

Rarely, in borehole petrophysics do we need to look at accurate grain size determinations as many of
the tools that we use have minimum vertical resolutions of the order of tens of centimetres. However,
as well logs are correlated to core logging it is well to bear in mind the agreed semi-quantitative
classifications for grain size in siliclastic and carbonate rocks (Tables 2.2 and 2.3).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 13

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

Table 2.2 Siliclastic grain size definitions Table 2.3 Carbonate grain size definitions
Category Median Grain Size (microns)
Category Median Grain Size (mi)
L
Gravel
400
2000
M
Very Coarse
200
1000
F
Coarse
100
500
VF
Medium
50
250
EF
Fine
125 Symbol Pore Size (microns)
Very Fine B <100
C 100-200
62
D >200
Silt
Matrix Code Texture
I Compact
II Chalky
III Sucrose

2.2.3 Grain Shape

This parameter is not widely understood. Several studies have been carried out on random packings of
non-spherical grains, and in all cases the resulting porosities are larger than those for spheres. Table
2.4 shows data for various shapes, where the porosity is for the frictionless limit. Figure 2.3 shows
data comparing rounded and angular grains, again showing that the porosity for more angular grains is
larger than those that are sub-spherical.

Table 2.4 The effect of grain shape on porosity

Grain Shape Maximum Porosity (fractional)

Sphere ≥0.399 (dependent on grain size)
Cube 0.425
Cylinder 0.429
Disk 0.453

2.2.4 Grain Size Distribution

Real rocks contain a distribution of grain sizes, and often the grain size distribution is multi-modal.
The best way of understanding the effect is to consider the variable admixture of grains of two sizes
(Figure 2.4). The porosity of the mixture of grain sizes is reduced below that for 100% of each size.
There are two mechanisms at work here. First imagine a rock with two grain sizes, one of which has
1/100th the diameter of the other. The first mechanism applies when there are sufficient of the larger
grains to make up the broad skeleton of the rock matrix. Here, the addition of the smaller particles
reduces the porosity of the rock because they can fit into the interstices between the larger particles.
The second mechanism is valid when the broad skeleton of the rock matrix is composed of the smaller
grains. There small grains will have a pore space between them. Clearly, if some volume of these

Geoff Page 2010 Page 14

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

grains are removed and replaced with a single solid larger grain, the porosity will be reduced because
both the small grains and their associated porosity have been replaced with solid material. The solid
lines GR and RF or RM in Figure 2.4 represent the theoretical curves for both processes. Note that as
the disparity between the grain sizes increases from 6:3 to 50:5 the actual porosity approaches the
theoretical lines. Note also that the position of the minimum porosity is not sensitive to the grain
diameter ratio. This minimum occurs at approximately 20 to 30% of the smaller particle diameter. In
real rocks we have a continuous spectrum of grain sizes, and these can give rise to a complex scenario,
where fractal concepts become useful.
(a) (b)
2 2
F
G M G

1 R 1 R

Diameter Ratio 6.3 Diameter Ratio 50.5

0 0
Coarse Fine Coarse Fine
Volumic Fraction Volumic Fraction

Figure 2.4 Apparent volume for assemblages of spheres of different diameter ratios.

In practice such detail is rarely entered into. Grain size distributions can be inferred from mercury
porisimetry measurements that will be studied later in the MSc course, or by direct sieving of a
disaggregated sample. In the sieving technique, the dried, weighed and disaggregated sample is placed
in the topmost of a stack of sieves with decreasing mesh size D. A motor vibrates the stack such that
given particle sizes remain in each of the sieves. The cumulative percentage weight of these remains
are plotted against the mesh size of the sieves D, resulting in a distribution curve similar to that in Fig.
2.5. The degree of sorting (grain size distribution) is expressed by the Trask Coefficient so, which is
expressed as

(2.3)

where: D25 = mesh size (grain diameter) at 25% of sample weight (larger grain fraction).
D75 = mesh size (grain diameter) at 75% of sample weight (all but smallest grain fraction).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 15

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

100

75

50

25

D25 D75

0
0
Mesh Diameter Increasing
Figure 2.5 Cumulative grain size distributions by sieved weight.

In general the porosity of a sandstone decreases as the degree of sorting decreases, where the degree of
sorting is expressed as a Trask coefficient or classified according to Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 The Trask sorting classification

Sorting Classification Trask Coefficient
1.00
Extremely well
1.10
Very well
1.20
Well
1.40
Moderately
2.00
Poorly
2.70
Very poorly
5.70

2.2.5 Secondary Controls on Porosity

Porosity is also controlled by a huge range of secondary processes that result in compaction and
dilatation. These can be categorized into (i) mechanical processes, such as stress compaction, plastic
deformation, brittle deformation, fracture evolution etc., and (ii) geochemical processes, such as
dissolution, repreciptation, volume reductions concomitant upon mineralogical changes etc. The
description of these process will be examined in the sedimentary techniques courses.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 16

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

2.2.6 The Range of Porosity Values in Nature

In recently deposited, unconsolidated sediments, such as those that you might find on the floor of a
lake, porosity may be very high (values up to 80% have been recorded). However, more common
materials, such as loose sands, can have porosities as high as 45% that are either extremely unstable or
stabilized by cements. High porosities can also occur when the porosity is due to dissolution
(secondary porosity), particularly in carbonates. In the case of carbonates the total porosity may be
very high, but their permeability can be very low as the pores and vugs that make up the pore structure
are unconnected. Similarly, porosities can be very low. In massive fractured carbonates it can
commonly be as low as 1%, and igneous and metamorphic rocks almost always have porosities less
that 1%. Sandstones, generally, lie in the range 5% to 20%. Table 2.6 gives approximate ranges of
porosities for some common lithologies.

Table 2.6 The range of porosity values for rocks.

Lithology Porosity Range (%)

Unconsolidated sands 35-45

‘Reservoir’ Sandstones 15-35
Compact Sandstones 5-15
Shales 0-45
Clays 0-45
Massive Limestones 5-10
Vuggy Limestones 10-40
Dolomite 10-30
Chalk 5-40
Granite <1
Basalt <0.5
Gneiss <2
Conglomerate 1-15

2.3 Porosity Determination

The best way of determining porosity is to carry out experiments on core extracted from the well.
These techniques will be examined in detail in the Formation Evaluation course later in the MSc.
However, the basic techniques will be described here. It should be noted that core determined
porosities have a much higher degree of accuracy than porosities determined from down-hole tools,
but suffer from sampling problems. Taken together core and borehole determined porosities optimize
accuracy and high resolution sampling.

There are at least 4 common methods of measuring the porosity of a core. These are:

• Buoyancy
• Helium porisimetry
• Fluid saturation
• Mercury porosimetry

The first three will be described here, and the last will be described in Chapter 4.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 17

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

2.3.1 Saturation Method

This method only measures the effective (connected) porosity of the rock as it depends on the
saturation of the rock with a fluid.

• Clean and dry the rock.

• Weigh the rock in its dry state to give the dry weight, Wdry.
• Fully saturate the rock in a wetting fluid. Conventionally toluene or dichloroethene were used, but now
it is more common to saturate the rock with a brine that has been made to mimic that in the reservoir,
i.e., contain the same concentrations of major dissolved salts (a synthetic brine).
• Weigh the saturated sample after drying any excess fluid from its surface to give its saturated
weight, Wsat.
• Determine the bulk volume of the rock, Vbulk. This can be done using measuring calipers and
assuming the core to be cylindrical, but is prone to large errors even if the core is almost
cylindrical. Another method is to immerse the sample in mercury, which is a non-wetting fluid and
will not enter the pores of a rock at atmospheric pressure, and measure the volume of the mercury
displaced. This method used to be common, but the sample can then no longer be used for
experiments and must be safely disposed of. Archimedes method is preferred, which will be
described in the Formation Evaluation course.
• Determine the density ρfluid of the saturating fluid by weighing a known volume of it.

The porosity is then

(2.4)

Note that the mean grain density of the sample can also be calculated from this data using the
relationship

(2.5)

2.3.2 Buoyancy Method

This method is somewhat similar to the saturation method, and also measures the effective (connected)
porosity.
• Clean and dry the rock.
• Weigh the rock in its dry state to give the dry weight, Wdry.
• Fully saturate the rock in a wetting fluid as before.
• Weigh the saturated sample suspended in a bath of the same fluid with which it was saturated to
give its suspended weight, Wsus. This is shown in Fig. 2.6. Note that a cradle is needed to
suspend the sample in the fluid, and this has a weight Wcradle when in the fluid. So the actual
measured weight when the sample and cradle are suspended in the fluid is (Wsus + Wcradle). The effect
of the cradle must be taken away, hence the weight of the cradle when suspended in the fluid (up to
the same level), Wcradle, must be taken account of in the final calculation
• Determine the bulk volume of the rock, Vbulk as before.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 18

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

• Determine the density ρfluid of the saturating fluid by weighing a known volume of it.

Weighing Device

Cradle with
Level Mark

Core
Sample

Weigh Dry Weigh Cradle Weigh Sample and

in Air in Fluid Cradle in Fluid

Figure 2.6 The buoyancy method for porosity determination.

The porosity is given by the relationship

(2.6)

Again, the mean grain density can also be calculated as

(2.7)

2.3.3 Helium Porisimetry

This method relies on the expansion of helium gas, and also measures the effective porosity of the
rock. However, since helium is a slippery little molecule, it can penetrate pores which are much
smaller than those that the fluid used in the two previous methods can. Hence, this method provides
slightly higher porosity measurements on any given rock sample.

This method uses the apparatus shown in Fig. 2.7, together with the following procedure.

• Clean and dry the core sample.

• Obtain the bulk volume of the sample as in the previous methods.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 19

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Porosity

• Ensure Valve 2 is closed.

• Gas is introduced into Chamber A of the apparatus using Valve 1 until a pressure Pi is reached,
when Valve 1 is closed. This pressure is arbitrary, and commonly about 100 psi.
• Insert the sample into Chamber B, which is at atmospheric pressure, Patm, and ensure Valve 3 is
closed.
• Slowly open Valve 2 to let the gas equilibrate through the entirety of both chambers. The gas will
penetrate into the pores of the rock sample. During this process the pressure will decrease to a new
stable level, Pf

Pressure
Gauge

To
Sample Atmosphere
Gas
Supply
Valve 1 Valve 2 Valve 3
Chamber A Chamber B

Figure 2.7 Helium expansion porisimeter.

The drop of pressure depends upon how much space there is in Chamber B, and that depends on how
much of Chamber B is occupied by solid rock particles. The measured gas pressures Pi, Patm and Pf
alone are not sufficient to obtain the volume of the sample rock matrix. However, we can calibrate the
system by putting a range of metal cylinders of accurately known volume into Chamber B and
repeating the experiment. When this is done, the calibration constant, and the pressures allow the
volume of the rock matrix Vmatrix to be obtained. The porosity is then calculated using

(2.8)

Geoff Page 2010 Page 20

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

3. PERMEABILITY

3.1 Theory
The permeability of a rock is a measure of the ease with which the rock will permit the passage of
fluids.
The fundamental physical law which governs this is called the Navier-Stokes equation, which is very
complex. For the purposes of flow in rocks we can usually assume that the flow is laminar, and this
assumption allows great simplification in the equations.

It should also be noted that the permeability to a single fluid is different to the permeability where
more than one fluid phase is flowing. When there are two or more immiscible fluid phases flowing we
use relative permeability, which will be introduced in this section, but covered in much more detail on
the Formation Evaluation course later in the MSc.

The fluid flow through a cylindrical tube is expressed by Poiseuille’s equation, which is a
simplification of Navier-Stokes equation for the particular geometry, laminar flow, and
uncompressible fluids. This equation can be written as

(3.1)

where: Q = the flow rate (cm 3 /s or m 3 /s)

r = the radius of the tube (cm or m)
Po = the outlet fluid pressure (dynes/cm2 or Pa)
Pi = the inlet fluid pressure (dynes/cm2 or Pa)
µ = the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (poise or Pa.s)
L = the length of the tube (cm or m)

About 150 years ago Darcy carried out simple experiments on packs of sand, and hence developed an
empirical formula that remains the main permeability formula in use in the oil industry today. Darcy
used the apparatus shown in Fig. 3.1, where he used a vertical sand pack through which water flowed
under the influence of gravity while measuring the fluid pressures at the top and bottom of the pack by
the heights of manometers. Here the difference in fluid pressures can be calculated from h1–h2
providing the density of the fluid is known. It has since been validated for most rock types and certain
common fluids. Darcy’s formula can be expressed as

(3.2)

where: Q = the flow rate (cm 3 /s or m 3 /s)

Po = the outlet fluid pressure (dynes/cm2 or Pa)
Pi = the inlet fluid pressure (dynes/cm2 or Pa)
µ = the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (poise or Pa.s)
L = the length of the tube (cm or m)
k = the permeability of the sample (darcy or m 2 )
A = the area of the sample (cm2 or m 2 )

Geoff Page 2010 Page 21

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

Figure 3.1 The Darcy apparatus (after Hubert, 1953).

Note, either the first set of quoted units can be used (c.g.s system) as in the oil industry, or the second
set (S.I. units) as in academic research, but one must use the units consistently.

The units of permeability are the darcy, D, and m2, where 1 D = 0.9869× 10-12 m2. One darcy is the
permeability of a sample 1 cm long with a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2, when a pressure difference of
1 dyne/cm2 between the ends of the sample causes a fluid with a dynamic viscosity of 1 poise to flow
at a rate of 1 cm3/s (Fig. 3.2). In geological applications the darcy is commonly too large for practical
purposes, so the millidarcy (mD) is used, where 1000 mD = 1D.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 22

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

Fl
Pi Po

Flow Q Flow Q
A

uid Pressures L

Figure 3.2 Permeability definition.

For practical calculations the following rearranged equations are used

For liquids (oil and water):

(3.3)

where: ∆V = the volume of liquid flowed in time ∆T (cm 3 )

∆T = the time period over which flow is measured (s)
Q = the flow rate = ∆V/T (cm 3 /s)
Po = the outlet fluid pressure (atmospheres absolute, atma)
Pi = the inlet fluid pressure (atmospheres absolute, atma)
µ = the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (centipoise, cP)
L = the length of the sample (cm)
K = the permeability of the sample (millidarcy, mD)
A = the area of the sample (cm2 ).

For gasses (hydrocarbon gasses or nitrogen):

(3.4)

where: ∆V = the volume of gas flowed in time ∆T measured at atmospheric pressure (cm3 )
∆T = the time period over which flow is measured (s)

Geoff Page 2010 Page 23

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

Q = the flow rate = V/T (cm3 /s)

Po = the outlet fluid pressure (atmospheres absolute, atma)
Pi = the inlet fluid pressure (atmospheres absolute, atma)
P atm = The atmospheric pressure (atmospheres absolute, atms, =1)
µ = the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (centipoise, cP)
L = the length of the sample (cm)
k = the permeability of the sample (millidarcy, mD)
A = the area of the sample (cm2 ).

3.2 Controls on Permeability and the Range of Permeability Values in

Nature
Intuitively, it is clear that permeability will depend on porosity; the higher the porosity the higher the
permeability. However, permeability also depends upon the connectivity of the pore spaces, in order
that a pathway for fluid flow is possible. The connectivity of the pores depends upon many factors
including the size and shape of grains, the grain size distribution, and other factors such as the
operation of capillary forces that depend upon the wetting properties of the rock. This is a complex
subject that will be covered in more detail in the Formation Evaluation course later in the MSc.

However, we can make some generalizations if all other factors are held constant:

• The higher the porosity, the higher the permeability.

• The smaller the grains, the smaller the pores and pore throats, the lower the permeability.
• The smaller the grain size, the larger the exposed surface area to the flowing fluid, which leads to
larger friction between the fluid and the rock, and hence lower permeability.

The permeability of rocks varies enormously, from 1 nanodarcy, nD (1× 10-9 D) to 1 microdarcy, µD
(1× 10-6 D) for granites, shales and clays that form cap-rocks or compartmentalize a reservoir, to
several darcies for extremely good reservoir rocks. In general a cut-off of 1 mD is applied to reservoir
rocks, below which the rock is not considered as a reservoir rock unless unusual circumstances apply
(e.g., it is a fractured reservoir). For reservoir rocks permeabilities can be classified as in Table 3.1
below.

Table 3.1 Reservoir permeability classification.

Permeability Value (mD) Classification

<10 Fair
10 – 100 High
100 – 1000 Very High
>1000 Exceptional

3.3 Permeability Determination

Permeability is measured on cores in the laboratory by flowing a fluid of known viscosity through a
core sample of known dimensions at a set rate, and measuring the pressure drop across the core, or by
setting the fluid to flow at a set pressure difference, and measuring the flow rate produced.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 24

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

At this point we must make a distinction between the use of gaseous fluids and the use of liquids. In
the case of liquids the measurement is relatively straightforward as the requirement for laminar flow
and incompressibility of the fluid are almost always met at surface geological conditions. If one wants to
use gas as the fluid, as is commonly done in the industry, there are two complications:

Gas is a compressible fluid, hence if gas is flowing at the same mass per unit time through the core, it
will actually be travelling more slowly when measured in volumes per time at the input (high pressure)
end of the sample because it is compressed into a smaller volume, than at the output end (low
pressure) where it expands. The equation used to calculate the permeability value from the measured
parameters has to be modified to take the gas compression into account.

At low gas pressures, there can be very few molecules of gas occupying some of the smaller pores. If
this happens, the laws that we are using breakdown, and their use causes an overestimation in the
permeability. This is known as gas slippage or the Klinkenberg Effect. The problem becomes smaller
as the pressure is increased because the gas is compressed and there are more gas molecules per unit
volume, and does not arise in liquids because liquids are very much denser than gasses.
Gas slippage is corrected for by making permeability measurements with gas at multiple pressure
differences and constructing a graph of the measured apparent permeability against the reciprocal of
the mean pressure in the core. If the input gas pressure is Pi and the output pressure is Po, then the
permeability is plotted as a function of 1/Pav = 2/(Pi + Po), as in Fig. 3.3. The points should now lie on a
straight line, which intersects the y-axis at 1/Pav = 0. This value is called the Klinkenberg
permeability, and effectively represents the permeability at which the gas (which is near to a perfect
gas) is compressed by infinite pressure and becomes a near perfect liquid. It is because of this that the
klinkenberg permeability is often given the symbol kL.

The klinkenberg permeability is very commonly used within the oil industry, and should approximate
very well to the permeability of the sample measured with liquid flowing through it. It should be noted
that the correction cannot be ignored, especially in tight rocks, as it can lead to corrections of up to
100%. In general, the correction is smaller for higher permeability rocks containing larger pores.

100

80

60

40

Klinkenberg
Permeability, k L
20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Reciprocal Mean Pressure, 1/Pav, psi

Figure 3.3 The klinkenberg correction plot.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 25

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

Permeability is generally anisotropic in a rock, partly because of depositional effects, and partly
because of the in-situ stress field in the crust. To account for this, permeability measurements are
made both parallel to and perpendicular with bedding. The permeability perpendicular to bedding will
be about a third to half of that parallel to bedding. Clearly this has implications for extracting oil from a
reservoir, as oil would usually much rather travel laterally than vertically.

3.4 Relative Permeability

As indicated in Section 3.2, permeability depends upon many factors. Perhaps not surprisingly, one of
those factors is the degree to which the available pore space is saturated with the flowing fluid. The
pore space may not be completely saturated with one fluid but contain two or more. For, example,
there may be, and generally is, both oil and water in the pores. What is more, they may both be
flowing at different rates at the same time. Clearly, the individual permeabilities of each of the fluids
will be different from each other and not the same as the permeability of the rock with a single fluid
present. These permeabilities depend upon the rock properties, but also on the saturations,
distributions, and properties of each of the fluids.

If the rock contains one fluid, the rock permeability is maximum, and this value is called the absolute
permeability.

If there are two fluids present, the permeabilities of each fluid depend upon the saturation of each
fluid, and can be plotted against the saturation of the fluid, as in Fig. 3.4. These are called effective
permeabilities. Both effective permeabilities are always less than the absolute permeability of the rock
and their sum is also always less than the absolute permeability of the rock. The individual effective
permeabilities are most often expressed as a fraction of the absolute permeability of the rock to either
of the two fluids when present at 100% saturation, and these are called relative permeabilities.

Hence, if 100% water occupies the rock, the absolute permeability to water is kaw, and the same applies
for 100% saturations with oil (kao), and gas (kag). If any two, or all three, of these fluids are present
together in the rock at some partial saturation Sw, So and Sg, we can measure their effective
permeabilities, which are k ew, k eo, and k eg, which will all be less than their absolute values. We
can define and calculate the relative permeability values by expressing the effective permeabilities as a
fraction of some base permeability, which is arbitrary but usually the absolute permeability of one of
the fluids present. For example, if we take kao as the base permeability, the relative permeabilities are:

krw = kew/ kao

k rg = k eg/ kao, and
kro = keo/ kao.

Note that the precise value of the relative permeabilities depends upon the base permeability with
which they are calculated, and this should always be quoted whenever relative permeabilities are used.

Referring to Fig. 3.4, it can be seen that the effective and hence relative permeability of a given fluid
decreases as the saturation of that fluid decreases, and that there is a threshold value of saturation of
any given fluid that needs to be present before that fluid will move. This last point is on the one hand
intuitive, as one would expect the need for sufficient of a given fluid to be present before a connected,
flowable pathway could come into being, and on the other hand critical, because it implies that fluids
become trapped (unmovable) in a rock when they are still present in significant amounts. In the figure,
oil is immobile until its saturation is about 20%, indicating that we cannot produce from zones that

Geoff Page 2010 Page 26

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

contain less than 20% oil, and that we will not be able to produce the last 20% of oil from zones which
initially have higher oil saturations. This is known as the residual oil saturation, Sor.

1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8
kro

0.6 0.6

Swi Sor
0.4 0.4
k rw
0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0
Water Saturation

Figure 3.4 Relative permeability curves for an oil/water system that is water wet.

The same applied to the water, whose immobile fraction is termed the irreducible water saturation,
Swi, and gas, whose immobile fraction is termed the trapped gas saturation, Sgt.

There is a point on the plot where the curve intersect. Here the permeability to each fluid is the same,
and both fluids are equally easily produced. As the oil saturation increases, the permeability to oil
increases, and that to water decreases, and vice versa. Hence it is apparent that in oil reservoirs it is
important to avoid the production of water as not only does it not make money, but an increasing
water cut reduces the permeability of the reservoir to the oil, making oil more difficult to produce.

3.5.1 Well Productivity

As we have just seen, the permeability is an extremely important parameter because it controls the
well’s productivity. The productivity of a well is related both to the permeability and to the interval of
the borehole open for production (i.e., the interval where the well casing is perforated).

For the arrangement shown in Fig. 3.5, we can write the flow equation

(3.5)

Geoff Page 2010 Page 27

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

rw
Where, the internal area of the borehole has been
substituted for the area A. It can be seen that for any instant
in time, when the formation pressure P f and the well
pressure Pw are constant, and for constant fluid viscosity, µ,
the productivity of the well will be proportional to the
permeability and the interval of production, h, with C being
the coefficient of proportionality.

Pf Pw h
Figure 3.5 Well productivity.

3.6 PoroPerm Relationships

The most obvious control on permeability is porosity. This is because larger porosities mean that there
are many more and broader pathways for fluid flow. Almost invariably, a plot of permeability (on a
logarithmic scale) against porosity for a formation results in a clear trend with a degree of scatter
associated with the other influences controlling the permeability. For the best results these poroperm
cross-plots should be constructed for clearly defined lithologies or reservoir zones. If a cross-plot is
constructed for a whole well with widely varying lithologies, the result is often a disappointing cloud
of data in which the individual trends are not apparent. Figure 3.6 shows a poroperm cross-plot for a
clean sandstone and a carbonate.

Clean Sandstone Carbonate

100 100

10 10

1 1
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Porosity, % Porosity, %

Figure 3.6 Typical poroperm cross-plots.

It is clear from this figure that the permeability of the sandstone is extremely well controlled by the
porosity (although usually there is more scatter than in this figure), whereas the carbonate has a more
diffuse cloud indicating that porosity has an influence, but there are other major factors controlling the
permeability. In the case of carbonates (and some volcanic rocks such as pumice), there can exist high
porosities that do not give rise to high permeabilities because the connectivity of the vugs that make up
the pore spaces are poorly connected.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 28

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

Poroperm trends for different lithologies can be plotted together, and form a map of poroperm
relationships, as shown in Fig. 3.7.

It would be time consuming to describe the figure in detail, but interpretation is not difficult. For
example, fractured rocks fall above the sandstones because their porosity (fracture porosity) is very
low, yet these fractures form very connected networks that allow the efficient passage of fluids, and
hence the permeability is high. Such permeability may be directional because of preferred orientations of
the fractures. By comparison, clay cemented sandstones have high porosities, but the porosity is mainly
in the form of micro-porosity filled with chemically and physically (capillary) bound water which is
immobile. This porosity does not take place in fluid flow, so the permeability is low.

Oolitic & Coarsely

Crystalline Carbonates

Porosity (Linear Scale)

Figure 3.7 Poroperm relationships.

It might be expected that grain size also has some control on permeability. Figure 3.8 shows a
poroperm cross-plot for a well in a carbonate reservoir where the grain size, porosity and permeability
were measured for each core taken. Taking the data as a whole, there is little in the way of a clear
trend. However, trends emerge when the individual grain size fractions are considered. Now it is clear
that rocks with smaller grain sizes have smaller permeabilities than those with larger grain sizes. This
is because smaller grain sizes produce smaller pores, and rather more importantly, smaller pore
throats, which constrain the fluid flow more than larger grains which produce larger pore throats.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 29

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

In summary, permeability:
• Depends upon porosity.
• Depends upon the connectivity of the flow paths in the rock.
• Depends, therefore, in a complex way upon the pore geometry of the rock.
• Is a directional quantity that can be affected by heterogeneous or directional properties of the pore
geometry.

Carbonate

100

10

1
0 10 20 30 40
Porosity, %
> 100 microns
50 - 100 microns
5 - 50 microns
<5 micron

Figure 3.8 Poroperm cross-plots and the influence of grain size.

3.7 Permeability Relationships

The complexity of the relationship between permeability and pore geometry has resulted in much
research. No fundamental law linking the two has been found. Instead, we have a plethora of empirical
approximations for calculating permeability, some of which are given in Table 3.2

Geoff Page 2010 Page 30

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

Table 3.2 Permeability relationships (modified from Grouping’s list)

Geoff Page 2010 Page 31

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Permeability

3.8 Permeability from logs

The estimation of accurate permeabilities from logs is extremely difficult as most logs respond to bulk
properties of the formation and not texture/grain size which has a far greater influence on permeability.
The exception is NMR which to degree has a response which is related to the pore size distribution,
however note that it is pore THROAT size, or pore connectivity, that actually controls permeability not
pore size.

Some of the common methodologies for estimating permeability from logs include:-

• Deriving a porosity/permeability relationship from core, and applying this to log derived
porosity over un-cored intervals.

• Estimating from NMR measurements of irreducible and moveable porosities, or average

apparent pore size.

• Acoustic/Sonic “Stoneley” wellbore waves respond to pore connectivity with the wellbore,
reducing the stoneley wave amplitude over permeable intervals.

• Formation tester tools draw a small sample of fluid into the tool, and using a modified darcy
equation give an estimate of “Drawdown” permeability. It is also possible with modern tools to
set a pair of inflatable packers over a zone and undertake a miniature well-test.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 32

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

4. FLUID SATURATION AND CAPILLARY PRESSURE

4.1 Fluid Saturations

We have seen that the viability of a reservoir depends upon three critical parameters. The first two of
these are the porosity of the reservoir rock, which defines the total volume available for hydrocarbon
saturation, and the permeability, which defines how easy it is to extract any hydrocarbons that are
present. The final critical parameter is the hydrocarbon saturation, or how much of the porosity is
occupied by hydrocarbons. This, and the related gas and water saturations are controlled by capillary
pressure.

The pore space in a rock is occupied by fluids. In hydrocarbon reservoirs these fluids are hydrocarbon
gasses, oil and an aqueous brine. We define the pore fraction of each of these as Sg, So and Sw,
respectively. Hence, Sg + So + Sw = 1.

The amount of each of these fluids present at a given level in the reservoir depends upon gravity
(buoyancy) forces, which tend to stratify the reservoir fluids according to their density, external
hydrodynamic forces such as flow from a remote aquifer, and interfacial forces that act between the
various reservoir fluids and between the fluids and the rock matrix.

The interfacial forces either take the form of (i) forces on the interface between two fluids, or (ii)
between the fluid and the solid matrix of the rock. Both effects rely upon differences in the relative
strength of inter-molecular forces between gasses, liquids and solids.

• Liquid-gas or liquid-vapour forces result from the differences in molecular attraction of each
of the gas and liquid molecules for molecules of the same fluid compared to the molecular
attraction for molecules of the other fluid.

• The liquid-liquid forces result from the differences in molecular attraction of each of the liquid
molecules for molecules of the same liquid compared to the molecular attraction for molecules
of the other liquid.

• The fluid-solid forces result from the preference for fluid molecules to be attracted to the solid
mineral surface rather than to molecules of the same fluid.

The interfacial forces give rise to what is known as a capillary pressure. Capillary pressure is the
difference in fluid pressure across an interface between two fluids in a confined volume.

In the discussion of capillary pressure, we will first examine surface energy and wettability, and then
go on to derive a general expression for capillary pressure.

4.2 Fluid-Fluid Interactions (Surface Tension)

The fundamental property of that state of matter that we call a fluid is that its molecules are free to
move. In gasses the freedom is great, but in liquids the freedom is constrained by relatively strong
cohesive (attractive) forces that operate between the molecules. Imagine a drop of liquid suspended in
a gas. In the interior of the liquid drop, a molecule is completely surrounded by other liquid
molecules. On average it is equally attracted to the molecules surrounding it in every direction. By
contrast, a molecule that occupies the surface of the drop is strongly affected by the attractive forces of

Geoff Page 2010 Page 33

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

its fellow molecules inside the drop, but only weakly attracted to molecules outside the drop. This is
because there are much fewer molecules in the vapour phase that surrounds the drop. Hence, the
molecules on the surface of the drop experience net inward attraction. Figure 4.1 illustrates this
schematically.

This attraction ensures that the drop attains the shape with least surface area in any given environment.
For example, in zero gravity, the drop will float and will be perfectly spherical; the sphere being the
geometry with the least surface area per volume.

Figure 4.1 Schematic illustration of surface energy.

To summarize; in the drop there are attractive forces between the molecules. The molecules inside the
drop are surrounded by balanced attractive forces. The molecules at the surface experience a net
inward force, which results in the drop contracting to the smallest surface area. The fluid pressure
inside the drop is higher than that outside it, therefore the drop behaves as though it was contained in a
skin.

If we have a drop of liquid suspended in a gas, and we want to increase the surface area of the drop,
we must do work to move molecules from the interior of the drop to the surface. This is equivalent to
saying that the surface possess free surface energy.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 34

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

F
F
F

δR
R
F F
2
πR

F F

Figure 4.2 Calculation of surface energy and surface tension.

Take the surface of any liquid droplet, and imagine that a circle is drawn on this surface with radius R.
The area of the circle is πR2 (Fig. 4.2). To increase the surface area of this drop by one unit of surface
area, work must be done to move molecules from the interior of the drop to its new surface. The
surface energy σ is equivalent to the work done W per unit surface area increase δA, i.e., σ =
W/δA. But the work done W is the force operating to make the change F multiplied by the distance the
force moves, so in the case of an imaginary circle on the surface of the liquid drop which increases
its diameter from R to R + δR, we can see that W = FδR and hence, σ = FδR /δA. When the
droplet expands the surface area of the droplet and the area of the circle also expand. If the change
in the radius of the circle is δR, the expanded circle has area π(R+δR)2, and the change in area has
been δA = 2πRδR (Fig. 4.2). Hence, σ = FδR/2πRδR = F/ 2πR = F/L p , where L p is the perimeter
of the original circle. Hence we can see that surface energy σ has the dimensions of
[force]/[length], and is therefore a form of tension. Hence, the surface energy of a fluid interface is
also called the surface tension of the fluid interface. Note therefore, that the surface tension is the force
operating perpendicular to a line on a fluid interface divided by the length of that line. In our case the
force was uniform around the circle, and the length of the circle (perimeter) was 2πR.

We can write:
σ = F (4.1)
L

where: σ = the surface tension (≡surface energy) in dynes/cm or N/m

F = the force operating on the surface (dynes or N)
L = the length of the line that the force operates on perpendicularly (cm or m).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 35

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

The surface tension of a fluid-fluid interface is commonly measured by using a loop of wire. If loop
of wire is placed upon a fluid-fluid interface, it will be held in place by surface tension. Figure 4.3
shows the general arrangement. In this case we will be assuming that the lower fluid has the greater
forces of attraction between its molecules. If we apply a small upward force to the loop it tries to leave
the surface, but the surface tension hold the loop down (Fig. 4.3). There are two fluid interfaces that
contribute to this, the outer circle and the inner circle. Both need to be overcome to remove the loop
from the interface. The force required (from Eq. (4.1)) is F = F in n er + F ou t e r = 2πσR in n e r +
2πσR o u te r = 4πσR m e a n . Hence;

σ = F (4.2)
4πRmean

where, F = the force required to lift the loop from the surface interface (dynes or N)
σ = the surface tension (dynes/cm or N/m)
Rmean = the mean radius of the loop (cm or m).

2Rinner

2Rmean

2Router

Figure 4.3 Calculation of surface energy and surface tension.

Table 4.1 shows the surface tensions of some common fluid-fluid interfaces.

Table 4.1 Surface tensions of some common fluid interfaces.

Interface Surface Tension @ 20oC

(N/m) (dynes/cm)
Water-Air 0.0726 72.6
Benzene-Air 0.0289 28.9
Cyclohexane-Air 0.0253 25.3
n-Hexane-Air 0.0184 18.4
n-Octane-Air 0.0218 21.8
Water-Oil Approx. 0.0350 Approx. 35.0
Mercury-Air 0.3680 368.0
Units: 1 N/m = 1000 dynes/cm

Geoff Page 2010 Page 36

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

Note that the liquid drop cannot exist in isolation. The arguments put forward so far have considered a
single fluid in a gas. In practice both the fluid in the droplet and the fluid in which the droplet exists
contribute to the interfacial effects. It is the relative attractions of the molecules of each fluid for
themselves and each other that are important. In the case of a liquid drop in a gas, the effect of the gas
can usually be ignored. This is because the cohesion forces operating between the molecules in the
fluid are much greater than those in the gas because the fluid has a much higher density (number of
molecules per unit volume).

The interfacial tension of an interface is a fundamental property of that interface. If a liquid has an
interface with a gas, then some molecules of the liquid will be found in a vapour phase in the gas
above the interface. These molecules reduce the surface tension. As temperature increases the
concentration of the vapour phase increases, and the surface tension decreases. At the critical point
there are as many molecules in the gas phase as in the liquid phase, the interface effectively
disappears, and the surface tension becomes zero.

4.3 Fluid-Solid Interactions (Wettability)

We have seen that a fluid has a preferential attraction to itself, and the relative strengths of such
cohesive forces result in surface tension that develops on a fluid-fluid interface. However, the
molecules of a fluid may also have a preferential attraction to solid interfaces. If two fluids occupy a
solid surface, the fluid whose molecules display the greatest attraction for the atoms that compose the
solid will be the fluid that occupies most of the surface, displacing the other fluid.

The wettability of a surface is the type of fluid which is preferentially attracted to that surface.

Figure 4.4a shows the general case of a single solid immersed in two immiscible fluids at an unstable
initial state. Now, imagine that the molecules of Fluid A are attracted to the solid molecules more than
those from Fluid B are. Fluid A will then displace Fluid B on the surface. However, the molecules of
Fluid A and Fluid B are contemporaneously also experiencing attractions from their fellow molecules
and, to a smaller extent, the molecules of the other fluid. Consequently, Fluid A cannot displace all of
Fluid B from the surface unless the attraction between the molecules on the surface of the solid and
those in Fluid A is very great. In the general case a stable state will be encountered where Fluid A
occupies the majority of the surface. At this equilibrium state, the contact angle θ characterizes the
balance between the various cohesive forces (Fig. 4.4b).

(a) (b)

Fluid B Fluid A Fluid B Fluid A

Contact
Angle

Solid Solid
Figure 4.4 Surface wettability.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 37

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

Clearly, the contact angle can be used as a measure of wettability. Figure 4.5 and
Table 4.2 show three possible scenarios.

Fluid B
(gas) Fluid A
(Water)

Solid (glass)

Fluid B
(gas)

Fluid A

Solid (glass)

Fluid B Fluid A
(gas) ____ (Mercury)

Solid (glass)

.
Figure 4.5 Contact angles for different wettabilities

.
Table 4.2 Contact angles for different wettabilities.

Contact Angle
relative to Fluid A, θ Description
(degrees)
0 Extremely Fluid A wet
0-30 Significantly A wet
30-60 Moderately Fluid A wet
60-90 Weakly Fluid A wet
90 Neutrally wet
90-120 Weakly Fluid B wet
120-150 Moderately Fluid B wet
150-180 Significantly B wet
180 Extremely Fluid B wet

Geoff Page 2010 Page 38

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

4.4 Capillary Pressure

4.4.1 Derivation of the Capillary Pressure Equation

2
Take a spherical droplet of fluid, of radius R. Its surface area is 4πR .

If the sphere is increased in size by increasing its radius from R to R+δR, the increase in surface area
2 2 2
δA i s 4π (R +r δR +δR 2 ) -4π R , w h i c h as δR →0 i s δA = 8π R δR.

To increase the radius of the sphere from R to R+δR requires work to be done moving molecules from
the inside of the droplet to the surface. As work done W is the product of the surface tension σ, and the
change in surface area δA, we can say W = σδA = 8πσRδR.

But the work done is also the force operating to cause the change multiplied by the distance the force
moves. By definition any pressure P is equal to the force F operating per unit area A, perpendicular to
that area. Hence, F = PA. The force operating on the spherical surface of the droplet is therefore equal
to the nett pressure (Pin – Pout) multiplied by the area of the spherical droplet 4πR2, i.e., F =
4πR2(Pin – Pout). Since P in > P out , the net pressure (Pin – Pout). is positive, and the net pressure
and resulting force is outward. The distance the force moves is also outward , and its value is clearly
2
δR. Hence, the work done is W = FδR = 4πR (Pin – Pout)δR.

Equating these relationships to eliminate W, gives

(4.3)

Note that the derivation equates the work done. This type of derivation does not rely on the interface
of the spherical droplet being static, as it is based upon the conservation of work (energy). It is also
independent of direction because work is a scalar quantity.

The capillary pressure is defined as the difference between the pressures in each of the two fluids
forming an interface. Hence Eq. (4.3) is an equation for capillary pressure.

The capillary pressure is proportional to the surface tension. Note that

the greater of the two pressures is developed in the fluid which contains
the centre of curvature of the curved fluid interface.

The geometry of pore systems in rocks is complex, but can be

approximated by a bundle of capillary tubes. If the pore throat is
represented by a capillary tube such as that shown in Fig. 4.6, we can
note that the radius of the capillary tube Rtube can be expressed in
terms of the radius of curvature of the surface of the fluid-fluid interface θ
R by R tube = Rcosθ , where θ is the contact angle defined in the
previous section. Hence, we can write the equation

(4.4)

Figure 4.6 Capillary pressure in a tube (pore throat).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 39

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

Note that the pressure is proportional to the surface tension and cosθ , but inversely proportional to the
radius of the tube. Hence, as the radius of the tube increases, the capillary pressure decreases.

The difference in pressure (the capillary pressure) causes the interface to rise up the capillary tube
until the weight of the suspended column of fluid balances the capillary force that is associated with
the capillary pressure. Hence Eq. (4.4) can be used to describe the rise of fluids in a capillary tube.

4.4.2 Capillary Force

The capillary force acting on the periphery of the meniscus is, according to Eq. (4.1)
F= σL=2πRtube

A proportion of this force acts up the capillary tube F up = F cosθ = 2πR tube cosθ
At equilibrium (i.e., the meniscus is static), the upward capillary force is balanced by an equal and
opposite force due to the weight of the suspended column of fluids.

The weight of the suspended column of fluids is πR2 tube h g (ρliquid - ρvapour), where h is the height of
the fluid column, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and ρliquid and ρvapour are the densities of the
liquid phase below the meniscus and the vapour phase above the meniscus, respectively.

Hence, we can write 2πR t u b e cosθ = R 2 t u b e h g (ρ l i q u i d -ρ v a p o u r ), and by rearrangement

(4.5)

Hence, the height to which the fluid rises depends inversely upon the tube radius (pore throat radius);
the larger the tube (pore throats) the less the fluid rises.

The capillary pressure in a simple system of glass tubes of different radii can be calculated from Eq.
(4.5) by measuring the height of the capillary rise, while knowing g, and the densities of the liquid and
the vapour. In practice the density of the vapour is small at surface conditions and can be ignored. It
cannot, however, be ignored at down-hole conditions, where its density may approach the density of
the fluid.

4.4.3 Reservoir Scenarios

There are two scenarios that are of particular importance in a hydrocarbon reservoir. These are the
gas/water and oil/water systems. In these scenarios, it should be noted that the free water level is
defined as the level at which Pcap = 0, i.e., the pressure in the two fluids forming the interface is the
same.

Gas/Water System. A model of the capillary pressure in a gas/water system is shown in Fig. 4.7. The
free water level is the height of the interface when the radius of the capillary tube tends to infinity (i.e.,
the capillary pressure is zero and h = 0). In Fig. 4.7, this is approximated by a wide bath of fluid. The
interface at the free water level may exist at any given absolute pressure PFWL. Capillary forces exist
inside the restricted capillary tubing that result in the rise of the water to a height h above the free
water level.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 40

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

The pressure in the gas phase above the meniscus in the capillary tube is P gas , where P gas =
P FWL − P gas g h.

The pressure in the water phase below the meniscus in the capillary tube is Pwater, where Pwater =
PFWL −ρwater g h.
Hence the capillary pressure is P cap = P gas – P wat er = (ρ water -ρ gas ) g h, which is consistent
with Eq. (4.5).

Using Eq. (4.4), the height to which the water rises can be obtained by rearranging this equation to
give

(4.6)

θ
Pgas

Pwater Gas
h

PFWL

Water

Figure 4.7 Capillary pressure in a gas/water system.

Oil/Water System. A model of the capillary pressure in a oil/water system is shown in Fig. 4.8. The
free water level is the height of the interface when the radius of the capillary tube tends to infinity (i.e.,
the capillary pressure is zero and h = 0) as before. This interface exists at a given absolute pressure
PFWL. Capillary forces exist inside the restricted capillary tubing that result in the rise of the water to a
height h above the free water level.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 41

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

The pressure in the oil phase above the meniscus in the capillary tube is P oil , where P oil = P FWL
− ρ oil g h.

The pressure in the water phase below the meniscus in the capillary tube is Pwater, where Pwater =
PFWL − ρwater g h.
Hence the capillary pressure is P cap = P oil –P water = (ρ water -ρ oil ) g h, similarly to the last case.

Using Eq. (4.4), the height to which the water rises can be obtained by rearranging this equation to
give

(4.7)

Pgas

θ
Pwater Gas
h

PFWL

Water

Figure 4.8 Capillary pressure in a oil/water system.

Knowledge of Parameters. The capillary pressure depends most critically upon the interfacial
tension and the wetting angle. These parameters change with pressure and temperature for any given
fluid/fluid/solid system. Measurements can be made accurately in the laboratory in simplified systems

Geoff Page 2010 Page 42

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

such as the capillary tube, but are very difficult to carry out in the rock itself. The result is that we use
a range of values which are generally considered to be standard, but should not be considered to be
accurate. These are given in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Standard interfacial tension and wetting angle values for common mixtures of reservoir
fluids and solids.

System W e t ti ng Ang l e ,θ Cos θ Interfacial Tension at 20oC,

(degrees) σ (dynes/cm [N/m])
Water/Gas/Mineral 0 1 72 [0.072]
Water/Oil/Mineral 0 1 35 [0.035]
Air/Mercury/Mineral 0 1 368 [0.368]
The mercury/air. solid system is included because it is used in mercury porisimetry for obtaining
porosity, capillary pressure, and pore size distributions. This technique will be described later.

4.5 Implications of Capillary Pressure in Reservoirs

So far we have restricted ourselves to a simple single capillary tube. Real rocks contain an array of
pores of different sizes connected together by pore throats of differing size. Each pore or pore throat
size can be considered heuristically to be a portion of a capillary tube. Real rocks may be completely
water-wet, and indeed are commonly so. They may, however be oil-wet or neutrally wet or have a
mixed wettability, where some mineral grain surfaces are water-wet and some are oil-wet. For the
purposes of this discussion we will consider only water-wet rocks.

4.5.1 Capillary Rise and Reservoir Fluid Pressures

Assume that the pores of the rock are water-wet and can be represented by capillaries of five sizes:
very small, small, medium, large and very large. The capillary rises in each of these pores will be as
shown in Fig. 4.9. The capillary pressure at each of these menisci is the difference between the
pressure in Fluid A above the menisci (say gas) and the pressure in Fluid B below the menisci (say
water), as defined earlier (Eq. 4.3).
Fluid A
Fluid A
Pressure
Line

Capillary h
Pressures

FWL
Fluid B
Fluid B Pressure
Line

Pressure
Figure 4.9 Capillary rise and capillary pressures.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 43

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

The capillary pressures are shown in the graph in Fig. 4.9. We can see that Fluid A (gas) has
increasing pressure with depth due to the column of Fluid A above it, and this is described by the line
labeled ‘Fluid A Pressure Line’, which has a gradient ρFluidA g h. Fluid B (water) has increasing
pressure with depth due to the column of Fluid B above it, and this is described by the line labeled
‘Fluid B Pressure Line’, which has a gradient ρFluidB g h. Fluid A sits above Fluid B because it is less
dense. Its lower density results in it having a steeper gradient. Where the two line intersect, the
pressures in both fluids are the same and the capillary pressure is therefore zero. This is the free water level.

4.5.2 Displacement Pressure

If we have a capillary tube or a rock that contains 100% saturation of a non-wetting fluid (e.g. gas) and we
introduce a wetting fluid (e.g. water) to one end, the capillary pressure will draw the wetting fluid into the
tube or the pores of the rock spontaneously. If the pathway is down or horizontal this process can continue
as long as there is more tube or rock for the wetting fluid to fill. If the pathway is upward or vertical, the
process will continue until the capillary force pulling the fluid into the tube or rock pores is balanced by
the gravitational force acting on the suspended column of fluid (Fig. 4.10).

