1

Table of Contents: Page #’s

1. Lab equipment pg. 3

2. Measurements pg. 7
3. Density pg. 9
4. Graphing Candle pg. 18
5. Bunsen Burner pg. 22
6. Flame Test pg. 27
7. Line Spectrum pg. 31
8. Periodic Table pg. 38
9. Uranium Decay pg. 43
10. Isotopic Mass Calculations pg. 47
11. Physical vs. Chemical Change pg. 54
12. Separation of Sand and Salt Mixture pg. 62
13. Metallic Bonding pg. 83
14. Metal Activity pg. 88
15. Formula and Oxidation pg. 93
16. Ball and Stick Model pg. 95
17. Mole Lab pg. 98
18. Percent Composition of a Hydrate pg. 101
19. Gas Laws pg. 105
20. Colligative Properties of water pg. 109
21. Solubility of KNO3 pg. 113
22. Titration pg. 121
23. Electrochemical Cell pg. 126
 3
Lab Equipment Lab

Naming of Instrument ​Possible Function(s)

1. Bunsen burner It produces a single gas flame that is used

to heat chemicals in beakers or test tubes.

2. Graduated cylinder Used to measure the volume of a liquid by

reading the marked lines on the slide of the
cylinder.

3. Evaporating Dish Used to evaporate small amounts of a

liquid.

4. Crucible Tongs Allows the user to be able to pick up a hot

crucible, flask, evaporating dishes, and
more.

5. Beaker Tongs Allows the user to pick up beakers

containing hot liquids.

6. Beaker Used to store, mix, or heat liquids.

7. Crucible Used to contain small amounts of a solid

heated at high temperatures.

8. Clay Triangle Used to support the crucible.

9. Burette Used to measure or withdraw the volume

of a solution in titration.

10. Erlenmeyer Flask Used to hold and mix chemicals by looking

at the marked lines on the flask. It may be
heated.

11. Ring Stand Used to support laboratory glassware or

other equipment.

12. Iron Ring Used to support the apparatus by being

fastened to a ring stand.

13. Test Tube Tongs Used to hold or clamp a test tube.

14. Scoopula Used to transport chemical compounds,

they are also often used to weigh chemicals
on a balance.
 4
15. Stirring Rod Used to mix chemicals.

16. Test Tube Brush Used to glass apparatus.

17. Chem Plate Used to hold liquids in micro experiments.

18. Burette Clamp Used to hold and secure burettes.

19. Funnel Used to transfer liquids or finely-grained

materials into containers.

20. Thermometer Used to measure temperatures.

21. Wash Bottle Dispenses distilled water to clean

laboratory glassware.

22. Mesh Plate Used to spread the heat of a flame

23. Separation Funnel Used to separate immiscible liquids.

5
6
 7

Measurements Lab (D)

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

Data and Observations

Object Length (cm) Width (cm) Height (cm)

Textbook 28.5cm 22.5cm 4.5cm

Block # 7cm 4.5cm 1cm

Object Mass (g)

Screw 13.24g

Tree branch 29g

10mL water 10g

Object Volume (show work and Sig Figs)

Textbook 3000cm^3
(28.5cm*22.5cm*4.5cm=​2885.625cm^3=300
0cm^3​)

Branch Cannot be calculated using water displacement

method because the branch floats

Water in test tube 10mL

Analysis Questions:

1. How does measurement improve simple observations?

With measurements, researchers can interpret this data and lead to quantitative conclusions, leading to a
more accurate outcome.

2. List three errors in this experiment that limited the accuracy of your measurements.

-The mass of the objects was not measured in a vacuum resulting in outside factors such as wind and
pressure that affected its volume.
 8
-Failure to read meniscus properly

-The graduated cylinder wasn’t leveled

3. How could you have reduced the errors you identified in the question above?

We could have reduced errors by: finding a more accurate device that has no possibility for error, or by
simply making sure the graduated cylinder is on a leveled surface so that it shows accurate measurements.

4. Explain how to calculate volume using the water displacement method.

By taking the volume of a certain amount of water and then recording the volume of our water after we’ve
put our screw, or any item, into it, we can subtract these two to get the volume of the screw.

5. A block of iron was determined to have a length of 3.5 cm, a height of 1.2 cm, and a width of 0.5 cm.

a. Calculate the volume of the block to the correct number of significant figures.

2cm^3

b. Show all work and include appropriate units.

(L)(W)(H)= volume

(3.5cm)(1.2cm)(0.5cm)= 2.1 cm^3= 2 cm^3

6. A small pebble was dropped into a graduated cylinder whose level read 4.3 mL. After the pebble was
dropped in, the level read 7.8 mL.

Calculate the volume of the pebble and include all work and units in your answer.

7.8 mL - 4.3 mL = 3.5 mL

7. The student’s partner in the above question claimed that the answer was off by 0.1 mL. Identify a
possible source of error in the student’s measurement.

The student may have incorrectly read the meniscus of the graduated cylinder, or it can be due to the fact
that a graduated cylinder is able to be off by + or - 0.2 mL.
 9
Density Calculations Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

1- weigh the weigh boat then tare the scale

2- weigh each of the provided element samples and record their density

3- pour 6 ml of water into the graduated cylinder and record your initial reading

4- add an element into the water filled cylinder and record the final volume of the water

5- repeat step 3 and 4 until all elements volume has been recorded

6- calculate the density of each element

7- complete the table below

Measurements Cu Al Zn Sn Pb Unknown

Mass of the 2 grams 15 grams 3 grams 21 grams 933 38 grams

element in grams grams

Initial volume of 600 mL 600 mL 600 mL 600 mL 600 mL 600 mL

the water inside
the cylinder

Final Volume of 600.25 610 mL 600.4 mL 603 mL 700 mL 603.6 mL

water mL

8 g/mL 1.5 g/mL 7.5 g/mL 7 g/mL 9.33 10.5 g/mL

g/mL
Density of
Element
 10

Accepted Density 8.96 2.7 g/mL 7.134 7.287 11.3 What is the
in Table S g/mL g/mL g/mL g/mL unknown?

The
Percent Error 10.7% 44.4% 5.1% 3.9% 17.4% unknown is
Calculations silver or Ag
based on
density.

8- How does the density change as the atomic number increases?

Since as atomic number increases so does atomic mass, and elements with more mass will
generally have a higher density as mass and density are proportional, therefore as atomic number
increases so does density.

9- How will the temperature of water affect this result?

The temperature of the water must be at standard conditions. As if the water is too hot, the
substance will expand and give an inaccurate volume due to the molecules having more average
kinetic energy and gaining a greater distance between each other. But, if the water is too cold
they will contract and also give an inaccurate volume as the molecules lose average kinetic
energy and thus get closer to each other.

Objective​:

The objective of this lab is to find and test how density will change when going through the
periodic table’s groups and periods. We will practice this by calculating the densities of various
household objects.

Introduction​:

In this lab, we are going to analyze and compare the densities of elements. We will use the
water displacement method in order to find the volumes of items, and along with those items
masses we will find the densities of these items. Then, with our experimental densities we will
 11
compare it to the items actual density by calculating percent error. Calculating and comparing
density requires the skills of converting units, reading volume, and comparing values.

Hypothesis​:

We will have percent errors no lower than 3% due to the unreliable equipment used and
amount of guessing that will be needed.

Materials​:

-Copper penny from 1961

-Aluminum soda can

-Zinc penny from 2017

-Tin decorative spoon

-Lead 2 pound weight

-Silver fork

-1000 mL measuring cup (or anything that measures in mL and L)

-Faucet water

-Postal and parcel scale (or anything that measures in Ib, oz, kg, and g)

-Goggles

-Gloves

Procedures​:

If you wish to conduct this experiment yourself, be sure to research the percent composition of
the element you are trying to represent in the item you use. For example, pennies before 1962 are
made of 95% copper, while pennies after this year are made of 97.25% zinc, so be very sure to
research the item you’re using in order to get an accurate reading and calculations. As well, be
very careful when conducting these experiments that you don’t lose any water. If water is lost
from your volume measuring device, it can lead to inaccurate readings on your device.