Figure 4.10 Capillary pressure spontaneously drawing up a wetting fluid..

Figure 4.11 A force is needed to overcome the capillary pressure to displace a wetting fluid with a
non-wetting fluid.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 44

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

If we have a capillary tube or a rock that contains 100% saturation of a wetting fluid (e.g. water) and
we introduce a non-wetting fluid (e.g. oil) to one end, the non-wetting fluid will not be spontaneously
drawn up into the tube or the pores of the rock. This is because the wetting fluid is held inside the tube
or the rock by the capillary force. To introduce the non-wetting fluid into the tube or the rock, we must
apply an external force to overcome the capillary force holding the wetting-fluid in place (Fig. 4.11).
This is called the displacement force or displacement pressure, and is equal in magnitude, but opposite
in sign (direction) to the capillary force and capillary pressure respectively.

IMPORTANT: In oil reservoirs, the reservoir rock initially contains water and is water-wet. Oil
migrates into the reservoir rock displacing the water. A displacement force is required to overcome the
capillary forces in the water saturated water-wet reservoir rock. This force is supplied by gravity
operating upon the differential buoyancy of the two fluids that result from their different densities.
There is a level at which oil cannot replace water further because the driving force is insufficient to
overcome the capillary force. This does not occur at the free water level, but at some height above the
free water level defined by the displacement pressure. Thus, in reservoirs, the oil/water contact (OWC)
is above the free water level (FWL).

Hence, if we have a number of capillary tubes of different radii arranged horizontally and containing a
wetting fluid (e.g., water) (Fig. 4.12), and we wish to force a non-wetting fluid into the tubes (e.g.,
oil), a lower displacement pressure will be required to replace the water in the larger tubes than to
replace the water in the thinner tubes. One can use the analogy with rocks, but remember that the pore
space in rocks is composed of pores of different sizes connected by pore throats of varying size that
are smaller than the pores. Hence the displacement force or pressure required to force a non-wetting
fluid into a rock saturated with a wetting fluid will be controlled by the size of the pore openings.

Oil
Oil
Oil
Water

Water
Oil In

Figure 4.12 Displacement pressure.

An Example. Assume that a rock is composed of five sizes of pore in equal number, and for the sake
of simplicity, these pores are connected by pore throats of the same size as the pores. The rock is
completely saturated with a wetting fluid. Table 4.4 shows the size, number and volume of pores
together with their respective displacement pressures.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 45

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

Table 4.4 Pore size and displacement pressure example.

Pore Radius Individual Pore Number Volume of Contribution Displacement

[µm] Pore Volume [-] Pores to Total Pore Pressure
[µm 3 ] [µm 3 ] Volume [%] [Pa x 103]

1 3.1415 10000 31415 0.132 70

2.5 19.6349 10000 196349 0.825 28
5 78.5498 10000 785398 3.301 14
10 314.1593 10000 3141593 13.206 7
25 1963.4954 10000 19634954 82.535 2.8

The data given in Table 4.4 can be plotted as a displacement versus pressure plot (Fig. 4.13). In this
rock the pressure required to begin to displace water by oil is the initial displacement pressure (2800
Pa in this case). The level in the reservoir at which this is the case is called the 100% water level
which should be the same as the OWC, and is above the FWL by a height related to the size of the
displacement pressure and controlled by the largest pore openings in the rock. If the rock was
composed of 100% of pores of 25 micron size, this would be the level above which there would be
100% oil saturation and below which there would be 100% water saturation. However, the rock also
contains smaller pores, with higher displacement pressures. Thus there will be a partial water
saturation above the 100% water level occupying the smaller pores, and this water saturation will
reduce and become confined to smaller and smaller sized pores as one progresses to higher levels
above the 100% water level. Water will only be displaced from a given pore size if there is a
sufficiently large force to overcome the capillary force for that size of pore. Commonly, the force
driving the oil into the reservoir rock (due to differential buoyancy) is insufficient to overcome the
capillary forces associated with the smallest pores. Hence, the smallest pores in an oil zone remain
saturated with water, and there is an irreducible water saturation (Swi) in the reservoir.

80

60

0.13%

40

0.82%

20
3.3%
13.2% Initial
82.5% Displacement
Pressure
0
0 25 50 75 100
Water Saturation (%)
Figure 4.13 Displacement/pressure curves.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 46

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

Note that once oil is in place, the operation of temperature and pressure may geochemically alter the
properties of the mineral surfaces such that they become oil-wet. This occurs only in the presence of
oil, so it can be imagined that a mature reservoir may have a mixed wettability, with water-wet small
pores containing water and oil-wet larger pores containing oil. This has implications when we want to
move oil and water through the rock during production.

RFT Data Capillary Pressure Data

2000 80

2100 60
Oil
Gradient
2200 40
Water
Gradient
2300 20
FWL
Initial
2400 Displacement
0
0 25 50 75 100
Pressure
0 25 50 75 100
Fluid Pressure (psi) Water Saturation (%)
Water
Saturation
Water Saturation
Capillary Pressure versus Height
(Displacement 2000
Pressure)
gives height
above FWL
2100
for a given water
saturation,
h = Pc / ∆ρg
2200

100% Water
Height of the FWL
2300 Level

FWL
2400
0 25 50 75 100

Water Saturation (%)

Figure 4.14 Calculation of water saturation in a reservoir.

The curve shown in Fig. 4.13 is continuous for a reservoir rock because the rock contains a continuous
pore size distribution. This curve is called the capillary pressure curve. The capillary pressure curve
describes the pressure required to displace from the rock a wetting fluid at initially 100% saturation to a
given saturation.

The capillary pressure is related to the height above the FWL by the relationship

Geoff Page 2010 Page 47

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

Pc = ∆ ρg h (4.8)

So, if the capillary pressure curve is known, and the FWL is known, we can calculate the water
saturation at any point in the reservoir as in Fig. 4.14. If this water saturation agrees with the water
saturations obtained from wireline tools and core in a given well, the wireline water saturation data can
be used with confidence as a predictor of water saturation in the uncored sections of other wells in the
same field.

4.6 The Measurement of Capillary Pressure Curves for Rocks

There are many ways of measuring capillary pressure curves in rocks. The most common are
described below. A detailed description of these will be given in courses given later in the MSc course.

4.6.1 Porous Plate

The sample is saturated completely with a wetting fluid (usually water), and its effective porosity is
measured. It is then placed on a porous plate in a pressure vessel. Gas or oil is introduced into the
vessel around the sample at a low pressure (Fig. 4.15). The porous plate is constructed so that it will
only let through water. The pressurized oil or gas displaces some of the water from the sample
(throughout the whole sample) and the displaced water passes through the porous plate, whereupon it
is collected and its volume is measured. The vessel is left at the set pressure until no more water
evolves, which may take several days. The pressure of the gas or oil is then increased, and more water
evolves and is measured. The procedure is repeated usually about 7 times at increasing pressures (e.g.,
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 psi). A capillary curve can then be constructed with pressure versus the water
saturation in the sample (Fig. 4.16).

Capillary
Gas Pressure

Cor e Plug
1 of 10 per Brine Outlet
Apparatus

Porous Plate Filter Paper and Low Pressure Vessel

Filter Aid

Figure 4.15 Porous plate capillary pressure measurement.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 48

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

32

16

0
0 25 50 75 100
Water Saturation (%)

Figure 4.16 Capillary press curve from porous plate measurements.

The maximum pressure is limited by the pressure at which the porous plate begins to let the gas or oil
pass through with the water.

There is also a range of specialized dynamic and semi-dynamic versions of the porous plate technique
that can be used on confined cores together with direct measurement of sample fluid saturations using
X-Ray, CT and gamma radiometric imaging techniques.

Advantages: Can use actual reservoir fluids for the measurements.

Accurate.
Disadvantages: Slow.
Only provides a few data points on the capillary pressure curve.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 49

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

4.6.2 Centrifuge

The sample is saturated completely with a wetting fluid (usually water), and its effective porosity is
measured. It is placed in a centrifuge and rotated at progressively higher speeds. The speed of rotation
generates a centripetal force that displaces the wetting fluid from the sample replacing it with air or oil
(if an oil reservoir is attached to the inside of the rotating sample). The volume of the evolved fluid is
measured by collecting it in a graduated vial attached to the outside of the spinning arrangement, and
read using a stroboscope. At slow rotation speeds, the force is only sufficient to displace water from
the largest pores. At higher speeds the force is able to displace water from smaller and smaller pores in
the sample. The pressures on the fluids can be calculated from an equation based upon the rotary
motion of the centrifuge. This is plotted against the water saturation in the sample calculated from the
measured volume of evolved fluids for each spin speed (Fig. 4.17).

40

30

20

10

0
0 25 50 75 100
Water Saturation (%)

Figure 4.17 Capillary pressure curve from centrifuge measurements.

Advantages: Fast.
Disadvantages: Commonly only used with air as the displacing fluid.
Only provides a few data points on the capillary pressure curve.
As pressure is a function of distance from the spin centre, the fluid saturation
across the sample varies, and the measured values are taken as the mean value.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 50

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

4.6.2 Mercury Porosimetry

A dry sample of any shape, but of known weight, is placed in a chamber which is filled with mercury.
The mercury is a non-wetting fluid and does not spontaneously enter the pores of the rock. This the
bulk volume of the rock can be measured. The pressure on the mercury is increased in a step-wise
fashion. At each step, the mercury enters smaller and smaller pores overcoming the capillary pressure
operating against the non-wetting fluid (Fig. 4.18). At each stage the amount of mercury intruded is
measured. A graph can be constructed of mercury pressure at each step against volume of mercury
intruded. This is the capillary pressure curve. This data can also be inverted to provide the pore size
and grain size distributions of the rock, and the raw data also provides a rough estimate of the
connected porosity of the rock.

Pressure
Vessel
Pressure
Oil In

Valve Closed Valve Closed Valve Opened

Drop in
Hg Level
Pressure
Oil
Drop in
Glass Hg Level
Holder

Sample

Dried Sample is Mercury is added until mark Atmospheric pressure is Pressure is raised to 200 MPa
Evacuated while the system remains a p p l i e d t o t h e s ys t e m allowing Hg to enter progressively
evacuated. The amount of allowing mercury to enter smaller pores. The drop in the Hg
mercury needed provides a the larger pores. Drop in Hg level gives the volume of the pores
measurement of bulk volume level gives volume of saturated with Hg at each pressure
macropores. level.

Figure 4.18 Mercury porisimetry.

Advantages: Fast.
Provides porosity of sample.
Provides pore size distribution.
Provides grain size distribution.
Can be used on small, irregular samples, such as cuttings.
Gives many data points for intrusion.
Disadvantages: Cannot be used with reservoir fluids.
Data must be corrected to give reservoir values.
Can only be used in imbibition cycle.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 51

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

4.7 Capillary Pressure Data Correction

We require the capillary pressure curve for the reservoir fluids and the reservoir rock. Measurements,
however, are generally made with other fluids. We must, therefore have a method for correcting the
data to give the capillary pressure for the reservoir fluids. The corrections are simple and take account
of the different interfacial tensions and wetting angles for different fluid combinations at 20oC only.

The measured capillary pressure for a mercury/air/sample system Pc(Hg/air/rock) is

(4.9)

The required capillary pressure for a oil/water/sample system Pc(oil/water/rock) is

(4.10)

In both cases the values for interfacial tension and wetting angle come from Table 4.3. Since the value
of R is the same whatever the fluids are, we can equate and rearrange Eqs. (4.9) and (4.10) to give

Hence, to convert Pc(Hg/air/rock) to Pc(oil/water/rock) we should divide by 368 and multiply by 35

(i.e, multiply by 0.09524). Table 4.5 summarizes the conversions.

Table 4.5 Capillary pressure conversions.

From To Multiply by
Mercury/Air/Rock Oil/Water/Rock 0.09524
Mercury/Air/Rock Gas/Water/Rock 0.19608
Oil/Water/Rock Mercury/Air/Rock 10.5
Oil/Water/Rock Gas/Water/Rock 2.05 7
Gas/Water/Rock Mercury/Air/Rock 5.1
Gas/Water/Rock Oil/Water/Rock 0.486 1
Note: This is only valid for 20ºC

Geoff Page 2010 Page 52

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

These conversions are valid for the values of interfacial tension and wetting angle measured at 20oC
and given in Table 4.3. However, these parameters change with pressure and temperature, and are
therefore different in the sub-surface. Values of interfacial tension and wetting angle are very difficult to
obtain for sub-surface conditions, and one might commonly have to make do with those at 20oC.
However, sub-surface values should always be used when available as the interfacial angle is
particularly sensitive to changes in temperature, with values as low as 10 dynes/cm for oil/water
systems, and as low as 25 dynes/cm for gas water systems.

Many of the values in Table 4.5 are given to 4 significant figures accuracy. However, it is common for
only two significant figures to be used (i.e., 10 for 10.5 and 5 for 5.1). This is often justified on the
grounds that our knowledge of the values of interfacial tension and wetting angle is not accurate. The
lack of accurate data introduces errors in any final calculations. However, noting that these
inaccuracies occur is no excuse for introducing further voluntary inaccuracies by making such
assumptions as using 10 instead of 10.5. The error introduced by this assumption can result in errors of
millions of dollars on the bottom line.

Now we can convert mercury derived capillary pressure data to the capillary pressure for the reservoir
fluids, we can write Eq. (4.8) in terms of the mercury capillary pressure.

(4.14)

and

(4.15)

These equations are very useful, because they allow the height in the reservoir for a given saturation to
be calculated from capillary curves measured by mercury porisimetry, which is the most common
capillary pressure technique practiced in the industry.

4.8 Fluid Distributions in Reservoirs

Capillary pressure curves can tell us much about the variation of saturations across a reservoir. The
following example is taken from the personal notes of Theo. Grupping, and is a particularly good
example.

In deltaic-type deposition sands may be laid down in fan-like bodies. The current that is responsible
for the deposition is fast in the proximal region and becomes progressively slower as one progresses
distally or laterally. Hence, in the proximal region the grain size of the resulting rocks is large (only
large grains have time to fall from the fast current). Distally and laterally the grain size of the resulting
rocks becomes finer as smaller sand particles have time to fall out of the slower current. Eventually, at
the extreme edges of the fan, the current is so slow that very fine clay particles are also deposited,
becoming interspersed with the fine sand grains.

• The proximal large grained clean sands have large pores and large pore throats. Therefore, they
have small initial displacement pressures, and their water can easily be displaced by migrating oil.

• The distal fine grained clean sands have small pores and consequently small pore throats. They
have higher initial displacement pressures, and their water cannot be displaced by migrating oil as
easily as for the coarser grained rocks.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 53

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

• The distal fine grained shaly sands (containing interspersed clay) have the smallest pores and
consequently the smallest pore throats, and these pores and pore throats are blocked by the clay
particles. They have very high initial displacement pressures; the great majority of their water is
immobile and cannot be displaced by migrating oil. Figure 4.19 shows the results of 5 wells drilled
progressively more distally in the same sub-marine fan.

Well Location Well A

Well D Well B
Well C
Well E Sediment
Supply
Proximal

Distal Well Sample Data

Capillary Pressure
Curves Shaliness

50% Water
Level

100% Water
Level

0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation (%)

Shaliness

Figure 4.19 Capillary pressure curves and facies.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 54

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Saturation and Capillary Pressure

The first part shows the fan geometry and position of the wells (labeled A to E). The second part
shows the capillary pressure curves for each of 5 samples taken from each of the wells with the 100%
water point labeled S100A to S100E, the initial displacement pressure labeled DIA to DIE, the 50%
water point labeled as S50A to S 50 E, and the irreducible water saturation labeled S wi A to S wi E.
The third part shows the height above the free water level as a function of facies and water saturation, with
the same saturation labels as in part 2. Note the following:

• The initial displacement pressure becomes greater as the sample becomes more shaly (finer
grained) as one moves distally.

• The irreducible water saturation becomes greater as the sample becomes more shaly (finer
grained) as one moves distally.

• The capillary pressure curve for the proximal samples are quite flat from 100% water to about
60% water indicating that only low pressures are required to replace about the first 40% of water
with oil (in the largest pores with the largest and most accessible pore throats).

• At any given capillary pressure, more water is retained as the sample becomes more shaly (finer
grained) as one moves distally.

• The height above the free water level of 100% water saturation increases as the sample becomes
more shaly (finer grained) as one moves distally.

• The height above the free water level of 50% water saturation increases as the sample becomes
more shaly (finer grained) as one moves distally.

So, the grain size controls the height of the 100% water saturation level. Now imagine four layers of
sand that have different grain sizes, porosities and permeabilities, and that have become folded (Fig.
4.20). Each layer has its own capillary pressure characteristics associated with its grain size, and that
capillary pressure is related to the height of the 100% water level above the free water level as shown. It
can be seen that it is possible to drill through layers which are 100% water zones existing between oil
or gas zones from the same reservoir. In this case Well C has two oil water contacts. It is the bottom
one that is the true OWC. Because multiple OWCs are confusing, we tend to talk about oil down to
(ODT) and gas down to (GDT) levels when there are multiple hydrocarbon/water contacts.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 55

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging

5. LOGGING

5.1 What is a Log

A log is a continuous recording of a
geophysical parameter along a borehole,
usually referenced to depth or time.

Wireline logging is a conventional form of

logging that employs a measurement tool
suspended on a cable or wire that suspends
the tool and carries the data back to the
surface. These logs are taken between
drilling episodes and at the end of drilling.

Many of these measurements can also be

made during drilling. The tools required
to make these measurements are part of the
drill string behind the bit, and do not use a
wire, relying instead on low band-width
drilling mud pressure pulses in the drill-string.
Such data is called MWD (measurement
while drilling) for simple drilling data,
and LWD (logging while drilling) for
measurements analogous to conventional
wireline measurements. MWD and LWD
logs have very similar characteristics to
wireline, even though they have been obtained
in a completely different way, however there
are some differences that will be discussed in
the following chapters

Figure 5.1 shows a typical log. In this case it

is a log that represents the natural gamma
radioactivity of a formation. Note that depth
is arranged vertically in feet or metres, and
the header contains the name of the log curve
and the range. This example shows a single
track of data. Note also that no data symbols
are shown on the curve. Symbols are retained
to represent discrete core data by convention,
while continuous measurements, such as logs,
are represented by smooth curves. Figure 5.1
shows only 50 m of borehole, but real logs
are often much longer (thousands of metres),
and contain multiple curves on a single
track such as this, and multiple tracks.

Fig. 5.1 Example of a Gamma Ray Log

Geoff Page 2010 Page 56

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging

Figure 5.2 A typical log set

Geoff Page 2010 Page 57

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging

An example of a more usual log is given as Fig. 5.2. This log contains 3 tracks and many different sets
of log data. There is a very large range of basic logs that can be run in a well, and an even greater
number of derived logs, i.e., data that can be plotted in log form that is calculated from the basic logs.

Examples of the basic physical parameters that can be measured down-hole with logs include (a) the
size of the borehole, (b) the orientation of the borehole, (c) temperature, (d) pressure, (e) the natural
radioactivity of the rocks, (f) the acoustic properties of the rocks, (g) the attenuation offered by the
rocks to radioactivity generated from the tool, (h) the electrical properties of the rocks, (i) the NMR
characteristics of the rocks, and so on.

Examples of derived logs include (a) porosity derived from the acoustic/sonic or density log, (b)
water saturation calculated from the porosity and the electrical logs.

5.2 Running a Log

Oil companies require log data to assess the reservoirs that they are interested in. As with drilling, the
oil companies contract out the job of making the measurements to specialist companies, and increasingly
these companies also complete much of the processing of the measured data. The largest companies are
Schlumberger, Baker Hughes, Halliburton and Weatherford, although there is a range of smaller
specialist companies too.

Wireline logs are made when the drill-bit is removed from the borehole. This can be either between
drilling episodes, before casing is laid, or at the end of drilling. Wireline logging can be done when the
newly drilled rock formations form the wall of the borehole (open-hole logs) or after a concrete lining
or casing has been inserted to stabilize the well bore (cased-hole logs). However, as may be guessed,
the quality of data from the rock is best from open-hole logs, and some measurements cannot be done
at all through casing. Cased-hole logging requires special tools to optimize measurement through the
casing, and is a specialist subject not covered by this course.

A wireline logging set-up consists of the wireline tool, the wire itself, a winching gear, and a vehicle
containing data analysis and recording equipment. The vehicle is usually a large lorry (Fig. 5.3) for
land-based measurements, or a transportable cabin for use on rigs (Fig. 5.4). All data recording and
processing is now done digitally using powerful computers and array processors (Fig. 5.5).

The required tool is attached to the wire and lowered into a cleaned and stable borehole from which
the drill string and bit has been extracted. When it reaches the bottom of the interval to be logged, it is
slowly withdrawn at a predetermined speed. Log measurements are made continually during this
process. The wire is made from a bundle of cables, the outermost ones of which are steel and carry the
load, and the innermost of which are insulated copper and carry the electrical signals. The wireline is
winched up the borehole by a motorized drum typically at around 30ft/min (9m/min) (1800 ft/hr,
540m/hr). It should be noted that most logs are run during their withdrawal from the borehole, which
gives greater cable tension/depth control. One exception is the temperature log, which must be run on
the way into the borehole because its presence in the hole disturbs the temperature reading.

The tension in the wire and the speed of the wire is constantly monitored so that intermittently stuck
tools can be detected. This information is used together with knowledge about the natural elasticity of the
wire that causes it to stretch under its own weight to calculate the instantaneous depth throughout the
logging phase.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 58

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging

Figure 5.3 Land logging vehicle

Figure 5.4 Offshore logging cabin

Figure 5.5 Inside the logging unit

Geoff Page 2010 Page 59

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging

Data is transmitted to the surface through the wire and recorded digitally. Modern tools sample the
formation at 6” (0.1524m) intervals, or far higher for the high definition imaging tools, so for a
combination tool with several different logs, there may be several 100,000’s of individual
measurements over a log run. Depending on the logging speed, data transmission rates may be as high
as 200 kbits per second. This data is subjected immediately to a rudimentary analysis by powerful
processors and displayed so that the quality of the measurements can be checked. The data is recorded onto
hard disk and digital (DAT) tape and can be transmitted by satellite onto the (secured) Internet for in-
depth analysis anywhere it is required.

A typical drilling and logging history for a well might be as shown in Table 5.1. Note that the logs are
run in each section before casing takes place. When each log is run, the operator ensures that some
measurements are included opposite the previously cased section above the log run as a test that the
log tools are working correctly and to provide a local depth fixed point to help tie the depths for each
tool together. Whenever a borehole is logged in sections the operator also ensures that there are
overlap sections so that the logs can be tied together accurately, and repeat sections to check log
quality and consistency.

Table 5.1 A typical drilling and logging history.

Depth
Procedure Drill Bit Size Casing Diameter Tools
(m sub sea/
(inches) (inches)
surface)

Drill 25 - 300-400
Case 20 300-400
Drill 17.5 - 400-700
Log - - 700-400 Res-AC-GR/1
Case - 13.375 300-690
Drill 12.25 - 700-1400
Log - - 1400-680 Res-AC-GR/2
Log - - 1400-680 Den-CN-GR/1
Log - - 1400-680 Dip-GR/1
Case - 9.625 690-1390
Drill 8.5 - 1400-2100
Log - - 2100-1380 Res-AC-GR/3
Log - - 2100-1380 Den-CN-SGR/2
Log - - 2100-1380 Image/1
Log - - 2100-1380 FT/1

Note that the most tools are run in the area that is expected to be of greatest interest (i.e., the reservoir).
For tool codes see wireline operators manuals.

Efforts are made at all times to ensure that the logs are of the highest quality. Methods of ensuring that
logging quality is high include (a) making repeat sections of log measurements over short sections that
contain both low and high measured values, (b) making overlap measurements of the previous
(shallower) run of the same tool, (c) making measurements opposite the casing at the top of the run,
(d) local calibration of all logging tools both before and after the survey, and (e) ensuring that a
‘master’ calibration of the tools has been carried out recently at the wireline service company’s
workshop (particularly for sensitive and important ‘porosity’ tools).

LWD data is recorded by instruments which are part of the drillstring. This means that formation
Geoff Page 2010 Page 60
Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging
measurements are acquired real-time while the hole is being drilled, providing continuous updates of
the formations that are encounteencountered. These measurements can be used to steer the wellbore
through target reservoir zones, maximizing the production potential – a process known as “Reservoir
Navigation”. For LWD measurements there is no “cable” connecting the instruments to the surface for
the transmission of signals and measurement of depth. Depth is measured from the length of drillpipe in
the wellbore, the instruments are powered by a turbine generator from the mud flow, and a basic set of
data is sent to the surface as a series of pressure pulses in the mud inside the drillstring. This data
transmission system is typically only 5-10 bits/second (very low compared to Wireline), however it is
sufficient to transmit the required basic log curves and a full dataset is also stored in downhole memory
in the tools for retrieval at surface when the drillpipe is pulled out.

The decision on which type of measurements are acquired is a combination of economics (LWD tools
are rented for the entire drilling time, but Wireline tools need extra rig time after drilling is completed),
the availability of sensors (Wireline are generally more comprehensive measurements), and the type
and urgency of the data required.

5.3 The Presentation of Log Data

Conventionally, logs are presented on a standard grid defined by the American Petroleum Institute
(API). This grid consists of 3 tracks and a depth column as shown in Fig. 5.6.

Track 1, historically known as the “P” (Potential = SP) track, on the leftmost side is always linear and is
often reserved for drill bit size, caliper and gamma ray tool information.

Moving to the right, there is a depth column that may be in feet or metres. A range of depth scales are
used depending upon the resolution required for a particular analysis. In Europe and the East scales of
1:1000 and 1:500 are often used for large scale correlations between wells, while 1:200 is optimum for
petrophysical evaluation, 1:40 for correlation with core information, and 1:20 for detailed dipmeter or
image analysis. In the USA they use 1:1200. 1:600 and 1:240. However, the digital recording of logs
now ensures that they can be displayed and printed at any required scale. Scales may also be defined in
inches of paper/100ft of wellbore i.e. a 6” plot is equivalent to 1/200, 1.2” is equivalent to 1/1000.

Moving once more to the right, there are tracks 2 and 3, historically known as the “R” (Resistivity)
track, which may have either a linear or a logarithmic scale and may be combined into one. These
tracks traditionally were reserved for density, porosity and electrical tool data.

All tracks can take multiple log curves, and the code for the curve, its style (i.e., green dashed line),
and the scale units are given in a stack at the top of the log. The curves are arranged in such a way that
they can wraparound (i.e., if the curve slips of the top of the scale it appears again at the bottom, and
the reader must make the required scale adjustments to read the wrapped-around or “backup” data).

The fundamental basis of the API standard is still used, but the advent of computer analysis has made
the presentation of logs rather easier. The modern log data is not only presented as hardcopy, but will
come to you as an e-mail, on a tape or CD-ROM. The arrangement of this data in the form of logs on a
display or a printout is now likely to have as many tracks as needed (its up to you!). Each will be linear
or logarithmic, or even use a core image or a coloured array to represent the data. However the depth
track is usually retained between tracks 1 and 2, and may be repeated further over for very wide plots.

Electrical data is almost always presented on a logarithmic track because it can vary over many orders
of magnitude.

There are numerous little markers and ‘grace notes’ present on logs that require to be learnt. The

Geoff Page 2010 Page 61

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging
majority of these will be described with their particular log type. On some logs one general mark is that
which records the time on the log, the right-hand margin of track 1 will often be seen to be
punctuated by gaps or small marks. The distance between these gaps represents one minute and
indirectly allows you to tell the logging speed. If these gaps are of uniform spacing, the logging speed is
constant. If there is a non-uniformity, then there is a problem such as a temporarily stuck tool that could
affect the data quality. Other companies use ticks or spikes along the margin as a time marker or, more
common recently, present a speed (SPD) curve.

The main section of logs will have a comprehensive header sheet that contains a plethora of
information about how the log was run. Some of this information also appears at the end of the logs,
together with repeat or overlap sections and information on tool calibration.

Figure 5.6 Log presentation grids. Note that the API format defines particular dimensions for each
track, and an overall width of 8.25 inches.

5.4 Tools
There are a plethora of logging tools now available in the oil industry. There can be split into the
following types:

• Standard open-hole tools (diameter 3 to 5 inches)

These range from the simplest caliper tool to the sophisticated imaging and NMR tools and have
Geoff Page 2010 Page 62
Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging
vertical resolutions from 2.5 mm to over 30 cm.

• Slim hole tools (diameter 1 5/8 to 3 inches)

These are slimmer versions of the standard tools, and are used where standard tools are too thick.
Applications of these tools are in specialist logging through drill-pipe or coiled tubing, and in
small scale holes used in the water industry.

• Cement and Casing/tubing evaluation tools

These are tools designed to measure cement bond quality, or the condition/corrosion of wellbore
casing and tubing.

• Production tools
These are specialist tools for running during the production of hydrocarbons for measuring
formation and wellbore fluids, pressure, flow rate, and are always of the slim-hole variety to
facilitate their insertion into a producing well under pressure.

• LWD tools
These tools are designed to connect into the drill string and communicate data to the surface
through the drilling mud. Their diameter is related to the drillstring into which they are built.

A summary of some of the main standard open-hole tools is given in Table 5.2.
Drilling rigs are expensive and can often amount to a high percentage of the total drilling costs. The
time required to run wireline logs effectively delays the drilling operation leading to greater expense.
To minimize this expense tools are bolted together for lowering down the borehole. All wireline tools are
designed to be combined in this way and there are many possible combinations, some of which are
as long as 60 m. Each tool in the combination has its own measurement-sensitive region, which
measures a given formation at a specific depth at different offset times. The data has to be depth
shifted to account for this. This is done in the data acquisition system with information about the
instantaneous speed and dimensions of the tool combination. Even using combinations, it is common for
as many as three log runs to be made in the same section of the borehole with different combinations
of tools. If this is the case, one tool is included in all combinations to act as a reference to which the
others might be compared for depth matching purposes. This tool is commonly the gamma ray tool
(GR).

LWD tools can also be combined as there is only one opportunity to record data real-time while
drilling. It is also possible to record data using LWD tools as part of a later trip into (or out of) the hole
with the drillpipe. These are sometimes called measurement after drilling or “MAD” logs!

Figures 5.7 and 5.8 show standard open-hole density logging tools, both Wireline and LWD. The
Wireline tool has a motorized arm which opens up downhole to push the measurement surface (pad)
against the rock. This arm also provides a borehole diameter measurement. The LWD tool has
ultrasonic Acoustic Stand Off (ASO) pulse-echo hole size measurements.

On land, where the general geology is well known and drilling is cheaper, only a few logs may be run.
This is because expense can be spared as information concerning the subsurface is not hard to come
by. However, and perhaps counter-intuitively, offshore a full set of logs is often carried out even when
there are no hydrocarbon shows. This is because drilling is so expensive that relatively fewer wells
will be drilled, and hence the maximum data must be squeezed out of each well regardless almost of
the cost. If there are no hydrocarbon shows, the well data will still be very useful for correlation with
other wells that do show hydrocarbons, will help to constrain the extent of neighbouring reservoirs, as
well as adding to the information about the general geological structure of the area.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 63

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging

Figure 5.7 A Wireline Density instrument

Magnetometer

Tri-axial
ASO
Acoustic
Package

Long Spaced
Detector
Measurement
Surface
Short Spaced
Detector

Source Port

Stabilization

Figure 5.8 An LWD Density instrument

Geoff Page 2010 Page 64

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Logging

Table 5.2 Common open-hole tools and their uses

Tool Physical Measurement Use Comments

Logging conditions
Temperature Borehole temperature for resistivity
Temperature (BHT) Corrected with Horner plot
calculations.

Pressure (PRESS) Fluid pressure Fluid pressure for formation volume Incorporated in FT
factor calculations.

Caliper (CAL) Borehole diameter Data quality, in situ stress tensor, Available in 1, 2, 3, 4, or
lithology and permeability indicator multiarm versions.
Lithology
Gamma Ray (GR) Natural radioactivity of Shale indicator and depth matching Can read through casing.
the formation.

Spontaneous Sand/shale interface Permeable beds Does not work in non-

Potential (SP) potential. Resistivity of formation water conductive muds..
Porosity
Acoustic/Sonic (BHC, Velocity of elastic Porosity Compaction, gas and vugs,
LSS, XMAC, DSI) waves in the formation. calibration of seismic data.

Density (FDC, Bulk density of the Total porosity Used to calculate synthetic
LDT, ZDL) formation. seismograms.
Total porosity +/- (shale
Neutron (SNP, Hydrogen Can read through casing.
concentration in the increases measured porosity, gas
CNL)
formation. reduces measured porosity)
Resistivity
Resistivity of flushed, Used in water saturation calculations. Now obsolete, not focussed,
Simple electric log
can’t be used in oil based
(SN, LN, Lat) shallow and deep zones
muds, prone to invasion.
respectively.
Focussed devices.
Induction Logs Conductivity of the Conductivity and resistivity in oil
Use in oil based and fresh
(IES, ISF, DIL, formation. based muds, and hence calculation of water muds. Range of depths
water saturation. of investigation.
PIL, AIT, HDIL)
(Vertical resolution 1-10 ft.)

Laterologs Resistivity of the Focussed devices.

Resistivity in water based muds, and
Use in salt water based
(LL3, LL7, DLL, formation. hence calculation of water saturation. muds. Range of depths of
HRLA, RTEx) investigation. (Vertical
resolution 1-4 ft.)

Microlog/Minilog Resistivity of mudcake Indicator of permeability. Vertical resolution of a few

(ML) inches
and flushed zone. Detector of thin beds.

Micro-laterolog Resistivity of flushed Not good with thick

Measures RXO
zone. mudcakes.
(MLL)
Proximity Log (PL) Resistivity of flushed Measures RXO Thick mudcake, not good
zone. if invasion is small.
Micro-spherically Resistivity of flushed Measures RXO Part of some DLL-RXO tools.
zone.
focussed log
(MSFL)
Imaging Logs There is a range of imaging logs based upon sonic, visual, electrical and NMR measurements that are
beyond the scope of this course.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 65

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Borehole Environment

6. THE BOREHOLE ENVIRONMENT

6.1 Introduction
Logging has a single clearly defined purpose: to give accurate and representative data on the physical
properties of the rock formations and fluids encountered in a borehole.

The tools used to take these readings have to cope with extremely tough conditions downhole,
particularly, high temperatures and pressures, inhospitable chemical conditions and the physical
constraints imposed by the physics of the measurements and the borehole geometry. It should also be
remembered that we are interested in the properties of the rocks in undisturbed conditions, and the act
of drilling the borehole is the single most disturbing thing that we can do to a formation.

6.2 Overburden Pressures

The formations in the sub-surface are at raised pressure, and are occupied by fluids which are also at
high pressure.

The pressure that a rock is subjected to at a given depth is determined by the weight of the rock above
it, and hence the density of that rock. This is called the overburden pressure or sometimes the
lithostatic pressure (note that, to a first approximation, the overburden pressure is the same in all
directions (isotropic)). We can write an equation to describe the overburden pressure

Pover = ρ rock g h (6.1)

where, P over = the overburden pressure at depth h

ρrock = the mean rock density above the depth in question
g = the acceleration due to gravity
h = the depth to the measurement point.

Clearly the rock above a given depth will have a varied lithology and porosity and hence a varying
density. A more accurate determination of the overburden pressure can be obtained by summing the
pressure contributions for each density by writing Eq. (6.1) for i different rock densities, each with
thickness hi.

(6.2)

The overburden pressure/depth curve is called the geobar or lithostat. An example is given in Fig. 6.1.

It should be noted that in actuality this pressure is not isotropic but operates vertically. The pressures
horizontally depend upon the overburden pressure, but are modified by additional large scale sub-
horizontal tectonic forces (in tension and compression), and are affected by local inhomogeneities in
the crust, such as fractures. However, to a first approximation the pressure at depth can often be
considered to be isotropic (hydrostatic).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 66

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Borehole Environment

Figure 6.1 Lithostatic, hydrostatic and overpressures.

6.3 Fluid Pressures

The pressure in a fluid occupying a formation depends upon many forces. If there is a continuously
connected pathway of fluid from the surface to the depth in question, the fluid pressure depends
primarily upon the weight of the fluid above it, in a direct analogy to the situation for rocks. As the
density of fluids is approximately one third of that for rocks, the fluid pressure will be approximately
one third of the overburden pressure at any given depth.

Pfluid = ρfluid g h (6.3)

where, P fluid = the fluid pressure at depth h

ρfluid = the mean rock density above the depth in question
g = the acceleration due to gravity
h = the depth to the measurement point.

Clearly the fluid in the rock above a given depth may have a varying density, hence a summed
equation may be better at describing the fluid pressure at depth. The connected fluid pressure is called
the hydrostatic pressure and is shown in Fig. 6.1.

Clearly, the fluids will not always be in good connection with the surface, and indeed this will
generally not be the case in reservoirs, where a seal is required to stop the hydrocarbons escaping. In
these conditions the fluid pressure may be much higher than that predicted by Eq. (6.3). These fluids
are called overpressured fluids (Fig. 6.1). Overpressurization is caused by a trap to stop fluids
escaping, and a process that will raise the fluid pressure such as compaction of the rock.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 67

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Borehole Environment

However, the fluid pressure is also affected by other forces. These are capillary pressure, buoyancy
forces (if the fluid is dynamically driven by a density gradient), and externally imposed fluid flow
forces from aquifers.

6.4 Effective Pressure

The overburden pressure acts upon a rock to crush it. The fluids in the pore spaces would then be
compressed. Hence, the fluid pressure acts on the rock to stop the rock crushing. The fact that the rock
does not crush under the overburden pressure, is the combined result of the inherent strength of the
rock grains and any cementation, and the strengthening effect of the fluid pressure. A total effective
pressure may be defined, therefore, as the pressure that the rock effectively experiences. The effective
pressure is the overburden pressure minus the fluid pressure. (Note there is increasing evidence that it
is better to define effective pressure as the overburden pressure minus about 80% of the fluid
pressure.)

The extraction of hydrocarbons in a reservoir ultimately lowers the fluid pressure, and hence raises the
effective pressure experienced by the rock. Thus there may be occasions where, what was once stable
reservoir rock, now is exposed to a greater effective pressure, and begins to crush and compact. This is
currently occurring in several reservoirs in the North Sea, and causes huge problems for wellbore and
platform stability. Specialist logs can measure this compaction very accurately.

6.5 Drilling Muds

Drilling muds are used for reasons including:

• To lubricate the drill bit.

• To remove drilled material away from the drill bit and transport them to the surface.
• To counteract the fluid pressure in the rock.
• Stabilize the wellbore.

If a well could be drilled without a drilling fluid, formation fluids, which are under their fluid pressure,
would spurt out of the borehole (blow-out). The density of the drilling fluid used in a particular
borehole is designed to generate a drilling mud pressure (due to the weight of the drilling mud in the
borehole above a given depth) that counteracts the fluid pressure in the formation and prevent blowouts.
This is usually successful, but because sudden increases in overpressure can be encountered the drilling
mud pressure is kept higher than necessary as a safety feature. When the mud pressure is greater than
the formation fluid pressure, the well is said to be over-balanced.

Note that varying the drilling mud weight also helps to protect the wellbore from crushing by the high
lithostatic forces, especially in deviated and horizontal wells.

The drilling mud is a suspension of mud particles (a slurry) in an aqueous or oil-based medium. Each
of these will be discussed in more detail later in this section.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 68

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Borehole Environment

6.6 Invasion

6.6.1 Introduction
The drilling mud is at a pressure greater than the fluid pressure in the formation. When the drilling
mud encounters a porous and permeable formation, the drilling mud will flow into the formation under
the influence of this difference in fluid pressures. This is called invasion. However, the particulates in
the mud will be left at the surface, with the rock acting as an efficient filter. Thus, there is a build-up
of mud particles on the inner wall of the borehole, and this is called the mud cake. The remaining
liquid part of the drilling mud enters the formation, pushing back the reservoir fluids. This part of the
drilling mud is called the mud filtrate. The zone where the mud filtrate has replaced the reservoir
fluids is called the flushed zone and there is a zone further into the rock where the replacement of
reservoir fluids with mud filtrate is incomplete, which is called the transition zone. The Virgin
reservoir fluids occupy the uninvaded zone further into the formation.

Figure 6.2 shows the general borehole environment with invasion.

Note that invasion only occurs for porous and permeable formations, and is a self limiting process
because the mud cake is an efficient block to further filtration and flow. However, there is a qualitative
relationship between low porosity and high permeability, and larger depth of invasion and thicker mud
cake. High permeability formations admit the mud filtrate easily, so the invasion is deep and the
mudcake builds up quickly to thick layers. High porosity formations allow the storage of more mud
filtrate per invasion distance, therefore the depth of invasion is smaller than for low porosity
formations of the same permeability.

The different fluid types in each of the zones, and hence the formations that they occupy, will have
different physical properties. Only the deepest zone contains the circumstances of the undisturbed
rock, while the Wireline or LWD tools occupy the borehole. Thus, to get good readings of the true sub-
surface properties of the rock, the tool has to either, (i) measure accurately through the borehole mud,
mud cake flushed zone and transition zone, or (ii) make readings closer to the tool (i.e., in the flushed
zone) that can be reliably corrected to represent the values in the uninvaded zone.

All logging companies provide correction graphs for their various tools. However, the accuracy of the
correction diminishes as the diameter of the borehole, the thickness of mud cake, and the depth of
invasion increase. Effort is therefore made to ensure that these are minimized by (i) ensuring the mud
chemistry does not create wash-outs increasing the borehole diameter, (ii) ensuring that the mud is not
so low salinity that it causes the swelling of formation clays, (iii) minimize mud filtrate, and (iv) set
the mud weight such that the mud pressure is only slightly greater than the formation pressures (only
slightly over-balanced).

One simple method of checking for invasion is by measuring the loss of drilling fluids. This is done
regularly at the wellsite for water-based drilling muds by forcing samples of drilling mud through filter
paper with a 100 psi pressure for 30 minutes and measuring the volume of the mud filtrate. For oil-
based muds a high temperature apparatus is required as the filtration of oil-based muds is low at
surface temperatures. While mudcake is a useful indicator of porous and permeable formations, it can
cause the drill-bit, drill-pipe and wireline tools to stick in the hole, and the associated deep invasion
causes problems for accurate log data acquisition.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 69

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Borehole Environment
hmc

dtrans
Invasion dflush
Diameters dhole

Shallow Invasion

Medium Invasion

Rxo Rt
Rmf Rm Rmc Rw Deep Invasion
Sxo
Sw

Uninvaded Transition Mud Mud Cake Flushed

Zone Zone Zone

Rt

Rmc
Rm
Rxo Sxo
Rmf Sw
Rw

Figure 6.2 The borehole environment.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 70

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Borehole Environment

6.6.2 Invasion with Water-Based Drilling Muds

The depth of invasion is related to the permeability of the rock. Water-based mud filtrate diffuses into
the formation water in the rock at a rate that depends upon the pore size distribution and hence the
permeability of the rock. This diffusion can be faster than the rate of filtration at the borehole wall in
highly permeable formations. Thus the invasion is limited by the rate of filtration, and the build-up of
mudcake stops the process limiting the depth of invasion. For lower permeability formations, the
diffusion is slower but may reach a greater depth (Fig. 6.3). The replacement of oil by the water-based
mud filtrate is by pressure driven displacement.

Figure 6.3 Effect of time and permeability on invasion depth for water-based muds.

In water-bearing formations the mud filtrate replaces all of the formation water close to the borehole
(Fig. 6.4) and this decreases with depth of invasion. In oil-bearing formations the mud filtrate replaces
all the formation water and most of the oil close to the borehole wall, again decreasing with distance
into the formation (Fig 6.4).

Water-Bearing Formation Oil-Bearing Formation

Water-Based Water-Based Formation

Mud Mud Oil
Formation
Filtrate Water Filtrate

Formation
Water
Flushed Transition Uninvaded Flushed Transition Uninvaded
Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone
Invaded Invaded
Zone Zone

Distance into Formation Distance into Formation

Figure 6.4 Invasion profiles for water-based muds in water and oil bearing formations.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 71

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Borehole Environment

6.6.3 Invasion with Oil-Based Drilling Muds

Oil-based mud filtrates replace the fluids in the invaded zone by pressure driven displacement alone.
The resulting invasion profiles are shown in Fig. 6.5. Note that in water-bearing formations the oil-
based mud filtrate does not replace all the formation water even close to the borehole wall, and that in
oil-bearing formations the oil-based mud filtrate only replaces the oil in the formation, leaving the
formation water in place.

Water-Bearing Formation Oil-Bearing Formation

Oil-Based Formation
Oil-Based
Mud Formation Oil
Mud
Filtrate Water
Filtrate

Formation
Water

Flushed Transition Uninvaded Flushed Transition Uninvaded

Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone
Invaded Invaded
Zone Zone

Distance into Formation Distance into Formation

Figure 6.5 Invasion profiles for oil-based muds in water and oil bearing formations.

6.6.4 Fluid Segregation

In general, the fluids in the invaded zone are formation water, water or oil-based mud filtrate and oil in
various saturations. These have different densities, and so may undergo gravity driven fluid
segregation resulting from their relative buoyancies, if the vertical permeability of the formation is
sufficiently high. While this may seem like a subtle effect, it is not uncommonly seen on log data. The
effect is well developed in the following two scenarios, which are shown in Fig. 6.6.

Drilling oil-bearing formations with salt saturated water-based muds. The high density salty mud
filtrate accumulates at the bottom of the formation resulting in a resistivity profile that has lower
resistivities at the base of the formation than at the top.

Drilling water-bearing formations with oil-based drilling muds. The low density oil-based mud
filtrate accumulates at the top of the formation, again resulting in a resistivity profile that has lower
resistivities at the base of the formation than at the top.

These effects usually disappear with time after the casing is set and cemented, remaining only if the
permeability of the formation is very low.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 72

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Borehole Environment

High Density Mud Filtrate Low Density Mud Filtrate

Mud Compared to Formation
Mud Compared to Formation Oil
Cake Impermeable Rock Cake Impermeable Rock
Permeable Rock Oil-Based
Mud
Filtrate
Formation Formation
Oil Water
Water-
Based
Mud Filtrate Permeable Rock

Impermeable Rock Impermeable Rock

Figure 6.6 Gravity segregation during invasion.

6.7 Logging Tool Characteristics

Each of the logging tools has particular characteristics that depend upon the physics of the
measurement of their particular parameters, and upon the borehole environment. These will be covered
in the sections on the individual logging tools.

The main characteristics affecting log quality are:

Depth of Investigation. Most tools have a shallow depth of investigation, resulting in the
measurement of the formation in the flushed or transition zones. Most radiation tools have an
investigation depth of less than 20” (0.5m) because they rely on measuring natural or induced
radiations that are adsorbed by the rock or the fluids they contain. Electrical tools come in various
versions with a wide range of investigation depths, from imaging tools which measure only a fraction of
an inch (a few centimetres), to the deep penetration tools 10-20ft (up to 6 m). The depth of
investigation often depends upon the density/porosity of the formation.

Vertical (Bed) Resolution. This is closely related to the depth of investigation and to the logging
speed. In general a tool with a large depth of investigation, has a low vertical resolution. The true
parameters of the rock formation can only be measured if the bed is larger than at least the source-
detector distance of the tool. Many modern logging devices use a combination of shallow (high
resolution) and deep (low resolution) measurements, which are combined mathematically to extract
the best characteristics of each in a process know as “synthetic focusing”. This results in
measurements with a high resolution but deep depth of investigation. If the beds are thinner than the
bed resolution for the tool, then the measured parameter is underestimated. This is the thin-bed effect.

Investigation Geometry. This depends upon the tool. Some tools have a pseudo-hemispherical zone
of sensitivity (the radiation logs), some toroidal (the induction logs), some tubular (acoustic logs), and
some focussed planar (the laterologs). The raw data that is measured depends very much upon the
geometry of the measurement, but these effects are corrected for by the logging company as standard.

Logging Speed. The speed at which the logs are run has an effect upon the quality of the data as a
result of statistical fluctuations in the measured radiation in the case of radiation tools, and as a
function of the measurement (sampling) interval in other tools. It can therefore be seen that logging
speed, data quality and vertical resolution are linked.
Geoff Page 2010 Page 73
Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

7. FLUID TESTING AND PRESSURE LOGS

7.1 Introduction
Formation (fluid) testing involves taking fluid samples from the formation and measuring their
pressures. It gives information on the types and properties of fluids in the formation, indicates the
presence of hydrocarbons, and provides information on the pressures of the fluids within the
formation.

There are three generic types of test, the second of which will be examined in detail as it is a Wireline, and
more recently LWD, method. The three measurement types are as follows, and are described in the order
that they are performed, in their complexity, and therefore their cost.

DrillStem Testing (DST). This is carried out

during the drilling of the well. A portion of Drillstem Borehole
perforated drill pipe and one or two devices for
sealing the interval of the well of interest off
(packers) are lowered down the well to the
required depth. The packer is then expanded to
make a seal between the borehole wall and the drill
pipe. If the bottom of the well is being tested, only
Formation
one packer is needed. If an interval further up the well
is being tested, two packers are needed, one above
the interval and one below. A valve is then opened to
reduce the pressure within the drill stem and the
packed-off interval to surface pressures. Fluids will
flow from the formation into the packed-off interval
and hence to the surface through the perforations in
the drill pipe and up the pipe. These fluids may be Perforated Inflated
Interval Packer
sampled and analyzed. Note that this procedure is the
equivalent of a temporary completion of the well. Figure 7.1 The drillstem test
(Fig. 7.1).
.
RFT Tool Borehole
Formation Testing (FT). This operation is carried out
in an open hole during logging operations, or with an
LWD tester as part of the drillstring. The wireline
tool is lowered down the uncased hole to the point of
interest. It is then jacked and sealed against the
borehole wall. Samples of fluids and measurements
of the fluid pressures are then taken. Note that this
form of logging is not continuous, and is carried out Formation
at a few previously defined depths in the reservoir
zone of the well only (Fig. 7.2). Some modern FT
tools also have the capability to inflate two packers,
and isolate the formation in a similar way to a
Drillstem test – known as a mini DST as the volume
of fluid that can be flowed through the tool is much
smaller than a true DST. Sampler &
For the LWD version of the tools, drilling is paused Pressure Jacking Arm
while the tool is positioned at the correct depth, the Measurement
tool then opens and a pressure is obtained. The tool
then closes and drilling resumes. Figure 7.2 The FT test.
Geoff Page 2010 Page 75
Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

Production Testing. This is carried out in a cased Cased

Production
hole and completed hole with a packer that has been Pipe Borehole
set in place and a production pipe. The casing is
perforated using a wireline perforation gun. As the
pressure inside the production pipe is held at a value
that is lower than the formation pressure, the
formation will produce fluids, which by this stage in
the well completion, should be hydrocarbons. If the
test produces sufficient hydrocarbons, the production Formation
may be allowed to continue as a fully completed well
(Fig. 7.3).

Figure 7.3 The production test.

Perforated Permanent
Interval Packer

7.2 Formation Testing

There are a range of wireline and LWD formation testing tools now available, such as the Reservoir
Characterisation Instrument (Wireline) shown in Fig. 7.4, and the TesTrak (LWD) shown in Fig. 7.5.
The tools are capable of taking multiple pressure measurements in the borehole, and the Wireline tools
also take multiple fluid samples. The LWD tools at the time of writing are just starting to be capable of
taking samples as well.

These testers can take fluid samples from multiple depths/sample points and keep them separated in
multiple sample chambers, up to 24 samples in a single trip. Fluids can be maintained at high pressure
both while pressure testing, sampling (by keeping the tanks at a minimum of Hydrostatic pressure) and
within the sample tanks during return to surface (by a Nitrogen gas cushion). This pressure is
maintained until the sample tank reaches a laboratory where the sample can be analysed properly. This
is important in some oils as a sudden pressure drop causes a change in the composition of the oil such
as asphaltene deposition, or phase changes.

The tools incorporate a pre-test or “drawdown” facility, where the seal between the probe and the rock
formation is tested, pressure measured and an adequate flow of fluids for sampling is checked, this
pre-test data is also used for an estimate of permeability. If the setting depth is not suitable the tool can
be reset at another depth for another try. Most tools now contain sensors that enable the fluid passing
through the tool to be analysed, distinguishing oil, water and filtrate, and allow fluid to be pumped
through the tool and exhausted to the wellbore. Only when clean formation fluid is seen will it then be
diverted to the tanks so that when a sample is taken it samples only the reservoir fluid. The tools can
cope with consolidated and unconsolidated formations, and provide very accurate fluid pressure
readings.

It should be noted that even with the newer tools, the FT is expensive to use if many fluid samples are
required. Hence, FT fluid samples are expensive.

7.3 Operation
The tool is run into the well to the depth required, which is recognized by comparing the gamma ray
readings from a gamma ray sensor attached to the tool with previously taken logs. In this way an

Geoff Page 2010 Page 76

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

accurate depth may be fixed. Initially the tool takes a reading of the drilling mud pressure
(Hydrostatic). The tool is then attached securely to the wall of the borehole, by a hydraulic back-shoe
piston on one side of the tool. Opposite the back-shoe is the measurement and sampling head. This
consists of an annular seal or packer surrounding a sampling probe which contains a piston. Figure 7.4
shows details of the back-shoe and sampling head for the RCI device. A similar, arrangement applies
in the case of the LWD TesTrak in Fig. 7.5. although the size and weight of the tool (built into the
drillstring) alone is sufficient to attain a seal without the need for the back-shoe system.

The packer seals the sampling head from the drilling mud and mud-cake surrounding the tool (Fig.
7.6a). The probe containing the piston is then pressed through the mud-cake into the formation (Fig.
7.6b). The central piston is withdrawn, allowing fluids to pass from the formation into the tool (Fig.
7.6c). This fluid is then drawn into the pre-test or “drawdown” chamber, which expands reducing the
pressure in the flowline below the formation pressure. When this chamber is full pressure builds back
up until the flow line fluids are at the same pressure as the fluids in the formation, and this pressure is
then measured. Figure 7.7 shows the internal piping of the tool. Most modern tools now use a
variable volume pump for the pre-tests allowing multiple pre-tests with different volumes and
rates if required. In general it is better to test low permeability formations with lower pre-test
volumes and rates than high permeability formations.

Figure 7.4 The wireline RCI tool. Figure 7.5 The LWD TesTrak tool.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 77

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

Packer

Filter

Piston

Flow Flow Flow

Line Line Line
Formation Formation Formation

Mud-cake

Figure 7.6 FT operation.

Figure 7.7 FT internal piping.

Up to now only pressures have been measured. The measured pressures give an indication of the
productivity of fluids from the test depth. If it is decided that the tool should not take an operational
sample, but move on to another depth, then the pre-test chambers are emptied into the borehole, the
back-shoe is retracted, the drilling mud pressure is re-recorded, and the tool moves on to another depth. The
equalizer valve opens to allow pressures in the tool to equalize with Hydrostatic in the wellbore and prevent
“differential sticking”

If an operational sample is required, a valve is opened so that fluid flows into a sample chamber. Modern
tools may also allow the fluid composition to be measured with an array of sensors, as fluid is
pumped through the tool into the borehole. This allows a sample to be taken only after it is seen that
the formation has been emptied of invaded filtrate, resulting in a “clean” formation fluid sample. The
fluid sample is commonly between 0.5 and 1 litres, although much larger samples up to 100litres can
be taken. Once the sampling chamber is full, the valve is closed. Note that the fluids are sealed in the
sampling chamber at reservoir pressures. If another sample or more pressure data is required from
further depths, the pre-test chambers are emptied and the tool progresses. Finally, the tool is removed
from the wellbore with its sampling chambers full, and having taken a number of pressure readings at
sampled or unsampled depth points.
Geoff Page 2010 Page 78
Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

The samples are usually sent to a specialist laboratory where the compositions, physical properties and
relative volumes of oil, gas, mud filtrate, and formation water can be measured.

7.4 Analysis of Pressure Measurements

A typical FT recording of pressures from one depth is shown in Fig. 7.8.

Figure 7.8 FT pressure data.

The hydrostatic pressure is that of the drilling mud, and is recorded while the tool is at the required
depth, but has not been pressed against the wall by the packer (A). This is constant for a given depth in
the borehole, and depends upon the weight of the column of mud above it. As the mud density is
generally known, this value can be calculated and compared with the measured value.

When the probe penetrates the mud-cake, some mud is compressed between the probe and the
formation wall, leading to a transient pressure increase (B).

Fluid is drawn into pre-test chamber by the drawdown pump (C). The pressure drops because an
additional volume has been added to the system (the chamber). There may be some variation in the
pressure behaviour here as the flowing fluid is a mixture of mud-cake particles, mud filtrate, and
formation fluids of different flow characteristics. When the flow rate is equal to the rate of expansion
of the chamber a stable flowing pressure is reached (D) until the chamber is full. The lower the
permeability the lower this pressure will drop as the formation cannot deliver fluid fast enough to
keep up with the drawdown expansion. When the chamber is full (stops expanding) the measured
pressure begins to increase towards the formation pressure (E).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 79

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

The pressure will then stabilize at formation pressure, which may take some time for low permeability
formations.

After the pressure measurement, the back-shoe is retracted, the equalizer valve opened, mud re-
enters the probe and the mud hydrostatic pressure is measured again (F).

Note that the pre-test chambers have a low volume (about 5-10 cm3). Hence, the fluid flowing into these
chambers is most likely mud filtrate. However, the pressure that is recorded is the true formation
pressures, as this is the pressure driving the mud filtrate into the chambers. In modern tools the volume
and flow rates can be controlled to optimize the acquisition time depending on the permeability of the
formation.

Several problems may occur. The most common are:

A Tight Test. If the sample is very impermeable the sampling pressure drops to near zero. In this case
it will take too long to obtain a pressure reading and the tool may stick in the borehole.

Stuck Tool. These are stationary measurements and any logging tool can get stuck if left at a given
depth for some time.

Plugging. Sand grains from the formation may enter the tool and block the flow lines, especially in
unconsolidated samples. This problem is reduced by the filter in the sampling probe, but fine grains
may still get through. Closing the tool expels fluid and flushes the probe out again.

Seal Failure. If the packer fails, the drilling mud will be sampled and the mud pressure will
continue to be recorded.

Modern FT tools which can take multiple pre-tests, and/or pump fluid through to the wellbore can get
around many of these problems. They can vary the volume and rate of the pre-test (slow and small for
tight, fast and large for permeable), and reverse pump to clean out plugging,

7.5 Log Presentation

The pressures are given in analogue and digital form. Track 1 usually contains the analogue pressure
data. Tracks 3 and 4 are divided into 4 sub-tracks that contain the pressure data in exploded form:

Subtrack 1. Pressures from 0 to 10000 psi in 1000 psi increments.

Subtrack 2. Pressures from 0 to 1000 psi in 100 psi increments.
Subtrack 3. Pressures from 0 to 100 psi in 10 psi increments.
Subtrack 4. Pressures from 0 to 10 psi in 1 psi increments.

The sum of all four digital tracks is the same as the analogue data. A typical FT log for one depth is
given as Fig. 7.9. Note that the vertical scale is in TIME not in DEPTH.

Where a high precision quartz gauge is used the thousands are read from the analogue pressure curve in
Track 1, and the four digital tracks are then 100’s, 10’s, 1’s, and 1/10ths of a psi increments.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 80

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

Figure 7.9 An example FT pressure log.

7.6 FT Data Interpretation

The pressure data obtained from FTs are very useful as they enable judgements to be made about the
position of the free water level (FWL), oil-water contact (OWC), and the gas-oil contact (GOC).
Additionally, it gives information about compartmentalization, or whether the various fluids in a
reservoir are separated physically by an impermeable barrier.

If we have several (>4 say) fluid pressure measurements at different depths in a fluid-bearing sand,
where the fluid is in good connection throughout the interval, we can calculate the pressure gradient in
the formation fluid. All the pressures should lie on the straight line which defines the pressure at a
given depth as a function of the depth and the density of the fluid. (Note that depth must be plotted
in true vertical depth for deviated wellbores.)
Geoff Page 2010 Page 81
Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

P = Po + ρfluid g (Z − Zo) (7.1)

where: P o = the fluid pressure at depth Z o

P = the fluid pressure at depth Z
ρ fluid = the density of the fluid
g = the acceleration due to gravity.

This is applicable to all fluids (gas, oil or water) providing that the fluid in question is continuously
connected throughout the interval.

A plot of pressure on the x-axis against depth on the y-axis is used to interpret reservoir pressures as
shown in the following sections. This simple equation and the pressure versus depth plot allows us to
examine a large range of possibilities that might occur in a reservoir. It can be seen from the pressure
depth plot that the gradient of the line G = 1/ρfluid g, hence the density of the fluid represented by a line
ρfluid=1/(9.81 × G).

7.6.1 Oil and Water

Referring to Fig. 7.10, the four oil pressures in Sand A determine the oil pressure line according to Eq.
(7.1), and by fitting this equation to this pressure depth data, we can calculate the density of the oil.

The six water pressures in Sand B determine the water pressure line according to Eq. (7.1), and by
fitting this equation to this pressure depth data, we can calculate the density of the water.

Note that the gradient of the lines is steeper for fluids of lower density. If one has pressure data, but
does not know the type of fluid, then one may infer it from the relative gradients on the pressure/depth
plot, or calculate the densities (gas very low, oil 0.5 to 0.9 g/cm3, water about 1 g/cm3). The
intersection of the two lines is the likely free water level, providing Sand A and Sand B are connected.
Sand B may be oil-bearing up-dip.

7.6.2 Gas, Oil and Water

Referring to Fig. 7.11, the four gas pressures in Sand A determine the gas pressure line according to
Eq. (7.1), and by fitting this equation to this pressure depth data, we can calculate the density of the
gas.

The data in Sand B do not form one straight line, but two. The higher is for oil and the lower for water.
The densities of each can be calculated as above. The intersection of the water and oil lines is the free
water level, as in the previous example. Note that this is about 2.5 m below the known oil water
contact OWC.

If Sand A and Sand B are in communication, the intersection of the gas line with the oil line gives the
gas oil contact (GOC). If they are not in communication, the GOC is controlled by the impermeable
barrier, and might be anywhere between the two sands.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 82

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

Figure 7.10 Pressure versus depth plot 1.

Figure 7.11 Pressure versus depth plot 2.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 84

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

Figure 7.12 Pressure versus depth plot 3.

Figure 7.13 Pressure versus depth plot 4.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 84

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Fluid Testing and Pressure Logs

If oil is missing in the column, then the likely gas water contact (GWC) would be where the gas and
the water lines intersect, again providing there is good communication between the two sands.

If the recorded gas pressures are lower (Fig. 7.12), the assumption that the sands are in communication
implies a GOC in Sand A, which is contrary to the log evaluation shown on the left of the figure.
Hence, the sands are not in communication.

If the recorded gas pressures are higher (Fig. 7.13), the assumption that the sands are in
communication implies a GOC in Sand B, which again is contrary to the log evaluation shown on the
left of the figure. Hence, the sands are not in communication.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 85

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Temperature Logs

8. TEMPERATURE LOGS

8.1 Introduction
The Temperature Log is a tool for measuring the borehole temperature. Temperature sensors are
attached to every tool combination that is run in a well for the measurement of the maximum
temperature (assumed to be at the bottom of the well), and many modern tools continuously measure
temperature on every run as the tool travels down the well.

Readings from a number of the maximum thermometers attached to different tool combinations and
run at different times are analyzed to give the corrected temperature at the bottom of the borehole
(bottom hole temperature, BHT).

The borehole temperature is an important parameter in the analysis of resistivity logs, but also for the
detection of fluid movement, the analysis of fluid pressures and in geochemical modelling of
formations and the maturity of hydrocarbons.

8.2 Theory
Temperature in the sub-surface increases with depth. The rate at which it does so is called the
geothermal gradient or geotherm. Typical geotherms for reservoirs are about 20 to 35oC/km (1-2 oF/1000ft),
although significantly higher values (up to 85oC/km) can be found in tectonically active areas, and lower
ones (0.05oC/km) in stable continental platforms. Hence, the bottom hole temperature (BHT) for a 3000
m well with a geotherm of 25oC and a surface temperature of 15oC is 90oC.

Note that this assumes that the geothermal gradient is constant. In practice this is rarely the case
because of differences in the thermal conductivities of rocks between the bottom of the hole and the
surface, and fluctuations in the surface temperature which penetrate the sub-surface and perturb the
sub-surface temperature. Low thermal conductivity rocks, such as shale, act as a thermal insulator and
have a large temperature gradient across them, while high thermal conductivity rocks, such as salt,
permit the conduction of heat efficiently, and have a small temperature gradient across them.

8.3 Borehole Temperature Measurement

Each tool combination is equipped with a temperature sensor. Temperature measurements are always
made at the bottom of the well (highest temperature) and sometimes at intervals up the well. The
temperature measuring devices can be as simple as a number of maximum temperature thermometers
that are attached to the outside of a tool string. In this case only the highest temperature (assumed to
be at the bottom of the borehole) is measured. Several temperature logging sondes are now commonly
used which read temperature continuously up the well using a thermistor, and sometimes also read the
temperature difference between two probes spaced along the tool. These sondes are usually located at
the top of the toolstring, and also may measure cablehead cable tension and/or mud resistivity, however
this means that they may be a considerable distance from the well TD due to tool length.

Note. Many modern sondes include a measurement of electronics temperature: This should NOT be used
as a wellbore temperature. LWD tools can also measure temperature but this is affected by the constant
flow of drilling mud through the drillstring.

The absolute accuracy of temperature measurements is low (±2.5oC), but the resolution is good
(0.025oC).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 86

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Temperature Logs

It should be noted that the best temperature logs are recorded while the sensor is being lowered into the
well on the first run. This is to reduce any temperature perturbations caused by the logging tool itself.

8.4 Borehole Temperature Corrections

The actual temperature measured is that of the drilling fluid not the formation. The drilling mud is
circulated during drilling and prior to inserting the wireline tool, and this drilling mud is cold
compared to the formation. The cold drilling fluid invades the formation and cools it down very
efficiently via heat convection. During circulation of drilling fluid the temperature of the borehole
reaches an equilibrium defined by the cooling effect of the drilling fluid and the heating effect of the
formation. When the circulation of the drilling mud stops (for example, in preparation for the insertion
of a wireline tool), the borehole gradually regains the true formation temperature, because the large
mass of formation around the borehole heats the drilling fluid up to its ambient temperature. This
process is slow because it occurs via heat conduction which is less efficient than heat convection.
Equilibrium may only be attained after several months after stopping the circulation of the drilling
fluid. A comparison of recorded continuous temperature profiles over multiple runs may also show up
additional effects, such as old reservoir sections that have been cooled by long term (cold) injection
water flooding. Surprisingly these can remain cold for many years after injection is stopped, and have a
large impact on the formation resistivities.

Temperature measurements made during drilling (MWD and LWD) consistently underestimate the
formation temperature because drilling mud is being circulated. Temperature measurements made on
wireline logs sometime after the drilling fluid circulation has stopped also underestimate the formation
temperature, but less than the MWD/LWD case as the formation is now in the process of reheating the
borehole. Measurements of temperature made by wireline logs at increasing times after fluid circulation
has stopped are closer and closer to the real formation temperature.

Various methods have been adopted in the past to correct the logged BHT to real formation
temperatures. The most common method is the Horner plot. The Horner method, plots the measured
temperature (at a given depth) from each of several logging runs, against log(T/(t+T)), where T is the
time since circulation of the drilling fluid was stopped (usually in hours), and t is the length of time of
circulation of drilling fluid prior to this. The parameter t represents the length of time that the borehole
was subjected to the cooling effects of the fluid, and T represents the time after circulation that the
borehole has had to partially reheat. On a log plot this is a straight line that intersects T/(t+T)=1 at
the formation temperature (= after infinite time T).

For example, Table 8.1 gives the drilling, logging, and temperature data for three tool combinations
that were run in a single hole one after another.

Table 8.1 Horner plot example.

Time Operation
Temperature T t T/(t+T)
(oC) (hours) (hours) (-)
00:00 Circulation started - - 6
06:00 Circulation stopped - 0 6
13:00 Run 1 100 7 6 0.538
17:30 Run 2 105 11.5 6 0.671
01:30 Run 3 108 19.5 6 0.765

Figure 8.1 shows the Horner plot generated with this data, and the resulting formation temperature.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 87

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Temperature Logs

Run 3
Run 2

Run 1

Figure 8.1 The Horner plot for correction of BHT at 3200 m in a well using data in Table 8.1.

8.5 Uses of Temperature Logs

Table 8.2 shows the main uses of the temperature log data.

Table 8.2 Uses of the temperature log.

Use Comment
Correction of other tools The sensors of other logging tools are sensitive to temperature. The
temperature measurement can be used to correct for this, or to
recognize temperatures that are outside the operating range of the tool
and likely therefore to be erroneous.
Correction of Some parameters measured by other tools are sensitive to
measurements temperature. The best example is resistivity logs. The temperature
data is used to correct ALL resistivity data to a standard 24oC (75oF)
so they are not depth dependent and can be compared.
Hydrocarbon maturation The maturity of hydrocarbons depends upon the maximum temperature
that the organic remains have been subjected to, as well as time and
pressure.
Correlation Continuous temperature logs record differences in thermal gradient
that result from differences in the thermal conductivity of the
formations. These difference can be used for correlation.
Fluid movement Continuous logs can observe intervals of raised (or lowered)
temperature caused by the influx of hotter (or colder) fluids into the
borehole through the rock matrix, or more usually, through patent
fractures. This effect may also be due to cold drilling fluid
escaping into the rock, or injected water for pressure maintenance.
Overpressured zones Continuous logs also note the presence of overpressured zones, where
the hot overpressured fluids escape into the borehole and are noted
by a rise in the measured temperature.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 88

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Caliper Logs

9. CALIPER LOGS

9.1 Introduction
The Caliper Log is a tool for measuring the diameter (or
radii) and shape of a borehole. It uses a tool which has
1, 2, 3, 4, 6 or more extendable arms. The arms can
move in and out as the tool is withdrawn from the
borehole, and the movement is converted into an
electrical signal by a potentiometer.

In the two arm tool the borehole diameter is measured.

This is shown in track 1 of the master log together with
the bit size for reference. Borehole diameters larger and
smaller than the bit size are possible. Many boreholes
can attain an oval shape after drilling. This is due to
the effect of the pressures in the crust being different in
different directions as a result of tectonic forces. In oval
holes, the two arm caliper will lock into the long axis of
the oval cross-section, giving larger values of borehole
diameter than expected. In this case tools with more
arms are required.

In the 4 arm (dual caliper) tool, the two opposite pairs

work together to give the borehole diameter in two
perpendicular directions. An example of a 4 arm tool is
the Borehole Geometry Tool (BGT), or 4CAL. This has
4 arms that can be opened to 30 inches (or more as a
special modification), and give two independent
perpendicular caliper readings. The tool also calculates
and integrates the volume of the borehole. Optional
additional sensors can measure the direction (azimuth)
and dip of the borehole, which is useful in plotting the
trajectory of the borehole.

In the multi-arm tools, up to 120 arms are arranged

around the tool allowing the detailed shape of the
borehole to be measured. These are generally run in
casing to identify corrosion.

Some of the other tools in this course have sensors

attached to pads that are pressed against the borehole
wall. The pressing device is also a form of caliper, and
so caliper information can sometimes also be obtained
from these tools.

Figure 9.1 A 4-arm caliper tool.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 89

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Caliper Logs

9.2 Log Presentation

The caliper logs are plotted in track 1 with the drilling bit size for comparison, or as a differential
caliper reading, where the reading represents the caliper value minus the drill bit diameter (Fig. 9.2).
The scale is generally given in inches, which is standard for measuring bit sizes.

Figure 9.2 Presentation of 2 arm caliper log data.

The 4 arm (or dual caliper) tools are presented in a range of formats, an example of which is given in
Fig. 9.3. Note that data from the caliper pairs are shown together, and that they are different indicating
an oval hole. Also the tool rotates in the hole (the pad 1 azimuth P1AZI changes). The hole azimuth is
reasonably constant at HAZI≈1 80o, and the dip is almost vertical (DEVI is about 0o).

The ticks represent borehole volume. This information is useful to estimate the amount of drilling mud
in the borehole, and to estimate the amount of cement required to case the hole. There are engineering
approximation formulas to calculate both of these from caliper data.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 90

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Caliper Logs

Figure 9.3 Presentation of 4 arm caliper log data (After Rider, 1996).

9.3 Simple Caliper Interpretation

Figure 9.4 shows a schematic hole with caliper information, and Table 9.1 describes the main
influences on caliper values. Note that when a hole is the same diameter as the bit-size it is called on
gauge.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 91

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Caliper Logs

Table 9.1 Factors influencing caliper responses.

Hole Diameter Cause

Possible Lithologies
On Gauge Well consolidated formations Massive sandstones
Non-permeable formations. Calcareous shales
Igneous rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Larger than Bit 1. Formation soluble in drilling 1. Salt formations drilled with fresh
Size mud. water.
2. Formations weak and cave in. 2. Unconsolidated sands, gravels,
brittle shales.
Smaller than Bit 1. Formations swell and flow into 1. Swelling shales.
Size borehole.
2. Development of mudcake for 2. Porous, permeable sandstones.
porous and permeable
formations.

9.4 Uses of the Caliper Log

The commoner uses of the caliper log are as follows:

• Contributory information for lithological assessment (see Table 9.1 and Fig. 9.4).

• Indicator of good permeability and porosity zones (reservoir rock) due to development of mudcake
in association with gamma ray log. N.B. Not always reliable as many modern drilling muds are
designed NOT to build a thick mudcake, which may form a seal differentially sticking the drillpipe.

• Calculation of mudcake thickness, hmc = (dbit – dh)/2, where h stands for the hole, in inches.

• Measurement of borehole volume, Vh = Depth × π(dh/2)2.

• Measurement of required cement volume, Vcement = Depth × π (dh 2 – dcasing2)/4.

• Indication of hole quality for the assessment of the likely quality of other logs whose data quality
is degraded by holes that are out of gauge. Other log data can often be corrected for bad hole
conditions using the caliper readings, but the larger the correction, the less reliable the final data
will be. Centralized tools are designed to be about 4 inches in diameter for a standard 8.5 inch
hole, and they are designed to work with 2.25 inches of drilling mud between them and the
formation. If the hole caves to 14 inches, which is not uncommon, the distance to the formation
becomes 5 inches and the tool responses are degraded. This can be corrected for to some extent if
the caliper value is known. Tools that work by being pressed up against the side of the borehole
wall have even greater problems because the irregularity (rugosity) of the borehole wall makes it
impossible to obtain reliable readings. In both cases the recognition that a borehole has bad caving
or thick mudcake can help us judge the reliability of other tool’s readings.

• Selection of consolidated formations for wireline pressure tests, recovery of fluid samples, for
packer seating for well testing purposes, and for determining casing setting depths.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 92

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Caliper Logs

Figure 9.3 Typical caliper responses to various lithologies.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 93

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Radioactivity Logging

10. RADIOACTIVITY LOGGING

10.1 Introduction
Radioactivity is used in several different types of logging tool. There are those that measure the natural
radiation generated by the formation, such as the total and spectral gamma ray logs, and those that
measure the response of the formation to radiation generated by the tool, such as the neutron, density
and litho-density logs. This chapter will cover the total gamma ray log and the following one will
examine the spectral gamma ray log.

10.2 Radioactivity Theory

Radioactivity is a fundamental property of the structure of all matter. The atoms of all elements have a
nucleus which contains different numbers of protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by a sheath of
electrons that are arranged in different energy levels. Each element is defined by the number of
positively charged protons its nucleus contains. This is called the atomic number Z. Each nucleus also
contains a number of neutrally charged neutrons, and the sum of the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus is called the atomic mass number, A. There are a number of negatively charged
electrons surrounding the nucleus equal to the number of protons within it, and their charge balances
the positive charge of the protons. Since the mass of electrons is insignificant compared to the mass of
the protons and neutrons, the atomic mass number is a measure of the mass of the atoms of each
element. Although the number of protons and electrons for a given element is characteristic of that
element, the number of neutrons is not. An element may have several isotopes which are atoms with
different numbers of neutrons in their nucleus. Thus any given atom of an element will have a fixed
atomic number, and a atomic mass number that depends upon which isotope it is. Most natural
materials are a mixture of different isotopes.

Each isotope of each element is given a code ZXA, where X is the elemental code. For example, carbon
has an atomic number Z=6, but 7 isotopes containing between 4 and 10 neutrons. These are 6C10 to
16 12
6C . Carbon-12, 6C , is the most common isotope, and it is stable. Most of the other isotopes are not

stable energetically, and decay to more stable elements by various processes whereby they lose energy
by expelling particles or photons. Carbon-14, 6C14, is one of these, and its decay process can be used to
date archaeological remains.

There are five main methods whereby an unstable isotope can gain stability by losing energy. These
are:

• Emission of an α particle, which is a helium nucleus 2He4, and carries two positive charges.
• Emission of a β- particle, which is a negatively charged high energy electron originating in the
nucleus together with an anti-neutrino, ν.
• Emission of a β+ + particle, which is a positively charged high energy positron originating in the
nucleus together with a neutrino, ν.
• Emission of gamma rays, γ, which are high energy photons (electro-magnetic waves) and have no
mass and carry no charge.
• Electron capture, which involves an electron being captured by the nucleus.

Under some circumstances neutrons may also be expelled from a material, but this is not a
spontaneous decay.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 94

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Radioactivity Logging

Gamma rays are the most important in petrophysical logging because they have the highest penetration
of all the radiations except neutrons. Their penetration ability means that they can be detected through
several centimetres of cement casing. Alpha and beta particles have very limited penetration ability,
being stopped immediately by any solid material.

Most isotopes found naturally in rocks are either stable, present in insignificant amounts, or generate
insignificant amounts of radiation. There are, however, a few which are significant. These are:
40 39
• The potassium isotope 19 K (the stable forms are 19 K and 19K41).
• The Thorium series isotopes.
• The Uranium-Radium series isotopes.

The first (K) has a single gamma emission at a single energy (1.46 MeV). The last two (TH, U) are
mixtures of unstable elements that generate each other in a series of radioactive emissions involving
gamma radiation. Hence, there is a spectrum of energies produced over the range 0 MeV to 3 MeV.
The energy spectra from the three gamma sources is shown in Fig. 10.1.

1.46 MeV

Potassium

Uranium-Radium Series

1.76 MeV

Thorium Series
2.62 MeV

0 1 2 3
Gamma Ray Energy (MeV)

Figure 10.1 Gamma ray emission energy spectra.

The three gamma ray sources also produce different intensities of radiation per gram per second. The
U-Ra series produces 26000 photons per gram per second, the Th series produces 12000 photons/g/s,
and 19K40 produces 3 photons/g/s. One might think that the potassium would be insignificant.
However, the potassium is much more abundant than the isotopes in the other two series, which makes

Geoff Page 2010 Page 95

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Radioactivity Logging

its contribution to the overall radioactivity of a formation significant. Potassium is common in most
clays and some evaporites.

The most common gamma emitting lithology is shale. This is because shales are ultimately derived
from igneous rocks which have significant amounts of gamma emitting isotopes. Igneous rocks are
composed of quartz, feldspars and micas, the last two of which contain significant amounts of
potassium and occasionally also U-Ra and Th-series isotopes. The feldspars and micas alter to clay
minerals whose open lattice structure facilitates the inclusion of the larger radio-isotopes. These clays
form the principle components of shales. Hence, shales can contain up to 0.3% radio-potassium and up
to 0.01% of each of the U-Ra and Th-series isotopes. Unsurprisingly, potash beds are also highly
radioactive.

The gamma radioactivity from minerals in petrophysical logging are measured on the API scale,
described later. Table 10.1 shows typical API values for some common minerals. Note particularly
that shale and some evaporites have high gamma ray values, while sandstone and limestone have low
values.

Table 10.1 Gamma radiation from common minerals and lithologies (after Pirson, 1963).
Mineral or Lithology Composition
Gamma Radiation (API
Units)
Pure Mineral
Calcite CaCO3 0
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 0
Quartz SiO2 0
Lithology
Limestone - 5-10
Dolomite - 10-20
Sandstone - 10-30
Shale - 80-140+
Evaporites
Halite NaCl 0
Anhydrite CaSO4 0
Gypsum CaSO4(H2O)2 0
Sylvite KCl 500
Carnalite KCl MgCl2(H20)6 220
Langbeinite K2SO4(MgSO4)2 290
Polyhalite K2SO4MgSO4(CaSO4)2(H2O)2 200
Kainite MgSO4KCl(H2O)3 245
Others
Sulphur S 0
Lignite C H 0.849 N 0.015 O 0.221 0
Anthracite CH 0.358 N0.009 O0.022 0
Micas - 200-350

Figure 10.2 shows the range of gamma ray values generated by common lithologies. Note the
particularly high values for potash beds, which contain a large amount of potassium-40, and organic
shales, which contain enhanced uranium associated with their organic nature.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 96

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Radioactivity Logging

Figure 10.2 Gamma ray values from common lithologies.

10.3 Scattering and Attenuation

Once the gamma rays have been emitted they travel through materials (formation, fluids, mud cake
and drilling mud) and interact with them. There are three processes that occur, and each is applicable
to gamma rays with a given energy range. These are:

• Gamma rays with energy >3 MeV. These interact with the nucleus of the materials that they are
travelling through and are converted into an electron and a positron in the process (pair
production). The efficiency of the process is low, so these gamma rays may be measured by a
sensor. However, they contribute only small amounts to the overall signal.

• Gamma rays with energy 0.5 to 3 MeV. These gamma rays undergo compton scattering, where a
gamma ray interacts with the electrons of the atoms through which they are passing, ejecting the
electron from the atom, and losing energy in the process. A gamma ray in this range may undergo
several of these collisions reducing its energy from its initial value to an energy of less than 0.5
MeV in a stepwise fashion.

• Gamma rays with energy <0.5 MeV. These gamma rays collide with electrons of the atoms
through which they are passing, and are adsorbed. The gamma ray energy is either used to
promote the electron to a higher energy level or to eject it from the atom. This process is called
photo-electric adsorption, and is important in the Litho-Density tool.

Thus, gamma rays start with a given energy, and are either lost through pair production, or undergo
compton scattering until their energy is sufficiently low for them to be adsorbed by photo-electric
absorption.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 97

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Radioactivity Logging

The number of collisions, hence the reduction in gamma ray energy, and the number of gamma rays
adsorbed is directly related to the number of electrons in the materials through which the gamma rays
pass. High count rates are observed for materials with low electron densities, and low count rates for
high electron densities. The electron density is, of course, related to the mean atomic number and bulk
density of the material.

Figure 10.3 shows the processes of scattering and absorption schematically.

Photo-electric
Absorption
Electron
Neutron
Proton Gamma
Ray
<0.5 MeV
Gamma
Ray
>3 MeV
Gamma Pair
Ray Production
0.5- 3MeV

Gamma
Ray
Compton
Scattering

Figure 10.3 Processes of gamma ray scattering and absorption.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 98

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

11. THE TOTAL GAMMA RAY LOG

11.1 Introduction

The gamma ray log measures the total natural gamma radiation emanating from a formation. This
gamma radiation originates from potassium-40 and the isotopes of the Uranium-Radium and Thorium
series. The gamma ray log is commonly given the symbol GR.

Once the gamma rays are emitted from an isotope in the formation, they progressively reduce in
energy as the result of collisions with other atoms in the rock (compton scattering). Compton
scattering occurs until the gamma ray is of such a low energy that it is completely absorbed by the
formation.

Hence, the gamma ray intensity that the log measures is a function of:

• The initial intensity of gamma ray emission, which is a property of the elemental composition of
the rock.

• The amount of compton scattering that the gamma rays encounter, which is related to the distance
between the gamma emission and the detector and the density of the intervening material.

The tool therefore has a limited depth of investigation.

Note that the gamma ray measurement device accepts gamma rays from almost a hemisphere that
includes the formation and the drilling mud between the formation and the sensor. Gamma rays may
therefore come from the formation at any angle from horizontal to almost vertically, and indeed may
come from the drilling mud itself (beware: some drilling muds are very radioactive!).

The gamma ray log is combinable with all tools, and is almost always used as part of every logging
combination run because of its ability to match the depths of data from each run.

11.2 Principles
The tool consists simply of a highly sensitive gamma ray detector in the form of a scintillation counter.
The scintillation counter is typically composed of a thalium activated single sodium iodide crystal backed by
a photomultiplier. When a gamma ray strikes the crystal a small flash of light is produced. This flash is
too small to be measured using conventional electronics. Instead, it is amplified by a photomultiplier,
which consists of a photocathode and a series of anodes held at progressively higher electrical
potentials, all of which are arranged serially in a high vacuum. The flash of light hits the photocathode
and causes a number of primary electrons to be produced. These few electrons still represent too small
a signal to be measured. The primary electrons are accelerated towards the first anode. For every
electron that hits the anode, a number of secondary electrons are emitted (between 4 and 8 usually).
These electrons are accelerated towards the next anode, where each of the secondary electrons produce
even more secondary electrons. This process, known as a “cascade” is repeated for each of say 10
anodes. If 6 electrons are emitted at each anode for each incident electron, we can see that a single
incident gamma ray ultimately produces 610 = 60,466,176 electrons, which represents a current that
can be amplified further by conventional amplifiers.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 99

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

The whole process takes an extremely short time, but during this time the photomultiplier is saturated
and is insensitive to further gamma rays (this period is known as the dead time). However, the small
incident flux of gamma rays produced from rocks ensures that saturation is rarely if ever reached for
down-hole tools (and is sometimes corrected for at high count-rates with modern tools). Since the flash
of light and the number of primary electrons is proportional to the energy of the gamma ray, the final
current from the scintillation counter is also proportional to the energy of the incident gamma ray.
Hence, there will be a threshold gamma ray energy below which the scintillation counter is insensitive
to gamma rays.

Scintillation counters are relatively small devices, which means that the gamma ray tool can have a
relatively high vertical resolution.

11.3 Calibration
Intuitively, we might expect the units for gamma ray logging to be in gamma counts per second.
However, this results in extremely unwieldy values. Conventionally, the gamma ray log is reported in
pseudo-units called API units. The API unit is defined empirically by calibration to a reference well at
the American Petroleum Institute, University of Houston. This reference well is an artificial one that is
composed of large blocks of rock of accurately known radioactivity ranging from very low
radioactivity to very large radioactivity. The API unit is 1/200th of the difference between the highest
activity formation in the reference well, and the lowest.

Tools are run in the Houston well (test pit), and are used as standards to calibrate further tools at local
test pits. A further calibration check is also carried out at the well-site before and after the log is run,
by using a radioactive source of accurately known radioactivity a fixed distance from the tool.

It should be noted that logs from the FSU (Russia) and its satellite countries used counts per second as
its gamma ray logging units until recently, and still do in some areas. As with all FSU logs, the
interpretation and correction of these logs to API units is not straightforward.

11.4 Log Presentation

The total gamma ray log is usually recorded in track 1 with the caliper log, bit size and SP log. In this
case, the other tracks most often include resistivity, density, neutron or acoustic/sonic logs (Fig. 11.1).

It is common to see scales of 0 to 100 API and 0 to 150 API used in log presentations, as data greater
than 150 API is not common, and can always be handled by the use of wrap-around.

When gamma ray logging is carried out through casing and cement, a scale of 0 to 50 API is sometimes
used, as a result of the lower values measured due to the attenuation of the gamma count rate by the
casing, however beware of very high countrates caused by radioactive scale deposited by water flow in
the casing, which can generate several 100’s of API or more.

11.5 Depth of Investigation

The gamma rays are attenuated by compton scattering by all materials between the atom that emitted
the gamma ray and the detector, which includes the rock itself and the drilling mud. The degree of
attenuation depends upon the number density of atoms in the material, and this is related to the density

Geoff Page 2010 Page 100

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

Figure 11.1 Gamma log presentation.

of the material. As we have seen in Chapter 10, there is a distribution of gamma ray energies, but at
distance from the emitting atom increases, the energy of the gamma rays decreases but compton
scattering until they are too low to be measured by the scintillation counter. Clearly, therefore, there is a
maximum depth of investigation for the tool that depends upon formation and mud density.

For Nuclear tool is it common to quote depths of investigation as 90% of the signal coming from within
that depth. In contrast for resistivity tools it is common to quote 50% signal depths. These conventions
are not universal, if quoted a depth of investigation it is worth asking what the number represents.

For average values of drilling mud and formation density, we can say that approximately 50% of the
gamma ray signal comes from within 15 cm (6 inches) of the borehole wall, increasing to 90% from
within 30 cm (1 foot). Hence, the depth of investigation, if defined at 90% of the signal, is around 30
cm. However, this will decrease for denser formations of the same radioactivity, and increase for
less dense formations of the same radioactivity.

Note that the zone of sensitivity is almost hemispherical, so the 30 cm depth of investigation applies
both horizontally (perpendicular to the borehole wall) and sub-vertically (sub-parallel with the
borehole wall). This has implications for the vertical resolution of the tool.

11.6 Logging Speed

Radioactive emissions are random, and hence fluctuate in an unpredictable way with time. If the
count rates are high, this causes no real problems as there are sufficiently many counts in a reasonable
time interval for the fluctuations to average out. In gamma ray logging, the count rate is relatively low
so the fluctuations may be visible. For each measurement depth, the tool must linger long enough to
measure enough count in order to obtain good quality data. For most modern logging tools with highly
efficient detectors this is not a problem and measurements can be recorded at normal logging speeds of
30ft/min (9m/min) or higher.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 101

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

In order to smooth out some of the fluctuations a digital filter is usually applied to data over a depth
interval of data. This usually takes the form of a Gaussian (bell shape) average over 2-3 ft of data. This
slightly reduces the vertical resolution of the result. The filters can be removed if data is of sufficient
quality and the log was recorded slowly, thus enabling thinner bed responses to be seen, however care
should be taken in not miss-interpreting statistical fluctuations as thin beds.

11.7 Vertical Resolution

There are three factors governing the vertical resolution:

• The size of the detector, which is quite small (about 6”-1ft, 15 – 30cm length).
• For modern computer logs the sampling frequency and digital filter applied. For older logs the
effect of a time constant that was applied to smooth the data. For conventional logging the
contribution to degradation in the vertical resolution from this is around 1 foot.
• The hemispherical zone of sensitivity of the sensor. As the sensor is sensitive to gamma rays from
a hemispherical zone, and its approximate depth of investigation of about 30 cm (1 foot) for
formations of average density, we can see that the degradation in vertical resolution from this
source will be about 2 ft.

Hence, the vertical resolution of the tool is 2-3 feet (90 cm). This does not mean that the measurements
will not detect beds thinner than 3ft, but they require this thickness to fully deflect to the true value of
the bed. In thinner beds a deflection will take place to a lessor degree depending on how thin the bed is.

This is quite a high vertical resolution for an open-hole tool, and so the gamma ray tool is good at
defining thin beds, for fine correlation, and for depth matching between logging runs. Note that
generally much finer features can be seen, however the response will not be the true value in the bed.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 102

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

11.8 Borehole Quality

The gamma ray log runs either centered or eccentered in the borehole, depending on the tool
combination with which it is run. If the borehole suffers from caving, the gamma ray log can be badly
affected. In intervals that suffer from caving, there is more drilling mud between the formation and the
gamma ray detector to attenuate the gamma rays produced by the formation. Hence, the log is
underestimated, as shown in Fig. 11.3.

Figure 11.3 Effect of caving on the gamma ray log.

Note that the denser the mud used, the greater the underestimation will be, because of increased
compton scattering in the drilling mud. Barite muds are a particular problem as barite is very efficient
at absorbing gamma rays.

The measured overestimation may usually be corrected if the caliper log for the well is known. Figure
11.3 also shows the corrected gamma ray log. Comparison of the two show the degree to which the

Geoff Page 2010 Page 103

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

caving has affected the gamma ray reading. Corrections are carried out using correction charts
supplied by the logging tool company. Each tool design has its own set of charts, which are drawn up
for a range of drilling fluids and tool geometries. Figure 11.4 shows an example of such a correction
chart. When run in eccentred mode the corrections are much smaller as the drilling mud contributes
less to the gamma ray signal, and has less opportunity to attenuate the gamma rays.

Figure 11.4 Gamma ray log correction chart for a 3.625 inch diameter tool with a KCl-free
drilling mud with a mud weight of ρf g/cm3 as a function of borehole diameter.

11.9 Mud Type

The density of the drilling mud (mud weight) effects the signal because higher density muds attenuate
gamma rays more. This effect is taken account of by the borehole correction done in the previous
section. However, extra care should be taken with barite drilling muds, as barite is very efficient at
attenuating gamma rays and will give an anomalously low gamma ray reading.

In the discussion so far, we have assumed that the drilling mud attenuates the gamma ray signal, but
does not contribute to it. While this is true of many drilling muds, it is not generally true. Potassium
chloride-based drilling muds are not uncommon. These muds have a natural gamma radioactivity
associated with potassium-40. The radiation from KCl drilling muds contributes to the total gamma
ray count rate measured, increasing it considerably. Another more recent development is formate based
muds, which may include potassium formate.
Geoff Page 2010 Page 104
Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

In good quality ‘on-gauge’ boreholes the gamma ray log is consistently increased by a constant
amount. This is not a significant problem as a glance at the log header information would tell us that
KCl mud was used and we should expect slightly higher values of the gamma ray log than usual.