1. Put on your safety goggles and safety gloves, to ensure no danger when carrying out this
experiment
2. Fill the volume measuring device of your choice to its appropriate volume using faucet
water. For me, I used a 1000 mL measuring cup and filled it up to 600 mL.
 12
3. Set up scale accordingly, by either plugging it in or adding batteries among other ways of
setting up scales. For me, I had to put batteries into my device, which was a postal and
parcel scale.
4. Take your copper item of choice and place it on the scale, and write down the weight of
the copper item.
5. Repeat step 3 with all other items, which include an aluminum, zinc, tin, lead, and
unknown item.
6. Then place your copper item into your volume measuring device of, and write down the
new volume shown by the device.
7. Repeat step 6 with all other items, which include an aluminum, zinc, tin, lead, and
unknown item.
8. For me, my scale would not calculate in grams, so I was forced to use kilograms and
convert by doing Amount in kg x 1000 g/kg = Amount in g
9. Assess the new volumes you wrote down and compare them to the original volume in
order to find out the volume of each item you are using in the experiment. This is done by
doing (New Volume) - (Original Volume) = (Volume of Item)
10. Be sure to repeat step 8 with every item, which includes a copper, aluminum, zinc, tin,
lead, and unknown item.
11. Once you have the volume of each item, calculate each item's density based on your
experimental data. This is done by doing (Determined Mass)/(Determined Volume) =
Experimental Density.
12. Take the experimental density of the unknown item and use it to find out what the
unknown item is. For me, I had silver with a density of 10.5 g/mL.
13. Calculate the percent error of your experimental densities. This is done by doing
|(Experimental Density-Actual Density)|/Actual Density x 100% = Percent Error
14. Clean out the volume measuring device by pouring out all water inside and cleaning it
with soap and water, being sure to dry off at the end with a paper towel and put it back in
its correct location.
15. Using a paper towel, dry off the copper, aluminum, zinc, tin, lead, and unknown item
used with a paper towel and put them back in their correct locations.
16. Turn off scale accordingly, whether this is by unplugging or turning off, and put it back
in its appropriate location
 13
Original Water:

Copper Photos:

Aluminum Photos:

Zinc Photos:
 14

Tin Photos:

Lead Photos:

Silver/Unknown Photos:
 15

Safety​:

In order to insure the safety of anyone who tries this lab, we recommend three things. First,
properly clean the materials you use before and after doing this lab, because you never know
how dangerous cross contamination can be. Second, wear goggles, as just in case something goes
wrong you are able to safely protect your most sensitive body part, your eyes. Lastly, we
strongly recommend you wear gloves, as if there’s a dangerous reaction you can protect your
hands, as well some of the objects in the experiment can be sharp, so we recommend gloves for
guaranteed safety.

Calculations​:

Unit Conversions:

Copper (Cu)- 0.002 kg x 1000 g/kg = 2 grams

Aluminum (Al)- 0.015 kg x 1000 g/kg = 15 grams

Zinc (Zn)- 0.003 kg x 1000 g/kg = 3 grams

Tin (Sn)- 0.021 kg x 1000 g/kg = 21 grams

Lead (Pb)- 0.933 kg x 1000 g/kg = 933 grams

Silver (Ag)(Unknown)- 0.038 kg x 1000 g/kg = 38 grams

Density:

Copper (Cu)- 600.25 mL - 600 mL = 0.25 mL

2 g/ 0.25 mL = 8 g/mL
 16
Aluminum (Al)- 610 mL - 600 mL = 10 mL

15 g/ 10 mL = 1.5 g/mL

Zinc (Zn)- 600.4 mL - 600 mL = 0.4 mL

3 g/ 0.4 mL = 7.5 g/mL

Tin (Sn)- 603 mL - 600 mL = 3 mL

21 g/ 3 mL = 7 g/mL

Lead (Pb)- 700 mL - 600 mL = 100 mL

933 g/ 100 mL = 9.33 g/mL

Silver (Ag)(Unknown)- 603.6 mL - 600 mL = 3.6 mL

38 g/ 3.6 mL = 10.5 g/mL

Percent Error:

Copper (Cu)- |(8 g/mL - 8.96 g/mL)/ 8.96 g/mL| x 100% = 10.7 %

Aluminum (Al)- |(1.5 g/mL - 2.7 g/mL)/ 2.7 g/mL| x 100% = 44.4 %

Zinc (Zn)- |(7.5 g/mL - 7.134 g/mL)/ 7.134 g/mL| x 100% = 5.1 %

Tin (Sn)- |(7 g/mL - 7.287 g/mL)/ 7.287 g/mL| x 100% = 3.9 %

Lead (Pb)- |(9.33 g/mL - 11.3 g/mL)/ 11.3 g/mL| x 100% = 17.4 %

Conclusion/ Error Analysis:

To conclude, our hypothesis was accurate as we had no percent error values below 3% due to
the nature this experiment was conducted in. Such high percent errors were expected, as there
was difficulty simulating this experiment at home, compared to the equipment we would have in
a classroom. First, the measuring cup does not 100% accurately measure out an increase in
volume, as extremely precise measurements are not its use. As well, for every single item used
the item is not 100% of the element it is supposed to represent. For example, the penny from
1961 is only 95% and then penny from 2017 is only 97.25% zinc. The other items are of an
unknown percent composition, making it even harder to get accurate results. Due to all of these
 17
factors, a high percent error for each item was expected due to the lack of precision with the at
home equipment, compared to what a classroom or proper laboratory may have.

References:

1. mrsd.org,
https://www.mrsd.org/cms/lib/NH01912397/Centricity/Domain/245/3-eureka%20density
.pdf​, accessed 01/13/21
2. Service.Carleton.edu, ​https://serc.carleton.edu/mathyouneed/density/index.html​, accessed
01/13/21
3. Visionlearning.com,
https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/General-Science/3/Density/37​, accessed
01/13/21
 18
Graphic Candle Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

1. There is an indirect relationship between the mass and time. As the amount of time (minutes)
increases, the mass (grams) decreases.

2. The sign of the slope is negative.

3. I determined the slope using the region of the points (0,49) and (30, 45), (see Calculations).
This yields the mathematical equation y = -0.13x + 49, or mass = -0.13(time) + 49, where the y
intercept is 49 grams.

4a. After 20 minutes, the mass of the candle would be 46.4 grams. This is reasonable as my
graph indicates a similar mass of 46 grams at 20 minutes.

b. After 60 minutes, the mass of the candle is 41.2 grams.

c. I can not predict the exact time for the candle to burn out because the candle does not actually
melt at a constant rate and my equation, y = -0.13x + 49, is more of an estimation. However, a
general time would be approximately 377 minutes (see Calculations).

Time (X axis) Mass (Y axis)

0 minutes 49 grams

5 minutes 48 grams

10 minutes 47 grams

15 minutes 47 grams

20 minutes 46 grams

25 minutes 46 grams
 19

30 minutes 45 grams

Objective​:

In this lab, we will be conducting an experiment to determine the relationship between two
variables. Specifically, we are going to gather data regarding how much mass of a candle is left
after a burn-time of 5-minute intervals. Furthermore, if the rate is not constant, we will look for
general trends in this data to be able to predict the mass of the candle at any given time.