Figure 11.5 Effect of KCl drilling mud on the gamma ray log in an on-gauge borehole.

Problems may arise if the borehole diameter varies, leading to varying amounts of drilling-fluid
between the formation and the sensor with depth. In caved holes in radioactive formations there is
usually no effect observed as the caving effectively replaces a radioactive formation with radioactive
drilling fluid. However, a significant local increase in the gamma ray log can be observed where very
low radioactivity formations, such as some evaporites, have been washed out.

Computer programs can automatically correct for varying borehole size, mud weight and Kcl mud
content. Logs can now sometimes be corrected real time for these affects by the log acquisition system.
Always check the log header details to see if this has already been done to avoid double correction of
data.

11.10 Uses of the Total Gamma Ray Log

The gamma ray log is an extremely simple and useful log that is used in all petrophysical
interpretations, and is commonly run as part of almost every tool combination. Consequently, every
well may have as many as 5 independent sets of gamma ray log data. The high vertical resolution of
the gamma ray log makes it extremely useful for depth matching and fine scale correlation. The main
uses of the gamma ray log are outlined in the following sections. The first three applications are by far
the most important.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 105

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

11.1 0.1 Determination of Lithology

The gamma ray log is an extremely useful tool for discrimination of different lithologies. While it
cannot uniquely define any lithology, the information it provides is invaluable when combined with
information from other logs.

GR (API)
0 150

Sand
Line Caving
Shale Caving

Sandy Shale

Shaly
Sandstone

Sandstone
** * * *
Heavy Mineral
Arkose SST F F or Glauconite
F Band
F F
Micaceous M M
SST M
M M
Organic/ Black
Shale Wrap-
around
Gypsum
Coal
Limestone

Dolomite
Halite
Anhydrite

Shaly

Fining-Up
SST
Shale
Sandy Line

Shale

Figure 11.6 Effect of different lithologies on the gamma ray log.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 106

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

Its main use is the discrimination of shales by their high radioactivity. Figure 11.6 shows how different
lithologies affect the total gamma ray log. Note that shales, organic rich shales and volcanic ash show
the highest gamma ray values, and halite, anhydrite, coal, clean sandstones, dolomite and limestone
have low gamma ray values. Care must be taken not to generalize these rules too much. For example a
clean sandstone may contain feldspars (arkose sandstones), micas (micaceous sandstones) or both
(greywackes), or glauconite, or heavy minerals, any of which will give the sandstone higher gamma
ray values than would be expected from a clean sandstone.

11.1 0.2 Determination of Shale Content

In most reservoirs the lithologies are quite simple, being cycles of sandstones and shales or carbonates
and shales. Once the main lithologies have been identified, the gamma ray log values can be used to
calculate the shaliness or shale volume Vsh of the rock. This is important as a threshold value of shale
volume is often used to help discriminate between reservoir and non-reservoir rock.

Shale volume is calculated in the following way: First the gamma ray index IGR is calculated from the
gamma ray log data using the relationship

(11.1)

where: I G R = the gamma ray index

GRlog = the gamma ray reading at the depth of interest
GRmin = the minimum gamma ray reading. (Usually the mean minimum through a clean
sandstone or carbonate formation.)
GRmax = the maximum gamma ray reading. (Usually the mean maximum through a shale or
clay formation.)

Many petrophysicists then assume that Vsh =IGR. However, the value of IGR can then be entered into
the chart shown as Fig. 11.7, from which the corresponding value of Vsh may be read.

It should be noted that the calculation of shale volume is a ‘black art’ as much depends upon the
experience of the petrophysicist in defining what is the minimum (sand line) and the maximum (shale
line) values, noting that the sand line and/or shale line may be at one gamma ray value in one part of
the well and at another gamma ray value at deeper levels and which correction curve to use to convert
IGR to Vsh. When analyzing a reservoir interval, care should also be taken in using shale values that are
representative of the shale contained in the reservoir, and not e.g. values of a non-related overlying
shale.

Once the shale volume has been calculated, a threshold shale value may be defined which will divide
the well into a number of reservoir and non-reservoir zones. This zonation is combined with the zonation
that will also take place on the basis of porosity, permeability and hydrocarbon saturation.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 107

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

Figure 11.7 Calculation of shale volume.

1 0.1 0.3Depth Matching

The gamma ray tool is run as part of almost every tool combination. It has a high reliability and a high
vertical resolution. The tool will also show a useful decrease when opposite casing. For all these
reasons, the tools is commonly used to match the depths of data from a given depth interval made at
different times with different tool combinations. The depth matching relies on matching the patterns in
the gamma ray response from the gamma ray tools run with each tool combination.

10.10.4 Cased Hole Correlations

A different type of depth matching relates open hole measurements to cased hole and production
logging measurements. Clearly, we would want to match accurately the depths at which open-hole
data are taken and the depths at which cased-hole or production logging data are taken. The gamma
ray log (responding to the formation) and the Casing Collar Locator (responding to wellbore hardware)
allow this matching to be performed, ensuring that accurate depth control is maintained during cased-

Geoff Page 2010 Page 108

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

hole logging, and allow perforating of the correct depths. A very rugged (although less accurate) GR
sonde using multiple gas tube (Geiger Muller) detectors is also sometimes run. These tools may contain
up to 12 detectors, so that if some are broken by the shock of perforating the tool will still function
sufficiently afterwards. An example of this is the PFC (Precise Formation Correlation) tool.

Note that the gamma ray readings will be less in the cased holes due to the attenuation of gamma rays by the
cement and casing. These effects can also be corrected back to “true” open hole responses by charts and
computer programs.

11.10.5 Recognition of Radioactive Mineral Deposits

The gamma ray log can be used to recognize certain radioactive deposits, the most common of which
are potash deposits and uranium ores.

Potassium-40 emits gamma rays with the single energy of 1.46 MeV. This results in there being a
linear relationship between the gamma ray count rate and the content of potassium in the formation. In
potash deposits, the gamma ray reading after hole size correction gives approximately 15 API units per
1%wt. K2O.

There is no simple relationship between the gamma ray reading and the abundance of uranium in a
formation, because the energy spectrum also includes radiation from other elements in the uranium-
radium series.

11.10.6 Recognition of Non-Radioactive Mineral Deposits

Particular deposits have a very low natural radioactivity. The gamma ray log can also be used to
indicate these. Formations with extremely low natural radioactivities are the non-radioactive
evaporites (salt, anhydrite and gypsum), and coal beds. Note that some evaporites have a large
concentration of potassium and can be very radioactive. These rare evaporites are given in Table 10.1.

11.10.7 Radio-isotope Tracer Operations

Deliberate doping of fluids with radioactive tracers is sometimes carried out to find the location of
pipe leaks, thief zones and channeling behind the casing. The gamma ray log is sometimes employed
as a detector in these cases. A version of the Spectral GR (Chapter 12) may also be used to isolate the
energies of several different Tracers used simultaneously. An example of this is the PRISM log (Precise
Radio-Isotope Spectral Log).

11.10.8 Facies and Depositional Environment Analysis

We have seen that the gamma ray log is often used to measure the shaliness of a formation. In reality
the shaliness often does not change suddenly, but occurs gradually with depth. Such gradual changes
are indicative of the litho-facies and the depositional environment of the rock, and are associated with
changes in grain size and sorting that are controlled by facies and depositional environment as well as
being associated with the shaliness of the rock. Figure 11.8 analyses the shape of gamma ray log
responses for various depositional environments.

All possible combinations of these shapes may be encountered.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 109

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Total Gamma Ray Log

Figure 11.8 The gamma ray log and depositional environments.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 110

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log

12. THE SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOG

12.1 Introduction
The spectral gamma ray log measures the natural gamma
radiation emanating from a formation split into
contributions from each of the major radio-isotopic
sources. Analysis of the sources of the natural gamma
radiation give us added information concerning the
composition and likely lithology of the formation.

The spectral gamma ray log is commonly given the

symbol SGR, or (D)SL for (Digital) Spectralog.

A typical spectral gamma ray tool is shown in Fig. 12.1.

12.2 Principles
It will be remembered that the amplitude of the output
from the gamma ray sensor is proportional to the energy
of the incident gamma ray. We can use this information
to measure the proportion of the total gamma radiation
coming from each of potassium-40, the uranium-radium
series, and the thorium series for a particular formation.

Figure 10.1 shows that the energy distributions from

each of the major contributors to the natural gamma
radiation from a formation are different. The labeled
peaks in Figure 10.1 are the energies that are dominant
(most gamma rays have this energy). When the radiation
has traveled through the rock and drilling fluid to the
sensor, the energy distributions shown in Figure 10.1
are added together because the rock contains different
amounts of each of radio-isotopes. The energy
distributions are also spread out in energy space as
the result of compton scattering. However, the energy
peaks from each of the major contributors to the
gamma radiation are still recognizable (Fig. 12.2).

Figure 12.1 The Spectral Gamma

Ray instrument

Geoff Page 2010 Page 111

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log

The spectral gamma ray tool uses the same sensor as the total gamma ray tool. The output from the
sensor is fed into a multi-channel analyzer (up to 256 channels) that calculates the amount of radiation
coming from each energy band. This is then analysed either using the older technique of 3 or 5 energy
“windows” matching the primary energies of 1.46 MeV for potassium-40, 1.76 MeV for the uranium-
radium series, and 2.62 MeV for the thorium series, or in the more modern tools by a full spectral fitting to
the shape of the spectrum from the 3 individual components over the entire energy band 0.5-3.0 MeV. These
readings represent the gamma ray radioactivity from each of the 3 sources. Their sum should be the same
as the total gamma ray value measured by the total gamma ray tool, and is coded SGR if measured with
a spectral gamma ray tool. Any combination of the three components can be summed and analyzed.
However, the most important is the sum of the potassium-40 and thorium radiation, which is called
the computed gamma ray response (CGR) or KTh

.
Figure 12.2 Measured gamma ray energy spectrum from a formation after compton scattering.

Note that there are LWD Spectral GR tools, however the thick steel of the drill collar construction
distorts the spectrum, absorbing many of the lower energy gamma rays. This can be empirically
corrected however is less accurate than wireline tools and these tools are rarely seen.

12.3 Calibration
The spectral gamma ray tool is calibrated using sources of accurately known composition containing only
K40, U238, and Th232, or a known mixture. These sources are placed next to the detector and the tool is
used to make measurements. The calibration is designed such that the calibrated readings of the tool
accurately report the amount of radiation from each of the radiation sources, and the total count rate is
calibrated to the Houston test pit values.

12.4 Log Presentation

The format for reporting the spectral gamma ray data is more complex than for the total gamma ray
log because it contains much more detailed information.

Track 1 is used to record the derived total gamma ray log (SGR), which is a sum of all the radiation
contributions, as well as the computed gamma ray log (CGR or KTH), which is the sum of the
potassium and thorium responses, leaving out the contribution from uranium.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 112

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Tracks 2 and 3 are used to record the calculated abundances associated with the radiation from the
individual contributions from each of K40, U238, and Th232. It should be noted that potassium is reported
as a percentage, while U238 and Th232 are reported in parts per million (ppm). Sometimes the ratios of the
elemental contributions are also plotted to help identify different minerals e.g. TH/K, U/TH and U/K.

Figure 12.3 shows a typical spectral gamma ray log.

Figure 12.3 The presentation of the spectral gamma ray log.

12.5 Depth of Investigation

The depth of investigation is controlled by the same fundamental physics as for the total gamma ray
tool, and is identical to the total gamma ray tool (i.e., about 1 ft).

12.6 Logging Speed

While all the arguments concerning logging speed for the total gamma ray tool are also appropriate for
the spectral tool, the statistical fluctuations must now be applied to proportions of the total gamma
count rate. If good quality data for each of K40, U238 and Th232 are to be obtained, the logging speed
must consequently be lower. In practice, the log is usually run at the same speed as the other logs,
however logging more slowly results in better quality data.

12.7 Vertical Resolution

The vertical resolution is often better than the total gamma ray tool as a consequence of the slower
logging speeds. Resolutions as low as 2 feet have been obtained with some tools.

12.8 Borehole Quality

As with the total gamma ray log, the spectral tool can be run centered in the borehole or pushed up
against the borehole wall (eccentred). If the borehole suffers from caving, the spectral gamma ray log
can be badly affected in the same way as the total gamma ray tool, however this effect can also distort

Geoff Page 2010 Page 113

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log

the spectrum as lower energy gamma rays are absorbed more readily by the mud than high energy. For
this reason Spectral GR tools should always be run eccentered for the most accurate results.

12.9 Mud Type

The density of the mud has a bearing on the detection rate, as a higher density mud absorbs the gamma
rays more efficiently and reduces count rate. This is taken into account by the borehole correction,
which is done for a given drilling mud density (mud weight). The worst effects are seen when barite
mud is used, as barite is efficient at adsorbing gamma rays. Again, the eccentered version is less
susceptible to mud weight.

The problem with KCl-based drilling mud is also apparent with the spectral tool. However, the effect
of the KCl mud will only be apparent in the SGR, CGR and potassium logs. Again, the eccentred
version is less susceptible to KCl mud.

12.10 Uses of the Spectral Gamma Ray Log

The spectral gamma ray log is an extremely useful log, especially for subtle lithological and
compositional analysis, which benefits from its high vertical resolution. In the analysis of spectral
gamma ray data, use is commonly made of the ratios of the abundances of the main radioactive
sources. For example the Th/K ratio. It should be noted, however, that this is not a dimensionless ratio
as the Th is measured in ppm and the K is measured in percent. Thus Th=12 ppm and K=4%, gives
Th/K=3, where the units are usually not mentioned, but are actually parts per ten thousand (ppm/%).

12.1 0.1 Determination of Lithology

12.10.1.1 Discriminating between Sands, Shales and Accessory Minerals

It was seen in the discussion concerning the total gamma ray log that clean sands can sometimes
produce high gamma ray readings which would confuse them with shales. Such sandstones include
those containing feldspars, micas, glauconite, and heavy minerals including uranium-bearing ores.
The extra information supplied by the spectral gamma ray tool can, in most cases, help recognize these
situations, and calculate the amount of the particular radioactive minerals present.

Radioactive sandstones fall into one of six main groups, which are classified below, and may be
recognized using Figs. 12.4 and 12.5.

Clay-Bearing Sandstones. If clay minerals are known to be present in the rock, they may be
identified using Fig. 12.5.

Arkose sandstones. These contain feldspars, which have a significant potassium content, but a low
thorium content. The Th/K ratio will therefore be low (<1 ppm/%), as shown in Fig. 12.4.

Micaceous sandstones. These contain mica, which has a potassium composition that is less than
feldspars and a thorium content that is higher. The Th/K ratio is usually between 1.5 and 2.5 ppm/%.

Graywackes. These contain both feldspars and micas, and give Th/K ratios intermediate between 1
and 2.5 ppm/%.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 114

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log
Greensands. These contain glauconite, which is a mica group mineral containing iron, magnesium
and potassium. It has Th/K ratios between 1 and 1.5 ppm/%.

Heavy mineral-bearing sandstones. The heavy minerals are often abundant in either U or Th or
both. The U and Th values are usually sufficiently high to ensure high U/K and Th/K ratios even if the
sandstones also contains potassium in the form of feldspars, micas or glauconite. Typically Th/K
values will be above 25 ppm/%, and U/K values will be above 20 ppm/%.

Figure 12.4 Thorium/potassium cross-plot for mineral identification using spectral gamma ray data.

K Feldspar Chemical Maturity

K Feldspar Increases
Micas Glauconite

Muscovite
& Illite

Interstratified
Muscovite & Illite

Kaolinite
& Chlorite
Weathering Bauxite
Clays Increases

1 10 100
Th/K (ppm/%)
Figure 12.5 Thorium/potassium ratio plot for mineral identification using spectral gamma ray data.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 115

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log

The fact that sands that do not contain clays are sometimes radioactive, as seen above, indicates that
there will be occasions when the shale volume calculated from the total gamma ray log (GR) or the
total gamma ray log from the spectral tool (SGR) will be misleading. However, we can calculate the
shale volume from the individual readings of the spectral gamma ray log (K, Th, and U), and from the
computed gamma ray log (CGR).

Equations (12.1) to (12.3) are better shale indicators than Eq. (11.1), since the random contribution of
U is eliminated. Equation (12.4), is almost never used. Note that all these equations actually calculate a
shale “Index I”, which can be corrected to true Vsh using Figure 11.7.

12.10.1.2 Carbonate Formations

In pure carbonates, thorium will usually be absent because the common thorium ions are insoluble,
and potassium will also be negligible. So we can say that, if the formation has very low Th and K
abundances, the rock may be a pure carbonate. The rock, however, may contain uranium. Uranium
usually indicates material of an organic origin as organisms are extremely good at concentrating and
storing uranium. Uranium ions are either soluble or insoluble depending upon their oxidation state.
Highly oxidized uranium ions, from oxidizing environments (such as deserts) are insoluble. Thus a
carbonate, which also has low U abundance, comes from an oxidizing (maybe desert) environment.
Conversely, non-oxidized uranium ions from sub-surface depositional environments are more soluble,
and hence can be present in carbonates.

It should be noted that oxidizing environments are not conducive to the conservation of organic
material, while reducing environments not only favour the conservation of organic material, they aid
the conversion of the organic material to hydrocarbons. The source organic material for hydrocarbons
in carbonate rocks is often algal mats that are incorporated in the deposited rocks in a sub-sea
(reducing) environment and contain a significant amount of uranium.

In clay-bearing carbonate rocks high total gamma readings are not related only to the clay fraction, but
are also due to the presence of uranium-radium series isotopes of organic origin. High total gamma ray
readings are therefore not a reliable indicator of the shaliness of a carbonate. However, if the spectral
gamma ray log indicates the presence of K and Th together with the U, it may be said that the K and
Th contributions are associated with the clay content of the shaly carbonate, while the U is associated
with some organic source which was deposited in a reducing environment that favours the

Geoff Page 2010 Page 116

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log

conservation of organic material. Similarly, high K and Th values together with low U indicates a
shaly carbonate, deposited in an oxidizing environment which is not a favourable environment for the
conservation of organic material.

Note that K and Th must be present together for a clay to be indicated. The presence of K and no Th
(with or without U) is usually an indicator of the remains of algal mats in the carbonate, or of
glauconite. Thus, when calculating the shaliness of a carbonate, it is better to use the CGR (Eq. 12.1)
as in the case of sandstones in 12.10.1.1 above.

The actual values of K and Th in the shaly carbonate will depend upon the type of clay present, as
shown in Fig. 12.4.

Note that isolated intervals of any combination of high U, K and Th in carbonate rocks may
correspond to stylolites, which tend to concentrate uranium, organic matter, and clay minerals.
Table 12.1 shows the main interpretations of the spectral gamma ray data for carbonate rocks.

Table 12.1 Interpretation of spectral gamma ray data in carbonates.

Explanation
K Th U
Low Low Low Pure carbonate, no organic matter or
oxidizing environment.
Low Low High Pure carbonate, organic matter,
reducing environment.
Low High Low Not a carbonate, or shaly carbonate
with rarer low K high Th clay
minerals, no organic matter or
oxidizing environment.
Low High High Not a carbonate or shaly carbonate
with rarer low K high Th clay
minerals, organic matter, reducing
environment.
High Low Low Glauconite carbonate, no organic
matter or oxidizing environment.
Also consider K-bearing evaporites.
High Low High Algal carbonate, or glauconite
present, organic matter, reducing
environment.
High High Low Shaly carbonate, no organic matter
or oxidizing environment.
High High High Shaly carbonate, organic matter,
reducing environment.
Note: Stylolites can locally concentrate U, clays and organic matter.

12.10.1.3 Evaporites

Large total gamma ray values are commonly associated with shales and certain types of potassium-
bearing evaporite. We can discriminate between these because the potassium-bearing evaporites have
much larger potassium abundances and zero thorium resulting from the insolubility of thorium ions in

Geoff Page 2010 Page 117

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log

water. Evaporites are deposited in oxidizing environments, so the uranium is usually also very low or
zero. Some K-bearing evaporites are shown in Table 12.2.

Table 12.2 Potassium-bearing evaporites.

Density Pe Porosity ∆ T
Name Composition K
[DEN] [PEF] [CNL] [AC/Sonic]
(wt%)
(g/cm3) (b/e) (%) (µs/ft)
Sylvite KCl 52.44 1.86 8.51 -3 74
Langbeinite K 2 SO 4 (MgSO 4 ) 2 18.84 2.82 3.56 -2 52
Kainite MgSO4 KCl(H2O)2 15.7 2.12 3.5 >60 -
Glaserite (K Na)2SO4 24.7 2.7 - - -
Carnalite KCl MgCl2(H2O)6 14.07 1.57 4.09 >60 83
Polyhalite K2SO4 MgSO4 (CaSO4)2 13.37 2.79 4.32 25 57.5
(H2O)2

1 2.1 0.2 Unconformity Detection

The mean Th/K ratio of large intervals of formations is usually approximately constant. This is
because it depends ultimately upon the depositional conditions. Hence any sudden changes in the
mean Th/K ratio can act as an indicator of sudden change in depositional environment, such as at an
unconformity.

1 2.1 0.3 Inter-well Correlation

Volcanic ashes (bentonitic intervals) are considered to be deposited at exactly the same time over a
wide area. They can therefore be used to correlate between wells. Peaks in the thorium abundance log
are generally considered the best signature in this correlation.

12.10.4 Recognition of Igneous Rocks

The values of Th and U from the spectral gamma ray log are used together with the density from the
density log and the sonic wave travel time from the sonic log to identify and discriminate between
igneous rocks. Most igneous rocks show a Th/U ratio close to 4, as shown in Fig. 12.6. The exception is
syenite (Th/U=0.52). Note the progression from low values of both Th and U for ultramafic rocks to higher
values as the rocks become more acidic, but with constant Th/U.

12.10.5 Diagenesis
Diagenesis is studied using the Th/K ratio derived from spectral gamma ray logs.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 118

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log

40
Weathering Granite
Effect Granodiorite
Diorite
30 Ultramafic
Syenite (Th=1 300,
U=2500, Th/U=0.52)

20

10

00 5 10 15 20
U (ppm)

Figure 12.6 Thorium-Uranium cross-plot for igneous rocks.

12.10.6 Sedimentology
The spectral gamma ray log provides a large amount of data that can help discriminate between
depositional environments and allow grain size and mineralogical composition to be constrained.
Some of the more important sedimentologically relevant data are shown in Table 12.3.

Table 12.3 Sedimentological inferences from spectral gamma ray data.

SGR Observation Sedimentological Inference

Presence of glauconite Marine, mainly continental shelf origin.
Phosphatic deposits Marine, mainly continental shelf origin, with warm water in a reducing
environment.
Uranium Low energy, reducing conditions
Clay type Analysis of depositional environment.
Bauxite Warm, humid, continental environment with good drainage.
Feldspars Indicator of the degree of evolution of sand facies, only found in
abundance close to the igneous source.

12.10.7 Estimation of Uranium Potential

Direct measurement of the amount of uranium present in the rocks, and its variation.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 119

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spectral Gamma Ray Log

12.1 0.8 Cation Exchange Capacity

The cation exchange capacity of the rock may be calculated by knowing the type and quantity of clays
present in the rock from spectral gamma ray data.

12.1 0.9 Radioactive Scaling

Unusually raised U contents are frequently observed in the perforated intervals of old wells due to the
build-up of uranium salts.

1 2.1 0.1 0 Hydrocarbon Potential

Organic matter is good at concentrating uranium. If this is deposited in a reducing environment it can
be preserved and transformed to hydrocarbons. Hence, there is a correlation between the presence of
uranium and hydrocarbons. It is possible to evaluate the total organic carbon content of rocks from the
uranium content derived from the spectral gamma ray log providing the relationship is calibrated using
core data. The hydrocarbon potential of the rock may then be derived from the total organic carbon
content.

1 2.1 0.1 1 Fracture Detection

Uranium is soluble in reducing conditions. Dissolved uranium salts may then be precipitated along
fractures, causing local peaks in the uranium spectral gamma ray log. However, local uranium peaks
do not unambiguously indicate fractures, so their presence must be checked on image logs.

1 2.1 0.1 2 Stylolite Detection

Stylolites concentrate clay minerals, organic matter and uranium, and can be compacted into thin
bands which show up as thin peaks in the uranium spectral gamma ray log.

1 2.1 0.1 3 Phosphate Detection

Uranium is also associated with phosphates, which are encountered with evaporites.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 120

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

13. THE FORMATION DENSITY LOG

13.1 Introduction

The formation density log measures the bulk density of the formation. Its main use is to derive a value
for the total porosity of the formation. It’s also useful in the detection of gas-bearing formations and in
the recognition of evaporates and other minerals.

The formation density tools are induced radiation tools. They bombard the formation with radiation
and measure how much radiation returns to a sensor.

13.2 Theory
The tool consists of:

• A radioactive source. This is usually 2 curies of caesium-137 or cobalt-60, and emits gamma
rays of medium energy (in the range 0.2 – 2 MeV). The commonest tools use caesium-137 which
emits gamma rays with an energy of 0.662 MeV.

• A short spaced detector. This detector is very similar to the detectors used in the natural gamma
ray tools, and is placed approximately 7-8 inches from the source.

• A long spaced detector. This detector is identical to the short range detector, and is placed
approximately 16 inches from the source.

The gamma rays enter the formation and undergo compton scattering by interaction with the electrons
in the atoms composing the formation, as described in Section 9.3. Compton scattering reduces the
energy of the gamma rays in a step-wise manner, and scatters the gamma rays in all directions. When
the energy of the gamma rays is less than 0.5 MeV they may undergo photo-electric absorption by
interaction with the atomic electrons. The flux of gamma rays that reach each of the two detectors is
therefore attenuated by the formation, and the amount of attenuation is dependent upon the density of
electrons in the formation.

• A formation with a high bulk density, has a high number density of electrons. It attenuates the
gamma rays significantly, and hence a low gamma ray count rate is recorded at the sensors.

• A formation with a low bulk density, has a low number density of electrons. It attenuates the
gamma rays less than a high density formation, and hence a higher gamma ray count rate is
recorded at the sensors.

The density of electrons in a formation is described by a parameter called the electron number density,
ne, For a pure substance, number density is directly related to bulk density, and we can derive the
relationship in the following way.

• The number of atoms in one mole of a material is defined as equal to Avagadro’s number N
(N≈6.02× 1023).

• The number of electrons in a mole of a material is therefore equal to NZ, where Z is the atomic
number (i.e., the number of protons, and therefore electrons per atom).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 121

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

• Since the atomic mass number A is the weight of one mole of a substance, the number of electrons
per gram is equal to NZ/A.

• However, we want the number of electrons per unit volume, and we can obtain this from the
number of electrons per gram by multiplying by the bulk density of the substance, ρb Hence, the
electron number density is

(13.1)

where: ne = the number density of electrons in the substance (electrons/cm3)

N = Avagadro’s number (≈6.02× 10 23 )
Z = Atomic number (no units)
A = Atomic weight (g/mole)
ρb = the bulk density of the material (g/cm3).

Thus, the gamma count rate depends upon the electron number density, which is related to the bulk
density of a substance by Eq. (13.1). The bulk density of a rock depends upon the solid minerals of
which it is composed, its porosity, and the density of the fluids filling that porosity. Hence, the
formation density tool is useful in the determination of porosity, the detection of low density fluids
(gasses) in the pores, and as an aid in lithological identification.

13.3 Operation
A radiation emitter and one detector are all that is necessary for a simple measurement. The early tools
had only one detector, which was pressed against the borehole wall by a spring-loaded arm.
Unfortunately, this type of tool was extremely inaccurate because it was unable to compensate for
mudcake of varying thicknesses and densities through which the gamma rays have to pass if a
measurement of the true formation is to be achieved.

All more recent tools have (at least) two detectors to help compensate for the mudcake problem. The method
of compensation is described in subsequent sections. These two detector tools were called
compensated density logs. These tools in turn have now almost completely been replaced by the Litho-
density tools (LDL, ZDL) described in Chapter 14, however the basic principles remain as described
here.

Compensated formation density tools have one focused (collimated) radiation source, one short
spacing detector at 7-8 inches from the source, and one long spacing detector 16 inches from the source
(Fig. 13.1). The source and both detectors are heavily shielded (collimated) to ensure that the radiation
only goes into the mudcake and formation, and that detected gamma rays only come from the mudcake
or formation. The leading edge of the shield is fashioned into a plough which removes part of the
mudcake as the tool is pulled up the well. The tool is pressed against one side of the borehole using a
servo-operated arm with a force of several hundred pounds force. Under this pressure and the pulling power
of the wireline winch the plough can make a deep impression in the mudcake. The heavy shielding also
doubles as a skid and a wear plate that protects the source and detectors and can be replaced easily and
cheaply when worn down.

Some tools have the source at the top, but the principle and operation is exactly the same.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 122

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

Figure 13.1 Schematic diagram of a formation density tool.

The operation of this tool depends upon the detection of gamma rays that have been supplied to the
formation by the source on the tool and have undergone scattering. The natural gamma rays from the
formation add a very small contribution to this, but essentially have no effect on the measurement as the
tool source is many magnitudes stronger than any natural source.

Note in Fig. 13.1 that for the short spacing detector 90% of its signal comes from within 5 cm of the
borehole wall, which includes the mudcake signal. About 90% of the long spacing signal comes from
within 10 cm of the borehole wall. Therefore the tool has a shallow depth of investigation. We wish
to remove the mudcake signal from the measurement, and the procedure to do this is described in
Section 13.4. When the mudcake compensation has been carried out, one can see from Fig. 13.1 that
the depth of investigation has been improved, and less signal comes from the first 5 cm region.

13.4 Mudcake Compensation

Gamma rays detected by the short spacing detector have penetrated only a short way into the mudcake
and formation before being scattered back to the detector. Readings from the short spacing detector are
therefore a measure of attenuation in the near-borehole region (i.e., mudcake and very shallow in the
formation). By comparison, gamma rays detected by the long spacing detector have penetrated through
the mudcake and deeper into the formation before being scattered back to the detector. Readings from
the long spacing detector therefore contain more formation signal than the short spacing.

The compensation scheme described below effectively takes the effect of the near-borehole region
(short spaced detector) away from the formation plus near-borehole region (long spacing detector).
This sounds easy but is not straightforward.

For any given borehole and tool geometry there are eight independent parameters that affect the
reading of the tool. These are:

Geoff Page 2010 Page 123

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

The influence of changing Zb Ab and Amc are small, and so these parameters can be considered to be
constant. Unfortunately we cannot assume that Zmc is constant as the drilling mud (and hence
mudcake) may or may not contain barite in very significant quantities.

The number of variable parameters is reduced to three by the incorporation of ρ mc and Zmc into a single
parameter, the effective mudcake density ρ mc * , which combines the influences of both ρ mc and
Z mc . The remaining three parameters are ρ b ρ mc * and hmc .

These three parameters are represented as a function of the readings from the short and long spacing
detectors by a single and rather clever graph. The y-axis (ordinate) of the graph is the reading from the
long spacing detector, and the x-axis (abscissa) of the graph is the reading from the short spacing
detector. Points plot on this graph in different ways depending upon the various values of ρb, ρmc* and
hmc.

Imagine that there is no mudcake. The short spaced detector will make a reading of gamma count rate
that is dependent upon the short path between the source and the detector through the formation. The
long spaced detector will also make a reading, which will be lower because of the greater distance of
this detector from the source.

The readings from the long and short spaced detectors will fall on a straight line (Fig. 13.2). The
higher the readings, the less dense the formation and vice versa. So we can calibrate the straight line to
be read in terms of the bulk density of the formation from either detector. This line is called the spine of
the plot.

Now imagine that a mud of variable thickness and ρ mc * = 1.5 g/cm3 is present on the borehole wall,
and the formation density is 2.5 g/cm3. If the mudcake does not exist the detector values plot at point A
in Fig. 13.3 as expected. If the mudcake thickness increases, the short spaced detector sees more of
the less dense mudcake, and so gives a higher count rate. The long spaced detector also give a
higher count rate due to the lower density mudcake that is present, but the increase is initially
marginal because the long spaced detector is sensitive to a region which the mudcake only forms a
small part. The result is the curve shown in Fig. 13.3. Note that this curve leaves the spine at 2.5 g/cm3,
when h mc =0, forms an arc to the right of the spine, and rejoins the spine at 1.5 g/cm3 as hmc→∞. The
rejoining represents the state where the thickness of the mudcake is greater than the depth of
investigation of the tool, so that both the long and short spaced detectors read only mud. The curved
part of the graph therefore represents the complete range of mudcake thicknesses.

If the effective mudcake density remains at 1.5 g/cm3, but the formation density changes, the bottom
point where the curved part of the line joins the spine slides up and down the spine, as shown in Fig.
13.4 for formation densities of 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 g/cm3. Each of the curved lines represents a different
formation density, leaving the spine at the formation density value for hmc=0, and rejoining the spine
together at the effective mudcake density of 1.5 g/cm3.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 124

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

Figure 13.2 Formation density tool mudcake Figure 13.3 Formation density tool mudcake
correction plot (spine and ribs) with no mudake correction plot (spine and ribs) with ρb=2.5 g/cm3
present. ρmc*=1.5 g/cm3, and variable thickness mudake.

Figure 13.4 Formation density tool mudcake Figure 13.5 Formation density tool mudcake
correction plot (spine and ribs) with ρb=2.0, 2.5 correction plot (spine and ribs) with ρb=2.5
and 3.0 g/cm3, ρmc*=1.5 g/cm3, and variable g/cm3, ρmc*=1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 g/cm3, and variable
thickness mudake. thickness mudake.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 125

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

If the formation density remains fixed at 2.5 g/cm3 the point where the curved portion of the line
leaves the spine is fixed at 2.5 g/cm3. Now, if the effective mudcake density changes, the point where
the curved part of the line rejoins the spine slides up and down the spine, as shown in Fig. 13.5 for
effective mudcake densities of 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 g/cm3. Each of the curved lines represents a different
effective mudcake density, leaving the spine at the formation density value of 2.5 g/cm3 for hmc=0, and
rejoining the spine together at the relevant effective mudcake density, which may be above or below
the formation density on the spine.

Note that if the effective mudcake density is the same as the formation density, the curved portion of
the line does not exist, and the tool interprets the mudcake as formation.

In practice, only portions of the curved lines are relevant to wellbore conditions. Over the practical
range, the combination of the curves and the spine is reminiscent of a rib-cage. This type of plot is
therefore called a spine and ribs plot.

Figure 13.6 shows a spine and ribs plot for the formation density tool during a well controlled
laboratory study of the tool. Note that the data on each rib is practically independent of effective
mudcake density and composition, and that as mudcake becomes thicker, the data points lie further up
or down the rib from the spine as expected. For each design of density tool (Wireline, LWD, and
different contractors) these plots are slightly different in shape, but the basic principles are all the same.

Figure 13.6 Formation density tool mudcake correction plot (spine and ribs) from laboratory derived
calibration data.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 126

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

The spine and ribs plot therefore has the advantages that (i) the variation in effective mudcake density
and mudcake thickness can be described by a single parameter (the distance up a given rib), (ii) for
each formation density, all ribs leaving one side of the graph coincide on the spine at a single point
(the effective mudcake density), and (iii) knowing the spine and ribs plot for a given tool, the long and
short detector readings can be used to obtain the corrected value of formation density without explicit
measurement of either the effective mudcake density or the mudcake thickness. The correction
procedure is automated in modern tools.

13.5 Calibration
The direct relationship between electron number density and bulk density indicates that no calibration
is necessary. However, hydrogen is anomalous, and its presence perturbs the direct relationship. For
this reason the formation density tools are calibrated. The primary calibrations are made by inserting
the tool into a block of pure limestone saturated with fresh water of accurately known density.
Secondary (check) calibrations are made in the wireline tool workshop by inserting the tool into large
blocks of aluminium, and magnesium of known density. Sleeves of varying thickness are put around the
tool to simulate mudcake thickness to check the operation of the automatic mudcake compensation
process. A portable radiation source is used at the wellsite to check the responses of the two detectors
before and after the tool has been run. Calibrations are also required for each source/tool combinations
because the half life of Cs137 is only 30 years. This means that the gamma ray output of the sources
reduce measurably over a few years and they are all slightly different.

The relationship between electron number density and the bulk density is given by Eq. (13.1). Note
that there is a linear relationship between the electron number density and the bulk density, and the
remaining parameters in the equation are either constant for a given element (A and Z), or universally
constant (N). Table 13.1 shows the values of A, Z, Z/A and 2Z/A for common elements in the crust.

Table 13.1 Atomic number and mass data for common elements in the crust.

Element Z A Z/A 2Z/A

H 1 1.0079 0.99215 1.9843

C 6 12.0111 0.4995 0.999
O 8 15.9994 0.5 1.000
Na 11 22.9898 0.47845 0.9569
Mg 12 24.3120 0.4936 0.9872
Al 13 26.9815 0.4818 0.9636
Si 14 28.086 0.49845 0.9969
S 16 32.064 0.499 0.9980
Cl 17 35.453 0.4795 0.9590
K 19 39.102 0.4859 0.9718
Ca 20 40.080 0.499 0.9980

Note that Z/A is close to 0.5 for all elements except hydrogen, which is almost unity.

We define a new parameter called the effective number density ρe, where ρe = 2 ne/N. Hence, Eq.
(13.1) becomes

Geoff Page 2010 Page 127

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

(13.2)

For rocks that are composed of more than one element, Eq. (13.2) is valid providing that Z is the mean
atomic number and A is the mean atomic mass.

For most elements, the constant term is almost unity giving a one to one calibration. For hydrogen the
equation breaks down. We can examine the effect of the hydrogen on Eq. (13.2) by carrying out a
calibration of the tool in limestone saturated with fresh water, where its density is accurately known.
This calibration provides the relationship

ρa =1.07×ρe − 0.188 (13.3)

where ρa is the apparent density (that read by the tool). For water-filled sandstones, limestones and
dolomites the tool reading is almost identical to the actual bulk density. Table 13.2 compares the
apparent density read by the tool against the actual bulk density.

Table 13.2 Comparison of apparent density measured by the formation density tool with the actual
bulk density for common mineralogies and fluids.

Actual Effective Apparent

Bulk Electron Bulk
Compound Composition Density, 2 Z/A Density, Density,
ρb ρe ρa
Quartz SiO2 2.654 0.9985 2.650 2.648
Calcite CaCO3 2.710 0.9991 2.708 2.710
Dolomite CaCO3.MgCO3 2.870 0.9977 2.863 2.876
Anhydrite CaSO4 2.960 0.9990 2.957 2.977
Sylvite KCL 1.984 0.9657 1.916 1.863
Halite NaCl 2.165 0.958 1 2.074 2.032
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O 2.320 1.0222 2.372 2.35 1
Anthracite (low) 1.400 1.030 1.442 1.355
Anthracite (high) 1.800 1.030 1.852 1.796
Coal (Bituminous) 1.200 1.060 1.272 1.173
Coal 1.500 1.060 1.590 1.514

Pure Water H2O 1.000 1.1101 1.110 1.000

Salt Water 200,000 ppm NaCl 1.146 1.0797 1.237 1.135
Oil (CH2)n 0.850 1.1407 0.970 0.850
Methane CH ρm 1.247 1.247 ρm 1.335 ρm -
0.188
Gas C1.1 H42 ρg 1.238 1.238 ρg 1.325 ρg -
0.188

Geoff Page 2010 Page 128

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

The density in some formations such as anhydrite, sylvite and halite should be corrected to give true
density, (but rarely are as they do not contain hydrocarbons), as do readings in gas-bearing formations
(also rarely done due to lack of accurate gas properties). Figure 13.7 shows these corrections.

Figure 13.7 Formation density tool mineral correction plot.

Corrections also need to be made for borehole size and mud weight, which can be (and usually is)
done real-time by the acquisition systems. The correction curve for one tool is given in Fig. 13.8. (NB
All tools are different and require specific charts).

Figure 13.8 Formation density tool hole diameter correction plot.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 129

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

13.6 Log Presentation

The formation density log is recorded in tracks 2 and 3 of the standard API log presentation on a linear
scale. The scale is in g/cm3, and usually spans 1.95 to 2.95 g/cm3 as this is the normal range for rocks
(Fig. 13.9). The bulk density curve is often called labeled either RHOB or ZDEN.

1.95 2.45 2.95

Figure 13.9 Formation density tool log presentation.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 130

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

The automatic compensation (correction) for mudcake is often shown in either track 2 or track 3 on a
linear scale. This curve is included as a quality control curve, and labeled either DRHO or ZCOR. As
the value of the correction curve becomes larger, the data in the main curve will be less reliable. For the
older FDC a value greater than ±0.15 g/cm3 is considered a cutoff for reliability, this is due to the shape
of the ribs curving sharply at this point. More modern tools have a more linear rib response and
corrections are more accurate.

As the formation density tool is a log that is commonly used to calculate porosity, a pseudo-porosity
that has been calculated from the density data may be shown together with the bulk density curve and
correction curve. This is a pseudo-porosity curve because it will assume a matrix and fluid density to
be constant throughout the logged interval. Matrix densities of 2.65 g/cm3 (for quartz) and fluid
densities of 1.0 g/cm3 (for water) are often used.

A wireline tension curve is often also included in the record, because the formation density tool is
prone to stick/pull as a result of its ploughing in sticky mudcake.

The formation density tool is most often run in combination with (i) a gamma ray log, for depth
matching, (ii) a caliper log, for borehole quality control (from the density backup arm = 2arm type
pad+arm), and (iii) a neutron log, because the interpretation of the formation density tool together
with the results from the neutron log provide one of the two best lithological assessment techniques for
a reservoir.

13.7 Depth of Investigation

The depth of investigation of the tool is very shallow. Typically 90% of the response comes from the
first 13 cm (5 inches) from the borehole wall for a 35% porosity sandstone (which has low density
compared with most reservoir rocks). In higher density rocks the depth of investigation is even less, and
a value of about 10 cm (4 inches) can be taken as an average value for reservoir rocks. Figure 13.1
shows the percentage of the signal that comes from different depths into the formation.

The shallow depth of investigation of the tool makes it sensitive to borehole quality, and it is therefore
necessary to interpret the formation density log together with the caliper log to ensure that the
measured values is not an artifact of bad hole quality.

The shallow depth of investigation also implies that in porous and permeable formations, where its
main use lies, it only measures the invaded zone. This should be taken into consideration when
deciding on a fluid density (mud filtrate density) to use for porosity calculations. The fact that the tool
only measures the invaded zone in porous formations makes the tool little use for distinguishing
between formation oil and formation water. However, gas may still be detected because (i) the greater
difference in density between gas and oil or water, and (ii) the fact that mud filtrate invasion into gas-
bearing zones is never complete, and always leaves a significant amount of gas behind in the invaded
zone. LWD tools may see past shallower invasion due to the short time after drilling that the
measurement is made.

13.8 Logging Speed

The typical logging speed for the tool is 1800 ft/hr (540 m/hr), although it is occasionally run at lower
speeds to increase the vertical resolution. The log quality is not as effected by logging speed as the
natural gamma ray logs because much higher count rates are obtained with the radioactive source on
the tool.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 131

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

13.9 Vertical Resolution

The vertical resolution is good (about 45 cm, 18 inches), which is defined by the distance between the
source and two detectors. The measurement point is taken to be half way between the two detectors. Beds
can be resolved down to about 60 cm (2 ft) with the density tool reading the true density value of the
bed. Even better resolutions are possible with slower logging speeds. Partial reaction of the logging
tool to very thin beds of anomalously high or low density is sometimes encountered. For example, thin
(5 – 10 cm thick) layers of calcareous nodules.

The high vertical resolution means that the log is useful for defining formation boundaries.

13.10 Borehole Quality

The log is run eccentred in the borehole, and therefore is prone to caving and rough borehole walls
where the detectors or the source may not be pressed against the borehole wall. In this case the
readings will be erroneous due to radiation leakage along the borehole between the detectors and bad
measurement geometry. The sensitivity to bad hole quality is exacerbated by the shallow depth of
investigation that the tool has. The formation density log should, therefore be interpreted with a
caliper log, and the caliper reading and density correction values should be used to judge the likely
quality of the formation density log data. LWD tools have the detectors fixed into the drillpipe instead of
a moveable pad, and are therefore more sensitive to wellbore condition, however measurements are made
shortly after drilling before the hole has deteriorated too much.

13.11 Mud Type

Drilling muds with high density or that absorb gamma rays efficiently, such as barite filled muds, will
effect the detector readings. Most of the effect of these muds is compensated for automatically by
the spine and ribs correction, however the source and detector shielding is not perfect, resulting in some
signal coming from the back of the tool (borehole). A small correction is required for boreholes other
than 8” diameter and 1g/cc muds.

13.12 Uses of the Formation Density Log

The main use of the formation density log is to determine porosity. It has numerous other uses, the
main ones being the recognition of gas-bearing zones, and the identification of minerals (particularly
evaporites). The combination of formation density log data with neutron log data gives one of the best
ways of identifying lithologies in a borehole. This will be described in Chapter 15.

13.12.1 Determination of Porosity

The porosity ф of a formation can be obtained from the bulk density if the mean density of the rock
matrix and that of the fluids it contains are known.

The bulk density ρb of a formation can be written as a linear contribution of the density of the rock
matrix ρma and the fluid density ρf , with each present is proportions (1-ф) and ф, respectively :

ρb = (1−ф) ρma + ф ρf (13.4)

When solved for porosity, we get

Geoff Page 2010 Page 132

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

(13.5)

The fluid densities are usually available from FT sampling, but values of 1.0 g/cm3 for water are often
used. Remember that the tool measures the invaded zone, so the relevant fluid is the mud filtrate in most
circumstances. If available, the fluid densities should be corrected to borehole temperature conditions. If
the formation is hydrocarbon-bearing the fluid density can be calculated by

(13.6)

The value of the matrix density taken depends upon the lithology of the interval under question. For
sandstones, the density of quartz is 2.65 g/cm3, and for limestones, the density of calcite is 2.71 g/cm3.
Clay minerals have varied grain densities. Often core data is used to provide accurate matrix densities
for particular intervals.

Table 13.3 gives the matrix densities of some common minerals.

Table 13.3 Grain (matrix) densities of some common rock forming minerals.

Mineral Grain Density (g/cm3) Mineral Grain Density (g/cm3)

Quartz 2.65 Halite* 2.16

Calcite 2.71 Gypsum* 2.30
Dolomite 2.87 Anhydrite* 2.96
Biotite 2.90 Carnalite* 1.61
Chlorite 2.80 Sylvite* 1.99
Illite 2.66 Polyhalite* 2.78
Kaolinite 2.594 Glauconite 2.30
Muscovite 2.83 Kainite 2.13
*Evaporites

Care must be taken within some lithological intervals because the composition of the matrix may
change. For example, the grain density for a clean sandstone is that of quartz (2.65 g/cm3). However, if
there is a variable amount of biotite present mixed in with the sand, the bulk density of the rock can
rise to 2.84 g/cm3 because biotite has a density of 2.9 g/cm3. This scenario is encountered in some
North Sea reservoirs. Analysis of Eq. (13.3) shows that an error of 0.01 g/cm3 in the matrix density
gives an error of 0.5% in the calculated porosity, which gives an error of almost 10% if a matrix

Geoff Page 2010 Page 133

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

density of 2.65 g/cm3 is assumed for a sand that has an actual density of 2.84 g/cm3 due to additional
biotite.

The Effect of Fluid Density. The porosity may also be in error if the fluid density is misjudged. The
fluid existing in the zone of the rock measured by the formation density tool is usually mud filtrate.
The density of these fresh and salt waters is approximately 1.0 g/cm3 and 1.1 g/cm3, respectively.
However, these vary with temperature and composition, so accurate values for the actual reservoir
formation water at the relevant reservoir temperatures should be used wherever possible. Such data
can be obtained from samples of reservoir fluid from FT analysis, or from the analysis of mud
filtrate, bearing in mind that the tool measures the invaded zone, so the relevant fluid density to use in
the porosity calculations is most often the mud filtrate density. Mud filtrate densities are now corrected
automatically for temperature and pressure in most petrophysical software. However, the correction
used to be carried out with the aid of a nomogram (chart).

The Effect of Gas. If gas is present in the formation, porosities can be overestimated. The density of
gasses is very low (approximately 0.0001 g/cm3 at STP) compared to aqueous fluids. If the formation is
gas-bearing a significant amount of gas is always left in the invaded zone. This gas will reduce the
mean fluid density of the invaded zone, and will cause overestimations of the porosity if a fluid
density of 1.0 or 1.1 g/cm3 is used as shown in Fig. 13.10.

The Effect of Oil. The density of oil

(approximately 0.7 g/cm3) is less than
that of aqueous fluids, and needs to be
considered or porosity will be
overestimated. This is less of a
problem in water based muds where
the invading fluid is water, but must be
considered in oil based muds where oil
is the invading fluid.

The Effect of Shale. The density of

shales varies greatly, and if present as a
proportion of a lithology (such as a
shaly sandstone of shaly limestone) can
make the derivation of a reliable
porosity inaccurate. If we have zones
of clean lithology and zones of shale
with a shaly sandstone in between (or a
full fining-up or coarsening-up
sequence), we can use the bulk
densities in the shale and clea n
sandstone together with Vsh to obtain a
corrected density for the shaly
sandstone at any given depth.

Figure 13.10 The effect of gas on the

formation density log.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 134

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

This corrected value of density may then be used in Eq. (13.5) to obtain a porosity which takes
account of the shaliness of the sandstone (or limestone). The corrected bulk density of the shaly
lithology is given by

(13.7)

Calibration with Core Porosities. The most accurate porosity determinations are obtained from
laboratory measurements on cores. If there is a database of core porosities for a given well, it is often
advantageous to plot the core porosity against the formation density log derived porosity or (better) the
bulk density from the formation density log. The first type of plot should show the points lying on a
1:1 straight line. The second type of plot also gives a straight line with a negative gradient (Fig.
13.11). Non-linearity in the second type of plot may indicate problems with the formation density
log reading a varying mix of fluids and minerals, while the first type of plot can be used to indicate
that there is a better matrix or fluid density to use to transform the measured bulk density data to reliable
porosity values.

Figure 13.11 Calibration of the formation density tool against core porosities.

13.12.2 Acoustic Impedance

Density from the formation density log is often combined with acoustic velocity from the acoustic/sonic
log to calculate acoustic impedance down a well. The acoustic impedance can be used to create synthetic
seismograms to help the interpretation of seismic data.

13.12.3 Identification of Lithology

When used alone, the density log is not a good tool for identifying most lithologies. This is because
most rocks have a wide range of densities resulting from their varied mineralogical compositions and
their variable porosities. For example, shales have bulk densities ranging from 1.8 to 2.8 g/cm3 and
have variable clay mineral densities. Sandstones, limestones and dolomites all have bulk density

Geoff Page 2010 Page 135

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

ranges that overlap each other and that of shales (Fig. 13.12). However, when used with the neutron
log, the combination is a very good lithological determination method (as described in Chapter 15).

Figure 13.12 Density ranges of common lithologies.

13.12.4 Identification of Evaporites

Evaporites are often found in a very pure state, and have clearly defined densities. If evaporites are
recognized within a log sequence, their type may be determined directly and unambiguously from the
formation density log bulk density value. Table 13.3 gives data for some commoner evaporites.

13.12.5 Shale Compaction, Age, and Unconformities

Shale undergoes progressive compaction and increasing density with depth of burial and age.
Occasionally, if the formation density data is plotted on a sufficiently small depth scale, the
compaction trend may be noted by a steady but small rate of increase of density with depth (Fig.
13.13). It is a rule of thumb that the more compact shales are older (although this is not always the
case).

If, within a given shale interval, there is a sudden change of density, the most likely explanation is that
the formations above and below the change have been deposited in a completely different
environment. The change is therefore an indication of a possible unconformity (Fig. 13.14).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 136

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

13.12.6 Overpressure
Fluid overpressure works against any compaction
trend caused by the overburden pressure.
Hence, it is likely that overpressured zones will
retain a greater porosity than normally pressured
zones. If a normal compaction or no
compaction is observed in a shale over some
depth interval, and below it the bulk density
begins to decrease (or the derived porosity
begins to increase) without change in lithology,
it is likely that one has entered a zone of
overpressured fluids. In this zone the
overpressured fluids keep the porosity open,
stopping any compaction trend and reversing
it (Fig. 13.13).

Figure 13.13 Recognition of shale compaction Figure 13.14 Recognition of unconformities in

and overpressure in shale sequences using the shale sequences using the formation density log.
formation density log.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 137

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Formation Density Log

13.12.7 Recognition of Accessory Mineralogies

Thin bands of anomalously high or low density within a single lithology, or a change in the character
of the density log within a single lithology indicates that there are additional mineral present.
Examples of this may be:
Thin bands of siderite in shales Thin high density peaks
Thin bands of carbonate nodules in shales or sandstones Thin high density peaks
Thin bands of carbonate in shales or sandstones Thin high density peaks
Thin bands of heavy or radioactive placer minerals Thin high density peaks
Dispersed micas in sandstones Increased densities in affected zone

Mineralogies and lithologies that lower the density locally if present in thin bands include lignite, coal,
anthracite or increased organic matter in a shale.

Mineralogies and lithologies that increase the density locally if present in thin bands include pyrite,
siderite, basalt and gneiss.

13.12.8 Fracture Recognition

The density tool records the bulk density of the formation. The porosity derived from this will include
all pores and fractures whether they are connected or not.

The acoustic/sonic tool can also be used to measure the porosity of the formation. However, this tool
is not sensitive to fracture porosity.

Hence, the difference between the porosities derived from these two measurements can be used as an
indicator of the extent of fracturing in a reservoir interval.

13.12.9 Organic Content of Source Rocks

The presence of organic matter can reduce the density of shales by up to 0.5 g/cm3. It is possible to
calculate the total organic carbon (TOC) content of a source rock from the change in bulk density. In
practice this is done by calibrating the log with TOC determinations made on core samples from the
well or nearby wells, then using the calibrated relationship to calculate TOC in the uncored intervals of
the well.

13.13 LWD Density tools

LWD density tools work in the same way as the wireline tools, however they are built into the
drillstring, and cannot have pads and arms extending which would be torn off by the drilling process.
The source and detectors are generally built into a stabilizer which is designed to be just below bitsize,
so that they remain close to the wellbore surface in a gauge hole. In enlarged boreholes the detectors
will be further from the wellbore surface, but the spine and rib compensation system corrects for the
presence of the mud in the same was as it compensates for mudcake in the wireline tools, as long as the
wellbore is not significantly enlarged. As the wellbore becomes larger the measurements will become
less reliable. Many LWD tools now include a system to measure the detector to wellbore standoff (or
estimate it from the correction value), and then selectively use only the data from the measurements
with the minimum standoff, resulting in the best density measurement available.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 138

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

14. THE PHOTOELECTRIC LOG

14.1 Introduction

Most density tools used today also make a secondary measurement of the Photoelectic absorption of the
formation, and are of the litho-density type such as Baker Hughes Z-Density (ZDL), or Schlumberger’s
Litho-Density Tool (LDT). These tools have a caesium-137 source emitting gamma rays at 0.662 MeV,
a short-spaced and a long-spaced detector in the same way as the basic formation density tool. However,
the detectors are more efficient, and have the ability to recognize and to count separately gamma rays
which have high energies (hard gamma rays: 0.25 to 0.662 MeV) and gamma rays which have low
energies (soft gamma rays: 0.04 to 0.0 MeV).

The hard gamma rays are those that are undergoing compton scattering. The count rates of these
gamma rays (in the energy window 0.25 to 0.662 MeV) are used in the conventional way to measure
the formation density (Chapter 13). The final density value obtained is more accurate than the basic
formation density tool because the harder gamma rays are less prone to attenuation by borehole
effects, and the count rates are higher due to better detectors, most tools now use crystal detectors
similar to the GR.

The soft gamma rays are those that are undergoing photo-electric absorption. This effect can be used
to provide a parameter which is dependent upon the atomic number of the formation, and therefore
immensely useful in lithological recognition.

14.2 Theory
14.2.1 Compton Scattering and Photo-Electric Absorption
Figure 14.1 shows the energy spectra of gamma rays as they are emitted from the source, and after
travelling through various distances of the rock. At the radiation source, all gamma rays have a well
defined energy of 0.662 MeV, represented by the sharp peak in Fig. 14.1. After travelling through the
rock the gamma rays undergo compton scattering and loose energy, so the initially sharp peak moves
to lower energies. Each of the gamma rays undergoes a different number of collisions dependent upon
chance, and hence looses a different amount of energy. Thus the peak is not only moved to lower
energies, but is also dispersed (becomes wider). In Fig. 14.1, Curve A represents the initial energy
spectrum, Curve B represents the energy spectrum after the gamma rays have traveled a small distance
through the rock, and Curve C represents the energy spectrum of the gamma rays after they have
traveled an additional small distance through the rock.

However, some of the most scattered gamma rays now have energies close to 0.2 MeV. Once below
the 0.2 MeV threshold, the gamma ray can be completely absorbed by the atoms in the rock, and there
is a given probability that this will occur depending upon whether the soft gamma ray encounters an
electron under the correct conditions. This is called photo-electric absorption, and is a completely
different process from compton scattering. The result is that gamma rays attaining energies less than
0.2 MeV are eaten away from the energy distribution. Curve D in Fig. 14.1 shows the energies of the
gamma rays after they have traveled another increment of distance through the rock, where some
gamma rays have attained sufficiently low energies that they have been photo-absorbed. Curve E
finally represents the energy distributions of gamma rays as they are detected by the tool. Note only
the high energy tail of the distribution remains.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 139

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

B
C
D
E

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Energy (MeV)

Figure 14.1 Gamma ray energy spectra.

Soft Gamma
Ray Window Hard Gamma Ray Window
Low U
Low Z

Medium U
Medium Z

High U
High Z

0.662 MeV
Source

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Energy (MeV)

Figure 14.2 Gamma ray energy spectra and measurement windows.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 140

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

Different materials have different abilities to photo-absorb gamma rays. Figure 14.2 shows the energy
spectra of gamma rays after traveling to the detector through three media with low, medium and high
photo-electric absorption indices.

We can use the count rates measured in the higher energy shaded window (for hard gamma rays) as a
measure of compton scattering and hence the electron density of the material through which the
gamma rays have passed. This gives information about the density of the formation in the same way as
for the conventional formation density tool.

The count rate of the soft gamma rays in the lower energy shaded window in Fig. 14.2 is a measure of
the density of the material (how many electrons there are available to take part in photo-absorption)
and the rate of photo-absorption per electron. Hence, the number of gamma rays reaching the detector
in the lower energy window depends upon the effective electron density of the rock as well as the
photo-electric capture cross-section of the material.

14.2.2 Specific Photo-Electric Absorption Index

The probability that a gamma ray is adsorbed by the process of photo-electric absorption depends upon
the characteristic cross-section of the process σe. Characteristic cross-sections are measured in barns,
where 1 barn=10-24 cm2.

A specific photo-electric absorption index Pe is defined with the relationship

(14.1)

where: Pe = the photo-electric absorption index (barns/electron)

σe. = the photo-electric cross-section (barns)
Z = the atomic number (number of electrons)
K = a coefficient dependent upon the energy at which the photo-electric absorption is
observed (no units).

The specific photo-electric absorption index Pe of a material describes the likelihood that a gamma ray
will be photo-electrically absorbed per electron of the atoms that compose the material.

Both σe. and K depend upon energy, but since they do so in the same way, their energy dependencies
cancel out, and Pe is therefore independent of energy. The photo-electric absorption index can be
approximated by the empirical relationship

(14.2)

and values are given in Table 14.1.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 141

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

14.2.3 Volumetric Photo-Electric Absorption Index

The Volumetric photo-electric absorption index U of a material describes the likelihood that a gamma
ray will be photo-electrically absorbed per unit volume of the material. It can be written in terms of the
specific photo-electric absorption index as

(14.3)

Table 14.1 Photo-electric data for common minerals and fluids.

Molecular Z
Mineral Formula
Weight
Pe
(equiv.) ρb ρe ρa U
Anhydrite CaSO4 136.15 5.055 15.69 2.960 2.957 2.977 14.93
Barite BaSO4 233.37 266.82 47.2 4.500 4.01 1070
Biotite 6.30 3.34 21.03
Calcite CaCO3 100.09 5.084 15.71 2.710 2.708 2.710 13.77
CaCO3.M 184.42 3.142 3.74 2.870 2.864 2.877 9.00
Dolomite
gCO3
K Feldspar 2.86 2.62 7.51
Glauconite 5.32 3.95 21.00
CaSO4.2 172.18 3.420 14.07 2.320 2.372 2.350 9.37
Gypsum
H2O
Halite NaCl 58.45 4.169 15.30 2.165 2.074 2.031 9.68
Haematite Fe2O3 159.70 21.48 23.45 5.240 4.987 107
Limonite 13.00 3.59 46.67
Magnetite MgCO3 231.55 22.24 23.65 5.180 4.922 113
Muscovite 2.40 3.29 7.90
Pyrite FeS2 119.98 16.97 21.96 5.000 4.834 82.1
Quartz SiO2 60.09 1.806 11.78 2.654 2.650 2.648 4.79
Siderite FeCO3 115.86 1.69 21.09 3.940 3.89 55.9
Sylvite KCl 74.6 8.510 18.13 1.984 1.916 1.862 15.83
Zircon ZrSiO4 183.31 69.10 32.45 4.560 4.279 311
Shale - 3.42 14.07 2.650 2.645 2.642
Shaly Sand - 2.70 2.41 6.52
Anthracite - 0.161 6.02 1.700 1.749 1.683
Bituminous 0.180 6.21 1.400 1.468 1.383
-
Coal
Pure Water H2O 18.02 0.358 7.52 1.000 1.110 1.000 0.398
120,000 0.807 9.42 1.086 1.185 1.080 0.850
Salt Water
ppm NaCl
0.119 5.53 0.850 0.948 0.826 0.136×
Oil (CH2)n
ρoil
16.04 0.095 5.21 0.250 0.15 0.119×
Methane CH4
ρgas
Note the huge values for barite.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 142

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

14.2.4 Factors Influencing the PE Log

Mean Atomic Number of the Matrix. The PE(F) log is mainly controlled by the mean atomic number
of the formation (Eq. (14.2)). Hence we can draw the following conclusions:

The higher Pe, the higher the mean atomic number of the formation. If there are isolated Pe peaks, this
may indicate local deposits of heavy minerals especially those containing iron, or radioactive placer
deposits (uranium and thorium). If there is a general high value for the Pe curve, this may indicate the
presence of igneous or metamorphic rocks.

The lower Pe, the lower the mean atomic number of the formation. Thin bands of low Pe may indicate
coal.

Formation Fluids. The porosity and fluid saturations of rocks vary, and so it would be expected that
the measured Pe and U values might also vary with changing porosity and fluid saturation in the same
way that many other logs do. However, the values of Pe and U for the fluids commonly found in rock
are so low compared with the values for the matrix, that their influence is negligible. The one
exception to this is perhaps highly saturated brines, which may have a significant Pe value. Figure 14.3
shows how little influence up to 35% porosity changes have on the Pe values for quartz, limestone and
dolomite.

Figure 14.3 Pe as a function of porosity and fluid content.

The PEF log is therefore sensitive to differences in the mean atomic number of a formation without
being sensitive to changes in the porosity and fluid saturation of that lithology. This combination
makes the PEF log an extremely good indicator of lithology.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 143

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

The ability of the PEF log to accurately indicate lithology is not impaired in gas-bearing zones, where
the combination of the formation density and neutron logs may have difficulty distinguishing between
lithologies.

14.3 Tool Operation

The tool is physically very similar to the formation density tool. It has enhanced detectors, and the
distance between the long spacing and the short spacing detectors has been decreased slightly. This
has increased the vertical resolution of the tool and improved its overall counting accuracy. The
accuracy of the density measurement of these tools is approximately 0.01 to 0.02 g/cm3, whereas that
of the formation density tool is approximately 0.02 to 0.03 g/cm3.

14.4 Log Presentation

The log is commonly referred to as the photo-electric (factor) log (PE(F)). It is shown in tracks 2 and 3
together with the formation density and neutron curves. Scales running from 0 to 10 or 0 to 15 or 0 to
20 barns/electron are most often used. As the PE for most common rock forming minerals is low, this
log usually sits to the left hand side of track 2.

This log is commonly run combined with the neutron log and a gamma ray log. The combination of
the formation density log with the neutron log and the PE log is very powerful in lithological
assessment. The gamma ray log is run to aid depth matching with other logs. Figure 14.4 shows the
typical layout of this tool combination.

Figure 14.4 Layout of a typical combination tool run.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 144

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

14.5 Depth of Investigation

The density and PE measurement from these tools have a depth of investigation of 5 to 6 cm, defined by
the detector spacings.

14.6 Vertical Resolution

The density measurement has a vertical bed resolution of 50 to 60 cm, which is slightly better than the
formation density tool. The enhanced vertical resolution results from the shorter distance between the
short and the long spacing detectors.

The PE measurement has a slightly better vertical resolution still. This is because the PE log relies almost
solely on the long spacing detector rather than both detectors. It has, therefore, a smaller ‘footprint’.

As with the formation density log, it is possible to enhance the vertical resolution of this log by slowing
down the logging speed and using modern digital data processing.

14.7 Borehole Quality

These tools suffer from the same borehole quality problems as the formation density tool, because
of their similar borehole configuration (source and detectors pressed against the borehole wall).

14.8 Mud Type

The tool can be used with any muds, however beware of those that contain barite. Reference to Table
14.1 shows that the Pe for barite is 267 barns/electron compared with values of less than 6 barns/electron
for most common lithofacies. Corrections are available for the density in heavy barite muds, however
the Pe may be severely affected, and read erratically, especially in rugose wellbores.

14.9 Uses of the Photoelectric Log

14.9.1 Determination of Lithology

The photoelectric log is one of the two most useful approaches to lithological determination downhole.
This is because the tool is simply sensitive only to the mean atomic number of the formation, and at
the same time is insensitive to changes in porosity and fluid saturation in the rock. Hence, the absolute
Pe value may often be used to indicate directly the presence of a given lithology. This lithology may
then be checked against the other tool readings for consistency. Figure 14.5 shows the response of the
tool to common lithologies (also see Fig. 14.4).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 145

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

Figure 14.5 Measurements of the photo-electric absorption (PE(F)) log for common
lithologies.

Note particularly that there are two common lithologies that cannot be distinguished by the gamma ray
log easily. These are clean sandstones and clean limestones. It is clear from Figs. 14.4 and 14.5 that
the PE log can distinguish clearly and unambiguously between clean sandstones and clean
limestones.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 146

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

Also, it can be seen from Fig. 14.4 that limestone and anhydrite cannot be distinguished by the
PE(F) log. However, anhydrite will always show up with little or no porosity on the neutron log, and
will have a bulk density always above 2.9 g/cm3, which compares with a maximum of 2.71 g/cm3
possible with a clean limestone.

If there is a mixture of two mineralogies, for example a sandy limestone, a crossplot technique or a
simple mixing rule can be applied to calculate the relative proportions of the two mineralogies.

In the crossplot technique, the Pe value is plotted on the x-axis against bulk density on the y-axis
(Figure 14.6). The point lies between lines that indicate the relative proportions of three lithologies
(sandstone, dolomite and limestone).

Figure 14.6 Matrix identification in a multi-mineral system using the PE and density log data for a
formation saturated with a fluid of density equal to 1.0 g/cm3.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 147

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

In the mixing rule method the relative proportions of two mineralogies may be calculated if one can
obtain Pe values for each of the two pure mineralogies from fore-knowledge, standard values, or from
log zones where each of the pure mineralogies are present. The mixing rule is simply

(14.4)

When three minerals are present (plus porosity), the Pe log values are used together with the formation
density log values. These two logs are multiplied to give the volumetric photo-electric absorption
index U (according to Eq. (14.3)). The reason for this lies in the sensitivities of each of the parameters
in Eq. (14.3). The Pe value is mass related and, as has been discussed, is sensitive to lithology but
rather insensitive to porosities and fluid saturations. By comparison, the bulk density is sensitive to
changes in porosity and fluid saturation. The product of the Pe values and the bulk density values gives
a U value, which is sensitive to both the lithological composition of the formation, as well as any
changes in porosity that are lithologically controlled.

The minerals are obtained from a cross-plot of the apparent bulk density ρmaa of the matrix against the
apparent value of U for the matrix Umaa. The apparent bulk density ρmaa of the matrix is usually obtain
from a density/neutron cross-plot (see Chapter 15). The matrix Umaa is obtained from

(14.5)

The technique is very useful in complex carbonate-sand-evaporite systems where the porosity is
controlled by the lithology, as is especially useful in gas-bearing zones, which do not alter
significantly the Pe values. The technique is less useful in sand-shale sequences.

14.9.2 Detection of Heavy Minerals and Inter-Well Correlation

Heavy minerals give particularly high PE and U values, and can be used to help their recognition in logs.
For example, siderite is often found in dense bands in shales and in limestone/dolomites. These bands
give peaks in the density log that may be ‘lost’ in the general variation due to varying porosity.
However, the PE log is insensitive to changes in porosity. In such a case the PE log will be flat
over the logging interval except at the siderite band, which will show up as a clear peak that is
correlated to one of the peaks in the density log. The U value logs of heavy minerals give even higher
peaks. This is because the heavy minerals have a high PE, due to their high mean atomic number, as well
as a high bulk density.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 148

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Photoelectric Log

There are many heavy minerals which can be identified in small amounts on the PE and U logs. The most
common are, siderite, haematite, pyrite, glauconite and even biotite and muscovite micas.

These heavy mineral bands are not esoteric lithologies from the point of view of the reservoir
petrophysicist, as heavy mineral bands with characteristic signatures can be very useful in the
correlation of formations between wells.

14.9.3 Fractures
Most drilling fluids have very low PE values. When this information is combined with the fact that the
density tool is pad mounted and pressed against the borehole wall, one can see that most types of
drilling mud will not have a great effect on the PE measurements. The exception is barite which has a
huge PE value and will swamp all other log responses if the tool sees barite drilling mud. Some
people have used this to detect fractures. When there are fractures, the barite drilling mud will enter
them, and the logged PE value will saturate. While the hypothesis has been shown to work, it is not
used in practice, since the barite drilling mud makes all other judgments from the log invalid. In
practice PE logs are not very useful in holes drilled with barite mud, and fractures are in general
preferentially recognized by image logs.

14.10 LWD Measurements

Most modern LWD density tools are capable of measuring Pe, however the tools are contained within
the drillstring, do not have a pad pressed against the wellbore surface, and are far more sensitive to the
drilling mud components. As barite is a common weighting material, the Pe measurement is far less
reliable than a wireline measurement and is frequently not presented at all.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 149

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

15. THE NEUTRON LOG

15.1 Introduction

The neutron log is sensitive mainly to the amount

of hydrogen atoms in a formation. Its main use is
in the determination of the porosity of a formation.

The tool operates by bombarding the formation

with high energy neutrons. These neutrons
undergo scattering in the formation, losing energy
and producing high energy gamma rays. The
scattering reactions occur most efficiently with
hydrogen atoms. The resulting low energy
neutrons or gamma rays can be detected, and their
count rate is related to the amount of hydrogen
atoms in the formation.

In formations with a large amount of hydrogen

atoms, the neutrons are slowed down and absorbed
very quickly and in a short distance. The count
rate of slow neutrons or capture gamma rays is low
in the tool. Hence, the count rate will be low in
high porosity rocks.

In formations with a small amount of hydrogen

atoms, the neutrons are slowed down and absorbed
more slowly and travel further through the rock
before being absorbed. The count rate of slow
neutrons or capture gamma rays in the tool is
therefore higher. Hence, the count rate will be
higher in low porosity rocks.

Figure 15.1 shows a typical neutron tool. The neutron

is run decentralized by using a large bowspring on the
tool housing, however care must be taken not to cover
one of the detectors and change the measurement,
therefore this is usually placed higher up the toolstring
on for example a GR instrument (again being careful
to avoid covering the GR detector.

Figure 15.1 A typical neutron tool.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 150

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

15.2 Theory
In neutron logging there are three processes of interest: neutron emission, neutron scattering and
neutron absorption.

15.2.1 Neutron Emission

The neutron tool emits high energy (4.5 MeV) neutrons from a radioactive source. They move very
fast, and their energy is related to their speed. They are called fast neutrons. The neutron sources used
in logging are a mixture of two elements (i) a source of alpha radiation such as radium, plutonium or
americium (most common), and (ii) beryllium-9. The alpha particles from the radium, plutonium or
americium interact with the beryllium-9 in an atomic reaction that produces carbon-12, a fast neutron and
gamma rays.

(15.1)

15.2.2 Neutron Scattering

The fast neutrons interact with the nuclei of atoms within the formation. The interaction is a form of
elastic scattering involving the neutrally charged neutron and a stationary positively charged nucleus.
At each interaction (collision) the neutron looses some energy and slows down, and the nucleus of the
atom in the formation material gains energy. Such collisions occur with nuclei of ALL elements.
However, the process of energy transfer (i.e., energy loss from the neutron) is most efficient when the
masses of the neutron and the nucleus are the same, and becomes much less efficient when the nuclei
of the formation material are more massive than the neutron. The neutron has approximately the same
mass as hydrogen nuclei (the lightest element). Hence the neutrons lose energy by elastic scattering
most efficiently by interaction with hydrogen nuclei, and lose energy much less efficiently by
interaction with more massive nuclei such as silicon or oxygen. Figure 15.2 shows the efficiency of
several elements in slowing down fast neutrons.
1

Hydrogen

0.1

Oxygen
0.01
Silicon

0.001
4.5MeV
0.1 10 1000 105 107
Neutron Energy (eV)

Figure 15.2 The fast neutron slowing efficiency of hydrogen, silicon and oxygen atoms as a function
of neutron energy for a clean sandstone, ф = 0.15.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 151

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

The initially fast neutrons (>0.5 MeV) quickly lose their energy and become slower (Fig. 15.3),
passing through stages called intermediate neutrons (102 to 105 eV), epithermal neutrons (0.1 to 100
eV), and finally thermal neutrons (<0.1 eV). In solid materials containing reasonable amounts of low
atomic mass elements, this process can happen very quickly for a given neutron (of the order of micro-
seconds). However, the time taken to slow down to a given energy will vary from neutron to neutron,
depending on the chance collisions with nuclei. Thermal neutrons are so called because they have
energies which are those that a particle has as a result of it existing a room temperatures. In other
words, they only have the small energies associated with the random kinetic motion associated with
room temperatures.

Figure 15.3 The slowing of fast neutrons with time by elastic collision with formation nuclei.

When the neutrons attain epithermal or thermal energies, collisions occur much less frequently
because the neutrons are moving from nucleus to nucleus much more slowly. Within a few
microseconds of being exposed to the fast neutron source, the formation has slowed the incoming
neutrons down to epithermal and thermal levels, and a cloud of these thermal neutrons exists in the
formation surrounding the source. Collisions continue resulting in little further loss of energy and the
slow diffusion of the thermal neutrons from the zone around the detector. During this process the
neutrons are absorbed by the formation nuclei.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 152

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

15.2.3 Neutron Absorption

Thermal (and to some extent epithermal) neutrons can be absorbed by the nuclei of the formation
atoms. The efficiency of neutron absorption varies from element to element. The only elements which
exhibit significant neutron absorbing behaviour and exist is reasonable quantities in rocks are
hydrogen and chlorine. The process of neutron absorption by hydrogen and chlorine are
(15.2)

and

(15.3)

In neutron logging, some tools measure the epithermal neutrons, some the thermal neutrons and some
the gamma rays emitted when a neutron is absorbed.

15.2.4 Hydrogen Index

We can define a partial concentration of hydrogens per unit mass (CH)mass of a material as the mass of
hydrogen atoms in the material divided by the mass of all the atoms of all elements in the material.

(15.4)

Thus, for pure water (H2O), where the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.0 and the atomic mass of oxygen
is 16.0, the partial concentration of hydrogen (CH)mass = (2×1.0)/(1×16.0 + 2×1.0) = 1/9.

It is simple to obtain the partial concentration of hydrogens per unit volume (CH)vol,by multiplying the
partial concentration of hydrogens per unit mass by the density of the material (CH)vol =
ρb×(CH)mass.
Hence, the partial concentration of hydrogens per unit volume (CH)vol = ρbwater/9 = 1/9, because the
density of pure water is 1.000 g/cm3.

Now, the Hydrogen Index of a material is defined as the partial concentration of hydrogens per unit
volume relative to water. So, if the hydrogen index of water is constrained by the definition to be
unity, and water has a partial concentration of hydrogens per unit volume of 1/9, the hydrogen index of
a material is

(15.5)

where: A H = the atomic mass of hydrogen atoms in the material

Ai = the atomic mass of non-hydrogen element i

Geoff Page 2010 Page 153

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

nH = the number of hydrogen atoms in a molecule of the material

ni = the number of non-hydrogen atoms of element i in a molecule of the material
Note: i is summed over every non-hydrogen element in the material.

Table 15.1 shows Eq. (15.5) in practice for a few minerals and fluids commonly found in reservoirs.

Table 15.1 Hydrogen index calculations for some reservoir minerals and fluids.

Compound Formula A, n, nH ρb HI

Pure water H2O 16 1 2 1.000 1.000

Oil (CH2)x 12 1 2 0.780 1.003
Methane CH4 12 1 4 ρm 2.25× ρm
Gas C1.1H4.2 12 1.1 4.2 ρg 2 . 1 7 × ρg
Quartz SiO2 28, 16 1, 2 0 2.654 0.000
Calcite CaCO3 40, 12, 16 1, 1, 3 0 2.710 0.000
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O 40, 32, 16 1, 1, 6 4 2.320 0.4855

Note the following:

• If the tool is in 100% water (a large tank of the stuff, say), the HI = 1.000. This is equivalent to a
rock of 100% porosity saturated with water. So we have a fixed point that HI = 1 represents ф = 1.

• If the tool is in a pure limestone rock with zero porosity, the HI = 0.000, because there are no
hydrogen atoms in the solid matrix of calcite. So we have a second fixed point where HI = 0
represents ф = 0.

• If the tool is in a pure limestone with a given porosity ф, the hydrogen index will be directly
proportional to the amount of water in the formation. Hence HI = ф for completely water saturated
limestones.

Thus the hydrogen index is a proxy measure of porosity if the solid minerals of the formation contain
no hydrogen and if the pores are completely saturated with water. But, it is the hydrogen index that
controls the count rate observed by the neutron tool. Hence we have a tool that can measure porosity in
water saturated formations where the matrix minerals contain no hydrogen.

In practice, it is not only hydrogen that affects the passage of neutrons in a formation. As we can see
from Fig. 15.2, other rock forming elements have an effect on the slowing down of neutrons in the
formation, but their effect is small compared with hydrogen, and when it comes to neutron absorption,
both chlorine and hydrogen have a part to play. The small errors that are introduced by assuming that it
is just hydrogen that affects neutrons are overcome by calibrating the tool. The tool is calibrated in pure
limestone, and hence does not give true porosities. Instead it gives equivalent porosities that would
occur if the rock was measuring limestone. This will be discussed in further detail in Section 4.

The Hydrocarbon Effect. Note in Table 15.1 that the hydrogen indices of water and oil are
approximately the same because the effect of their different compositions on the partial concentration
of hydrogen per unit volume is approximately balanced by the difference in their density.

As with the formation density tool, the zone of investigation of the neutron tool is constrained to the
flushed zone. Hence, the tool will measure the hydrogen index associated mainly with the mud filtrate,

Geoff Page 2010 Page 154

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

together with whatever remains of the hydrocarbons and formation water in the formation. Imagine, for
example that we are in an oil zone in a limestone, the mud filtrate almost completely replaces the
formation fluids such that there is a saturation of mud filtrate SXO, and a residual saturation of
hydrocarbons (1- SXO). The porosity read by the neutron tool is related to the actual porosity in the
formation by

(15.5)

If the hydrocarbon is oil, this equation reduces to фN ≈ ф, because, as we have seen in Table 15.1 the
hydrogen index of water and oils is similar; HImj ≈HIhc. This is true whether the mud filtrate is oil-
based or water-based.

(15.6)

If the hydrocarbon is methane gas with a density of 0.1 g/cm3, the equation reduces to

(15.7)

If the saturation in the flushed zone SXO = 0.7, Eq. (15.7) reduces to фN = 0.77 ф. This is known as the
hydrocarbon effect in the neutron log.

The Chlorine Effect. Some types of neutron tool measure the thermal neutrons and gamma rays
produced during the capture of neutrons. There are only two elements that are found in reservoirs that
contribute significantly to neutron absorption; hydrogen and chlorine. The presence of hydrogen in the
fluids is what we want to measure, so this is not a problem.

However, if the drilling mud, mud filtrate or formation fluids contain a significant amount of dissolved
chloride ions, as is often the case, the tool will measure a lower flux of neutrons and hence
overestimate the porosity. This is called the chlorine effect, and is present in wells drilled or logged in
the presence of drilling muds containing dissolved chlorine, or in formations where the formation
waters are particularly salty.

Many modern neutron tools are designed to minimize the affects, and corrections required for, chlorine.

The Shale Effect. Shale contain clays that have a significant amount of surface absorbed (lattice
bound) water. Hence shales can contain a significant proportion of hydrogen despite being low porosity.
The apparent porosity read from the neutron tool in shale formations is therefore always
significantly higher than it really is. This is called the shale effect, and will be discussed further later in
this chapter.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 155

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

15.3 Tool Operation

There are three main types of neutron tool, which are:

• The Gamma Ray/Neutron Tool (GNT), which is rarely seen today, except in the FSU.
• The Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool (SNP), also rarely seen.
• The Compensated Neutron Log (CNL), which is the standard log today.

15.3.1 Gamma Ray/Neutron Tool (GNT)

This tool has a neutron source and a single detector that is sensitive to high energy capture gamma
rays and thermal neutrons and is non-directional. The tool can be run in either open or cased holes, and
in both cases is run centered. A 3-3/8 inches diameter tool is used in open holes, and a 1-11/16 or 2
inch diameter tool is used in cased holes. The source to detector spacing varies between tool
manufacturers, but is in the range 15.5 to 19.5 inches. Because the tool is centered, the detected
neutrons and gamma rays have to travel through both mudcake and drilling mud. Hence, this tool is
highly sensitive to changes in borehole quality, temperature, type of drilling mud, and mudcake
thickness. Correction curves are available from the tool manufacturers to correct the log data for
temperature, hole diameter, and the effect of drilling mud and mudcake.

Because the tool measures the thermal neutrons and the capture gamma rays, it is effected by the
process of neutron capture by chlorine. Since drilling mud, mud filtrate and formation waters may
contain significant amounts of dissolved chloride ions, the measurement can give erroneous values.
Erroneous values take the form of overestimated porosities in formations either drilled with muds
containing dissolved chloride ions, or salty formation fluids.

15.3.2 Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool (SNP)

This tool is designed for use in open holes only. The tool has a source and a single detector with a 16
inch spacing, which are mounted on a skid that is pressed against the borehole wall. Often this will be
the same carrier that holds the formation density source and detector. Because the tool is pressed
against the borehole wall, the drilling mud has less affect on the measurement, and the attenuation due to
the mudcake is reduced. However rough holes can cause misalignment of either the source or the
detector with the borehole wall, and hence give erroneous readings.

The detector is sensitive to epithermal neutrons. These neutrons are not yet slow enough to take part in
absorption reactions with hydrogen and chlorine. Hence, the SNP tool readings are unaffected by the
presence of chlorine in high salinity muds and formation fluids.

15.3.3 Compensated Neutron Log (CNL)

This tool is normally designed to be sensitive to thermal neutrons, and is therefore affected by the
chlorine effect, although epithermal based tools do exist. It has two detectors situated
approximately 15 in and 25 in from the source. The critical measurement for this tool is the
difference in the thermal neutron population, which results from neutron capture and neutron
scattering. The tool readings are presented in limestone porosity units in the same way as the sidewall
neutron porosity tool. The CNL tool has a very strong source of neutrons to ensure that the measured
count rates are sufficiently high to obviate any significant errors associated with statistical fluctuations in
the count rate despite the longer source-detector spacing for this tool compared to the GNT and SNP
tools. The stronger source permits a deeper depth of investigation as well as allowing the tool to

Geoff Page 2010 Page 156

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log
operate in cased holes. The CNL tool is run eccentred in the hole by a spring arm which presses the
tool against the side of the borehole. This means that the tool is less sensitive to the type of mud in the
hole, however as it is very difficult to shield the detectors against borehole neutrons there are still
significant borehole effects, and corrections for hole size and mud chemistry must be applied. The CNL
log is shown in Fig. 15.4.

Formation Wire or
other tool

Far Detector

Near Detector

Source

End of tool
or other tool
Sprung-loaded
arm

Figure 15.4 The CNL tool.

15.4 Log Presentation

The data from all tool types are recorded in tracks 2 and 3.

The data from the GNT tool is given in API units as shown in Fig. 15.5.

The data from the SNP tool is given in equivalent limestone porosity units, with the scale running
from approximately –15% to 45%, as shown in Fig. 15.6.

Data from the CNL tool is given in equivalent limestone porosity units, with the scale running from
approximately –15% to 45%, as shown in Fig. 15.7.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 157

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

Figure 15.5 Log presentation for the GNT tool.

Figure 15.6 Log presentation for the SNP tool.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 158

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

Figure 15.7 Log presentation for the CNL tool.

15.5 Calibration

15.5.1 The GNT Tool

The primary standard for this tool is the API Neutron Calibration Pit at the University of Houston.
This pit contains three blocks of carbonate with accurately known porosities that are filled with fresh
water that are drilled to accept a tool. The tool is calibrated in 19% porosity Indiana limestone, for
which an API value of 1000 API neutron units is defined. The response of the tool is then checked in
1.9% Carthage Marble, 26 % Austin limestone, and 100% fresh water. A tool tested at Houston is used
as a secondary reference for the calibration of other tools at the wireline company’s workshops around
the globe. A wellsite check on the calibration of a tool is also carried out before and after running the
tool using a neutron source of accurately known radioactivity.

15.5.2 The SNP and CNL Tools

These tools are calibrated in blocks of limestone, sandstone and dolomite of high purity and accurately
known porosity in test pits. The tools are calibrated, not to give readings in API neutron porosity units,
but to give the porosity directly in percent. Limestone is chosen as the calibrating lithology, so the
readings are given in limestone porosity units.

IMPORTANT The common use of limestone porosity units as the calibrating unit for these logs
means that the reading of porosity in a limestone formation will be exact, but the reading of porosity in
these units in any other formation lithology will need correction (Fig. 15.8). Be aware that this
lithology correction may be done real-time while logging, resulting in the data being presented
in either apparent sandstone or dolomite porosity – check the log heading and scales.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 159

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

Figure 15.8 Correction chart for obtaining porosity values for lithologies other than limestone.

The SNP tool is calibrated at the wellsite uses a U-shaped polyethylene baffle (artificial formation)
with a two position baffle, where the geometry of the block and baffle arrangements are known to
result in readings equivalent to 11% porosity and 22% porosity.

The calibration of the CNL tool is checked at the wellsite before and after each logging run by the use
of a neutron source of accurately known activity encased in a block of plastic, (containing lots of
hydrogen to slow down the neutrons), placed a standard distance from the detectors.

15.6 Depth of Investigation

The depth of penetration of the tool readings depends directly upon the amount of hydrogen in the
formation. Thus, for porous rocks that contain water or hydrocarbons (i.e., lots of hydrogen), there is
much neutron scattering and absorption, and hence the depth of investigation is small. For low
porosity rocks containing water or hydrocarbons, there is less hydrogen in the formation and the depth
of investigation is larger.

Overall the depth of investigation is a little more than the density in the range of 10-20”.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 160

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

The presence of gas in a formation increases the depth of investigation because, although the gas may
contain hydrocarbons, the gas has a very low density compared to liquid water and oil, and hence a
very low hydrogen index.

The presence of shales decreases the depth of investigation because even low porosity shales contain a
lot of water (i.e., hydrogen) that is bound to the surface of the clay lattice.

The depth of investigation of the CNL tool in a water saturated formation of 35% porosity is about 12
inches, and that of the SNP tool in the same formation is about 8 inches.

15.7 Vertical Resolution

As with most tools the vertical resolution is defined by the source to detector spacings, together with the
depth of investigation. The vertical resolution of neutron tools is a little greater than these spacings.
The vertical resolution of these tools is around 2-3ft.

Thinner beds will be noticed by the tool, but the apparent porosity will not be the same as the true
porosity of the bed.

The measuring point for these tools is half way between the source and the detector for single detector
tools, and half way between the two detectors for the dual detector tool.

As with the formation density log, it is possible to enhance the vertical resolution of this log by slowing
down the logging speed and using modern digital data processing.

15.8 Borehole Quality

The GNT tool is run centered in the borehole, and is therefore sensitive to the effect of caving and
wash-out due to the attenuation of gamma rays and neutrons by the larger annulus of drilling mud
around the tool. As the diameter of the borehole increases, more of the signal that the tool measures
represents the borehole, and less comes from the formation. Clearly, there is a degree of caving where
the signal measured by the tool is no longer representative of the formation, and then the tool cannot
be used. This problem is accentuated by the presence of chloride ions in the drilling mud (i.e., a salt
water-based mud), where attenuation by the drilling mud can lead to grossly erroneous porosity
readings.

The SNP and CNL tools are run pressed up against the borehole wall. In this case, the roughness of the
borehole wall due to caving or wash-out can result in the detectors or source not being pressed directly
up against the borehole wall. This will cause erroneous porosity readings. This standoff effect can
require a considerable correction of 3-5% porosity for 1 inch of standoff, therefore care should be taken
to eccenter these tools as well as possible, especially in larger wellbores.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 161

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

15.9 Mud Type

The tools can be used in most types of mud.

The GNT tool is sensitive to chloride-rich muds, and its results must then be corrected for the drilling
mud, mudcake and mud filtrate.

The SNP tool is not sensitive to the chloride effect and is run pressed against the borehole wall. The
mudcake tends to increase the apparent porosity because the mudcake has a high hydrogen index. This
effect can be corrected for.

The detectors of the CNL tool are sensitive to the chloride effect. However, the tool is run pressed
against the borehole wall to minimise the effect of the drilling mud on the measurement, however
corrections still need to be applied N.B. This includes correcting for the water phase chlorides in oil
based drilling mud, which can be a significant amount. Furthermore, the use of two detectors
automatically compensates for the effect of chloride-rich mudcake and mud filtrate.

The density of the mud also affects the readings, because high density muds attenuate the radiation to
a greater extent. This is usually only a problem for the GNT tool, where the effect can be compensated
for using correction charts.

15.10 Uses of the Neutron Log

1 5.1 0.1 Determination of Porosity
The main use of the neutron log is to provide porosity information.

The tool is sensitive to the amount of hydrogen in the formation and to a lesser extent upon other
elements. It is assumed that the contribution to the measurement by elements other than hydrogen is
negligible, and that the contribution to the measurement from hydrogen comes entirely from the fluids
fully occupying the pore space.

However, in real rocks elements other than hydrogen that exist in the rock matrix do contribute to the
measurement (e.g., chlorine in formation water, mud filtrates and in some evaporite formations), and
hydrogen is present in the matrix (e.g., bound water in shales).

The problem is partially overcome by calibrating the tool to give the porosity in limestone units. Pure
limestone saturated with fresh water is chosen because it contains no elements which contribute
significantly to the measured signal other than hydrogen.

The porosities that are read by the tool are accurate in limestone formations that contain fresh water.

The porosities that are read by the tool in other lithologies or with other fluids need to be corrected by a
chart such as that shown in Fig. 15.8.

There are three effects that are not corrected for in the log data, that need to be briefly mentioned.

The Hydrocarbon Effect. The presence of hydrocarbon liquid (oil) does not effect the tool response
as it has approximately the same hydrogen index as fresh water. Hydrocarbon gas, however, has a
much lower hydrocarbon index resulting from its low density, and its presence will give rise to
underestimations in porosity (Fig. 15.9).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 162

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

Figure 15.9 The Hydrocarbon gas effect in the neutron log.

The Shale Effect. Shale contain clays that have a significant amount of bound water molecules on
their surfaces. This increases the hydrogen index of the formation. Even very low porosity shales can
give erroneously high porosity readings due to the presence of these bound waters.

The Chloride Effect. Chlorine is a good absorber of neutrons, and can lead to overestimations of
porosity if present either as formation fluid or mud filtrate.

15.10.2 Determination of Lithology

The direct use of the neutron log to identify lithologies depends upon the recognition of which
lithologies may contain hydrogen atoms (Table 15.2).

Examples
Type
Fresh and salt water Formation water
Drilling mud
Mudcake
Mud filtrate
Hydrocarbons Gasses
Oils
Oil-based drilling mud
Oil-based mud filtrate
Oil-based mudcake
Coal
Organic-rich deposits
Bound water Shales
Water of Crystallization Evaporites
Hydrated minerals Igneous and metamorphic rocks

Table 15.2 Lithological and fluid indicators for the neutron tool.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 163

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

Figure 15.10 shows typical log responses in common lithologies.