Introduction​:

Burning a candle is an effective measure of an independent (x) variable and a dependent (y)
variable as the mass of the candle depends directly on the amount of time it is left to burn.​ ​This is
because, as the wax heats, some of the vaporized, gaseous product will be driven off, leaving less
of the material than originally measured. With this in mind, this can accurately be graphed using
a line graph with the x-axis recording time and the y-axis measuring the corresponding mass.
These graphs generally illustrate a single line, straight or curved, but can often have many points
 20
that do not necessarily fall on a single line.​ ​When this occurs, we draw a line of best-fit to
estimate one line that, in a sense, combines the other lines produced by stray data points.
Similarly, the appearance of the graph is important to be able to easily visualize the rate at
which, in this case, the candles mass decreases. One can achieve this by collecting an adequate
amount of data, making lines bold and straight, labelling different factors, and creating the lines
so that they stretch across most of the graph space provided.

Hypothesis​:

We hypothesize that the mass of the candle will decrease gradually as time increases.

Materials and Procedures:

The materials needed for this experiment are a digital scale, a candle, a glass plate, and a timer.
First, I turned on the digital scale, placed the plate on it, and tared it. Then, I placed the 10” taper
candle on the plate and recorded the initial mass of 49 grams (see appendix 1). This made my
first data point (0,49). I lit the candle and set a timer for 5 minutes. When 5 minutes passed, I
measured and recorded the mass of 48 grams as my second data point, (5, 48). I repeated this
process using 5-minute intervals until I noted my sixth and final data point. The final recorded
mass of the candle after 30 elapsed minutes was 45 grams (see appendix 2).

1.

2.
 21
Safety​:

Tie back hair and loose clothing to keep away from open flame. Be mindful of the hot liquid wax
produced when it melts. Stabilize the candle to prevent it from injuring someone or causing a
fire.

Calculations​:

slope formula: m = (y2 - y1) / (x2 - x1) ​--> m = (45 – 49) / (30 – 0) à m ≈ -0.13

y-intercept = 49

y = -0.13(20) + 49 --> y = -2.6 + 49 --> y = 46.4 grams

y = -0.13(60) + 49 --> y = -7.8 + 49 --> y = 41.2 grams

0 = -0.13x + 49 --> -49 = -0.13x --> -49/-0.13 = -0.13x/-0.13 --> x ≈ 377 minutes

Conclusion / Error Analysis:

From the experiment, our hypothesis was correct in that an increase in time did cause the mass of
the candle to decrease. Also, the graph had a negative slope, as we expected. However, one
inconsistency was that the line of the data was not as constant as we predicted. That is, our data
created more than one line, and we had to estimate a best-fit line in order to calculate a slope.
This likely impacted the validity of some of our calculations. In the future, it would be wise to
use a more appropriate weighing method, like a scale that includes decimals, to be able to
measure the small changes in the data, which is common for a slowly proceeding lab as this one.

Appendix:
1. nnhschemistry.com,
http://nnhschemistry.pbworks.com/w/page/29718943/The%20Candle%20Lab​ accessed
01/03/21
2. acs.org,
https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/adventures-in-chemistry/e
xperiments/flame-out.html​, 01/03/21
 22

Bunsen burner lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

barrel, the air holes / jet, rubber tube, base

Record the time it takes for the water to boil in the table below.

Flame Part Time to Boil

inner cone 46 seconds

outer cone 59 seconds

Analysis:
1. Where is the hottest part of the flame?
The flame that lies just above the inner blue cone.
2. What does the bright orange flame indicate?
The bright orange flame indicates a luminous flame and incomplete combustion, as in the burner
is not receiving enough air.
3. A student can barely see the flame once the burner is lit. What should she do to make it
more visible?
 23
To make it more visible, the student should lower the amount of air that the air hole is taking in
by adjusting its collar to have the air hole slightly opened. She could also adjust the needle valve
by turning it open to increase the gas flow rate, which will produce a larger flame.
4. A student attempts to light a bunsen burner multiple times after turning on the gas. She
notices there is no gas coming out of the top of the barrel, but can hear that the valve is
on. Suggest a possible reason for her problem.
The student’s rubber tube that is connecting the Bunsen burner and the gas tap may have a crack
or hole in it, allowing the gas to escape into the air.
5. List 3 precautions to take when you heat a liquid in a test tube:
Angle the test tube away from you and your peers; anti bumping granules can be added to refrain
the liquid from sitting around the rim of the tube; the boiling tube should be 1/10 full as you
place it above the Bunsen burner; wear safety goggles.
6. List the functions of each of the burner parts you labeled in the picture on the first page of
this lab.
1. Barrel- where the gas and air combust and the subsequent flame is raised to the desired height
2. Gas jet / air hole - enables the gas to rush out from the gas supply and controls the amount of
oxygen entering the burner.
3. Rubber tube- to carry the supply of gas from the gas tap.
4. Metal base- provides stability to the Bunsen burner, ensuring that it is not to topple over.

Objective​:

The objective of this lab is to use different parts of a Bunsen burner and its flame appropriately.
In other words, we will first analyze the different components of a Bunsen burner and their
purposes. Then, we will safely heat objects by distinguishing the different regions of the flame.

Research Question:

When adjusting the Bunsen Burner to have the correct stoichiometric ratio of gas and oxygen,
what would be the hottest part of the flame?

Introduction​:

The Bunsen burner is a staple of many laboratories today, first introduced in 1855 by German
chemist Robert Bunsen. It produces a flame and actually works due to the combustion of air and
some kind of gaseous fuel, but there are many components that make this happen. A rubber hose
carries the gas from the gas tap to the burner, the flow of which can be adjusted using a needle
 24
valve that then affects the flame size. Just above the base is the collar, which has an air hole to
receive the oxygen that will react with the gas. Lastly, the barrel is where this reaction takes
place and the flame is produced, the hottest flame being smaller, blue, and closest to the barrel.
Using this part of the fire, which is located in the inner region, the Bunsen burner can adequately
heat substances with a single, powerful flame (Britannica). The Bunsen burner is also applied
practically in this way in the medical field and food industry where it is a key sterilizing
component. The direct heat provided by the flame can sterilize tools and cans for canned goods
to kill off microorganisms (News-Medical). Bunsen burners generally offer more safety, too,
compared to a traditional flame-producing mechanism as they eliminate certain risks regarding
gas leaks and accidental explosions (BioProcess).

Hypothesis​:

We hypothesize that the inner blue flame will heat substances more rapidly than the taller, outer
flame.

M​aterial and Procedures:

(answer to procedure 4: The flame is a lighter, yellow color and is at a lower temperature as it
experiences incomplete combustion from the air shortage)

(answer to procedure 5: Strike back occurs when there is too much air; that is, the flame appears
in the air hole, rather than out the top of the barrel)

(answer to procedure 6: There is the outer cone which is generally an orange-yellow color, lower
in temperature, and the tallest part of the flame. Then, inside is the inner cone which is a blue
color, concentrated in a smaller area, and the tip of which is the hottest part of the entire Bunsen
burner flame)

The materials that were used for this experiment were a stove-top flame, a xhezve (a small,
long-handled pot), a 25mL pipette, water, a digital stopwatch, and safety goggles. After putting
on my safety goggles, I first measured out 50mL of water by filling and emptying the 25mL
pipette twice, and emptied the water each time into the xhezve. Because I do not have access to a
Bunsen burner, picture 1 below shows me using my stove-top gas burner, instead, to mimic the
hotter inner-core flame and the outer flame. I held the xhezve by the handle away from me and at
an angle against the tip of the inner flame, as shown in picture 2 below. I then turned on and
started the stopwatch, and recorded when the water began to boil, at 46 seconds. Then, I let the
xhezve cool down, rinsed it with cold water, and repeated this process again, but this time
holding it gently against the outer flame in picture 3. I recorded a time of 59 seconds for this
trial. To learn to use the Bunsen burner for future experiments, I also watched a video. It guided
me through the steps of operating a bunsen burner, as presented in the Introduction information
(YouTube).
 25

1. (1/10/21 3:54 pm)

2. (1/10/21 3:55 pm)

3. (1/10/21 8:37 pm)

Safety​:

Tie back hair and loose clothing when dealing with an open flame. Use a handle or tongs of
some kind to hold the contained water to prevent burn injury. Similarly, tilt the apparatus
containing the water at an angle away from you. Have a fire extinguisher nearby, if possible.