Figure 15.10 Typical neutron log responses in common lithologies.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 164

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

The values of apparent porosity in shales varies considerably, but is usually higher than the apparent
porosity in carbonate or sandstone rocks (i.e., 45 to 75%). This clearly high and unrealistic porosity is a
partial indicator of shale, and can become diagnostic when combined with the gamma ray log. One
may see a slight decrease in the apparent porosity in shales due to compaction, but only over large
depth intervals.

The apparent neutron limestone porosity is affected by the amount of shale and sand, or shale and
limestone in a mixture of the two. Hence we can recognize coarsening-up and fining-up sequences in
the neutron log (Fig. 15.11). While one can calculate a shale volume from the neutron log directly, it is
not recommended because of the effect of hydrocarbon gasses which may be present to disturb the log.

Figure 15.11 The neutron log response to mixtures of shales and sandstones.

Organic mater, often present in shales may cause an even higher apparent neutron limestone porosity
than the bound water in the shales alone (Fig. 15.11).

The neutron log can detect evaporites by either their waters of crystallization. The most common
example is gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), but also include kainite, carnalite and polyhalite. The first three of these
give apparent limestone porosities of about 60%, while polyhalite give about 25%. The apparent limestone
porosities for halite, anhydrite, and sylvite are very low (approximately -3, -2, and –3 respectively, but
also tool dependent) as they contain no water. Note that there is no effect of the chlorine atom in halite
or sylvite (Fig. 15.12).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 165

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

Hydrated minerals are not common in

basins. The only occurrence is
occasional chamosite in Liassic shales
in the North Sea. Hydrated minerals
may be seen in neutron logs used for
non-hydrocarbon purposes, such as
geothermal reservoir assessment in
metamorphic and igneous provinces.
However, volcanic and intrusive rocks
show high apparent neutron porosities
due to hydrated minerals, and these
horizons in reservoirs can be very
useful for correlation purposes.

Figure 15.12 The neutron log response

to evaporites (after Rider, 1997).

15.11 Lithological Identification using the Neutron-Density Combination

15.11.1 Compatible Scales and the Density-Neutron Cross-plot

This is a hugely important technique, and together with the photoelectric log forms the best downhole
lithological identification technique available to the petrophysicist.

Both the formation density log and the neutron log give a direct measurement of TOTAL porosity.
Hence, if they are plotted on compatible scales, they should overlie each other (Fig. 15.13).

Note that the compatible scale here is Density (1.95 to 2.95 g/cm3) and Neutron (-15 to 45% limestone
porosity units). This is the most commonly used scale range, although other wider or more restricted
ones are possible.

Note also that good superimposition will ONLY occur for clean limestone formations 100% saturated
with fresh water.

To construct a compatible scale we follow the following steps:

• For limestone with 0% porosity, the density log reads 2.71 g/cm3 and the neutron log reads zero.

• For limestone with 100% porosity, the density log reads 1.00 g/cm3 and the neutron log reads 100.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 166

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

These two points can be plotted on a graph of density (from the density log) on the y-axis against
neutron porosity (from the neutron log) on the x-axis. We can join up the two points with a straight
line, and calibrate the line for porosity (Fig. 15.14). The graph is called the density-neutron crossplot
and the line is called the clean limestone line.

The clean limestone line only works for clean limestones because of the effect of non-hydrogen
elements in the matrix on the neutron porosity values, and the different grain densities. However, we
can take account of the different densities and correct the neutron porosity units using Fig. 15.8, to
obtain lines of the cross-plot for clean sandstones and clean dolomite, the clean sandstone and clean
dolomite lines.

Figure 15.13 The density and neutron log responses for clean formations on a compatible scale (after
Rider, 1997).

One can see from the cross-plot that for density and neutron logs plotted on compatible scales, there will
be a separation of the density and the neutron logs for sandstone and dolomite, but no separation for
limestone (Fig. 15.15). The sandstone separation is called negative and the dolomite separation is in the
other direction and slightly larger, and is called positive.

The separations are caused by the relative positions of both logs. Note that these charts and the separations
are very specific to individual neutron tool designs. Ensure that you are using the correct chart.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 167

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

Figure 15.14 The density-neutron crossplot.

1 5.11.2 Clean Formations

• There is no separation for pure limestones, and the porosity value that the log gives is accurate.
• There is a small negative separation for clean sandstones.
• There is a moderate positive separation for pure dolomites.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 168

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

Figure 15.15 The density-neutron combination idealized responses.

1 5.11.3 Shaly Formations

If shale is present in the formation, the neutron log reads much higher porosities than it would
otherwise do because of the effect of lattice bound water. This gives a large positive separation.

This large positive separation is diagnostic of shales.

If the shale volume decreases due to the intermixture of sandstone, the large positive separation
decreases, crosses-over and becomes eventually the small negative separation associated with pure
sandstone.

Thus, a sequence of clearly defined sand and shale formations shows switching between positive and
negative separations in the logs.

Often the beds will not be well defined, but coarsen-up or fine-up gradually. This can be seen by a
gradual switch from one separation to another. Hence the characteristic patterns (reviewed in the
chapter on the gamma ray log) can be recognized in the separations, and conclusions may be drawn
concerning the depositional environment.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 169

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

The size of the separation is actually THE BEST quantitative estimator or shale volume. It is better
than the shale volume derived from the gamma ray log. We can write an equation for shale volume
based on separations

(15.8)

where Ω stands for the separation measured in 100% sandstone, 100% shale, and at the point of
interest in the log. Note that the separations may ALL be measured on the limestone porosity scale,
ALL on the density scale, or ALL using a simple ruler on the log! Each is valid, but you must keep it
consistent for the whole equation.

15.11.4 Distinctive Lithologies

Certain minerals have unusual combinations
of density and neutron porosity. These
unusual combinations can be used to identify
them on a combination log. Examples are
given in Fig. 15.16.

Coals are a good example of a distinctive

combination of density and neutron porosity
values. They have unusually low densities
combined with unusually high apparent
neutron porosity values associated with their
hydrogen content.

15.11.5 Evaporites
Remember from the section about the
formation density tool that evaporites can
often be recognized because their often pure
nature leads to well constrained density
values. Evaporites have apparent neutron
porosity values which are either very high or
very low. The combination of well
constrained density values and very high or
very low apparent neutron porosity values
is a characteristic and diagnostic
combination for evaporites (Fig. 15.17).

Fig 15.16 Distinctive minerals on a density-neutron log.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 170

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

Fig 15.17 Distinctive evaporites on a density-neutron log.

15.12 Alternative tool technologies

Most tools in use today, both LWD and wireline, are of the CNL two detector type. These are
designed to be sensitive to thermal neutrons.

There are a few designs around which have a higher sensitivity to epithermal neutrons, check with the
logging contractor. These tools have a different lithological response, and generally a lower shale
response.

LWD tools are built into large drill collars which fill most of the wellbore and displace the mud
(=hydrogen replaced with steel), and generally have much smaller wellbore corrections.

Some new tools are now available which use an electronic accelerator neutron source, instead of the
chemical source, which can provide both a thermal and an epithermal neutron porosity.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 171

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

15.13 Noise suppression

The neutron porosity curve from the CNL is derived from the ratio of the short spacing to the long
spacing countrates. The calibration algorithm from SS/LS countrate to neutron porosity is a curve which
gets steeper at higher porosities (Figure 15.18).

When porosities are very high, there is a lot of hydrogen, and countrates are very low. This is typically
the case in shales. This means that the output from each of the two detectors varies much more
statistically at high porosities, and when the ratio SS/LS is taken and converted to a porosity via a steep
calibration algorithm, the result can be a porosity that varies considerably and appears “noisy”. This was
particularly true for the early tools which had much lower countrates.

In order to present a better looking log, an algorithm was developed to suppress this high porosity
instability. It takes the form of a modification to the calibration curve, where the curve is switched to a
lower angle linear response above around 30% porosity (Figure 15.18).

Output

Input

Figure 15.18 The calibration and suppression on CNL data.

The effect of this is to suppress high porosity excursions above approximately 30%, but to leave all
data below 30% unchanged. (Figure 15.19), however this suppressed curve is not volumetrically
correct and should not be used for analysis, especially in shaly reservoirs (Chapter 20).

Traditionally one service company (Schlumberger) has tended to present this suppressed curve
(NPHI) on logs, and another (Baker Hughes) the true response (CNC). This has caused some
confusion when comparing logs from different companies, as the shale response looks different.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 172

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes The Neutron Log

The true responses, which should be used for analysis are TNPH (Schlumberger) or CNC (Baker
Hughes), the suppressed responses are NPHI (Schlumberger) or CNCF (Baker Hughes). Other service
company data, wireline or LWD, may vary. Check with the service provider which curves are correct.

Figure 15.19 A comparison of calibrated and suppressed CNL data.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 173

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

16. THE ACOUSTIC OR SONIC LOG

16.1 Introduction

The acoustic or sonic log measures the travel time of an elastic wave through the formation. This
information can also be used to derive the velocity of elastic waves through the formation.

Its main use is to provide information to support and calibrate seismic data and to derive the porosity
of a formation.

The main uses are:

• Provision of a record of “seismic” velocity and travel time throughout a borehole. This
information can be used to calibrate a seismic data set (i.e., tie it in to measured values of seismic
velocity).
• Provision of “seismic” data for the use in creating synthetic seismograms.
• Determination of porosity (together with the density and neutron tools).
• Stratigraphic correlation.
• Identification of lithologies.
• Facies recognition.
• Fracture identification.
• Identification of compaction.
• Identification of over-pressures.
• Identification of source rocks.

The tool works at a higher frequency than seismic waves, therefore one must be careful with the direct
comparison and application of acoustic log data with seismic data.

16.2 Theory

16.2.1 Wave Types

The tool measures the time it takes for a pulse of “sound” (i.e., an elastic wave) to travel from a
transmitter to a receiver, which are both mounted on the tool. The transmitted pulse is very short and
of high amplitude. This travels through the rock in various different forms while undergoing
dispersion (spreading of the wave energy in time and space) and attenuation (loss of energy through
absorption of energy by the formations).

When the sound energy arrives at the receiver, having passed through the rock, it does so at different
times in the form of different types of wave. This is because the different types of wave travel with
different velocities in the rock or take different pathways to the receiver. Figure 16.1 shows a typical
received train of waves. The transmitter fires at t = 0. It is not shown in the figure because it is masked
from the received information by switching the receiver off for the short duration during which the
pulse is transmitted. This is done to ensure that the received information is not too complicated, and to
protect the sensitive receiver from the high amplitude pulse. After some time the first type of wave
arrives. This is the compressional or longitudinal or pressure wave (P-wave). It is usually the fastest
wave, and has a small amplitude. The next wave, usually, to arrive is the transverse or shear wave (S-

Geoff Page 2010 Page 174

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

wave). This is slower than the P-wave, but usually has a higher amplitude. The shear wave cannot
propagate in fluids, as fluids do not behave elastically under shear deformation. These are the most
important two waves. After them come Rayleigh waves, Stoneley waves, and mud waves. The first two
of these waves are associated with energy moving along the borehole wall, and the last is a pressure
wave that travels through the mud in the borehole. They can be high amplitude, but usually arrive after
the main waves have arrived and are usually masked out of the data. There may also be unwanted P-
waves and S-waves that travel through the body of the tool, but these are minimized by good tool
design by (i) reducing their received amplitude by arranging damping along the tool, and (ii) delaying
their arrival until the P-wave and S-wave have arrived by ensuring that the pathway along the tool is a
long and complex one.

The data of interest is the time taken for the P-wave to travel from the transmitter to the receiver. This
is measured by circuitry that starts timing at the pulse transmission and has a threshold on the receiver.
When the first P-wave arrival appears the threshold is exceeded and the timer stops. Clearly the
threshold needs to be high enough so that random noise in the signal does not trigger the circuit, but
low enough to ensure that the P-wave arrival is accurately timed.

Fig. 16.1 The geophysical wavetrain received by an acoustic log.

There are complex tools that make use of both P-waves and S-waves, and some that record the full
wave train (full waveform logs). However, for the simple acoustic log that we are interested in here,
only the first arrival of the P-wave is of interest. The time between the transmission of the pulse and
the reception of the first arrival P-wave is the one-way time between the transmitter and the receiver.
If one knows the distance between the transmitter (Tx) and the receiver (Rx), the velocity of the wave in
the formation opposite to the tool can be found.

In practice the acoustic log data is not presented as a travel time, because different tools have different
Tx-Rx spacings, so there would be an ambiguity. Nor is the data presented as a velocity. The data is
presented as a slowness or the travel time per foot traveled through the formation, which is called delta t
(∆t or ∆T), and is usually measured in µs/ft. Hence we can write a conversion equation between velocity
and slowness:

Geoff Page 2010 Page 175

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log
(16.1)

where the slowness, At is in microseconds per foot, and the velocity, V is in feet per second.

The velocity of the compressional wave depends upon the elastic properties of the rock (matrix plus
fluid), so the measured slowness varies depending upon the composition and microstructure of the
matrix, the type and distribution of the pore fluid and the porosity of the rock. The velocity of a P-wave
in a material is directly proportional to the strength of the material and inversely proportional to the
density of the material. Hence, the slowness of a P-wave in a material is inversely proportional to the
strength of the material and directly proportional to the density of the material, i.e.;

(16.2)

The strength of a material is defined by two parameters (i) the bulk modulus K, and (ii) the shear
modulus µ.

The bulk modulus, K is the extent to which a material can withstand isotropic squeezing (Fig. 16.2a).
Imagine an amount of material subjected to an isotropic pressure P1. Now let the isotropic pressure
increase to a pressure P2. The material will compress from its initial volume v1 to a new smaller
volume v2. The bulk modulus is then given by;

(16.3)

where ∆P is the change in pressure, and ∆v is the change in volume. Thus ∆P is the change in pressure
that causes ∆v change in volume.

Fig. 16.2 The definition of bulk and shear moduli.

The shear modulus, µ is the extent to which a material can withstand shearing (Fig. 16.2b). Imagine
an amount of material subjected to a isotropic pressure P1. Now apply a shear stress (non-isotropic
pressure) Ps to one side of the sample. The material will shear to the new shape, and its overall length
will increase from its initial length l1 to a new larger length l2. The bulk modulus is then given by;

Geoff Page 2010 Page 176

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log
(16.4)

where γ is the shear strain. The application of the shear stress Ps causes the development of a shear
strain γ.

Detailed analysis of the velocity and slowness of P-waves in a material shows that;

(16.5)

(16.6)

16.2.2 Reflection and Refraction

The transmitter emits “sound” waves at a frequency of between 10-20 kHz, in short pulses at regular
intervals depending on the tool manufacturer. The energy spreads out in all directions.

Imagine a pulse emanating from a Tx on an acoustic tool. It will travel through the drilling mud and
encounter the wall of the borehole. The P-wave travels well through the mud at a relatively slow
velocity, Vm, as the mud has a low density. The S-wave will not travel through liquid mud. At the
interface it is both reflected back into the mud and refracted into the formation. The portion of the P-
wave energy that is refracted into the formation travels at a higher velocity, Vf, because the density of
the rock is higher. This is depicted in Fig. 16.3. We can use Snell’s law to write;

(16.7)

and at the critical angle of refraction, where the refracted wave travels along the borehole wall, R= 90o,
so;

(16.8)

Hence, if the velocity of the elastic wave in the formation changes, the critical angle, i, will also
change.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 177

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

The velocity of the refracted wave along the borehole wall remains Vf. Each point reached by the wave
acts as a new source retransmitting waves back into the borehole at velocity Vm.

(a) (b)
Formation Borehole Formation Borehole

Vf Vm Vf Vm
i i
R r r
R

Fig. 16.3 Reflection and refraction at the borehole wall.

16.3 Acoustic (Sonic) Tools

16.3.1 Early Tools

Early tools had one Tx and one Rx (Fig. 16.4). The body of the tool was made from rubber (low
velocity and high attenuation material) to stop waves traveling preferentially down the tool to the Rx.
There were two main problems with this tool. (i) The measured travel time was always too long
because the time taken for the elastic waves to pass through the mud was included in the measurement.
The measured time was A+B+C rather than just B. (ii) The length of the formation through which the
elastic wave traveled (B) was not constant because changes to the velocity of the wave depending
upon the formation altered the critical refraction angle.

16.3.2 Dual Receiver Tools

These tools were designed to overcome the problems in the early tools. They use two receivers a few
feet apart, and measure the difference in times of arrival of elastic waves at each Rx from a given pulse
from the Tx (Fig. 16.5). This time is called the acoustic interval transit time (∆t) and is the time taken for
the elastic wave to travel through the interval D (i.e., the distance between the receivers).

• The time taken for elastic wave to reach Rx1: TRx1 = A+B+C
• The time taken for elastic wave to reach Rx2: TRx2 = A+B+D+E
• The acoustic interval transit time: ∆T = (TRx2 - TRx1) = A+B+D+E – (A+B+C) = D+E-C.
• If tool is axial in borehole: C = E, so ∆T = (TRx2 - TRx1) = D

Geoff Page 2010 Page 178

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

The problem with this arrangement is that if the tool is tilted in the hole, or the hole size changes (Fig.
16.6), we can see that C ≠ E, and the two Rx system fails to work.

A
Tx

Rx C

Fig. 16.4 Early acoustic tools.

Tx A

C
Rx1

D
E
Rx2

Fig. 16.5 Dual receiver acoustic tools in correct configuration.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 179

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

D
E

Fig. 16.6 Dual receiver acoustic tools in incorrect configuration.

16.3.3 BoreHole Compensated Acoustic (BHC) Tool

This tool compensates automatically for problems with tool misalignment and the varying size of the
hole (to some extent) that were encountered with the dual receiver tools. It has two transmitters and
four receivers, arranged in two dual receiver sets, but with one set inverted (i.e., in the opposite
direction). Each of the transmitters is pulsed alternately, and ∆t values are measured from alternate
pairs of receivers (Fig. 16.7). These two values of ∆t are then averaged to compensate for tool
misalignment, at to some extent for changes in the borehole size.

A typical pulse for the BHC is 100 µs to 200 µs, with a gap of about 50 ms, giving about 20 pulses per
second. There are four individual Tx-Rx readings needed per measurement, so 5 measurements can be
made per second. At a typical logging speed of 1500 m/h (5000 ft/h), gives one reading per 8 cm (3
inches) of borehole. Several versions of the BHC are available with different Tx-Rx distances (3 ft.
and 5 ft. being typical), and the Rx-Rx distance between pairs of receivers is usually 2 ft.

In practice to simplify tool design, and because the exact distance required between receivers is related
to the refraction angle, Rx1 and Rx4 are frequently physically the same transducer, as are Rx2 and Rx3,
resulting in a 2 x Transmitter and 2 x Receiver tool.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 180

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

Fig. 16.7 Borehole compensated acoustic tools.

16.3.4 Long Spacing Sonic (LSS) Tool

It was recognized that in some logging conditions a longer Tx-Rx distance could help. Hence
Schlumberger developed the long spacing sonic (LSS), which has two Tx two feet apart, and two Tx
also two feet apart but separated from the Tx by 8 feet. This tool gives two readings; a near reading
with a 8-10 ft. spacing, and a far reading with a 10-12 ft. spacing (Fig. 16.8), both of which are
uncompensated for instrument tilt. Computer systems are able to calculate a “virtual” second dataset
using depth delaying techniques as if the tool had a set of upper transmitters and apply the
compensation. This is known as Depth derived Borehole Compensation (DDBHC).

RxU

RxL

TxU

TxL

Fig. 16.8 Long spacing sonic tools.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 181

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

16.3.5 Common Industry Tools

Table 16.1 shows the names and mnemonics of these older industry acoustic tools. Array tools with multiple
spacing transmitters and receivers (Section 16.11) such as the XMAC (Baker Hughes) and DSI
(Schlumberger) have now almost completely replaced these older tool designs, however the basic principles
of measurement remain the same.

Table 16.1 The names and mnemonics of older industry acoustic tools.

Company
Tool Mnemonic

Compensated sonic sonde CSS

BPB
Long spaced compensated sonic LCS
Borehole compensated sonde BCS
Halliburton
Long spaced sonic LSS
Borehole compensated sonic BHC
Schlumberger
Long spaced sonic LSS
Borehole compensated acoustilog AC
Western Atlas
Long-spaced BHC acoustilog ACL

16.4 Calibration
The tools are not actually calibrated as the measurement depends only on accurate timing, and the
physical length of the tools. However the tool readings are verified inside the borehole opposite beds of
pure and known lithology, such as anhydrite (50.0 ts/ft.), salt (66.7 ts/ft.), or inside the casing (57.1
ts/ft.).

16.5 Log Presentation

The interval transit time ∆t is recorded on the log in microseconds per foot (µs/ft.). If the log is run on
its own, the log takes up the whole of Track 2 and 3, if combined with other logs, it is usually put in
Track 3 (Fig. 16.9). Most formations give transit times between 40 µs/ft. and 140 µs/ft., so these
values are usually used as the scale. The log may also be presented in µs/m, typically scaled from 100
µs/m to 300 µs/m.

The log will also show the integrated travel time (TTI). This value is derived simultaneously with the
main measurement, and is the mean travel time in milliseconds. It is commonly shown by pips on the
right side of the depth column (in slightly different styles by different companies). The small pips occur
every 1 millisecond and the larger ones occur every 10 milliseconds. The main advantage of this is that
the average travel time between two depths can be found by simply counting the pips, which is really
useful when comparing acoustic logs to seismic sections. Likewise adding the pips together for a certain
depth interval, and dividing by the thickness of the interval allows the mean velocity of the interval to
be simply calculated. In the comparison it MUST be remembered that the pips give one-way travel
time, and must be doubled to be compared to the two way travel time given in seismic data.

The accuracy of the travel time integrator can be checked on a log in a thick homogeneous formation.
First, count the pips over the thickness of the interval to get the TTI value in milliseconds. Then read
off the eyeballed mean ∆t in the interval in microseconds per foot, multiply by the thickness of the
interval and divide by 1000. The value should agree with the TTI reading.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 182

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

Fig. 16.9 Presentation of the acoustic log.

16.6 Depth of Investigation

This is complex and will not be covered in great detail here. In theory, the refracted wave travels along
the borehole wall, and hence the depth of penetration is small (a few inches – 1ft). It is independent of
TxRx spacing, but depends upon the wavelength of the elastic wave, with larger wavelengths giving
larger penetrations. As wavelength λ = V/f (i.e., velocity divided by frequency), for any given tool
frequency, the higher the velocity the formation has, the larger the wavelength and the deeper the
penetration.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 183

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log
16.7 Vertical and Bed Resolution
The vertical resolution of the older tools is equal to the Rx-Rx spacing, and hence is 2 ft. Beds less than
this thickness can be observed, but will not have the signal fully developed.

Modern array tools can derive ∆t in a variety of ways, with different vertical resolutions. Typically the
presented data is averaged across an array of 8 receivers at 6 inch spacing between each, resulting in a
3 1/2ft vertical resolution, however data can be processed down to the receiver spacing of 6 inches, or
2ft to match older data.

16.8 Logging Speed

The typical logging speed for the tool is 1800 ft/hr (540 m/hr). The measurement is made so fast
(in a few msec) that logging speed has minimal effect on the measurement, unless dragging the
tool too fast up the wellbore introduces “road noise”.

16.9 Logging Problems

16.9.1 Noise
Noise from stray electrical fields, the electronics package or derived from mechanically generated
noise in rough holes can trigger the detection circuitry before the first arrival, causing a false (shorter)
apparent first arrival. To limit this effect, all receiver circuits are disabled for 120 microseconds after
the pulse. As the remaining time for the possibility of a noise spike occurring is greater for the far
detector than the near one, most noise spikes occur for the far detector, which leads to values of ∆t that
are too small. These are seen as single data point spikes of low ∆t in the log (Figs. 16.10 and 16.11).

16.9.2 ∆t Stretch
In heavily attenuating formations the value of ∆t can be slightly too large due to the thresholding
method employed by the detection circuitry. However, this problem is rarely significant, and is
impossible to detect from the log.

16.9.3 Cycle Skipping

This is the occurrence of a failure in the thresholding to detect the first cycle of the wave’s first arrival.
Triggering may then occur at the second or even third cycle. This causes a marked and sudden shift to
higher ∆t values, followed by a shift back again to the correct value.

Noise, stretch, and cycle skipping are not such a problem for array tools due to a different method of
deriving the ∆t (Section 16.11).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 184

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

Near Detector

Receivers Off

∆t = T2-T1

Far Detector

Receivers Off

(a) ∆t measured correctly

Near Detector

Receivers Off

∆t = T2-T1

Far Detector

Receivers Off

(b) ∆t measured incorrectly (∆t is too small)

Fig. 16.10 The effect of noise spikes on thresholding.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 185

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

Fig. 16.11 How noise spikes occur in the log.

Acoustic tools generate signals omni-directionally, and are generally run centralized so that signals from
all sides of the wellbore arrive simultaneously and enhance each other, maximizing the signal strength
available for analysis, and minimizing any noise.

16.9.4 Mud Arrivals

Clearly the first arrival should be from a P-wave that has traveled through the formation. In some
circumstances the P-wave that has traveled directly through the mud arrives first. This occurs if the
Tx-Rx is smaller than a critical distance that depends upon the velocities of the P-wave through the
formation and the mud, the diameter of the borehole and the diameter of the tool. Tools are designed to
avoid this by making the Tx-Rx distance large enough for most applications. However, in some large
diameter holes, the mud arrivals may come first. This leads to there being no structure in the acoustic
log response because the travel time through the mud is all that is being recorded. In these circumstances
the tool may be run eccentred, but at the risk of picking up more noise spikes from the noise associated
with the rough borehole surface, and reducing signal amplitude from the far side of the wellbore.

16.9.5 Altered Zone Arrivals

The formation next to the borehole may not be typical of the rock. For example, it may be filled with
solid mud and have a higher velocity than the virgin formation, or it may be fractured or altered and
have a lower velocity. This is an analogous problem to the mud arrival problem.

If a low velocity altered zone exists, the Tx-Rx spacing must be large to ensure that the P-wave from the
virgin formation arrives before that from the altered zone. In this case an LSS should provide better
data than a BHC type log.

If a high velocity altered zone exists, there is no solution whatever older type of log is used. The
measured log value will be that for the altered zone, however array tools may see past this zone.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 186

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

A graph can be drawn to show the reliability of tools affected by mud and altered zone arrivals (Fig.
16.12). It is clear that the LSS has the better performance. However, the greater spacing means that
arrival waves are weaker and therefore more prone to cycle skipping and noise spikes.

Figure 16.13 shows an example of altered zone arrivals affecting a BHC log but not an LSS log.

200

150

Reliable Area
Under Curve

100
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Hole Diameter (inches)

Fig. 16.12 Schematic reliability chart for different spacings of tools.

Fig. 16.13 Example of altered zone arrivals affecting the BHC log.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 187

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

16.10 Uses of the Acoustic Log

1 6.1 0.1 Seismic Data Calibration

The presence of a acoustic log in a well that occurs on a seismic line or in a 3D survey enables the log
data to be used to calibrate and check the seismic data. As the resolution of the acoustic log is about 2ft
(61 cm) and that of the seismic technique is 10 m to 50 m, the acoustic data must be averaged for the
comparison to be made. However, the higher resolution of the acoustic log may enable the log
information to resolve indications of beds that are just beyond the resolution of the seismic technique.

It must be remembered that the acoustic log gives a one-way travel time, and the seismic technique gives
a two-way travel time.

16.10.2 Seismic Interval Velocities

The average acoustic log interval velocity is obtained by counting the TTI pips over the interval
concerned and dividing the thickness of the interval by this value.

A time-depth curve can then be obtained by taking a weighted sum of the interval velocities with
depth, which will give the total time to a given depth and plotting this against depth. Figure 6.14
shows an example of such a curve, where the acoustic interval transit time is given in parentheses next to
the depth column.

The time-depth curve can then be compared against the velocity analyses from the seismic data, or can be
used in place of velocity analyses in seismic processing.

Fig. 16.14 Interval velocity and time-depth graphs.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 188

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

16.10.3 Synthetic Seismograms

A synthetic seismogram is a seismic trace that has been constructed from various parameters
obtainable from log information. It represents the seismic trace that should be observed with the
seismic method at the well location. It is useful to compare such a synthetic seismogram with the
seismic trace actually measured at the well to improve the picking of seismic horizons, and to improve
the accuracy and resolution of formations of interest.

It should be remembered that the observed seismic trace is primarily a record of the ability of
interfaces between formations to reflect elastic waves. This ability is called the reflection coefficient
R. The reflection coefficient depends upon the properties of the rock either side of the interface, and in
particular on its acoustic impedance. The acoustic impedance is the product of the seismic velocity and
the density of the rock.

Thus, if we can derive the density and seismic velocity of a set of formations from logs, we can derive
a synthetic seismogram. The procedure is as follows.

• Obtain a density log, ρ(z), for the interval of interest. This is best obtained from a density log, but
approximations can be made from the acoustic log by using the acoustic log to derive porosity, and
then if the densities of the rock matrix and formation fluids are known, the density of the rock can be
calculated.

• Convert the density log in depth to that against two-way time using the TTI information from the
acoustic log.

• Obtain the elastic wave velocity log, V(z), from the acoustic log using Eq. (16.1).

• Convert the elastic wave velocity log in depth to that against two-way time using the TTI
information from the acoustic log.

• Multiply these two values for each depth to give the acoustic impedance log, AI =ρ(TWT)V(TWT).

• Calculate the reflection coefficient for each interface from the acoustic impedance log using;

(16.9)

where the subscript 2 refers to the formation below an interface, and the subscript 1 to the
formation above it.

Note that the reflection coefficient will only exist at interfaces, and is zero in between.

• Apply a multiplying factor to the reflection coefficient log to account for the fact that the seismic
response will be attenuated with depth. This factor reduces with increasing two-way travel time
(i.e., as depth increases).

• Convolve (multiply) the modified reflection coefficient with a chosen zero phase wavelet that
represents the seismic data with which you wish to compare the synthetic seismogram.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 189

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

Fig. 16.15 The construction of a synthetic seismogram.

Note that the reverse procedure is also possible, and is used to obtain information about lithology and
porosity (via density) (i.e., information about formation properties) from the seismic traces that are
sensitive to the interfaces between formations. This is called acoustic impedance inversion, and is the
domain of the geophysicist.

16.10.4 Porosity Determination

The acoustic log is commonly used to calculate the porosity of formations, however the values from
the density and neutron logs are generally superior.

It is useful in the following ways:

• As a quality check on the density and neutron log determinations.

• As a robust method in boreholes of variable size (since the acoustic log is relatively insensitive to
caving and wash-outs etc.).
• To calculate secondary porosity in carbonates.
• To calculate fracture porosity.

16.10.4.1 The Wyllie Time Average Equation

The velocity of elastic waves through a given lithology is a function of porosity. Wyllie proposed a
simple mixing equation to describe this behaviour and called it the time average equation (Fig. 16.16). It
can be written in terms of velocity or ∆t:

Geoff Page 2010 Page 190

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

(16.10)

(16.11)

Hence;

(16.12)

where ∆t is the transit time in the formation of interest, ∆t p is that through 100% of the pore fluid, and
∆t ma is that through 100% of the rock matrix, ф is the porosity, and the velocities are analogous. A
list of input values to these equations for common lithologies and fluids is given as Table 16.2.
Table 16.2 Values for ∆t and V for use in Wyllie’s time average equation.

Material ∆t (µs/ft.) V (ft./s) V (m/s)

Compact sandstone 55.6 – 51.3 18000 – 19500 5490 – 5950

Limestone 47.6 – 43.5 21000 – 23000 6400 – 7010
Dolomite 43.5 – 38.5 23000 – 26000 7010 – 7920
Anhydrite 50.0 20000 6096
Halite 66.7 15000 4572
Shale 170 – 60 5880 – 16660 1790 – 5805
Bituminous coal 140 – 100 7140 – 10000 2180 – 3050
Lignite 180 – 140 5560 – 7140 1690 – 2180

Casing 57.1 17500 5334

Water: 200,000 ppm, 15 psi 180.5 5540 1690

Water: 150,000 ppm, 15 psi 186.0 5380 1640
Water: 100,000 ppm, 15 psi 192.3 5200 1580
Oil 238 4200 1280
Methane, 15 psi 626 1600 490

The Wyllie time average equation gives porosities that are overestimated in uncompacted formations
(indicated by the rule of thumb that adjacent shale beds have ∆t values greater than 100 microseconds
per foot). An empirical correction Bcp is then applied:

(16.13)

where Bcp is approximately equal to the value of ∆t in the adjacent shales divided by 100.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 191

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

Fig. 16.16 The wave path through porous fluid saturated rocks.

The compaction correction factor can also be obtained from other logs:

• From the density log: A density-acoustic cross-plot in clean water-bearing formations close to
the zone of interest establishes a line that can be scaled in porosity units. But this is little better than
using the density log to calculate the porosity directly.

• From the neutron log: The compaction factor is the ratio of the porosity from the uncorrected
acoustic log to that from the neutron log in clean water-bearing formations close to the zone of
interest. Again, this is little better than using the neutron log directly to obtain the porosity.

• From the resistivity log: Obtain the porosity from the resistivity log in clean water-bearing
formations close to the zone of interest using Archie’s law and known values of its parameters.
The compaction factor is then the ratio of the porosity from the acoustic log to the porosity from the

Geoff Page 2010 Page 192

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

resistivity log. Again, this is little better than using the resistivity log directly to obtain the
porosity.

Even though these methods are not so useful to obtain a corrected acoustic porosity, they are useful if one
wants to calculate the correction factor for its own sake.

16.10.4.2 The Raymer-Hunt Equation

Another method for calculating the porosity from the acoustic log was proposed by Raymer. This is
expressed as:

(16.14)

This provides a much superior accuracy porosity over the entire range of geologically reasonable ∆t.

Figure 16.17 shows the Raymer-Hunt equation for some typical lithologies.

Fig. 16.17 The Raymer-Hunt equation for calculating porosity from transit time. Here the following
data have been used: ∆t = 53 (sandstone matrix ), 45 (limestone matrix), 40 (dolomite matrix), 186
(fluid), all in µs/ft.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 193

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

16.10.4.3 Calibration against Core

Occasionally, there is good core coverage in a well, so core porosities are available. If this is the case, it
is useful to calibrate the acoustic log against the core porosity. A cross-plot of core porosity against the
transit time at the same depth should produce a straight line that can be extrapolated to the x-axis to
give a value for the local matrix transit time ∆tma (Fig. 16.18). This is best done for each obvious
lithology in the well providing there are enough core determinations to ensure that the cross-plot for
each lithology is worthwhile. Cross-plots can also be carried out between the core resistivity while
100% saturated with water, Ro, and the transit time from the acoustic log. This should also give the local
matrix transit time, and is a verification of the first plot.

The core porosity, acoustic transit time cross-plot can also be used to calibrate the porosities derived
from the acoustic log between the cored points in a given well, but should not be extrapolated out of the
cored interval or to other wells.

Fig. 16.18 Calibration against core porosities.

16.10.4.4 Secondary and Fracture Porosity

The acoustic log is sensitive only to the primary intergranular porosity. By contrast, the density and
neutron logs record the total porosity. The difference between the two measurements, therefore, can be
used to calculate a value for the secondary porosity, whether it be isolated vugs in carbonates or
fractures. This is called the secondary porosity index (SPI or ф2), and is defined:

Geoff Page 2010 Page 194

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

(16.15)

16.10.4.5 The Effect of Shale on the Acoustic Derived Porosity

The effect of shales is very variable. This is because is depends upon the density of the shales, which
varies a lot. Young shales are generally under-compacted and low density, tending to increase the
transit times and hence give slightly higher acoustic derived porosities. Exactly the opposite is the
case for ancient compact shales with high densities, which give lower transit times and smaller
porosities. The effect of shales on the porosity from the acoustic log is not as great as the effect of gas.

16.10.4.6 The Effect of Gas on the Acoustic

Derived Porosity

Gas has a low density, and hence decreases the

apparent density of a formation if present. This
causes an increase in the acoustic transit time, and
hence a porosity that is overestimated.

However, the acoustic tool penetrates to shallow

levels, and senses the flushed zone. Most gas, even
in high porosity gas-bearing formations will be
replaced by mud filtrate. The remaining 15% or so
will still have an effect upon the measure acoustic
transit time and the acoustic porosity because of
the very low density of the gas. An example is
given as Fig. 16.19.The gas effect on the acoustic
is non-linear and is difficult to accurately correct,
although equations do exist such as “Gassman”.

The affect is often used as a gas indicator by

comparing with the shear measurements (which
are less affectd) in an ALHI crossplot (Acoustic
Log Hydrocarbon Indicator).

Fig. 16.19 The effect of gas on the acoustic log.

16.10.5 Stratigraphic Correlation

The acoustic log is sensitive to small changes in grain size, texture, mineralogy, carbonate content, quartz
content as well as porosity. This makes it a very useful log for using for correlation and facies analysis
(Fig. 16.20).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 195

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

Fig. 16.20 Subtle textural and structural variations in deep sea turbidite sands shown on the acoustic
log (after Rider).

16.10.6 Identification of Lithologies

The velocity or interval travel time is rarely diagnostic of a particular rock type. However, high
velocities usually indicate carbonates, middle velocities indicate sands and low velocities, shales.

The acoustic log data is diagnostic for coals, which have very low velocities, and evaporites, which
have a constant, well recognized velocity and transit time (see Table 16.2).

It is best to use the acoustic log with other logs if lithological identification is important.

The main characteristics of the acoustic log are shown in Fig. 16.21.

16.10.7 Compaction
As a sediment becomes compacted, the velocity of elastic waves through it increases. If one plots the
interval transit time on a logarithmic scale against depth on a linear scale, a straight line relationship
emerges. This is a compaction trend.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 196

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

Fig. 16.21 Typical responses of the acoustic log (courtesy of Rider).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 197

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

Compaction trends are constructed for single

lithologies, comparing the same stratigraphic interval
at different depths. It is possible to estimate the
amount of erosion at unconformities or the amount of
uplift from these trends. This is because compaction is
generally accompanied by diagenetic changes which
do not alter after uplift. Hence the compaction of a
sediment represents its deepest burial.

Figure 16.22 compares the compaction trend for the

same lithology in the same stratigraphic interval in
one well with that in another well. The data from the
well represented by the circles shows the interval to
have been uplifted by 900 m relative to the other well
because it has lower interval transit times (is more
compact) but occurs at a shallower depth.

Compaction curves such as these may therefore be

extremely useful, as they can indicate the amount of
eroded rock at sudden breaks in the compaction curve
that are associated with faults of unconformities.

Fig. 16.22 Uplift and erosion from compaction trends.

16.10.8 Overpressure
The acoustic log can be used to detect overpressured
zones in a well. An increase in pore pressures is
shown on the acoustic log by a drop in acoustic
velocity or an increase in acoustic travel time
(Fig. 16.23).

Plot interval transit time on a log scale against

depth on a linear scale. In any given lithology a
compaction trend will be seen. If there is a break
in the compaction trend with depth to higher
transit times with no change in lithology, it is
likely that this indicates the top of an
overpressured zone.

Fig. 16.23 An overpressured zone distinguished

from acoustic log data.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 198

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

16.9 Array Acoustic Instruments

16.9.1 Array tools

Most acoustic tools run today are of the array
design. These consist of several transmitters at
different spacings from an array (typically 8 sets)
of receivers.

The Tx – Rx spacing is usually around 10ft for the

shortest spacing.

There are two types of transmitters; the standard

monopole as used in older generations of
instrument, and “Dipole” transmitters which
generate low frequency directional waves, which
can be used to measure very slow shear
slowness’s, and are usually arranged in orthogonal
pairs (X and Y) to allow anisotropy of the rocks
around the wellbore to be measured.

The receivers are usually 6 inches apart and split

into 4 components to allow them to receive either
the onmi-directional monopole waves, or
directional Dipole waves.

If the tool had transmitters above and below the

receiver array, with 10ft Tx – Rx spacings, the tool
would be very long. In order to shorten the
toolstring the tools use a depth derived borehole
compensation technique to synthesise a virtual
upper set of transmitters and correct for instrument
tilt.

Typical tools of this type are the Cross Multipole

Array Acoustic (XMAC) Fig. 16.24 from baker
Hughes, and the Dipole Sonic Imager (DSI) from
Schlumberger.

Fig. 16.24 The Cross Multipole Array

Acoustic (XMAC).

16.9.1 Array processing

The ∆t or slowness of the formation is extracted in a different way from array data. Instead of
attempting to determine the precise start (Travel time) of each waveform, which is subject to cycle
skipping and noise, the signals from all the receivers are compared simultaneously (Figure 16.25).
As each of the receivers is at a fixed/constant spacing from the next (usually 6 inches), the first
arrivals of each of all the waveforms line up, and the slope of the alignment is related to the
slowness to be determined (Figure 16.25 (A)), a steeper angle means a larger/slower ∆t. A
correlation window of data is compared across the array at varying slopes, and a correlogram plot
(B) then shows the highest correlation value at the angle at which all data aligns; this is the required
slowness value.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 199

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Acoustic (Sonic) Log

40 Slowness 240

Fig. 16.25 The array correlation process.

This array correlation process, know as “semblance” or “Nth Root” also allows the slowness of
later wave arrivals to be determined, such as the Shear and Stoneley slowness’s.

This process even allows the array acoustic to be logged through casing (as long as the casing is
reasonably cemented to provide energy coupling through to the formation). An additional
correlation peak is seen for the steel of the casing at a slowness of 57µsec/ft, (Figure 16.26) which
can be excluded by a simple cutoff from being used as the formation signal, although of course this
is difficult if the formation signal also has a similar slowness.

Fig. 16.26 Through casing acoustic analysis

Geoff Page 2010 Page 200

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Sonic (Acoustic) Log

16.10 LWD Acoustic Instruments

The drilling environment is very noisy and until
recently acoustic measurements were not
available from LWD. Instruments have now been
developed which acquire and stack multiple
acquisitions; enhancing the correlations and
reducing noise. This is aided by locating the
transmitter at the top of the tools: All tool
generated waves then travel down across the
receiver array, and drilling noise from the bit
travels up, allowing separation.

Array Acoustic processing requires the entire

waveform. In an LWD system the only
connection to surface is via very low bandwidth
mud pulses, from 5-10bits/second. This is
insufficient to send the complex waveforms to
surface for processing, the LWD instruments
therefore have built in mini-computers to allow
downhole processing. A simple DT can then be
transmitted via the mud pulse system. The full
waveforms are also stored in large downhole
memories for recovery when the drillstring is
tripped out of the hole.

Wireline tools use a Dipole transmitter to

measure slow shear waves. This does not work
very effectively in an LWD tool and is frequently
replaced by another type of transmitter which
generates Quadrupole waves. These travel at
shear velocities and do the job of Dipole waves
from a Wireline tool.

LWD tools are capable of generating multiplexed

Monopole, Dipole and Quadrupole waves in
order to measure all formation types and
velocities during drilling.

Figure 16.27 shows an LWD acoustic tool

Fig. 16.27 An LWD Acoustic tool.

(Baker Hughes SoundTrak).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 201

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

17. RESISTIVITY THEORY

17.1 Introduction
The whole of resistivity logging is based upon a few very important equations which are introduced in
this section. The equations, which are known as the Archie Equations, relate the resistivity of a
formation to the resistivity of the fluids saturating a formation, the porosity of the formation and the
fractional degree of saturation of each fluid present. As always, the story begins with Ohm’s Law.

17.2 Basic Definitions and Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing from point A to point B in a conductor I is proportional to
the difference in electrical potential ∆E between point A and point B. The constant of proportionality is
called the electrical conductance c. Current is measured in amperes (A), potential difference in volts
(V), and conductance in siemens (S).

Hence, we can write

(17.1)

We also define an electrical resistance r, which is the inverse of conductance.

(17.2)

Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω). Hence, we can rewrite Eq. (17.1) as

(17.3)

Thus, if we take a cylindrical rock sample with two flat faces A and B, and set a potential difference
∆E =EA-EB between its end faces, a current I will flow through the rock from face A to face B (Fig.
17.1). If we measure the current and the potential difference, we can calculate the resistance of the
rock sample using Eq. (17.1).

∆E

I A B

Figure 17.1 Ohm’s Law for a rock sample.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 202

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

• If the resistance is high, a given potential difference ∆E will only give a small current I.
• If the resistance is low, a given potential difference ∆E will give a high current I.

The value of resistance is a property of the material which describes how much the material resists the
passage of a current for a given applied potential difference.

Imagine that the size of our rock sample now changes.

• If the length of the sample is doubled, one can see that the resistance of the sample to the passage
of a current should also double.
• If the area perpendicular to the current flow doubles (the area of the end face in this example),
there is twice the material for the current to pass through, the resistance of the sample to the
passage of the current should therefore fall to a half of what is was before.

So the resistance (and therefore conductance) depend upon the size of the sample.

If we take the resistance per unit length and area, we can remove the effect of the dimensions of the
sample. The value we obtain is then only a function of the property of the material and not its
dimensions. The resistance per unit length and area is called the resistivity R, and can be expressed as

(17.4)

where: R = the resistance of the sample (Ωm or ohm.m)

∆E = the potential difference across the sample (volts, V)
I = the current flowing through the sample (amperes, A)
A = the cross-sectional area of the sample perpendicular to the current flow (m2)
L = the length of the sample (m).

Note that a conductivity C can also be defined as the reciprocal of the resistivity R, and therefore

(17.5)

where: C = the conductivity of the sample (S/m).

In petrophysical logging of electrical rock properties there are two main types of tool. One type
measures resistivity directly, and the result is given in ohm.m (Ω.m). The other type measures
conductivity directly, and the result is given in either siemens per metre (S/m), or more often in milli-
siemens per metre (mS/m). The two measurements are, of course, measuring the same property of the
rock, and can be interconverted using

(17.6)

(17.7)

The SI units mS/m are commonly labeled as mmho in oilfield units (mho = ohm backwards !!)

Geoff Page 2010 Page 203

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

17.3 Resistivity of Rocks

Reservoir rocks contain the following constituents

• Matrix material High resistivity

• Formation waters Low resistivity
• Oil High resistivity
• Gas High resistivity
• Water-based mud filtrate Low resistivity
• Oil-based mud filtrate High resistivity

All have a high electrical resistivity (electrical insulators) except the formation water and water-based
mud filtrate, which are good electrical conductors and have a low electrical resistivity.

The resistivity of the reservoir rocks therefore depends only upon the water or water based mud filtrate
occupying its pore space.