Calculations​:

Trial 1: 46 seconds

Trial 2: 59 seconds

Conclusion / Error Analysis:

To conclude this laboratory experiment, our hypothesis was true when tested; the water was
brought to a boil more rapidly when it was heated by the dark blue inner flame than when it was
 26
heated by the lighter colored outer flame. From this experiment and outside research, the video
discussing the Bunsen burner, we were able to determine the mechanics of the Bunsen burner
and how to use its flame safely and to its full potential depending on the substance being heated.
Next time, I suggest using an actual Bunsen burner hands-on, if possible, to test the
experimenter’s aptitude with the apparatus.

References​:
1. BioProcess,
https://www.bioprocessonline.com/doc/bunsen-burners-safe-flame-sterilization-0001,
accessed 1/12/21
2. Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/Bunsen-burner, accessed 1/12/21
3. New-Medical,
https://www.news-medical.net/Life-Science-and-Laboratory/Flame-Sterilization,
accessed 1/12/21
4. YouTube, youtu.be/VLpClJHT9bQ, accessed 1/12/21
 27

Flame Test Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

Element: Atomic line spectrum color

Potassium (K) Pink

Barium (Ba) Light Green

Casesium (Ca) Orange-Red

Sodium (Na) Yellow-Orange

Lead (Pb) Grey- White

1. Explain how the colors in the flame tests are produced

-When an atom is excited it is sent into higher orbitals, this energy produces a specific
color of light depending on the element.
2. How do you think you might make a red glowing pickle?
-First cleaning the pickle so it is dry, then dipping it Lithium powder and burning the
pickle on a bunsen burner. If done correctly the pickle’s fire should emit a red color.

Objective​:
The objective of this lab is to learn how to use a bunsen burner to examine and portray
the unique flame colors of each element. In essence, students will heat a handful of elements and
distinguish why flame colors change, and how they are produced.

Introduction​:
In 1855 Robert Bunsen invented the Bunsen Burner, a device used to combine flammable
gas with air to produce a hot flame (ScienceHistory). Without enough air, gas mixtures will not
fully burn, making small carbon particles that make the flame luminous. On the other hand, with
too much air the flame could burn within the burner tube (Britannica). In order to even do a
flame test, a bunsen burner is the most important material to have besides the chemicals. The
flame test is used to identify small amounts of metal ions in a compound. Flame tests are
commonly used by: geologists to identity elements, forensic scientists to examine elements in a
crime scene, and miners for the analysis of rocks and samples (Reference).The way an element is
identified is by its unique colored atomic line spectra that appears when it is passed through a
spectroscope. The reason colors are emitted is due to exciting an atom using heat, it is launched
 28
into higher orbitals then sent back down. While the atom is calming down from its excited state,
energy is released as light (Brooklyn CUNY). Depending on which element is heated, a different
color will be shown.

Research question:
How does the line spectrum emitted from elements vary from one another?

Hypothesis​:
Each element will have very similar line spectrum colors.

Safety​:
➔ Must wear safety goggles at all times
➔ Secure hair with a hair tie or hair cap
➔ Secure loose clothing by rolling up sleeves or tucking in shirts
➔ Remove any flammable material in the area, ex) paper
➔ Wear gloves, especially when touching chemicals
➔ Wash hands before and after the experiment, do not touch face unless sanitized

Materials​: ​(ThoughtCo)
➔ Bunsen burner
➔ Cobalt Blue glass
➔ Nichrome wire
➔ 1 mole of the elements
❏ Potassium (K)
❏ Barium (Ba)
❏ Caesium (Cs)
❏ Sodium (Na)
❏ Lead (Pb)
➔ Hydrochloric or nitric acid
➔ Distilled water

Procedures​: ​(ThoughtCo)

1. Sanitize the work surface and double-check safety rules

2. To clean the Nichrome wire, it must be dipped in either a hydrochloric or nitric acid, after
it is rinsed with distilled water.
3. Turn on the bunsen burner and turn it into its highest setting, the roaring blue flame
4. To check the wire’s cleanliness, insert it multiple times into the hottest, top, part of the
flame. If there is any color shown at all, the wire is not clean and needs to be cleansed
again.
 29
5. When the wire is sufficiently cleaned, dip it into one of the 5 elements and insert it into
the burner’s flame to test the color.
6. Record the color of each element using the cobalt blue glass and any observations.

(JavaLab, ​A Picture of a
nichrome wire inserting
an element into the
flames of a bunsen
burner to produce a
unique flame color.)

(​Compound Interest​, An image of what color

each element emits.​)

Conclusion​:
Our original hypothesis was that each
element’s line spectra color was similar to
one another. Upon further analysis, this has
been proven false. When not using the blue
cobalt glass, each element had its own
unique color. From research and experimentation, we were able to learn a new way to determine
the identities of elements. If I were to do this lab again, I would use more than the original 5
elements to further test how different each line spectra color appears.
 30
References​:
1. Britannica, ​https://www.britannica.com/science/Bunsen-burner​, accessed 1/16/21
2. Brooklyn CUNY, ​http://www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/LAD/C3/C3_elecEnergy.html​,
accessed 1/16/21
3. Chem Guide,​ ​https://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/flametests.html​, accessed
1/16/21
4. Compound Interest,
https://www.compoundchem.com/2014/02/06/metal-ion-flame-test-colours-chart/​,
accessed 1/16/21
5. JavaLab, ​https://javalab.org/en/flame_test_en/​, accessed 1/16/2
6. LibreTexts,
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Modules_and_Websites_(I
norganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_
Elements/Group__1%3A_The_Alkali_Metals/2Reactions_of_the_Group_1_Elements/Fla
me_Tests​, accessed 1/16/21
7. Reference,
https://www.reference.com/science/uses-flame-tests-f4910d776a6ffe42#:~:text=Flame%
20tests%20use%20simple%20equipment,of%20samples%2C%20particularly%20when%
20prospecting​ , accessed 1/17/21
8. Science History,
https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/robert-bunsen-and-gustav-kirchhoff​,
accessed 1/16/21
9. ThoughtCo, ​https://www.thoughtco.com/perform-and-interpret-flame-tests-603740​,
accessed 1/16/21
10. Web Exhibits, ​http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/3BA.html​, accessed 1/16/21
 31
Line Spectrum Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

1. Obtain a diffraction grating. Be careful not to touch the surface with your fingers.

2. Observe one of the discharge tubes while holding the grating a few inches from your eye. If
the lines are not vertical, rotate the grating by 90o. The line spectrum is the set of lines nearest
the source. The colors may repeat themselves, ignore these additional spectra.

3. Record the element in the tube and as accurately as you can reproduce the line spectrum. Your
spectrum should show the relative spacing between the lines present and the colors of the lines.

4. Repeat step 3 until all of the elements have been recorded.

Element Color Spectrum

Helium Pink-Orange

Hydrogen Blue-Violet

Argon Violet

Neon Red

Mercury Blue-Violet

(Where these color values and images were taken from can be found in references 10 and 13.)
 32

1. What elements make up the gases in Mixture 1?

Elements A and C make up mixture 1.

2. What elements make up the gases in Mixture 2?

Elements D and E make up mixture 2.

3. How can scientists use line spectra to determine the makeup of distant stars?
Scientists and astronomers are able to use line spectra to find out almost everything about stars
and whatever they are measuring. They can determine a star's composition by examining its line
spectra and comparing it to the line spectra of every element. For example, if a star contains
hydrogen the scientists will be able to see the line spectra for hydrogen inside of this star's line
spectra, among other elements that are in the star.

Objective​:
​We will be able to read and interpret different line spectrums and learn what they represent and
mean. This will be done by learning what the lines on a line spectrum mean, and determining
what elements make up a certain mixture based on the mixtures line spectra.
 33
Research Question:
How can line spectrums be beneficial to scientists?

Introduction​:
The discovery and study of line spectra has greatly aided scientists for as long as it’s been
around, due to its ability to help scientists determine many things that before seemed impossible.
The first known instance of a line spectrum being recognized was by Issac Newton in 1666. He
had learned that when using a contraption, which would represent the modern day spectrometer,
the sun’s white light could be turned and dispersed into a series of colors. This finding would
lead to the study of spectroscopy. W. Herschel and J.W. Ritter discovered, between 1800 and
1801, that the sun’s radiation actually went even further than what was visible to the eye, which
would be known as ultraviolet and infrared light. However, the science of spectroscopy would
truly be discovered when Joseph Fraunhofer would discover the first ever spectral lines in 1814
and was able to give them proper meaning. Also called Fraunhofer lines, he learned that spectral
lines could be employed to the most prominent of them, as the first standards for comparing
spectral lines were obtained using prisms of different glasses.​ He also learned that these lines
could be used to determine the composition of distant planets and stars (MIT Spectroscopy). TO
elaborate, once the line spectrum of all known elements was determined, scientists were able to
more accurately determine the composition of different substances. A scientist could compare
the line spectrum of a star or planet and compare it to the line spectrum of all elements, and see if
the star or planet contained any particular elements. For instance, if a star contains hydrogen and
fluorine, a scientist would be able to see the line spectrum of hydrogen and fluorine inside of the
line spectra of the star (NASA). This is why the discovery of line spectrum was almost essential
for the advancement of the study of astrophysics.

Hypothesis​:
No element will have a line spectrum with just one single color in it.

Materials​:
-Spectrometer
-Tube with 0.1 mol Hydrogen gas
-Tube with 0.1 mol Helium gas
-Tube with 0.1 mol Argon gas
-Tube with 0.1 mol Neon gas
-Tube with 0.1 mol Mercury liquid

Procedures​:
(These procedures were based off of the videos in reference 15 and 16.)
Before measuring elements-
 34
1. Start by taking out your spectrometer and turning it on accordingly, whether this be by
pressing the on button, plugging it in, or putting in batteries.
2. Grab your elements from their respective containment areas and get them set up to be
tested on. Be sure to not drop or spill any of the tubes containing your elements, as this
could be dangerous.
3. Put on your available safety equipment now, which should include at least a face
covering, goggles, and gloves.
Measuring elements-
1. Take your first tube, for this example the first tube will be helium, and place it
accordingly into the spectrometer. Whether this be by opening a lid and placing into a
chamber, or inputting your element into the spectrometer and placing it into a cuvette.
2. Obtain a diffraction grating. Be careful not to touch the surface with your fingers.
3. Observe one of the discharge tubes while holding the grating a few inches from your eye. If the
lines are not vertical, rotate the grating by 90o. The line spectrum is the set of lines nearest the
source. The colors may repeat themselves, ignore these additional spectra.
4. Write down or save the photo of heliums line spectra, and use this spectra to determine
the molecules dominant color.
5. Repeat steps 1, 2, 3, and 4 with all elements, in this example the rest of the elements are
hydrogen, argon, neon, and mercury.
Cleaning up-
1. Careful carry all of your tubes containing your elements back into their respective
containment areas. Again, be sure to not drop or spill any of your elements, as they can
be toxic and dangerous to ingest.
2. Shut off your spectrometer accordingly, whether this be by unplugging it, pressing the off
button, or removing batteries.
3. Lastly, take off your safety equipment and place it back into its appropriate locations.

(picture 1 indicate the elements used in the experiment)

 35
(Picture 2 and 3 indicate if you need further guidance or knowledge on how to do this
experiment)

2. 3.
Safety​:
Be very careful when handling any of the tubes in this experiment, as all gases and liquids in
the tubes are toxic when ingested. For instance, hydrogen gas is not only an asphyxiant to
humans but is also very flammable when exposed to oxygen, so it must be handled with caution
(HowStuffWorks). As well, helium, argon, and neon are all also asphyxiants and can cause
dangerous side effects if too much is inhaled (University of Florida). Then, mercury is most
likely the most dangerous element you will deal with and should be treated as such. Mercury
liquid turns into mercury vapor at room temperature and can cause damage to multiple organs,
resulting in death in certain situations (World Health Organization). We recommend you wear at
the very least a face mask, or a gas mask if you are able to. We also suggest using gloves and
wearing goggles if your gas mask doesn’t cover your eyes.

Calculations​:
No calculations and/or mathematics is needed for this lab.

Conclusion/ Error Analysis:

In conclusion, we were able to properly, safely, and successfully determine the line spectrum
of multiple elements and analyze the make-up of mixtures based off of the line spectrum. My
hypothesis was correct, as there was not a single element with only one color in its line spectra.
This hypothesis was based off of my past experience and knowledge with line spectrums, and
proved to be correct. We also learned the usefulness of line spectrums and spectrometers in the
scientific field, mainly astronomy. This also showed how spectroscopy has great benefit to a
greater understanding of our universe and elements as a whole.
 36
References​:

1. Astronomy,
www.astronomy.com/magazine/ask-astro/2019/06/how-do-scientists-determine-the-chem
ical-compositions-of-the-planets-and-stars#:~:text=How%20do%20scientists%20determi
ne%20the%20chemical%20compositions%20of%20the%20planets%20and%20stars%3F
,-Cristina%20Montes&text=Each%20element%20absorbs%20light%20at,composition%
20based%20on%20these%20wavelengths.&text=That%20fingerprint%20often%20appea
rs%20as%20the%20absorption%20of%20light​., accessed 1/13/21
2. Healthline, ​www.healthline.com/health/inhaling-helium#other-sources​., accessed 1/13/21
3. HowStuffWorks,
auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/hydrogen-vehicle-danger1.htm
#:~:text=When%20liquid%20hydrogen%20is%20stored,escapes%20there%20are%20ass
ociated%20hazards.&text=Topping%20the%20list%20of%20concerns,more%20easily%
20than%20gasoline%20does., accessed 1/13/21
4. Lenntech,
www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/h.htm#:~:text=Inhalation%3A%20High%20conce
ntrations%20of%20this,depression%20of%20all%20the%20senses​., 1/13/21
5. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
web.mit.edu/spectroscopy/history/history-classical.html., accessed 1/13/21
6. NASA,
www.imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/toolbox/spectra1.html#:~:text=The%20science%20o
f%20spectroscopy%20is,fast%20the%20material%20is%20moving., accessed 1/13/21
7. NASA,
www.imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/features/yba/M31_velocity/spectrum/spectra_info.html.,
accessed 1/13/21
8. Neon Sign,
www.neonsign.com/neonsign-com-can-neon-kill-you/#:~:text=As%20stated%20above%
2C%20neon%20is,at%20normal%20temperature%20and%20pressure.&text=However%
2C%20this%20gas%20can%20be,be%20considered%20a%20simple%20asphyxiant​.,
accessed 1/13/21
9. Public Lab, publiclab.org/wiki/spectrometry, accessed 1/13/21
10. Purdue University, ​http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/demos/main_pages/6.5.html​, accessed
1/13/21
11. Rochester Institute of Technology,
www.spiff.rit.edu/richmond/asras/chemcomp_i/chemcomp_i.html., accessed 1/13/21
12. University of Florida,
www.ehs.ufl.edu/programs/lab/cryogens/argon/#:~:text=Argon%20is%20nontoxic%20an
d%20largely,loss%20of%20consciousness%2C%20and%20death​., accessed 1/13/21
13. University of Maryland, ​http://physics.umd.edu/grt/taj/623f/​, accessed 1/13/21
 37
14. World Health Organization,
www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health#:~:text=The%20inhalatio
n%20of%20mercury%20vapour,induce%20kidney%20toxicity%20if%20ingested​.,
accessed 1/13/21
15. Youtube, ​www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=OI3pIvLhVcc​, accessed 1/13/21
16. Youtube, ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=OI3pIvLhVcc​, accessed
1/13/21
17. Youtube, ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAp-5r3LxQo​, accessed 1/13/21
 38
Periodic table dry lab (D)

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

Use your “Table S: Properties of Selected Elements” to find appropriate values.