There are very rarely layers of metallic conductors in rocks, such as mica-pyrite in some parts of the
Middle East. When present very small quantities of these layers can have a very large effect on the
resistivity logs as they have extremely high conductivities. Special techniques need to be used to analyse
this data, which are beyond the scope of this course.

Uninvaded Formations. For uninvaded formations, the measured bulk resistivity of the rock depends
only upon the amount of the aqueous formation fluids present in the rock, and the resistivity of those
aqueous fluids. Since the amount of formation fluids depends both on porosity ф and water saturation
Sw, we can say that the resistivity of the formation Rt depends upon porosity , water saturation Sw, and
the resistivity of the formation water Rw. This resistivity is called the true resistivity of the formation. It
is the resistivity of the formation in the uninvaded zone, where the rock contains some saturation of oil
So, gas Sg, and water Sw, and where So+Sg+Sw=1.

The aim is to use knowledge of the resistivity of the formation, together with independent knowledge
of the porosity and resistivity of the formation waters, to calculate Sw, and hence enable ourselves to
calculate the STOOIP.

Typical values of Rt range from <0.2 to 2000+ ohm.m (5000 to 0.5 mS/m).

The uninvaded zone of formations is commonly only measured directly by the most deeply penetrating
electrical logging tools. The shallower investigating tools measure the invaded zone. Hence, if one
wants a resistivity reading for use in STOOIP calculations, one should always choose the deepest
penetrating electrical tool of those that have been run.

Invaded Zones. In most cases there is an invaded zone, where the formation fluids have been
disturbed by the drilling fluid. The resistivity of the formation in this zone depends upon the resistivity
of the mud filtrate Rmf, the resistivity of any remaining formation water Rw, the saturation of the mud
filtrate SXO, the saturation of the remaining formation water Sw (if any), and the porosity of the rock ф.

If these values and the depth of invasion are known, the resistivity measured in the invaded zone can
be corrected to account for the presence of the mud filtrate.

The symbols used in electrical logging in the invaded borehole environment are shown in Fig. 17.2.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 204

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

Figure 17.2 Borehole invasion, and the symbols used.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 205

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory
17.3 Temperature and Pressure
Calculating Formation Temperature. The resistivity of formation fluids and water-based drilling
muds varies greatly with temperature, but little with pressure. The temperature in a borehole can be
found directly from modern Horner corrected temperature logs up the entire borehole, or more
traditionally, from the geothermal gradient obtained from Horner corrected BHT measurements.

In the former case the temperature is given directly at a given depth. However, this is not used to
calculate the mud resistivity as the newer temperature logs also measure directly the mud resistivity
as it makes the temperature log.

In the latter, and more common, case the BHT allows us to calculate a mean geothermal gradient
for the borehole. The formation temperature can then either be calculated directly, or obtained with a
nomogram such as that given in Figure 17.3.

Figure 17.3 The formation temperature nomogram.

The Effect of Salt Composition. The resistivity of the formation fluids depends upon the
concentration and type of salts dissolved in it. We know the concentration and type of dissolved
solids in the formation water usually from chemical analysis of samples obtained by the FT. The
resistivity of this solution at a given temperature and pressure can be obtained by making up a
synthetic brine to the recipe indicated by the chemical analysis of the FT sample, or more often,
by the use of equations relating the composition to the fluid resistivity.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 206

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory
For simplicity, we express the dissolved salts in a solution as an NaCl equivalent. Figure 17.4 shows a
chart expressing multipliers K as a function of total concentration of solids for each individual ionic
contributor to the salts in solution. We simply multiply the relevant multiplier by the solid
concentration for each component and sum the results. The sum is the total NaCl equivalent
concentration in ppm, and this can be used to describe the concentration of the solution.

Figure 17.4 The NaCl equivalent plot.

For example, a solution contains 20,000 ppm NaCl, 10,000 ppm KCl and 1000 ppm MgSO4. The
multipliers are Na(1.00), Cl(1.00), K(0.9), Mg(1.63), SO4(0.64). The total NaCl equivalent is
20,000× 1+20,000× 1+10,000×0.9+10,000× 1+1000× 1.63+1000×0.64 = 30,635 ppm NaCl.

The Variation of Formation Fluid Resistivity with Temperature. The resistivity of aqueous
formation fluids varies significantly with temperature. The resistivity decreases approximately 4% per
degree centigrade increase. Clearly, if the BHT is 200oC, the change in the measured resistivities of the
formation fluids can be as much as 800%. This will cause the resistivities measured with downhole
tools to decrease steadily down the borehole.

In order to compare fluid resistivity measurements they can be corrected to read the resistivity they
o o
would read at some constant temperature (24 C/75 F is often used). To do this we need to convert the
raw resistivity data.

Figure 17.5 shows a typical chart for this type of correction. It is based upon Hilchie’s equation for the
variation of the resistivity of aqueous fluids with temperature. Hilchie’s equation relates the resistivity
of an NaCl solution at one temperature to that at another.

(17.8)

Geoff Page 2010 Page 207

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

where: Rw T1 = the resistivity of the fluid at temperature T1

R wT2 = the resistivity of the fluid at temperature T2
T1 = the temperature T1
T2 = the temperature T2

Note: for a quick estimate “X” is often approximated as 6.77 when using ºF, and 21.5 when using ºC.

Figure 17.5 Resistivity of NaCl fluids as a function of temperature.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 208

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

The corrections for temperature are generally included in most modern log analysis programs,
simplifying the process. For every fluid resistivity a temperature is requested, and often a temperature
gradient (vs depth – NB. All gradients/depths MUST be TVD depth) in order to continuously correct
the values over long log sections. The most important point is that:-

**** Whenever a fluid resistivity is stated, it MUST be accompanied by the ****

Temperature at which the value is stated

The Variation of Drilling Mud Resistivity with Temperature. The resistivity of the drilling mud is
measured by many tools and is available directly for calculation at a given depth. Tools that measure
the drilling mud resistivity include the newer temperature tools and some FT tools. Samples of mud are
also usually measured directly by the logging engineer at the time of the data acquisition and included
on the log headings.

The Variation of Mudcake and Mud Filtrate Resistivity with Temperature. The mud filtrate and
mudcake resistivities may be estimated from the mud density (mud weight) and the resistivity of the
drilling mud using the nomogram in Fig. 17.6. Note that this nomogram is valid for 24oC/75oF, however
the best values are the directly measured values obtained from the log headings.

Figure 17.6 Mudcake and mud filtrate resistivity nomogram.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 209

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

17.4 Formation Factor (Archie’s First Law)

In the late 1920s and early 1930s Archie carried out a series of experiments to analyze the relationship
between the resistivity of rock samples saturated with various resistivity fluids. He used clean
sandstones which were 100% saturated with aqueous solutions of varying concentration and hence
resistivity. His results are empirical (derived from experimental work on particular samples) and hence
should not be assumed to have theoretical rigour. However, we are now beginning to see how the theory
of the electrical properties of rocks can give rise to the Archie equations.

Archie observed that the bulk resistivity of a rock Ro fully saturated with an aqueous fluid of resistivity
Rw is directly proportional to the resistivity of the fluid

Ro =F R w (17.9)

The constant of proportionality F is called the Formation Factor and describes the effect of the
presence of the rock matrix.

It can be immediately seen that F = 1.00 for a rock with 100% porosity, i.e., no matrix, just 100%
fluid.

If we take 100% fluid and slowly add grains of rock, the porosity decreases. However, the insulating
grains of rock have negligible conductivity (infinite resistivity) compared to the conducting fluid.
Hence, Ro will increase, which implies that F is always greater than unity in a porous medium such as
a rock. In real rocks F takes values usually between 20 and 500. Note that formation factor has no
units because it is the ratio of two resistivities.

One way of interpreting the formation factor is therefore as a factor that describes the extent to which
electrically insulating mineral grains ‘dilute’ the conducting fluid, making the bulk material more
resistive than the fluid alone. The formation factor includes both the effect of the variable porosity and
the effect of the tortuous pathways that the current is forced to take through the conducting fluid due to
the presence of the insulating rock grains. It can be seen, therefore, that the formation factor is related to
the porosity of the rock and the connectivity of the pore spaces. The natural complexity of pore systems
in rocks means that the formation factor cannot be expressed simply as a function of porosity and
connectivity in a theoretically rigorous way.

Archie examined the way that the formation factor changes from rock to rock, and noticed that the
following rule commonly holds true

F = ф-m Archie’s First Law (17.10)

where: m = the cementation index/factor/exponent (no units).

Equations (17.9) and (17.10) are often combined and called Archie’ s first law. The resulting equation
is

R0 = Rw ф-m (17.11)

The cementation index is the factor that describes the increase in resistivity that results from the
insulating mineral grains forcing the current to take tortuous pathways through the conducting fluid.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 210

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

The cementation factor has a theoretical value of unity for uniform pores that penetrate the rock
directly from one side of the sample to the other (i.e., direct tubes of pore space), and is zero for a rock
with 100% porosity (i.e., no grains to get in the way of the fluid flow). No other values of the
cementation factor are able to be defined in a purely theoretical way in rocks due to the complexity of
the way that pore spaces are arranged.

In real rocks the cementation index usually varies between 1.0 and 3.0.

Values between 1.0 and 1.4 are associated with igneous and metamorphic rocks that contain fractures.
Fractures are a form of porosity that is localized and well connected, and hence approximates to the
situation where we had uniform tubes of porosity going through the sample.

Values between 1.4 and 2.0 are found in sandstones, with the higher values found in more
consolidated sandstones, where the current flow paths are more tortuous.

Values between 2.0 and 2.6 are typical for carbonates, and represent a greater degree of tortuosity in
the current flow that is found in carbonates because much of the porosity in carbonates is unconnected
(e.g., vugs).

Both the formation factor and the cementation exponent can be measured on core plugs in the
laboratory. This is done in the following way for a single plug.

• Clean and dry the rock sample.

• Measure the porosity of the rock sample with helium or with a fluid saturation technique.
• Saturate the rock with a conductive fluid if not already done in the porosity determination step.
• Measure the bulk resistivity of the rock saturated with the fluid.
• Measure the resistivity of the fluid that saturates the rock in a separate vessel.
• Rearrange and apply Eq.(17.9) to obtain the formation factor.
• Rearrange and apply Eq. (17.11) to obtain the cementation exponent.

If there is a suite of such measurements from

core plugs from a particular formation, a mean
cementation exponent can be obtained
graphically by plotting F against ф on log-log
graph paper, which gives a straight line for a
given lithotype, which intersects F = 1 when
Ф =1, and with a gradient equal to –m. This is
shown in Fig. 17.7.

Note that sometimes a constant ‘a’ is placed

before the porosity term, and so F=a when
ф=1. However, there is no phy sical
justification for this term. It arises from
applying a best fit engineering equation to F
versus porosity data, and should be avoided if
possible. This “adjustment” is related to the
samples containing some other source of
conductivity, such as clay, and will be discussed
in chapter 20.

Figure 17.7 Cementation exponent from a

formation factor-porosity cross-plot.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 211

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

Figure 17.8 Cementation exponent from a formation factor-porosity cross-plot.

Figure 17.8 shows a formation factor-porosity cross-plot for various values of the cementation
exponent.

It should be mentioned that there are a range of equations used in the oil industry to calculate the
formation factor. Archie’s equation is the most flexible, and the others are simply specific cases of it
that have been shown to work empirically for a given type of rock. In all cases the equations have been
derived from fitting a best line to a set of real data. The empirical relationships this provides, therefore
includes values of a which are non-unity. Also, one should be extremely careful to only apply the
equations when you are sure that they are valid. This often means going back to the original papers to
see what type of rocks the equations have been derived from. By comparison the use of Archie’s
equation with known cementation exponent is more reliable, and should ALWAYS be used if the
cementation exponent is known.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 212

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

The Humble Formula. This is applied to soft formations and to clean sandstones with a sucrosic
texture.

(17.2)

The Soft Formation Formula.

(17.3)

The Low Porosity Carbonate Formula. Valid for low porosity clean carbonates with no fracturing.

(17.4)

17.5 Partial Water Saturation (Archie’s Second Law)

Archie also examined the work of other investigators who did experiments on the resistivity of
partially saturated sandstones. He observed that the bulk resistivity of a rock Rt partially saturated with
an aqueous fluid of resistivity Rw is directly proportional to the resistivity of the rock when fully
saturated with the same fluid, i.e.,

Rt = I Ro (17.15)

The constant of proportionality I is called the resistivity index and describes the effect of partial
desaturation of the rock.

• If the rock is fully saturated, I=1.00.

• If the rock is full of dry air (i.e., not saturated with a conductive fluid), I→∞.

The resistivity index therefore varies between unity and infinity depending upon the degree of
saturation of the rock.

Archie observed that the following relationship exists empirically for sandstones

Archie’s Second Law (17.16)

where: Sw = the fractional water saturation of the rock

I = the resistivity index
n = the saturation exponent.

Again, the last two equations can be combined into a form which is usually referred to as Archie’s
second law

(17.17)

The saturation exponent normally has a range of values from 1.8 to 2.0, however much lower and
much higher values have been found.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 213

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

The value of the saturation exponent can be obtained from laboratory experiments on core samples.
The procedure is as follows for a single core sample:

• Follow the procedure to measure the resistivity of a sample saturated completely with a conductive
fluid as outlined in the last section.
• Replace in a step-wise manner some of the conductive fluid in the rock with a non-conductive
fluid (e.g., gas) allowing for equilibrium to be attained at each step.
• Measure the resistivity of the sample when equilibrium is attained at the end of each step.
• Calculate from measurements of the evolved fluids and prior knowledge of the pore volume of the
sample, the conductive fluid saturation in the sample at the end of each step.
• Rearrange and apply Eq. (17.15) to calculate the saturation index.
• Rearrange and apply Eq. (17.17) to calculate the saturation exponent.

These experiments are extremely time consuming as one has to wait a long time for the samples to
come to equilibrium.

As before, a mean saturation exponent can be calculated from such measurements on a suite of cores.
In this case the resistivity index I is plotted against the water saturation Sw, again on log-log paper
(Fig. 17.9). The result is a straight line intersecting I=1 when Sw=1, and with a gradient equal to –n.

Figure 17.9 Saturation exponent from a resistivity index-water saturation cross-plot.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 214

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

17.6 Combining Archie’s Laws

The two equations for each of the Archie laws can be combined into one controlling equation.
Combining Eq. (17.11) and (17.17) gives

(17.18)

We are ultimately interested in calculating the water saturation, Sw, so we rearrange the equation to
give

(17.19)

Table 17.1 summarizes the sources of the parameters that go into this equation to calculate the water
saturation.

Table 17.1 Sources of data for calculation of water saturation.

Parameter Source
Rt • Deep investigation resistivity tool
Rw • From SP log
• Calculated from water zone
• Measured on FT water sample
ф • Acoustic tool
• Formation density tool
• Neutron tool
m • Measured in laboratory
• Guessed
n • Measured in laboratory
• Guessed

17.7 The Effect of Errors in Resistivity Calculations

The accurate determination of the water saturation is key to being able to calculate an accurate value
for the amount of oil in place. Errors of a few percent in the determination of the water saturation
result in errors worth billions of dollars when transferred into errors in the determination of STOOIP.

In attempting to reduce errors we ensure that the five parameters in Eq. (17.19) are measured using
independent methods. Laboratory determined m and n values are the best ones to take, however early
in a reservoirs life these are not available, and so guesses are used instead.

Table 17.2 shows the propagation of errors in Eq. (17.19) for the calculation of water saturation.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 215

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

Table 17.2 Propagation of errors in water saturation calculations.

Data
-20% Base Case +20%
Rt 32 40 48
Rw 0.32 0.4 0.48
ф 0.18 0.2 0.22
m 1.8 2 2.2
n 1.8 2 2.2

Saturations from changing individual parameters

Rt 0.56 0.50 0.46
Rw 0.45 0.50 0.55
ф 0.56 0.50 0.45
m 0.43 0.50 0.59
n 0.46 0.50 0.53

Saturations from changing combinations of m and n parameters

m-20% m m+20%
n-20% 0.39 0.46 0.55
n 0.43 0.50 0.59
n+20% 0.46 0.53 0.62

Saturations from changing combinations of resistivity parameters

Rt-20% Rt Rt+20%
Rw-20% 0.50 0.45 0.41
Rw 0.56 0.50 0.46
Rw+20% 0.61 0.55 0.50

Saturations from changing all parameters

Worst Case Low 0.28 (-22%)
Base Case 0.50
Worst Case High 0.82 (+32%)

Note that 20% underestimations and overestimations of m and n lead to an underestimation and
overestimation of the water saturation by 0.11 and 0.12 respectively. These are huge errors when
progressed through to the STOOIP calculation. Clearly there is a case here for doing m and n
determinations on core.

Note also that the same degree of underestimation or overestimation in Rt and Rw leads to no further
error as these errors cancel out.

The worst case scenarios for over and underestimation with 20% errors on the input parameters are
0.32 and 0.22 respectively. These errors will most probably be larger than the recoverable oil
saturation in the reservoir. Clearly, the parameters that go to calculate the water saturation must be
derived very carefully indeed.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 216

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

17.8 The Hingle Plot

Theory. This plot is based on Eq. (17.18). The objective is to obtain a linear cross-plot of the Rt data
measured by the resistivity tool and the ф data measured by one of the porosity tools. To do this all
of the exponents of Eq. (17.18) are multiplied by –1/m to give

(17.20)

Because in any given reservoir we can take Rw, m and n as constant, and because we will apply the
equation for selected values of Sw, Eq. (17.20) becomes

(17.21)

where B is a constant. The Hingle graph paper is designed such that the y-axis represents Rt-1/m so that
Rt can be entered directly in the plot. This implies that a different form of graph paper is needed for
each value of m. The x-axis on the Hingle grid is porosity on a linear scale.

Figure 17.10 shows a Hingle plot.

Application. The use of the Hingle plot is as follows. For any given reservoir zone carry out the
following steps:

• Construct the 100% water saturation (Sw=1) line. The first point on this line is automatically
available, as Rt is infinite when ф = 0, and this point plots in the bottom left hand corner of the
Hingle grid. The second point is calculated with knowledge of Rw for the reservoir. Equation
(17.11) is used to calculate Ro knowing Rw for the reservoir, for the value of m relevant to the
Hingle grid, and at any value of ф (the higher the better for accuracy). For example, in Fig. 17.10,
the m value is 2, and if Rw = 0.4 ohm.m, we can say that at the arbitrary porosity of =0.2, the value
of Ro = 10 ohm.m. The Ro, ф point can be plotted on the grid and joined with the first point by a
straight line. This is the water line, and represents how Ro varies with porosity when the rock is
fully saturated with water.

• Other lines for partial water saturations can now be constructed. Their first point is always in the
bottom left hand corner of the Hingle grid because Rt is always infinite when ф = 0 no matter what
the water saturation. The second point is calculated from Eq. (17.17) at a given arbitrary porosity
assuming or knowing the value of n and calculating Rt from the relevant Ro, which is available
from the water line. For a particular partial saturation line (Sw = 0.5, say) the Rt, ф point can be
plotted on the grid and joined with the first point by a straight line. This is the Sw = 0.5 line, and
represents how Rt varies with porosity when the rock is 50% saturated with water.

• A fan of partial saturation lines can be constructed in this way, say for every 10% increment in
water saturation. A large number of porosity and Rt pairs are now extracted from the logs and
plotted on the graph. It is immediately obvious how much water saturation is present on average,
and the water saturation for particular points (relating to a particular depth) can be estimated from
the graph by interpolation between the iso-saturation lines.

This type of plot is rarely used today with the use of computers to analyse data.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 217

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

Figure 17.10 The Hingle plot.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 218

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

17.9 The Pickett Plot

Theory. The Pickett Plot is also based on Eq. (17.18).

In a water-bearing formation we can write from Eq. (17.11)

(17.22)

which, when rearranged becomes

(17.23)

So a plot of log Ro against log ф gives a straight line. The value on the y-axis is equal to log Ro when
ф=1, and the slope of the line is –m.

In a hydrocarbon-bearing formation we can write from Eqs. (17.11) and (17.15)

(17.24)

which, when rearranged, becomes

(17.25)

which is the same straight line as described by Eq. (17.23), with the same gradient, but with a parallel
shift equal to log I.

Application. The Pickett Plot plots the formation resistivity Rt against the porosity on a log-log scale.
The data form straight lines with a gradient equal to –m. Hence, the cementation exponent can be
calculated. If one has data in the water zone of the reservoir, Eqs. (17.22) and (17.23) hold true, and
the value on the y-axis when the line intersects ф=1, gives log Rw from which Rw can be calculated.
The line is called the water line.

If one has data in the oil-bearing zone, and the value of Rw is known, the value on the y-axis when the
line intersects ф=1, gives log I + log Rw from which I can be calculated if Rw is known. If the saturation
exponent is then known, we can use the I value to calculate the water saturation.

Alternatively, we can establish the water line and construct iso-saturation lines with the same gradient
that are offset from the water line by values of log I that represent increments in water saturation.
Plotting the formation resistivity and porosity values from logs on this plot then allows the mean
saturation in the reservoir to be judged, and particular values of water saturation at a given depth can
be calculated can be approximated by interpolation between the iso-saturation lines.

This plot is very useful and easy to produce with a modern log analysis cross plotting program.

Figure 17.11 shows a Pickett plot example.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 219

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

Figure 17.11 The Pickett Plot.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 220

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Resistivity Theory

17.10 Saturation of Moveable Hydrocarbons

Equation 17.17 describes how the ratio of the resistivity of the formation containing partly non-
conductive oil and partly conductive water to the resistivity when the formation contains 100%
conducting water (I) is related to the saturation of water in the formation when it contains both fluids.

We apply this equation to the reservoir zone (i.e., the uninvaded zone deep in the formation) and can
calculate the water saturation in the reservoir, and hence calculate the amount of oil in the reservoir.

However, we can also apply the equation in the flushed zone if we are using water based muds. Before
invasion, we had a water saturation Sw and an oil saturation So. In the flushed zone after invasion, the
water has been replaced with mud filtrate, and some of the oil has also been replaced by mud filtrate.
The oil that has been replaced by mud filtrate is the mobile oil, i.e., that oil which was able to be
pushed out of the way by the invading mud filtrate. We want to calculate the saturation of oil which
the mud filtrate was able to push further into the formation, because if it was mobile enough to be
moved in that way, the likelihood is that it will be mobile enough to be produced easily from the
reservoir.

If we apply Eq. (17.17) in the flushed zone we get

(17.26)

Hence,

(17.27)

Here Rxomf is the resistivity of the formation flushed zone containing nothing but 100% mud filtrate,
i.e., invasion has replaced all the oil and water, while Rxoor is the resistivity of the flushed zone
containing residual oil.

The value Sxo is the saturation of water based mud filtrate in the invaded zone. Hence the saturation of
oil that was moved by the invasion is (Sxo - Sw), and the volume of moveable oil per unit volume of
rock is (Sxo – Sw). We can use this modified value of moveable hydrocarbons in the reservoir to
calculate a lower, and more accurate value for moveable STOOIP by inserting (Sxo – Sw) in place of (1
– Sw) in Eqs. (1.2) and (1.4).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 221

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

18. THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG

18.1 Introduction

The spontaneous potential log (SP) measures the natural or spontaneous potential difference
(sometimes called self-potential) that exists between the borehole and the surface in the absence of any
artificially applied current. It is a very simple log that requires only an electrode in the borehole and a
reference electrode at the surface. These spontaneous potentials arise from the different access that
different formations provide for charge carriers in the borehole and formation fluids, which lead to a
spontaneous current flow, and hence to a spontaneous potential difference. The spontaneous potential
log is given the generic acronym SP.

The SP log has four main uses:

• The detection of permeable beds.

• The determination of Rw.

• The indication of the shaliness of a formation.

• Correlation.

The log has a low vertical resolution, and is always recorded in the leftmost track of the log suite,
together with the GR log.

It is very important to recognize that this log has no absolute scale – only relative changes in the SP
log are important. This is reflected in the design of the log header, which shows only a bar that
represents a change of, say, 10 mV.

18.2 Principles
There are three requirements for the existence of an SP current:

• A conductive borehole fluid (i.e., a water based mud, there is no SP in oil based muds).

• A sandwich of a porous and permeable bed between low porosity and impermeable formations.

• A difference in salinity between the borehole fluid and the formation fluid, which are the mud
filtrate and the formation fluid in most cases. Note, however, that in some special cases an SP
current can be set-up when there is no difference in salinity, but where a difference in fluid
pressures occurs.

The origin of the spontaneous potential has four different components. These are shown in Fig. 18.1.
The spontaneous potential is composed of contributions that are electrochemical (arise from electrical
interactions between the various chemical constituents of the rocks and fluids), and electrokinetic
(arise from the movement of electrically charged ions in the fluid relative to the fixed rock).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 222

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.1 Electromotive components of the spontaneous potential.

18.2.1 Electrochemical Components

These components arise from the electrochemical interaction of ions in the mud filtrate and formation
fluids.

The electrochemical contribution, itself, consists of two effects:

1. The diffusion potential (sometimes called the liquid-junction potential). This potential exists
at the junction between the invaded and the non-invaded zone, and is the direct result of the
difference in salinity between the mud filtrate and the formation fluid.

Assume that the formation fluid is more saline than the mud filtrate for a moment, and that the
only dissolved ions in the system are Na+ and Cl- , as NaCl. The chloride ions have a higher
mobility than the sodium ions. When the two fluids come into contact across the interface
between the invaded and non-invaded zones, diffusion will occur. Ions from the high salinity
formation fluid will diffuse into the invaded zone to try to balance the salinities out. The chloride
ions are more mobile and so more of them diffuse into the invaded zone than sodium ions. The net
result is a flow of negative charge into the invaded zone, which sets up a charge imbalance
(potential difference) called the diffusion potential. The diffusion potential causes a current to flow
(from negative to positive) from the invaded zone into the non-invaded zone. This scenario is
illustrated in Fig. 18.2 for an analogue system, and is applied to the borehole environment in Fig.
18.3.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 223

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Of course, if the mud filtrate has a higher salinity than the formation fluid, the same argument
applies but in reverse, and leads to a reverse diffusion potential and current flow.

The same arguments also apply for more complex fluid compositions because some ions always
have a greater mobility than others.

For NaCl solutions at 25oC, the diffusion potential, Ed, is given by; Ed = -11.8 1× log(R1/R2), where
R1 is the resistivity of the diluter solution, and R2 is the resistivity of the more saline solution.

- +

Cl- Na+
Na+
Cl-
Na+
Cl-
Low NaCl High NaCl
Na+ Conc.
Conc. Cl-
Na+
Cl-
Na+
Rmf Cl- Rw

Figure 18.2 Laboratory demonstration of the diffusion potential.

Shale

Cl-
Rmf Rw
Low Salinity High Salinity

Na+
Shale

Figure 18.3 The diffusion potential in a borehole.

2. The membrane potential (sometimes called the shale potential). This potential exists at the
junction between the non-invaded zone and the shale (or other impermeable rock) sandwiching
the permeable bed. These beds are usually shale, and the argument that follows applies mainly to
shales, but is also valid to a less extent for other low permeability rocks.

Shales have the property that they can preferentially retard the passage of anions. This is called
anionic permselectivity or electronegative permselectivity and is a property of membranes. It is
due to an electrical double layer that exists at the rock-fluid interface, and that has the ability to
exclude anions from the smaller pores in the rock (sometimes called anion exclusion). The

Geoff Page 2010 Page 224

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

strength of this effect depends upon the shale mineralogy, the fluid concentration and the fluid
pH. Most other rocks exhibit the same behaviour but to a lower degree for geologically feasible
fluid concentrations and pHs, but cationic permselectivity is possible, if rare. Most subsurface
shales are such efficient anionic permselecting membranes that they repel almost all anions (say,
chloride ions). This results in the shale being more positive than the non-invaded zone, and hence
there is an electrical membrane potential, which causes current to flow from the invaded zone into
the shale (and hence borehole). This scenario is illustrated in Fig. 18.4 for an analogue system,
and is applied to the borehole environment in Fig. 18.5.

For NaCl solutions at 25oC, the membrane potential, Em, is given by; Ed = 59.1 5× log(R1/R2),
where R1 is the resistivity of the diluter solution, and R2 is the resistivity of the more saline
solution.

+ -

Na+ Cl-

Cl-
Na+
Cl-
Na+
Low NaCl High NaCl
Conc. Cl- Conc.
Na+
Na+ Cl-
Shale
Barrier
Rm Na+ Cl- Rw

Anions excluded

Figure 18.4 Laboratory demonstration of the membrane potential.

Shale
Rw
High Salinity

Rmf Na+ Cl-

Low Salinity

Shale

Figure 18.5 The membrane potential in a borehole.

The total electrochemical component of the SP at 25oC for NaCl solutions is therefore;

(18.1)

Geoff Page 2010 Page 225

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

for our situation where the mud filtrate is lower salinity than the formation fluid.

Equation (18.1) can be generalized by the formula;

(18.2)

where; K is a coefficient that depends upon temperature, Aw is the activity of the formation water, and
Amf is the activity of the mud filtrate. This relationship breaks down for very saline solutions (Rmf <
0.08 Ωm), when corrected formation and mud filtrate resistivities must be obtained from charts. In this
circumstance Eq. (18.2) is rewritten as

(18.3)

where Rmf and Rmfe are corrected resistivities obtainable from charts.

18.2.2 Electrokinetic Components

These components arise from the movement of fluids containing conducting ions.

The electrokinetic contribution, itself, consists of two effects, which are usually very small and act in
opposite ways such that they cancel each other out. These contributions depend upon fluid flow, and
hence are larger when there is a substantial difference in pressure between the borehole and the
formation. Thus, these contributions may be significant for depleted and under-pressured reservoirs
where the differential pressure is high (>500 psi). The contributions also depend upon the
development of an electrical double layer at mineral surfaces, which is larger for low salinity fluids.
Hence, these contributions are also more important for fresh formation waters or mud filtrates.

1. The mudcake potential. This potential is produced by the movement of charged ions through the
mudcake and invaded zone in a permeable formation. Its size depends upon the hydraulic pressure
drop, and since most of this is across the low permeability mudcake, the great majority of
electrokinetic potential is also generated across the mudcake, with an insignificant amount in the
invaded zone.

The surface of clay minerals carry a negative charge when in contact with fluids of pH and
salinities that are geologically feasible. The surface negative charge attracts cations from the
fluid, which become adsorbed to the surface and are fixed. The now apparent positive surface
charge is balanced out by an excess of negative ions in the fluid close to the surface. This “layer” of
excess negative fluid close to the surface ensures global charge balance and is mobile. If there is
no fluid flow the situation is electrically balanced. However, if there is fluid movement due to
passage of mud filtrate through the mudcake the mobile layer moves setting up a streaming
potential. Since the mudcake is anionically permselective (like shales), the potential that arises is
always negative, with current flowing from the borehole into the formation through the mudcake.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 226

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

2. The shale wall potential. This potential is the same in origin to the mudcake potential, but
applies to the flow of fluids from the borehole into shale formations. It is usually very small
because the flow into impermeable shales is small. It also acts to set up a current flow into the
formation. We will see how this tends to cancel out the mudcake potential.

The total electrokinetic potential is E k = E mc + E sw, and because E mc and Esw have the same
polarity, the value of Ek is the difference between their absolute values, i.e., Ek = |Emc| + |Esw|.

18.2.3 The Combined Spontaneous Potential Effect

Figure 18.6 shows the scenario with the formation water more saline than the mud filtrate. We will
combine the previously described contributions to the SP step-by-step, which can be followed in both
parts of the figure.

• First assume that point A in the borehole has some unknown potential relative to the surface Eo.

• The mudcake potential Emc induces a current flowing into the formation through the mudcake.
Therefore at point B, the potential is Eo + Emc and current has flowed from A to B.

• The diffusion potential Ed across the interface between the invaded and non-invaded zones induces
a current flowing from the invaded zone into the non-invaded zone. Therefore at point C, the
potential is Eo + Emc + Ed and current has flowed from A through B to C.

Figure 18.6 Combination of the electromotive components of the spontaneous potential for the
formation water more saline than the mud filtrate.
• The membrane potential Em across the interface between the permeable formation and the shale
- - non-invaded zone. Therefore at point D,
above it induces a current flowing into the shale from the-
the potential is Eo + Emc + Ed + Em and current has flowed --from A through B and C to D.
-
-
-
-
Geoff Page 2010 Page 227
 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

• The shale wall potential Esw induces a current flowing into the shale from the borehole. This
current counteracts the current flow set-up in the previous steps. Therefore at point E, the potential
is Eo + Emc + Ed + Em - Esw and the current has flowed from A through B and C to D, and has been
slightly reduced there by the small countercurrent due to the shale wall potential. The overall
effect is for a net current to flow from A through B, C and D to E.

• The overall effect is for point E in the borehole opposite the shale wall to have a more positive
potential than that at point A opposite the permeable formation. Hence there will also be a current
flow in the borehole between the borehole opposite the shale beds and the borehole opposite the
permeable bed to close the loop.

The arrows in Fig. 1 8.6a show the flow of currents and the black charge symbols indicate the local
relative potential due to each of the contributions to the SP. The grey charge symbols indicate the
overall potential set-up by the combined process. Figure 18.6b shows the summation of the potentials.

Note, since the value of Eo is arbitrary, there is no absolute value of spontaneous potential – what
matters is the relative change in spontaneous potential.

So, is the SP opposite a permeable formation always less than that opposite the shale above (or below)
it? NO. This is for the particular case where the formation fluid is more saline than the mud filtrate.

If the formation fluid is less saline than the mud filtrate, the opposite applies, and the SP opposite the
permeable formation is GREATER than that opposite the shale above (or below) it. This situation is
shown in Fig. 18.7, and described in the step-by-step list below.

• First assume that point A in the borehole has some unknown potential relative to the surface Eo.

• The mudcake potential Emc induces a current flowing into the formation through the mudcake.
Therefore at point B, the potential is Eo + Emc and current has flowed from A to B. This is the same
as in the previous case because nothing has changed locally. The mud filtrate is still passing
through the mudcake and sets up the same potential difference.

• The diffusion potential Ed across the interface between the invaded and non-invaded zones now
induces a current flowing from the non-invaded zone into the invaded zone (i.e., the opposite way
to the previous case). Therefore at point C, the potential is Eo + Emc - Ed and current has flowed
from C to B. Since this current is generally larger than that flowing from A to B in the opposite
direction due to the mudcake potential, the net current flow is from C through B to A.

• The membrane potential Em across the interface between the permeable formation and the shale
above it now induces a current flowing out of the shale and into the non-invaded zone (i.e., again
the opposite way to the previous case). Therefore at point D, the potential is Eo + Emc - Ed - Em and
the net current has flowed from D through C and B to A.

• The shale wall potential Esw induces a current flowing into the shale from the borehole as it did in
the previous scenario. This is because the local situation has not changed – mud filtrate is still
flowing into the shale and setting op the associated streaming potential. This current now does not
counteract the current flow, but contributes to it. Therefore at point E, the potential is Eo + Emc - Ed
- Em - Esw and current has flowed from E through D, C and B to A, and has been slightly reduced
by the small countercurrent due to the mud cake potential between B and A.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 228

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

• The overall effect is for point E in the borehole opposite the shale wall to have a more negative
potential than that at point A opposite the permeable formation. Hence there will also be a current
flow in the borehole between the borehole opposite the permeable bed and the borehole opposite
the shale beds to close the loop.

The arrows in Fig. 18.7a show the flow of currents and the black charge symbols indicate the local
relative potential due to each of the contributions to the SP. The grey charge symbols indicate the
overall potential set-up by the combined process. Figure 18.7b shows the summation of the potentials.

Note, if the mud filtrate and the formation fluids have the same or similar salinities, there is no change
in the SP Log between shaly and permeable formations.

Figure 18.7 Combination of the electromotive components of the spontaneous potential for the
formation water less saline than the mud filtrate.

18.3 Measurement Tools

The tool is extremely simple, consisting of a single electrode that is connected to a good surface
earthing point via a galvanometer for the measurement of DC potential (Fig. 18.8). A small 1.5 V
battery is also included commonly to ensure that the overall signal is measured on the correct scale.
The simplicity of the log means that it is extremely cheap (generally recorded free with other logs), and
therefore give tremendous value for money.

Only relative changes in potential are measured because the absolute value of the SP is meaningless.
Changes of the order of 50 mV are typical. For the log to be good, a good earth is necessary, which is
often a metal spike driven 1 m into the ground.

As stated above one of the requirements for measuring an SP is a connection to a good surface earthing
point. This is not a problem in wireline logs, where the logging cable provides the connection, however
this is a BIG problem for LWD logs where there is no cable. Currently the SP is not available from
LWD data.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 229

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.8 The SP tool arrangement.

The SP log is difficult to run offshore because (i) a good earth is difficult to find, and (ii) the amount of
electrical noise on board a rig often causes problems for accurately measuring signals that
commonly change by less than a millivolt. Sometimes the riser is used as the earth, but often the riser
is in connection with the rig, and therefore a source of electrical noise. Sometimes the rig legs or an
anchor chain are used, which is a big mistake because (i) the legs of oil platforms are given a specific
electrical potential to help combat the effects of corrosion, and (ii) the operation of sea waves on the
rig legs induces potentials in the rig legs that give rise to wavy patterns in the recorded SP log which
cannot be removed. In shallow waters the best method to record an offshore SP is to use an electrode on
a long cable that is thrown into the sea, as far from the rig as possible, and lies on the seabed. The
electrode consists of a simple small lump of lead, and is often referred to as an SP “fish”.

18.4 Log Presentation

SP is shown in millivolts in Track 1, with negative deflections to the left and positive ones to the right
(Fig. 18.9). Figure 18.9 shows the general presentation of the SP log, and Fig. 18.10 shows a
schematic diagram of typical SP log responses.

In reading the SP log it is best to first define a shale base line. This is the typical SP level for shales
and can be found by comparing the SP log with the GR log response. Permeable formations will then
have excursions of variable intensity to the left or right of this line, depending upon the relative
salinities of the formation water and the mud filtrate. It is useful to know the salinity or resistivity of
the mud filtrate from the log header, if available, as this will indicate whether the formation water is
likely to fall at a higher or lower salinity. For example, if the mud filtrate is known to be very fresh,
the likelihood is that that the formation water will be saltier, and the SP will likely kick left.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 230

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.9 Presentation of the SP log.

Figure 18.10 Typical responses of the SP log.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 231

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

18.5 Vertical Resolution and Bed Resolution

The SP tool has a poor resolution. Although it can be used for correlation, it is best not to rely solely
upon it. If it has to be used for defining a bed boundary, it is best to take the inflexion point in the SP
change as the boundary depth.

Bed resolution is bad, and one would not expect it to show beds less than about 20 times the borehole
diameter.

18.6 The Amplitude of the SP Deflection

Several factors govern the amplitude of the SP deflection opposite a permeable bed. This is because
the size of the deflection and the change in the SP curve between beds depends upon the distribution
of the current flux and the potential drops taking place in each part of the formation. The following
parameters are important:

• The thickness of the permeable bed, h.

• The true resistivity of the permeable bed, Rt.
• The diameter of the invaded zone, di.
• The resistivity of the invaded zone, RXO.
• The resistivity of the bounding formations.
• The resistivity of the mud, Rm.
• The diameter of the borehole, dh.
• The relative salinities of the mud filtrate and the formation fluids.

The recorded SP log represents the potential drop in the borehole, only. To use the SP curve
quantitatively, a value for the total potential drop around the circuit must be derived. This is called the
static spontaneous potential (SSP). This value may be derived from correction charts. However, a
direct reading of the SSP may be obtained directly from the SP log opposite thick, clean, shale-free,
100% water-bearing formations. The SSP is the value in millivolts of the difference between the SP
log at the shale base line and that in the centre of the thick clean formation, as shown in Fig. 8.11.

SSP Value
(mV)

Shale base line

Figure 18.11 Definition of SSP.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 232

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

The SP deflection obtained for homogeneous shaly formations or thin shaly beds after correction for
bed thickness is called the pseudo-static spontaneous potential (PSP). The SSP is the value in
millivolts of the difference between the SP log at the shale base line and that in the centre of the thick
homogeneous shaly formation, or a thinner bed if a bed thickness correction has been carried out.

If there is a proportion of shale in the permeable bed, the SP deflection is reduced from what it would
be if the bed were clean and contained the same fluids. Hydrocarbon saturation also decreases SP
deflections.

The present understanding of the electrical effect of clays and shales in reservoir rocks depends largely
upon the concept of cation exchange capacity, Q v , which is the cation concentration in
milliequivalents of exchange sites for sodium ions per cubic centimetre of pore volume. Laboratory
investigations have used this concept to develop a method for calculating the formation water
resistivity from SP log data in a way that takes account of the shaliness of a formation.

To use this method a value of Qv is needed from the shale beds above or below the formation of
interest, and a value of Qv for the formation of interest. These values are normally obtained from
standard chemical methods carried out in the laboratory upon cores or sidewall cores. More
information concerning Qv is given in Chapter 20.

18.7 Uses of the Spontaneous Potential Log

The main uses of this log are:

• The detection of permeable beds.

• The determination of Rw.
• The indication of the shaliness of a formation.
• Correlation.

18.7.1 Permeable Beds

The SP log is an extremely useful quick-look indicator of bed permeability. It is not quantitative, and
opinions differ to the extent to which one can associate the size of the deflection with the degree of
permeability. Given the large number of other parameters that might affect the SP log, I prefer to say
that one should not associate very large permeabilities necessarily with large deflections and vice
versa. However, the SP log is quite sensitive, and even a small deflection in the SP log indicates that
the bed has reasonable permeability. It should be noted that some permeable beds might give no
deflection, such as those where there is no difference in salinity between the formation fluids and the
mud filtrate. These cases are rare however. Figure 18.12 shows an example of permeability
recognition by SP log.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 233

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.12 Permeability recognition by SP log.

18.7.2 Correlation and Facies

The SP log is sometimes a useful additional log to use in correlation, but is rarely used alone. If used,
the wells should be close together and drilled with the same mud, and the salinities in the formations
should be constant between wells.

The SP log can be used to follow facies changes. However, it has been largely replaced by the GR log,
which has a higher resolution and is more reliable.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 234

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

18.7.3 Mineral Recognition

Though not as good as some other logs, the SP log does react unusually to a few minerals and
formations, and is therefore sometimes useful in mineral recognition. The most common occurrences
are as follows, but are not reliable:
• Coals Large negative kick (or none at all!)
• Pyrite Very large negative kick.
• Rhyolite Large negative kick.
• Black shale Positive kick.

18.7.4 Calculation of Rw
This is one of two quantitative use of the SP log. However, it is extremely useful when no formation
water samples or water-bearing sands are available to otherwise obtain Rw from during an analysis for
OOIP.

18.7.4.1 The Quick-Look Method - Procedure

This is the quickest and most common method, and does not require knowledge of Qv. As the method
ignores the complicating effects of electrokinetic potentials and the possible presence of clay, it is to
be used with caution as errors in Rw will translate into errors in OOIP that may represent tens of
millions of dollars.

The following procedure is followed:

[1] Read off the difference in millivolts between the shale base line and the SP curve in the centre
of the formation of interest.

[2] Correct the SP reading from [2] for bed thickness using the correction chart shown in Fig.
18.14. Enter the bed thickness, read off the correction factor, and multiply the correction factor
by the reading from [2]. This gives the SSP for the depth concerned.

[3] Enter this value into the correction chart in Fig. 18.15 y-axis, and intersecting the relevant
temperature curve, read off the value of the ratio Rmfe/Rwe from the x-axis.

[5] Now go back to the initial data provided by the log header to find Rmf @ 75oF.

• If Rmf @ 75oF (24oC) > 0.1 Ωm, correct Rmf to the formation temperature using Fig. 18.13
as in [1], and use R mfe = 0.85× R mf

• If Rmf @ 75oF (24oC) < 0.1 Ωm, determine the value of Rmfe at the formation temperature
using the correction chart shown in Fig. 18.13 as in [1].

[6] With the known value of Rmfe at the formation temperature, calculate the value of Rwe at the
formation temperature from the Rmfe/Rwe ratio calculated in [4].

[7] Determine the value of Rw at the formation temperature from calculated Rwe at the formation
temperature using the correction chart shown in Fig. 18.16.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 235

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

18.7.4.2 The Smits Method – Procedure

This is a complex method that is the most accurate we have. It accounts for both electrokinetic
potentials and the effect of the shaliness of the formation, but does not account for the possible
presence of hydrocarbons.

[1] Read off the difference in millivolts between the shale base line and the SP curve in the
centre of the formation of interest.

[2] Correct the SP reading from [1] for bed thickness using the correction chart shown in
Fig. 18.14. Enter the bed thickness, read off the correction factor, and multiply the
correction factor by the reading from [1]. This gives the SSP for the depth concerned.

[3] Determine the mudcake potential Emc for your particular mud (Fig. 18.17).

[4] Determine the shale wall potential Esw for the correct pressure differential between the
borehole and the formation using Esw = ∆P/100, where the pressure difference is in psi.

[5] Derive the total electrokinetic contribution to the SP using E k = SSP + |E mc | - | E sw | at the
appropriate formation temperature.

[6] Carry out the following temperature corrections:

• If the temperature is measured in o F, calculate E k @ 77 o F using the following

relationship, where TF is the formation temperature in oF: Ek @ 77oF = Ek @ TF× 537/(460 +
TF).

• If the temperature is measured in o C, calculate E k @ 25o C using the following

relationship, where TF is the formation temperature in oC: Ek @ 25oC = Ek @ TF× 298/(273 +
TF).

[7] Obtain the mud filtrate salinity in g/l NaCl equivalent from the mud filtrate resistivity value.

[8] Select the correct “Qv – shale” chart (Figs. 18.18 and 18.19) depending upon the value for your
formation in meq/cm3 . Enter the mud filtrate resistivity on the x-axis, project vertically
to intersect the appropriate Qv reservoir curve, project horizontally to read the “E” value.

[9] If Ek is negative, subtract the absolute value of Ek calculated in [6] from the E value from [8].

[10] If Ek is positive, add the absolute value of Ek calculated in [6] to the E value from [8].

[11] Enter the new value into the y-axis of the chart, projecting horizontally to the appropriate Qv
reservoir curve and down to the x-axis again. read off the formation water salinity.

[12] Convert the formation water salinity to formation water resistivity using a chart (Fig. 18.13).

18.7.5 Calculation of Shale Volume

The shale volume is sometimes calculated from the SP log using the relationship:

Geoff Page 2010 Page 236

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

(18.4)

PSP = SP log read in a thick homogeneous shaly sand zone, SSP = SP log read in the thick clean sand
zone.

This assumes a linear mixing relationship between the SP log and shale volume, and has no theoretical
basis. It probably overestimates the shale volume.

Figure 18.13 Correction chart for fluid resistivity-salinity-temperature.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 237

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.14 SP Correction chart for bed thickness.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 238

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.15 Rwe estimation from the SSP..

Geoff Page 2010 Page 239

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.16 Correction chart for Rw from Rwe for various formation temperatures.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 240

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.17 The electrokinetic mudcake potential for treated and untreated drilling muds as a
function of mud resistivity for various fluid pressure differentials (mud pressure minus formation fluid
pressure). This data has been derived from laboratory measurements.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 241

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.18 Smit method correction chart for obtaining water resistivity from SSP for various
formation temperatures. This chart is for a shale Qv = 1 meq/cm3, and plots electrochemical
potential against equivalent NaCl concentration in g/l.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 242

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Spontaneous Potential Log

Figure 18.19 Smit method correction chart for obtaining water resistivity from SSP for various
formation temperatures. This chart is for a shale Qv = 4 meq/cm3, and plots electrochemical potential
against equivalent NaCl concentration in g/l.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 243

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

19. ELECTRICAL LOGGING

19.1 Introduction

Electrical logs are perhaps the most important tools available to a petrophysicist. This is because they
provide a method for calculating the water saturation, upon which calculations of STOOIP are based.
They were also some of he first logs to be used, with Marcel and Conrad Schlumberger testing out an
electrical log for the first time in 1927 in the Pechelbronn field, France.

These first measurements were continuous recordings using 2 or 3 electrodes and a direct current. It
was discovered that high quality recordings of apparent resistivity could be obtained under favourable
conditions of small diameter boreholes, high mud resistivities and shallow invasion in thick reservoirs.
These early tools are called electric logging tools.

The development of electrical tools has henceforward been intense. There are now tools that can cope
with extremely highly resistive muds (oil-based muds or gas as the borehole fluid), which rely upon
electromagnetic coupling and an induced alternating current (induction logs). The induction log
actually measures conductivity, and hence is sometimes called the conductivity log. The modern tool
for measuring resistivity in high salinity (low resistivity) muds is the laterolog, which focuses its
current into a thin sheet to improve vertical resolution and penetration depth. The laterologs measure
resistivity in the conventional sense, and are usually referred to as resistivity tools. Both the induction
logs and the laterologs come in different types, which are sensitive to different depths of penetration
into the borehole. Hence resistivity determinations for the invaded, partly invaded and undisturbed
rock zones can be measured. In addition, there is a range of smaller electrical devices (micro-
resistivity tools), which are designed to measure the resistivity of mudcake. There are also Array Logs,
which are state of the art tools, and electrical measurements are used at high resolutions (small scale) to
image the interior of the borehole electrically (image logs).

19.2 Principle Uses of Electrical Logs

The main use of the electrical tools is to calculate the water saturation of a reservoir formation, and
hence the STOOIP. Chapter 17 covered most of the important theory for this application, and Chapter 1
introduced the use of the derived values when calculating STOOIP.

The electrical tools also have a number of qualitative uses, principle of which are (i) indications of
lithology, (ii) facies and electro-facies analysis, (iii) correlation, (iv) determination of overpressure,
(iv) determination of shale porosity, (v) indications of compaction, and the investigation of source
rocks.

19.3 Typical Responses of an Electrical Tool

Figure 19.1 shows the typical response of an electrical tool in a sand/shale sequence. Note the lower
resistivity in shales, which is due to the presence of bound water in clays that undergo surface
conduction. The degree to which the sandstones have higher resistivities depends upon (i) their
porosity, (ii) their pore geometries, (iii) the resistivity of the formation water, (iv) the water, oil and
gas saturations (oil and gas are taken to have infinite resistivity).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 244

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Resistivity Logs
Deep
Shallow
0.1 105

Shale
Salt Porous
Water Sandstone

Shale
Fresh Porous
Water Sandstone

Shale
Tight
Sandstone

Shale

Gas
Oil
Porous
Salt Sandstone
Water

Shale
Shaly
Fining-Up
Sandstone

Clean

Shale

Fig. 19.1 Typical resistivity log responses.

19.4 Old Electrical Logs

These logs will be discussed briefly because data from them may still be encountered when
reanalyzing mature fields. They also form the basis of “BKZ” logs still run today in Russia and
other Eastern Block countries.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 245

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Take an homogeneous and isotropic medium that extends to infinity in all directions. Now pass a
current from an electrode A in the medium to another B infinitely distant. We take the potential of
electrode A to be some value VA = V, and that of electrode B to be zero, VB = 0. The current will flow
radially (Fig. 19.2), and generate spherical equipotential surfaces with electrode A at their centre. A
third electrode M placed near A will lie on one of these equipotential surfaces, whose radius is r. If we
connect electrode M to electrode B through a potential measuring device (voltmeter), it will show the
value of the potential on the equipotential surface that passes through M, VM. The resistivity of the
material between A and M is the calculated as:

(19.1)

Here: ∆V = the potential difference between A and M, the factor 4πr is defined by the geometry of
the system (spherical symmetry), and it is assumed that A and M are close enough together for the
current I to be constant, even though it is spreading out with distance.
Current
Flow
Lines
M

r Equipotential
Spheres

Fig. 19.2 Current flow in an homogeneous isotropic medium.

Different types of resistivity tool have different geometrical factors that depend on their electrode
arrangements. These are calculated theoretically, and checked in tool calibration.

This theoretical scenario is the basis for the original tools: what are called the normal logging devices.
The distance AM = r is called the spacing. Two spacings were commonly used, a short normal
spacing equal to 16 inches, and a long normal spacing equal to 64 inches. The longer the spacing, the
greater the depth of penetration of the current into the formation, but the lower its vertical resolution.

Although the theory is developed for 3 electrodes, and this is how the first measurements were made, a
four electrode arrangement soon became standard. This allows the current flow circuit (the generator
circuit in Fig. 19.3) to be separated from the potential sensing circuit (the meter circuit in Fig. 19.3),
which provides better quality results. In this arrangement a constant known current is flowed from A
to B (or B to A), and the potential is measured between M and N. Electrode B and N are kept at a long

Geoff Page 2010 Page 246

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

distance from electrodes A and M to provide quasi-infinite reference points for the current and
potential measurements.

Generator Galvanometer Generator Galvanometer

B N
N
Impermeable Impermeable
Shale Shale

M
Permeable Permeable B
Formation M Formation
A
A
Impermeable Impermeable
Shale Shale

Fig. 19.3 The standard normal configuration. Fig. 19.4 The standard lateral configuration.

Another arrangement is possible, where electrodes A and B are placed close together with respect to
the distance between A and M. This is shown in Fig. 19.4, and was called the lateral configuration.

19.5 Modern Resistivity Logs (Laterologs)

19.5.1 The Basic Laterologs

Figure 19.5 shows two of the earlier laterologs. Each have a number of electrodes. The LL3 has 3
current emitting electrodes. The middle one, which is 1 foot long emits the main current, while the 5
foot long electrodes either side of it emit a current that is designed to help keep the central current
more focussed. This is called a bucking current and the electrodes are called guard electrodes. In this
simple tool the bucking current is the same as that from the central electrode, and the potential of the
central electrode is measured relative to the potential at infinity to give a potential difference. This
potential difference and the known current from the central electrode are used to calculate the
formation resistivity, using a known geometrical factor for the arrangement. The vertical resolution of
the LL3 is 1 ft.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 247

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Fig. 19.5 The LL3 and LL7 tool electrode configurations.

The LL7 has 7 electrodes. A constant current is emitted from the centre electrode. A bucking current is
emitted from the two far electrodes, and is automatically adjusted such that the two pairs of monitoring
electrodes are brought to the same potential difference. Then the current from the central electrode is
focused in a thin disk far out into the formation. The potential between one of the monitoring electrodes and
the potential at infinity is then measured, and knowing the current from the central electrode allows the
formation resistivity to be calculated providing the geometrical factor of the arrangement is known
(calculated theoretically and tested in the calibration of the device). This electrode arrangement produces
a thin disk of current that is confined between the two sets of measuring electrodes (32 inches apart).
The strongly focused beam is little affected by hole size, penetrates the invaded zone, and measures the
resistivity of the virgin formation, Rt. The vertical resolution of the LL7 is 3 ft. and the sensitivity is 0.2
to 20,000 Ωm.

Corrections for all of these tools for borehole size, effect of invasion and thin beds are available in the
form of charts from the logging companies. However, the first two of these corrections are usually
minor.

19.5.2 The Dual Laterolog

The dual laterolog (DLL) is a version of the laterolog that is commonly run today. As its name implies,
it is a combination of two tools, and can be run in a deep penetration (LLd) and shallow penetration
(LLs) mode. These are run simultaneously and together with an additional very shallow penetration
device. The tool has 9 electrodes, whose operation are shown in Fig. 19.6.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 248

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

U
M2 M2 U
M

Fig. 19.6 The DLL electrode configuration in both the LLd and LLs modes.

In the LLd mode, the tool operates just like a LL7 tool but with the same bucking currents that are
emitted from the A1 electrodes also being emitted from the additional farthest electrodes, A2. The
result of this is to focus the current from the central electrode even more than was the case for the LL7.

In the LLs mode, the A1 electrodes emit a bucking current as they did in the LL7 device, but the A2
electrodes are set to sink this current (i.e., the bucking current comes out of A1 and into A2 electrodes).
This means that the bucking current must veer away from the pathway into the formation, and back
towards the tool A2 electrodes, and hence cannot constrain (focus) the current being emitted from the
central electrode as much. The overall result is that the central electrode current penetrates less far into
the formation before it dies away.

Both modes of the dual laterolog have a bed resolution of 2 feet, and a sensitivity of 0.2 to 20,000 Ωm.
To achieve this sensitivity both the current and voltage are varied during the measurement, keeping
their product (the power) constant.

The dual laterolog can be run either eccentered or centralized (best) to reduce the borehole effect on the
LLs. A micro-resistivity device, usually an MSFL or MLL, is generally run in combination with the
tool. Hence, this tool combination examines the resistivity of the formation at three depths of penetration
(deep, shallow, and very shallow).

The resistivity readings from this tool can and should be corrected for borehole effects and thin beds,
and invasion corrections can be applied using the three different depths of penetration. An example of
dual laterolog data is shown as Fig. 19.7.

Array Laterolog tools are now also available that work on similar principles, however they have a larger
number of depths of investigation, typically 4 or 5 measuring the invasion profile from Ri to Rt.
Examples of these are the Rt Explorer (RtEx – Baker Hughes), and the High Resolution Lateral Array
(HRLA – Schlumberger).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 249

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Fig. 19.7 An example of a DLL

log. This shows good separation
of the LLs and LLd from each
other and from the MSFL,
indicating the presence of a
permeable formation with
hydrocarbons (gas in this case in a
formation of about 15% porosity).
(Courtesy of Rider [1996]).

19.5.3 The Spherically Focussed Log

The spherically focussed log (SFL) has an electrode arrangement (Fig. 19.8) that ensures the current is
focussed quasi-spherically. It is useful as it is sensitive only to the resistivity of the invaded zone.

Fig. 19.8 The SFL

electrode configuration.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 250

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

19.6 Micro-Resistivity Logs

These are devices that often share the same sort of electrode arrangements as their larger brothers, but
have electrode spacings of a few inches at most. Therefore, they penetrate the formation to a very
small degree and most often do not penetrate the mudcake. They are all pad mounted devices that are
pressed against the borehole wall, and often have the electrodes arranged coaxially. Combinations of
these tools may be run together on the same sonde.

19.6.1 The Minilog or Microlog

The Minilog or Microlog (ML)
is a rubber pad with three
button electrodes placed in a
line with a 1 inch spacing (Fig.
19.9). A known current is
emitted from electrode A, and
the potential differences
between electrodes M 1 and M 2
and between M 2 and a surface
electrode are measured. The
two resulting curves are
M2
called the 2” normal curve
M1
(ML) and the 11/2“ inverse
Ao curve (MIV). The radius of
investigation is smaller for
the second of these two curves,
Electrodes and hence is more affected by
mudcake. The difference
between the two curves is an
Rubber Pad
indicator of mudcake, and
Mudcake hence bed boundaries. The ML
tool is so good at this that it is
used in making sand counts.

Formation

Fig. 19.9 The Minilog electrode configuration.

The tool is pad mounted, and the distance across the pads is also recorded, giving an additional caliper
measurement. The arms of the caliper are kept in the fully collapsed state when inserting the tool
into the hole. However, the log is recorded during this insertion to give a log of mud resistivity Rm with
depth and at the BHT. Figure 19.10 shows an example of the caliper showing beds clearly on both the
minilog and the caliper traces.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 251

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Fig. 19.10 An example of a ML log showing mudcake from both the caliper and ML logs.

19.6.2 The
Microlaterolog
The microlaterolog (MLL) is the
micro-scale version of the
laterolog, and hence incorporates a
current focussing system. The tool
is pad mounted, and has a central
button electrode that emits a
known measurement current M2
M1
surrounded coaxially by two ring-
shaped monitoring electrodes,
and a ring-shaped guard electrode
that produces a bucking current
Ao
as in the DLL (Fig. 19.11). The
A1
spacing between electrodes is about
1 inch. It is commonly run with the
Electrodes
DLL for the purpose of
measuring R XO.
Rubber Pad
Mudcake

Fig. 19.11 The MLL electrode

configuration.
Formation

Geoff Page 2010 Page 252

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

The tool operates in the same way as the LL7. The focussed current beam that is produced from the
central electrode has a diameter of about 1 1/2 inches and penetrates directly into the formation. The
influence of mudcake is negligible for mudcakes less than 3/8 ” thick, and in these conditions RXO can
be measured. The depth of investigation of the MLL is about 4 inches.

19.6.3 The Proximity Log

The proximity log (PL) was developed from the MLL to
overcome problems with mudcakes over 3/8” thick, and is
used to measure RXO. The device is similar, except that
it is larger than the MLL and the functions of the central
electrode and the first monitoring ring electrode are
combined into a central button electrode. The device
has a coaxial oblong shape (Fig. 19.12). The tool
operates in a similar fashion to the LL3. It has a depth of
penetration of 1½ ft., and is not affected by mudcake. It
may, however, be affected by Rt when the invasion depth
is small.

Fig. 19.12 The PL electrode configuration.

19.6.4 The Micro Spherically Focussed

Log
The micro spherically focussed log (MSFL) is
commonly run with the DLL for the purpose of
measuring R XO. It is based on the premise that the
best resistivity data is obtained when the current
flow is spherical around the current emitting
electrode (isotropic conditions). The tool consists of
coaxial oblong electrodes around a central current
emitting button electrode (Fig. 19.13).

Fig. 19.13 The MSFL electrode configuration.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 253

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

The current beam emitted by this device is initially very narrow (1”), but rapidly diverges. It has a
depth of penetration of about 4” (similar to the MLL). The initial narrowness of the current beam
means that its sensitivity to mudcake is somewhere between the MLL and the PL, and is not
significantly affected by mudcake less than ¾ ” thick.

19.7 Induction Logs

These logs were originally designed for use in boreholes where the drilling fluid was very resistive
(oil-based muds or even gas). It can, however, be used reasonably also in water-based muds of high
salinity, but has found its greatest use in wells drilled with fresh water-based muds.

The sonde consists of 2 wire coils, a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx). High frequency alternating
current (20 kHz) of constant amplitude is applied to the transmitter coil. This gives rise to an
alternating magnetic field around the sonde that induces secondary currents in the formation. These
currents flow in coaxial loops around the sonde, and in turn create their own alternating magnetic
field, which induces currents in the receiver coil of the sonde (Fig. 19.14). The received signal is
measured, and its size is proportional to the conductivity of the formation. Clearly there will be direct
coupling of the transmitter coil and the receiver coil signals, however the directly coupled signals can
be differentiated by their 90 ºphase shift and excluded. Additional focussing coils serve to improve the
vertical resolution and depth of penetration of the tool.

Receiver
Secondary Amplifier
Current Causes
Signal in Rx Coils

Secondary Foucault
Current Induced in
Formation

Magnetic Field
Causes Secondary
Current Transmitter
Oscillator

Fig. 19.14 The mode of operation of induction tools.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 254

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

The intensity of the secondary currents generated in the formation depends upon the location in the
formation relative to the transmitter and receiver coils. Hence there is a spatially varying geometrical
factor to take into account. Figure 19.15 shows two ground loops of secondary current induced by the
transmitter and sensed by the receiver. The actual signal recorded by the receiver will be the sum of all
ground loops in the space investigated by the tool. Figure 19.16 shows the sensitivity map for this
space for a homogeneous medium, showing that 50% of the total signal comes from close to the tool
(borehole and invaded zone) between the transmitter and the receiver.

The skin effect is a problem that occurs

with very conductive formations which
results in the reduction of the signal. This is
automatically corrected for during the
logging run.

Induction logs are calibrated in air (zero

conductivity) and using a 400mS test loop
that is placed around the sonde, (which
Oscillator and Amplifier
Housed in Electronics gives reading of 500mS after correction for
Package inside Tool skin effect). The calibration may also be
checked in the well opposite zero
conductivity formations (e.g., anhydrite), if
available.
Rx Coil

Fig. 19.15 The integration of ground loop

data in the construction of the received
induction signal.

Tx Coil

Fig. 19.16 Sensitivity

map for induction tools.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 255

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

19.7.1 The 6FF40 Induction-Electrical Survey Log

The 6FF40 induction-electrical survey log (IES-40, or IEL) is a 6 coil device with a nominal 40 inch
Tx-Rx distance, a 16 inch short normal device and an SP electrode. An example of its data is given
as Fig. 19.17.

These tools are rarely run today, however a lot of historical data of this type exists.

Fig. 19.17 An example of 6FF40 log data.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 256

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

19.7.3 The Dual Induction-Laterolog

The dual induction (Focussed) laterolog (DIL, or DIFL) has several parts: (i) a deep penetrating induction
log (ILd) that is similar to the IES-40, (ii) a medium penetration induction log (ILm), a shallow
investigation laterolog (LLs) and an SP electrode. The ILm has a vertical resolution about the same as
the ILd (and the IES40), but about half the penetration depth. An example of its data is given as Fig.
19.18.

Fig. 19.18 An example of DIL log data.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 257

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Fig. 19.20 A selection of induction tools.

Note the fiberglass construction which
allows the high frequency signals to pass
out/into the tool. The upper right tool is a
DIFL complete with a shallow laterolog.
The Rubber standoff (also know as a
“pineapple”) keeps the tool at the
optimum 1 ½” standoff from the borehole
wall.

Fig. 19.19 An example of array induction log (HDIL)

showing curves for different penetration depths as
well as the calculated invasion profiles and extent of the
flushed and transition zones in permeable beds.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 258

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

19.7.4 The Induction Spherically Focussed Log

The induction spherically focussed log (ISF) combines (i) a IES-40, (ii) a SFL, and (iii) an SP
electrode. It was often run in combination with a sonic log.

19.7.5 Array Induction Tools

Most logs run today are array induction logs (AIT, HDIL). They consists of one Tx and multiple Rx
coils at different spacings. They also record data at multiple frequencies ranging from 10Khz up to
250Khz, depending on the tool. Intensive mathematical reconstruction of the signal enables the
resistivity at a range of penetration depths to be calculated, which allows the complete invasion profile
to be mapped. An example of array induction tool data is given as Fig. 19.19, while Fig. 19.20 shows
some typical tools.

19.8 Comparing Laterologs and Induction Logs

At first sight it seems that induction logs and laterologs are complimentary:

• Induction logs provide conductivity (that can be converted to resistivity).

• Laterologs provide resistivity (that can be converted to conductivity).
• Induction logs work best in wells with low conductivity fluids.
• Laterologs work best in wells with low resistivity fluids.
• Both logs provide a range of depths of penetrations and vertical resolutions.

The decision to use one or the

other depends upon the value of
R t /R X O ratio, with the cut-off
made at about 2.5 (Fig. 19.21).

With modern tools there is now a

large overlap in the environments
in which both tools can operate.

As induction logs measure

conductivity they have low
signal levels and are inaccurate at
high resistivities, where
laterologs work much better.

Laterologs however require a

conductive mud and do not work
in Oil based muds.

Fig. 19.21 Chart showing the

opti mal tools to use as a
function of Rw, Rmf and
porosity.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 259

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

19.9 Bed Resolution

The smaller the electrode spacing, the better the vertical and bed resolution. This is shown in Fig.
19.22. One should choose the tool for the purpose required, and this is related also to investigation
depth. This is discussed further in the following section.

Fig. 19.22 Differences in bed resolution from different electrical tools (courtesy of Rider [1996]).

19.10 Investigation Depth

Figure 19.23 summarizes the depths of
investigation of the various tools, and Table 19.1
summarizes the resistivity values commonly
measured.

In general, the tool to use is that best suited for

the purpose. If gross changes are needed, such as
in certain types of correlation and shale
compaction trends, the deeper looking tools
should be used. If characteristics and values
from formations which are relatively thin are
needed, them a shallower looking tool with a
better resolution should be used.

Fig. 19.23 Summary of the different depths of

investigation for different electrical tools
(courtesy of Rider [1996]).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 260

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Fine bed structure requires very shallow reading tools in order to obtain sufficient bed resolution.
Changes in formation microstructure (texture) are best seen on logs that measure the invaded zone.
This is because the texture of the rock is a significant parameter controlling the replacement efficiency
of the formation fluids with the mud filtrate, and hence changes in the texture have a large effect on
the degree of invasion, that is picked up by these medium depth penetration logs.

Table 19.1 Electrical tool penetration and resistivity measurements.

Tool Mnemonic Type Commonly Possibly

Measured Measured
Laterolog3 LL3 Borehole Ri Rt
Laterolog7 LL7 Borehole Rt -
Dual Laterolog – deep DLL-LLd Borehole Rt -
Dual Laterolog – shallow DLL-LLs Borehole Ri Rt
Spherically Focussed Log SFL Borehole Ri Rt
Mini/Microlog - normal ML Pad Rmc Rxo
Mini/Microlog - inverse MIV Pad Rmc Rxo
Microlaterolog MLL Pad Rxo Rmc
Proximity Log PL Pad Rxo Ri
Micro Spherically Focussed Log MSFL Pad Rxo -
Rt -
IES-40 IES-40 Borehole
Rt -
Dual Induction Log – deep DIL-ILd Borehole
Ri Rt
Dual Induction Log - medium DIL-ILm Borehole
Rt -
Induction Spherically Focussed Log ISF Borehole
Array Laterolog RtEx, HRLA Borehole Ri to Rt Rxo
Array Induction Tool AIT, HDIL Borehole Ri to Rt Rxo

19.11 Log Presentation

Resistivity logs are presented in Track 2 or in Tracks 2 and 3 combined on a log scale. The units are
Ωm, and sensitivity scales of 0.2-20 Ωm (2 log cycles) all the way up to 0.2 to 2,000 Ωm (4 log
cycles) can be used. The scales are usually narrower if only Track 2 is used (e.g., 0.2-20 Ωm). A
combination of deep, medium and shallow logs is usually available in the same track on the same
scales so that a direct comparison can be made. It is possible to have data from both resistivity-type
and induction-type tools shown together, and in this case it is usual to convert the conductivity
readings from the induction devices to resistivities for display (although the opposite is also possible
(converting resistivities to conductivities for display) it is rarely seen).

If the conductivity from induction-type logs is displayed, the units are millimho per metre (mmho/m)
and the scale is usually 0 – 2000 mmho/m (note the SI equivalent of mmho/m is millisiemens per
metre, mS/m).

The ML log is usually plotted in Track 2 over a range of 0 – 10 Ωm for both the micro-normal and
micro-inverse curve. Separation in these indicates permeability (Invasion).

Array logs generally have 4-6 curves, presented in terms of resistivity over an appropriate log
scale. Figure 19.24 shows some typical log presentations for electrical logs.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 261

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Fig. 19.24 The presentation of electrical logs (courtesy of Rider [1996]).

19.12 Uses of Electrical Logs

19.12.1 Recognition of Hydrocarbon Zones

Recognition of oil and gas in reservoir rocks is carried out by:

• Oil shows in the mud log.

• Noting a difference in the shallow, medium and deep resistivity tool responses.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 262

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Figure 19.25 shows the characteristics that are being looked for schematically (for a water based mud).

Fig. 19.25 The response of resistivity logs in formations with various fluids (recognition of
hydrocarbon zones).

• If all three curves are low resistivity, and overlie each other, the formation is an impermeable
shale, or, rarely, the formation is permeable and water-bearing but the mud filtrate has the same
resistivity as the formation water.

• If all three curves are higher resistivity than the surrounding shales, and overlie each other, the
formation is an impermeable cleaner formation (sandstone, limestone).

• If the shallow curve has low resistivity, but the medium and deep penetrating tools have a higher
resistivity that is the same (they overlie each other), the formation is permeable and contains only
formation water, or there is very shallow or very deep invasion.

• If the shallow curve has low resistivity, the medium as a higher resistivity, and the deep one has an
even higher resistivity (i.e., there is separation of the medium and deep tool responses), the
formation is permeable and contains hydrocarbons or fresh water.

Note 1: If the mud filtrate resistivity is constant, the effect is greater for formations with fresh
formation waters than those for saline formation waters (Fig. 19.26), and in the case of extremely
saline formation waters the deep resistivity in the formation can be smaller than that of the adjacent
shale beds.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 263

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Porosity
Lithology Porosity
Porosity
=0% =20%

Separation
Shale

Porous
Sandstone

Shale

Shallow Irrelevant Rw>>Rsh Rw Rw Oil or Gas in

Rw Very Salty Fresh Formation
Medium Saline (or very fresh
Water)
Deep Fluids

Fig. 19.26 The behaviour of the resistivity log responses for different formation water salinities.

Note that the effect is greater for oil-based drilling muds than fresh water-based muds and saline
water-based muds in this order.

Some of the more advanced array type tools can now calculate the invasion profile of resistivity. An
example of this is shown in Fig. 19.19, where the resistivity of the formation is shown as a function of
depth into the formation in Track 3 as a colour coded map, and the interpreted flushed and transition
zones are given in Track 1 for the permeable intervals.

Figures 19.25 and 19.26 are given as examples only. This is because there are too many variable
parameters (mud filtrate resistivity, mudcake resistivity, formation water resistivity, water and
hydrocarbon saturations, lithology and porosity etc.) to be comprehensive. In general, the best
approach is to (i) see what type of tools have been used to create the logs, (ii) discover their
penetration depths, (iii) discover the type of drilling mud and the resistivity of the mud filtrate used in
the drilling, (iv) take account of information from other logs (caliper for mudcake, SP for permeable
zones, gamma ray for shale volume, and sonic, neutron and density tools for porosity), and then
interpret the resistivity curves from first principles!

1 9.12.2 Calculation of Water Saturation

The theory behind the calculation of water saturation from resistivity logs was given in Chapter 17 in
detail. In summary, the resistivity log values for the deep tools Rt in reservoir intervals can be used
with a reliable porosity ф, the formation water resistivity Rw, and m and n values that are derived from
laboratory measurements on core, to calculate the water saturation in the zone. This is combined with

Geoff Page 2010 Page 264

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

information about the reservoir thickness, its area and porosity, and fluid compression factors in
STOOIP calculations to calculate the amount of oil in the reservoir (Chapter 1).

19.12.3 Textures and Facies Recognition

The texture of a rock has a great effect upon its electrical response, all other factors being equal. This is
because the electrical flow through the rock depends upon the tortuosity of the current flow paths, which
is described by the formation factor F.
However, we must always take
into account the bed resolution
and penetration depths of the
various tools to understand how
well we would expect the log to
respond to changes in the log at
various scales, as discussed in
the sections above.

Figure 19.27 shows small scale

deltaic cycles recorded by a
6FF40 induction.

The shapes of electrical logs can

be used to distinguish facies
types as with other logs (e.g.,
Acoustic and gamma ray).

These are sometimes called

electrofacies, which are defined
by Rider [1996] as “Suites of
wireline log responses and
characteristics sufficiently
different to be able to be
separated from other
electrofacies.”. Note, in general
the wireline logs characteristics
that define a particular
electrofacies will also include
data from wireline logs other
than electrical logs.

Fig. 19.27 Use of resistivity logs to track changes of lithofacies.

In this case the log shows small scale deltaic cycles (courtesy of
Rider [1996]).

Geoff Page 2010 Page 265

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

19.12.4 Correlation
Electrical logs are often used for correlation. The deep logs (6FF40, ILd, LLd etc.) are the best to use,
as they are sensitive to gross changes in the formations at a scale that is likely to be continuous with
other wells. However, it must be noted that the resistivity of a formation also depends upon formation
fluid pressure and formation water resistivity, which are non-stratigraphic variables, and changes in
them from well to well may confuse correlations.

19.12.5 Lithology Recognition

Electrical logs are not good at indicating lithologies.

Sands shales and carbonates have no characteristic resistivity as their resistivities depend upon many
factors including porosity, compaction, fluid resistivity, texture etc. However sequences of these rocks
can usually be traced by using invariant characteristics from bed to bed, such as a similar resistivity
reading as another set of beds or a characteristic roughness/smoothness of the curve within the bed.
Thus if the basic lithologies can be defined from other logs, the electrical logs help progress them
through the logged section. As the electrical logs are very sensitive to texture, they are extremely good
at discriminating between lithologies of different types providing the types can be defined by some
other log.

An example of this may include beds of shale separated by thin layers of siderite stringers and
concretions. The shallow penetrating electrical tools will pick out each thin siderite bed as a sharp
peak in resistivity.

However, electrical logs do provide characteristic responses for some lithologies (Fig. 19.28). The
most common are:

• Gypsum – 1000 Ωm.

• Anhydrite – 10,000 - ∞ Ωm.
• Halite - 10,000 - ∞ Ωm.
• Coals – 10 –106 Ωm.
• Tight limestones and dolomites – 80 – 6000 Ωm.
• Disseminated pyrite - <1 Ωm (pyrite has a resistivity of 0.0001 – 0.1 Ωm.
• Chamosite - <10 Ωm.

19.12.6 Other Applications

Compaction of shales can be seen, as with other logs. In the case of electrical logs, the shale resistivity
is seen to increase slowly but steadily in thick shale sequences. The deep tool should be used for this.
Breaks in the compaction trend can then be used as indicators of unconformities and faults.

The beginning of overpressure zones can be seen by a sudden unexplained jump of the resistivity to
lower values in a uniform lithology. This is best observed in shales and is associated with the higher
porosity induced by the overpressure. Again, the best tools to use are the deep looking tools.

Source rocks may be recognized, and their maturity indicated by electrical logs. Immature sources
have little effect upon electrical logs, but this effect grows with the degree of maturity. Hence, it
is expected that it may be possible to calculate the TOC% from electrical logs under the
correct conditions.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 266

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Resistivity Logs
0.1 Deep 105

Shale Variable

Tight Limestone
80-6000
/Dolomite
Porous Limestone
/Dolomite
Variable
Coal 10-1,000,000

Variable
Halite
1 0,000-inf.
Anhydrite 1 0,000-inf.

Gypsum 1000

Variable

Chamosite-
<10
Rich Shale

Variable
Sandstone
with Pyrite <1

Variable

Shale Variable

Fig. 19.28 Characteristic resistivities from various lithologies recorded by resistivity logs.

19.13 DEVIATION EFFECTS

All of the deep reading resistivity tools may be affected by formations that are dipping relative to the
wellbore. The deep measurements may be seeing some proportion of their signal from bedding which
intersects the wellbore above or below the tool measure point, which introduces a form of
filtering/smoothing which increases with increasing dip. This means that high resistivity reservoirs may
be averaged with low resistivity shales, reducing the apparent reservoir resistivity and increasing
apparent water saturations. Figure 19.29 shows a thick reservoir unit, with a true resistivity of 50 ohmm,
surrounded by shale of 1 ohmm (shaded area). The response of a 6FF40 induction log is shown for a

Geoff Page 2010 Page 267

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

wellbore intersecting this reservoir at a relative dip of zero and fifty degrees. It can be seen that in the
deviated case the apparent measured resistivity drops to around 15 ohmm in this 50 ohmm bed, due to
the effect of the deviation.

Fig. 19.29 The affect of formation dip on 6FF40 measurements.

These affects can generally be corrected by modern computer algorithms. They are minimal below
around 20 degrees dip, and above 70 degrees very difficult to correct.

19.13 TENSOR RESISTIVITY TOOLS

All the resistivity tools discussed in this section consider the resistivity they are measuring to be omni-
directional.

A new generation of resistivity tools is now available which measures directional or Tensor resistivities.
Examples of these are the 3D Explorer (3DEX) from Baker Hughes, and the 3D AIT from
Schlumberger.

Fig. 19.30 Directional resistivity measurements in a thin bedded formation.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 268

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

These tools can be very useful in the following situations:-

• Thin bedded formations, below the resolution of standard tools exhibit a horizontal to vertical
resistivity anisotropy (Figure 19.30).

• Fractures can introduce electrical anisotropy parallel and perpendicular to the fracture plane.

• Water flooding can induce electrical anisotropy

• Grain sorting, such as in Aeolian sandstones, is electrically anisotropic

These tools and their interpretation are beyond the scope of this course.

19.14 LWD RESISTIVITY TOOLS

Most LWD resistivity tools are propagation resistivity tools. These work on much higher frequencies,
typically 2MHz, have complex responses, and can work in any mud system.

The base configuration consists of a single transmitter, and two receivers (Figure 19.31).

Fig. 19.31 The principle of a propagation resistivity tool.

The tools measure the phase change, and amplitude change or attenuation, of a high frequency
electromagnetic wave between two receivers. Both phase and attenuation are related to the resistivity of
the surrounding environment. These are calibrated to formation resistivity and may both be presented on
a standard logarithmic resistivity grid.

Most current tools have multiple spacings and operate at several frequencies. In general:-

• The lower the frequency, the deeper the measurement

• The longer the spacing the deeper the measurement

• Amplitude is deeper than phase

• Phase has a better vertical resolution than amplitude.

A selection of tools from different LWD contractors is shown in Figure 19.32.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 269

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Electrical Logs

Fig. 19.31 Multi-spacing Multi-frequency LWD propagation resistivity tools.

The multiple, complex, responses of the many curves produced by these tools can be confusing.
Some contractors can now combine them all into a set of fixed depth of investigation/fixed vertical
resolution curves similar to the output of a wireline resistivity tool. An example of this is INTEQ’s
MPRTEQ processing.

Time Since Drilled RACLM RES60

0 mins 600 0.2 OHMM 20 0.2 ohm-m 20
Measured Depth (ft)

Rate of Bit Penetration RPCLM RES35

1000 ft/hr 0 0.2 ohm-m 20 0.2 ohm-m 20
Borehole Inclination RPCHM RES20
-10 degrees 90 0.2 ohm-m 20 0.2 ohm-m 20
Gamma Ray RPCSHM RES10
30 API 130 0.2 ohm-m 20 0.2 ohm-m 20

XX400

XX450

Fig. 19.32 MPRTEQ processing. The centre track shows the typical rigsite presentation of LWD
phase and Attenuation measurements. The Right hand track shows the processed resolution
matched fixed depth on investigation data.
Geoff Page 2010 Page 270
Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

20. THE EFFECT OF CLAY AND SHALE ON POROSITY AND

RESISTIVITY LOGS

20.1 Introduction
The presence of clay minerals or shale in porous formations presents problems from the interpretation
of wireline logs. For most logs these problems have been discussed in the relevant chapter. The
problem is, however, especially bad in the interpretation of resistivity data, and also affects the
porosity logs. This is not only because the presence of clays and shale have a gross effect upon
resistivity values, but because such data effects the final calculated STOOIP for a given formation.
Even small amounts of clay can have a large effect, which is important because most reservoir sands
contain some degree of shaliness.

Note: The terms clay and shale are often used interchangeably by petrophysicists – but wrongly! It is
very common to see layers of shale in reservoirs, however a pure block of clay is very rare. Clays are
minerals, which are just one of the constituent components of shales, together with many other minerals.

The distribution of shale within porous reservoir formations can be classified into three groups:

• Laminated – thin layers of shale between sand units.

• Structural – shale particles constitute part of the rock matrix, and are distributed within it. An
example of this is coprolites.
• Dispersed – shale in the open spaces between the grains of the clastic matrix.

These are depicted schematically in Fig. 20.1.

Fig. 20.1 Different modes of shale distribution in a reservoir.

The laminated and structural shales are part of the rock structure and are considered to have the same
porosity (water content) as adjacent shale beds because they were subjected to the same overburden
pressures. By contrast, the dispersed shales were only subjected to the formation fluid pressure, and
therefore have a higher porosity and water content.

Dr. Paul Glover, updated by Geoff Page 2007 Page 271

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

20.2 Porosity Logs

There are two different types of porosity that are relevant:

• Total porosity.

• Effective porosity.

These are illustrated in Fig. 20.2.

a) b)

Fig. 20.2 Porosity models. (a) Total porosity and Effective porosity. (b) Clay and shale definitions.

20.2.1 Effective Porosity

The bulk volume of the rock is composed of a clastic/carbonate matrix fraction, a wet shale fraction
(V sh ), which contains clay and other mineral components, and an “effective porosity”, фe. The
matrix is therefore (1 - V sh - фe). This model is the basis for the density – neutron cross-plots,
which is commonly used to assess фe and Vsh in shaly formations, using the following equations:
(20.1)
(20.2)

Figure 20.3 illustrates this method graphically. The graph is a triangle, whose apices are at the
following points:

• The clean matrix point: фN = 0% ρb = 2.65 g/cm3

• The fluid point: фN = 100 ρb = 1.00 g/cm3
• The shale point: фN and ρb obtained from an adjacent shale
The linear effective porosity scale is shown on the matrix-water side and the shale-water side. The iso
Vsh lines are drawn across the triangle. Each pair of фN and ρb values obtained from the logs can be
entered into the graph and the relevant effective porosity and Vsh can be read off. Alternately, a more
accurate figure can be obtained by solving Eqs. (20.1 and 20.2).

Dr. Paul Glover, updated by Geoff Page 2007 Page 272

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

Fig. 20.3 Porosity- Vsh correction chart for the density – neutron log combination.

20.2.2 Total Porosity

In the total porosity mode, the shale is assumed to have a grain density equal to that of quartz. This is
actually a good approximation for illite, kaolinite and montmorillonite based shales. The model is
composed of a sandstone matrix fraction, a shale fraction (described as dry shale, i.e., without the clay
bound water), and a so-called “total porosity” фt. The matrix and dry shale fraction have a fraction (1 -
фt). The value of фt can be derived directly from the density log.

The porosity obtained from routine core analysis is also the total porosity in the sense that the
procedures used to prepare the cores ensure that all oil is extracted from the cores, and the core is then
dried. Under these conditions all absorbed and interstitial water is removed from the shale. As a result,
there is often good agreement between routine core porosities and density log derived porosity data. If
there is a discrepancy, the core porosity is usually lower. This is because the methods used to measure
the porosity of the cores uses imbibed fluids (water, mercury or gas), and these fluids can only access
open pore spaces: there will always be some pore spaces that are isolated and cannot be accessed.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 273

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

The difference between фt and фe is the fraction of water held by absorbing capillary forces in the shale
fraction of the rock. This amount of water can be appreciable depending upon the type and distribution
of the shale, and the salinity and pH of the formation fluid. The water is bound, and does not take part
in fluid flow. It is common, therefore, to ignore this water fraction and to prefer to use фe as a
representative porosity for the rock. However, one must be cautious in using the effective porosity in
calculations involving resistivity tools.

The NMR tool is sensitive to the difference between bound and free water (i.e., water associated with
(фt - фe) and фe, respectively), and can be used to derive these values directly, and then use them to
predict the permeability of the rock.

20.2.3 Sand/Shale Modes

The effect on the effective porosity of the different shale modes is shown in Fig. 20.4. The clean water-
bearing sand has an effective porosity of 30%, and is given by point Sd on the density-neutron
crossplot (Fig. 20.4). If 10% shale is added to the sand, then the point will plot in slightly different
places on the density-neutron crossplot depending upon the type of clay distribution (the mode of the
shale).

Fig. 20.4 Effect of shale/clay mode on the effective porosity of a shaly sand.

Dr. Paul Glover, updated by Geoff Page 2007 Page 274

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

• If it is as a dispersed shale, the 10% additional shale take the place of porosity, so the new effective
porosity becomes 30 - 10 = 20%, and the point now plots at point D in the figure.

• If it is a laminated shale, the 10% additional shale reduce the overall effective porosity by 10%, so
the new effective porosity becomes 30 – (30× 10/100) = 27%, and the point now plots at point L in
the figure.

• If it is a structural shale, the 10% additional shale replaces volume for volume 10% of the original
quartz grains, and the effective porosity is unchanged at 30%. Hence the new point plots at point S
in the figure.

We can use these relationships to look at structural shale distribution patterns on the density-neutron
cross-plot.

Clay distribution patterns, indicating dispersed, laminated and structural shales can be analyzed with
the density and neutron log data (Fig. 20.5). In this figure:

Fig. 20.5 Density-neutron crossplot showing characteristic points for shaly sands and shales.
• “Shale pt” indicates wet shale – NOT Clay.
• Laminar shales fall on line I.
• Dispersed shales fall Line II, and when all pores are full Line III.
• Structural shales fall on line IV.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 275

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

20.3 Resistivity Logs

The presence of shales reduces resistivity, and hence decreases the apparent hydrocarbon
saturation. Their presence must be accounted for otherwise all our STOOIP calculations will be
underestimated. The degree of effect that the presence of shales have depend on their amount (Vsh)
and their distribution. Each of the three different distributions of shale outlined above (laminar,
structural, and dispersed) has a different effect upon the resistivity, SP, and acoustic logs, and
influences the permeability and water saturation in a different way. We can schematically illustrate
the different modes of shale distribution in Fig. 20.1.

20.3.1 Laminar shales

These are thin streaks of shale deposited between units of reservoir rock. They do not change the
effective porosity, the water saturation or the horizontal permeability of the reservoir layer, but destroy
vertical permeability between reservoir layers.

The resistivity of the reservoir rock is the sum of the conductivities of the clean sand layers and the
shale laminae:

(20.3)

or in terms of resistivity:

(20.4)

shale
shale

Equation (20.4) can be written:

(20.5)

which can be rearranged for water saturation:

(20.6)

In practice the water saturation is found using an iterative method. The shale volume (Vsh) is derived
from the GR or SP logs.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 276

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

20.3.2 Dispersed Shales

These show very different properties from laminar shales. The permeability is significantly reduced
because shales occupy the pore space and the water wetness of shales is generally higher than that of
quartz. The result is an increased water saturation and a decreased fluid mobility.

There are many shaly-sand water saturation equations that have been proposed in the literature for
dispersed shale systems. The most common is the Simandoux equation, however it was not determined
from reservoir rocks but artificial clay slurries and should be used with great care:

(20.7)

This equation is also solved iteratively.

20.3.3 Structural Shales

These have similar general properties to laminar clays, as they have been subjected to the same
constraints. However, they behave more like dispersed clays in respect of their permeability and
resistivity properties.

20.3.4 Waxman and Smits Equation

Shale-bearing rocks have a lower resistivity because shale has a low resistivity. This is caused partly
by the presence of effective surface conduction processes on their surfaces, and partly because they
generally have large surface areas upon which surface conduction can take place. Waxman and Smits
used this to create an alternative way of analyzing the electrical resistivity of shaly sands.

If a shaly sand contains clays that have a low conductivity, or relatively low percentage of shale then
Archies equation is frequently the best to use. Waxman and Smits equation is the recommended
option for most other shaly reservoirs. It is more complex, but can easily be solved today with
computer interpretation programs.

Waxman and Smit’s equation relates the electrical resistivity of a water saturated shaly sand to the
water conductivity and the cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume of the rock, Qv (meq/ml). It
is this last factor that partly controls the size of the surface conduction. The method is independent of
shale distribution.

The conductivity of the shaly water-bearing sand is expressed by:

(20.8)

where: F* = the formation factor in shaly sand (determined at high fluid salinities).
Co = 1/Ro
Cw = 1/Rw
Cs = The specific surface conductance of the clays in the shale fraction.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 277

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

The value of Cs = BxQv, where B is the equivalent conductance of the counterions as a function of
solution conductivity, Cw. The units of B are Ωcm/m. meq. Equation (20.8) is represented graphically
in Fig. 20.7.

Fig. 20.7 The conductivity of a shaly sand as a function of formation water conductivity.

Since we can write F* = ф-m* , Eq. (20.8) can be rewritten:

(20.9)

in which formula the triple product R wBQv is dimensionless.

This equation was developed and tested in the laboratory using the total porosity, and hence it should
be restricted to use with total porosity.

The concentration of clay counterions as defined by Qv can be determined in the laboratory on material
from core by a titration/conductivity method. This is done on crushed samples, so there is some
concern that the value may not be relevant for whole rocks. Clearly there will be more exchangeable
counterions possible in crushed samples, which have a higher surface area for reactions. Some whole
rock measurements exist, but are uncommonly used in the oil industry.

It has been noted that there exists in some areas a relationship between Qv and фt. If this is noted in a
reservoir (Fig. 20.8), the Qv value may be determined from the total porosity from log data. In shaly
sands Qv usually ranges between 0.01 and 2 meq/ml.

Empirical relationships between B and Rw have been established at different temperatures. Between
50oC and 200oC (120 – 390oF) the product BRw is not dependent upon temperature, and can be
represented as a function of water salinity alone, as illustrated in Fig. 20.9.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 278

 Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

Fig. 20.8 Typical Qv -фt for reservoir intervals. Here Qv = 0.0006× фt -1.8.

Fig. 20.9 The BRw – Salinity relationship.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 279

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

In hydrocarbon-bearing formations the exchange ions associated with the clay become more
concentrated in the remaining pore water. This concentration Qv’ is related to Qv and the water
saturation Sw by Qv’= Qv/ Sw.

The conductivity of the counterions is BQv/Sw (Ωm), hence:

(20.10)

Here, Ct = the conductivity of a partially water saturated sand.

G* = a geometric factor, which is a function of the porosity, water saturation and pore
geometry, but independent of Qv.

Dividing Eq. (20.8) by Eq. (20.10) gives:

(20.11)

where, n* is the saturation exponent for shaly sand.

The equation is solved for Sw using an iteration process, computationally. A quick manual solution can
be obtained from the graph shown in Fig. 20.10, which is valid for the saturation exponents, n*=1.8
and 2.0.

This is derived from the relationship:

(20.12)

where, F* = F (1 + RwBQv ), and Rw and B are the values at 77ºF.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 280

Petrophysics MSc Course Notes Clay/Shale Effects on Porosity and Resistivity Logs

Fig. 20.10 Quick-look Waxman and Smits Sw solution chart.

Geoff Page 2010 Page 281