1. On each graph, place atomic number as your independent variable (x axis).
2. Plot a line graph for each exercise:
a. Circle each data point
b. Write the element’s symbol next to each circled point
c. Connect the points using a ruler
d. Title the Graph and label y axis
3. Repeat steps 1-4 for all graphing exercises you are assigned.
Pre-Lab Questions: Using Aim 6 in notes
Define:
1. Atomic Radius: the distance from the atom’s radius to the outermost electron shell
2. First Ionization: the energy needed to remove the outermost electron from its shell
3. Electronegativity: the ability of an atom to attract an electron

Table for Graphing Exercise 1

Period 3 Elements Atomic Number (x-axis) Atomic Radius (y-axis)

Sodium (Na) 11 160pm

Magnesium (Mg) 12 140pm

Aluminium (Al) 13 124pm

Silicon(Si) 14 114pm

Phosphorous (P) 15 109pm

Sulfur (S) 16 104pm

Chlorine (Cl) 17 100pm

Argon (Ar) 18 101pm

 39
Table for Graphing Exercise 2

Group 2 Elements Atomic Number (x-axis) First Ionization Energy (y-axis)

Beryllium (Be) 4 900 kJ/mol

Magnesium (Mg) 12 738 kJ/mol

Calcium (Ca) 20 590 kJ/mol

Strontium (Sr) 38 549 kJ/mol

Barium (Ba) 56 503 kJ/mol

Radium (Ra) 88 509 kJ/mol

Table for Graphing Exercise 3

Period 2 Elements Atomic Number (x-axis) Electronegativity (y-axis)

Lithium (li) 3 1.0

Beryllium (Be) 4 1.6

Boron (B) 5 2.0

Carbon (C) 6 2.6

Nitrogen (N) 7 3.0

Oxygen (O) 8 3.4

Fluorine (F) 9 4.0

Neon (Ne) 10 0.0

 40

Graph 1 (01/16/21, 7;50PM)

Graph 2 (01/16/21. 8:00PM)

 41

Graph 3 (01/16/21, 8:15PM)

Questions and Analysis:​ ​Using Aim 6 in notes, reference tables and the graphs above
1. Identify the trend represented by your first graph.
a. What happens to atomic radius as you increase atomic # across a period?
As atomic number increases (left to right across a period), atomic radius decreases.
b. Explain, in terms of atomic structure, why atomic radius increases as you go down a group
Atomic radius increases as you go down a group because the element gains another electron shell
which increases the shielding effect resulting in the larger radius of the element.

2. Identify the trend represented by your second graph.

a. What happens to ionization energy as the atomic number increases within a group?
As the atomic number increases within a group, the first ionization energy decreases.

3. Identify the trend represented by your third graph.

a. What happens to ionization energy as atomic # increases in a period?
As the atomic number increases in a period, the ionization energy increases.
b. Is the same true as atomic # increases in a group? Why or why not?
No, the rule does not follow as atomic number increases in a group because as atomic number
increases down a group, they gain another electron shell which causes a greater shielding effect,
decreasing its attractivity to the nucleus, which makes it much easier to remove the outermost
electrons, therefore a lower ionization energy.

4. Explain, in terms of attraction and nuclear charge, why ionization energy and electronegativity
both increase across a period.
Ionization energy and electronegativity both increase across a period because as the atomic
number increase, you have one greater proton than before which increases the magnitude of
 42
charge of the atom, meaning the electrons are strongly attracted to the nucleus which also makes
it hard to ionize the outermost electron, therefore resulting in the increase in electronegativity
and ionization energy as one goes across the period.

5. Explain, in terms of atomic structure, why a rubidium ion has a smaller radius than a rubidium
atom. Include both rubidium atom and rubidium ion in your answer.
Rubidium ion has a smaller radius than a rubidium atom because although both contain 44
protons, rubidium ion contains three less electrons than the rubidium atom, therefore, the
rubidium ion has a stronger pull on the electrons as there is a smaller shielding effect, allowing it
to have a smaller radius than that of its atom.
 43

Uranium decay Lab (D)

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

1. For each step in the decay series, fill in the missing particle and element (include the mass
number, atomic number (charge), and symbol for each).
2. Use the element that is formed as a product in the first step as the reactant in the next step of
the decay series.
3. Complete the graph of mass number (y-axis) vs atomic number (x-axis) for each element in
the series.
4. Write the element’s symbol at its point on the graph and connect the appropriate points in
order of decay with an arrow.

Nuclear Decay Series Equations

1. U-238 -> Alpha + 234

4 4 90 Th
2 He or 2 a

2. Th-234 -> Beta + 234

0 0 91 Pa
-1 e or -1 B

3. Pa-234 -> Beta + 234

0 0 92 U
-1 e or -1 B

4. U-234 -> Alpha + 230

4 4 90 Th
2 He or 2 a

5. Th-230 -> Alpha + 226

4 4 88 Ra
2 He or 2 a

6. Ra-226 -> Alpha + 222

4 4 86 Rn
2 He or 2 a

7. Rn-222 -> Alpha + 218

4 4 84 Po
 44
2 He or 2 a

8. Po-218 -> Alpha + 214

4 4 82 Pb
2 He or 2 a

9. Pb-214 -> Beta + 214

0 0 83 Bi
-1 e or -1 B

10. Bi-214 -> Beta + 214

0 0 84 Po
-1 e or -1 B

11. Po-214 -> Alpha + 210

4 4 82 Pb
2 He or 2 a

12. Pb-210 -> Beta + 210

0 0 83 Bi
-1 e or -1 B

13. Bi-210 -> Beta + 210

0 0 84 Po
-1 e or -1 B

14. Po-210 -> Alpha + Pb-206

4 4
2 He or 2 a
 45

Questions and Analysis:

1. What happened to the atomic number and mass number when an alpha particle was emitted?]
When an alpha particle is emitted, the atomic number decreases by 4 and the atomic number
decreases by two.
2. What happened to the atomic number and mass number when a beta particle was emitted?
When a beta particle is emitted, the atomic number decreases by one whereas the mass number is
unchanged.
3. When a neutron in the nucleus is split, what two particles are created?
When a neutron in a nucleus is split, two particles that are created are two more. Light nuclei
(the reaction is known to be nuclear fission).
4. Why does the Uranium-238 decay series end with Lead-206?
Uranium-238 decay series end with Lead-206 because through the instability caused by alpha
decay, the beta decay appears to stabilize the reactions, therefore leading to the stable nucleus of
lead-206.
 46
5. What type of nuclear reaction was represented by each step of the Uranium-238 decay series?
Explain your answer.
The reaction that occurred was nuclear fission as the heavy nucleus of one atom is split into two
lighter nuclei.
6. Identify, in terms of protons and neutrons, one similarity and one difference between the two
isotopes Uranium-238 and Uranium-235.
One similarity between the isotopes Uranium-238 and Uranium-235 is that they both contain the
same amount of protons, although they have differing
numbers of neutrons.
 47
Isotopic Mass Calculation Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

1- Obtain a random sample of eraser from a bag

2- Separate the five isotopes
3- Count the number of each is​otopes
4- Calculate the average mass of each isotope by dividing the total mass of that isotope by
the total number of eraser for each isotope
5- Calculate the relative abundance of each isotope by dividing the number of particles for that isotope by
the total number of particles for all five isotopes
6- Calculate the percent abundance for each isotope by multiplying the relative abundance obtained in the
previous step by 100.
7- Complete the chart below

Purple Pink Green Orange Yellow Total

Eraser Eraser Eraser Eraser Eraser

Mass 2.00 g 3.00 g 5.00 g 3.00 g 2.00 g 15.00 g

Number 4 3 2 2 4 15

Average 2.25 g 2.33 g 6.00 g 2.50 g 2.25 g 15.33 g

Mass

Relative 0.2667 0.2000 0.1333 0.1333 0.2667 1

Abundance

Percent 26.67% 20.00% 13.33% 13.33% 26.67% 100%

Abundance

8- What is the difference between the atomic mass and the mass number?

Atomic mass is the weighted average of all of that element's isotopes, while atomic number is how
many protons are in the element's nuclues.

Objective​:
We will be able to efficiently and successfully find the mass and abundance, among many
other things, or eraser and its isotopes. This will be done by weighing out each isotope and
comparing the values we get in multiple ways.

Research Question:
 48
Why are isotopes important to almost everything we know about chemistry?

Introduction​:
The discovery of isotopes was one of the largest advances in chemistry ever made due to its
sheer impact after being discovered. Isotopes were first found in 1902 by Ernest Rutherfordand
Frederick Soddy, who realized that what they thought to be new elements entirely were actually
new forms of existing elements, these new forms being isotopes. Soddy would continue his work
with investigating the truth behind isotopes, even changing Dalton’s Atomic Theory with his
discovery. Then in 1914, J.J. Thompson and his assistant William Aston would investigate a new
method for finding isotopes, which would lead to Aston inventing the first ever mass
spectrograph. Both Soddy and Aston would go on to win the Nobel Peace Prize (LibreTexts). It
wasn’t for another 24 years that a beneficial use for these isotopes would be found in 1936, by
John Lawrence. John, for the first time ever, admitted an isotope of phosphate to a patient with
leukemia and was able to successfully treat them. John would then devote the rest of his life to
studying and attempting to perfect nuclear medicine. For example, John and his coworkers were
able to successfully treat pilots in World War 2 that were sickened by the high-altitude flying
using isotopes (Berkeley Lab). Isotopes are largely used today, with a prime example being in
the medical field. They’re also used to create energy and power nuclear weapons (Sciencing).
So, the discovery of the isotope led to what can be called a revolution in chemistry knowledge.
The idea of the isotope challenged and changed almost everything people knew about atoms at
the time, and if these ideas had just been dismissed as impossible we may not even be as
advanced of a society as we are today.

Hypothesis​:
The purple eraser will have the greatest abundance.

Materials​:
-4 purple erasers
-3 pink erasers
-2 green erasers
-2 orange erasers
-4 yellow erasers
-Postal and Parcel Scale

Procedures​:
Before weighing the isotopes-
1. Take out your weight measuring device of choice, mine is a Postal and Parcel Scale.
2. Make sure your device is turned on or set up accordingly (plugging into socket, putting in
batteries, calibrating, etc.).
 49
3. Make sure the device is set to grams. If you are unable to do this, use whichever units are
available to you.
Weighing the Isotopes-
1. Place your device in a level and clear area to ensure accurate results and comfort.
2. Take your assortment of erasers and divide them up by color to get them ready for
weighing. Your items and colors may vary depending on what you have readily available;
feel free to change eraser to whatever you please, as long as there are different variants of
your item. For the sake of this demonstration we will use purple, pink, green, orange, and
yellow erasers.
3. Count the amount of each eraser color you have. For example, 4 purple erasers, 3 pink
erasers, etc. Write down the amount of each eraser color into your table.
4. Take 1 purple eraser and place it onto your device and record the weight in the mass
section of your table.
5. Repeat step 3 with 1 eraser from each of the other colors you are given. These other
colors include pink, green, orange, and yellow.
6. Then, take all of your purple erasers and put them on the scale. Record the weight of all
purple erasers separately from your table, as they do not go into the table but are used to
determine another calculation that is in the table.
7. Repeat step 5 with every all of your remaining eraser colors, being sure to use all erasers
of that color when doing this step. These other colors include pink, green, orange, yellow.
8. Double check that you have recorded all weights for all sections. If you have forgotten to
write down any value, take this time to reweigh and write down the missing weights.
9. Begin cleaning up your station by putting the erasers back into their respective areas,
whether this is by putting them into separate containers or in a bag, be sure to collect and
put away all erasers.
10. Afterwards, be sure to turn off, unplug, or simply put away your measuring device into its
respective area.
Calculating and Completing Table-
1. The first value you need to calculate is the average mass. This is done with the equation
(Mass of all erasers of that color)/(Number of erasers of that color) = Average mass.
2. Do step 1 with each and every eraser color and be sure to record these values in the unit
you used to weigh the erasers into your table.
3. Then, calculate the relative abundance for each isotope, which is done by using the
equation (Number of erasers that color)/(Total number of erasers) = Relative abundance.
4. Do step 3 with each and every eraser color and record the values into your table; these
values do not need a specific unit.
5. Lastly, find the percent abundance with the equation Relative abundance x 100 = Percent
abundance.
6. Do step 5 with each and every eraser color and record these values into your table as
units of percent, %.
 50
Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 2:53 p.m., “One Purple Eraser”

1. Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 2:53 p.m., “All Purple Erasers”

2. Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 2:53 p.m., “One Pink Eraser”

3. Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 2:53 p.m., “All Pink Erasers”

4. Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 2:58 p.m., “One Green Eraser”

 51

5. Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 2:59 p.m., “All Green Erasers”

6. Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 2:59 p.m., “One Orange Eraser”

7. Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 2:59 p.m., ‘All Orange Erasers”

8. Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 3:01 p.m., “One Yellow Eraser”

 52

9. Lawrence Byrnes, 1/12/21, 3:02 p.m., “All Yellow Erasers”

Safety​:
As the lab requires little experimentation there are little precautions to take. The only thing to
keep in mind is that you must clean up your workstation when complete, as leaving items behind
can lead to dangerous situations. For instance, forgetting to unplug a digital scale could possibly
lead to a fire. As well, leaving behind materials could impair another person's experiment, so be
sure to clean up after yourself when you have finished.

Calculations​:
Average Mass-
Purple | 9 g/ 4 purple erasers = 2.25 g
Pink | 7 g/ 3 pink erasers = 2.33 g
Green | 12 g/ 2 green erasers = 2.00 g
Orange | 5 g/ 2 orange erasers = 2.50 g
Yellow | 9 g/ 4 yellow erasers = 2.25 g
(To see where we got these values from, check the “Photos of experiment” section of
“References”)
Relative Abundance -
Purple | 4 purple erasers/ 15 total erasers = 0.2667
Pink | 3 purple erasers/ 15 total erasers = 0.2000
Green | 2 green erasers/ 15 total erasers = 0.1333
 53
Orange | 2 orange erasers/ 15 total erasers = 0.1333
Yellow | 4 yellow erasers/ 15 total erasers = 0.2667
(To see where we got these values from, check the “Photos of experiment” section of
“References”)
Percent Abundance-
Purple | 0.2667 x 100 = 26.67%
Pink | 0.2000 x 100 = 20.00%
Green | 0.1333 x 100 = 13.33%
Orange | 0.1333 x 100 = 13.33%
Yellow | 0.2667 x 100 = 26.67%

Conclusion/ Error Analysis:

To conclude this lab, my hypothesis was incorrect. This is due to the fact that purple and
yellow have the same percent abundance, meaning that purple does not have the greatest percent
abundance, as yellow also has the highest percent abundance. The error is due to the fact that I
did not anticipate two colors having the exact same percent abundance. While this is highly
unlikely in real life, it is still the result of our experiment. Usually, most elements have an
isotope that is highly more abundant than the other isotopes, but in this experiment all isotopes
seem very common in comparison to each other. Therefore, when conducting new experiments,
you must expect the unexpected when predicting your results.

References-
1. Berkeley Lab,
www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/nuclear-med-history.html#:~:text=John%20Law
rence%20started%20Donner%20Laboratory,long%20contribution%20from%20John%20
Lawrence., accessed 1/12/21
2. LibreTexts,
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Ancillary_Materials/Exemplars_and_Case_Studi
es/Exemplars/Culture/History_of_Isotopes​, accessed 1/12/21
3. Sciencing, www.sciencing.com/discovered-isotope-4678737.html., accessed 1/12/21
 54

Physical and Chemical Changes Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

For each activity:
a. List the physical properties of various reactants observed before performing the activity.
b. Follow the directions carefully for each activity.
c.Decide if your activity resulted in a physical or a chemical change and explain your reasoning.

Physical Properties Before Physical or Explanation

Chemical
Change

A Water and Salt- physical Salt is only dissolved in the

Water: clear, liquid water, meaning the salt has
Salt: silver-white crystals only changed its phase to be
aqueous. Therefore, it’s
Slightly murky with grains of salt composition is unchanged,
still visible at the bottom of the only it’s appearance is shifted.
beaker.

B Baggie Science- chemical The mixing of baking soda

Calcium Chloride: odorless white with the calcium chloride
powder results in the formation of a
Sodium Bicarbonate: white, precipitate, calcium carbonate,
odorless crystalline powder that and the production of shown
forms small lumps throughout the experiment by
the ziplock bag that begins to
swell up.

C Copper Sulfate- physical Crushing the crystals of the

Copper Sulfate: white (anhydrous) copper sulfate only changes its
or blue (pentahydrate) crystals, appearance, not composition,
non-combustible therefore, a physical change.

D Magnesium strip- chemical When the Magnesium metal

Magnesium: solid, shiny-silver or burns, it reacts with the O2 in
gray metal the air, thus forming
Magnesium oxide (a
precipitate), indicating that it
is chemical.
 55
E Silver Nitrate and Sodium Chloride- chemical The mixing of silver nitrate
Silver Nitrate: white odorless solid and sodium chloride results in
Sodium Chloride: white crystalline the formation of the white
solid precipitate silver chloride.

Analysis Questions:
1. Using your notes identify the signs of a chemical change.
The signs of a chemical change is as the reaction follows, it yields a precipitate, a new substance,
releases or absorbs heat, or there is a change in composition.
2. Using your notes identify the properties of a physical change.
The properties of a physical change is when the composition of the yielded product is unchanged
but the physical appearance differs from the original l substance.
3. What is the difference between a physical change and a chemical change?
The difference between a physical change and a chemical change is that in a physical change, the
composition of the substance does not change, only its visible attributes do, whereas in a
chemical change, composition of the reaction’s product does change.
4. Aside from wearing goggles, identify one safety concern associated with this lab and how you
responded to this concern appropriately.
The usage of gloves, for some of the products are known to be corrosive and toxic to the skin. I
would, if the substance were to come in contact with my skin, immediately rinse it off with water
and soap, then find gloves to wear before initiating in the lab again.
5. Explain, in terms of particle arrangement, how atoms undergo a chemical change to form new
products.
In a chemical change, bonds collide with sufficient energy and orientation and break, rearranging
into new particle arrangements, therefore, forming new bonds which yield new products.

A student conducts an experiment to identify an unknown substance. Using values from the
water displacement method and a triple-beam balance, she is able to calculate the density as
1.738 g/cm3. She finds the melting point of the substance to be much greater than that of ice
water. In addition, she reacts the substance with oxygen and creates a crystalline product.
1. Identify one physical property the student used in determining the identity of the substance.
The student identifies the density/weight of the unknown substance.
2. Describe one chemical change that the student observed in her data collection.
The student identifies the melting point of the unknown substance.
3. Assuming the volume of the substance in question was 5.20 mL, calculate the mass of the
substance used by the student. (You answer must include a correct numerical setup and
appropriate significant figures).
1000mL=1L=1000cm3
D= m/V
M= DxV
 56
5.20mL x (1L/1000mL) x (1000cm3/1L)= 5.2cm3
M= 1.738g/cm3x 5.20cm3
=9.04g of substance

Objective​:
The objective is to identify the characteristics that differ between physical and chemical change
reactions. Then, we will be able to determine whether certain reactions are physical or chemical.

Introduction​:
In this lab, students will be able to discern the aspects that are key identifiers for chemical and
physical changes. They will follow five procedures, whilst filling out the information that is
asked on the data table. Through these procedures, they will be able to learn and understand the
distinction between chemical and physical changes. Physical changes are visible indications of
change to the substance. For example, phase changes (solid, liquid, gas forms). Chemical
changes are where the composition of the substance is changed. For example, oxidation,
precipitants of solutions, or the formations of new substances.

Hypothesis​:
Procedure C will be the only physical change whereas Procedures A, B, D, and E will all be
chemical change reactions.

Materials​:
-Water
-Salt
-Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate)
-Vinegar (sodium chloride)
-Copper Sulfate crystals
-Mortar and Pestle
-Magnesium Strip
-Chemplate
-Fine tip Pipette
-Crucible tongs
-bromothymol blue solution
-Silver nitrate
-Sodium Chloride
-50ml beaker (1)
-Bunsen burner
-10mL test tubes(1)
 57
-heat proof mat
-Tablespoon (1)

Procedures​:
Follow each procedure carefully and consciously whilst filling out the information of the graph.
Before engaging in the experiments, identify the physical properties of each substance, then
afterwards, identify and explain if it is a chemical or physical change.

Before any of the procedures

1. Wash hands with soap thoroughly.
2. Wear safety goggles, a lab coat, and gloves to prevent any accidents that may occur
3. Wash all equipment thoroughly in case there is leftover residue from a previous
experiment/lab.
4. After all equipment is thoroughly cleansed, set up your station accordingly.

Procedure A:​ Water and salt.

1. Go to the sink and fill a 50ml beaker to 25ml
2. Measure out 0.5grams of sodium chloride(NaCl) on the scale
3. In the 50 ml beaker, dissolve the 0.5grams of NaCl
4. Describe the mixture in data table A.
5. Carefully remove 5 ml of the mixture and put it into the 10ml test tube.
6. Set up the Bunsen burner; place the burner on a heat proof mat away from the edge of the
table. Connect its tube to the gas tap, then make sure its air hole is closed before lighting
the burner. Finally as you are turning on the gas, hold a match above where the fire is to
be lit first to avoid releasing dangerous chemicals to the atmosphere (the air hole for
regular heating should be kept half open to maintain a non-luminous flame).
7. Using tongs, hold the 10mL test tube above the Bunsen burner’s fire to the inner blue
cone until the water has evaporated into steam. (Do not stare directly into the open flame)
8. Record your observations in data table A
9. Clean up station accordingly

Procedure B:​ Baggie Science

1. Obtain a ziplock bag from your teacher.
 58
2. While one holds the bag open, your partner will put a spoon full of Calcium Chloride
(CaCl2) into one of the corner’s of the bag. Then add a spoon full of sodium Bicarbonate
to the same end of the bag.
3. Describe the mixture on the data table B
4. Shift all of the substances in the bag to one corner of the back and twist it off so that the
contents will be separated from the bromothymol blue that will be added to the bag.
5. Measure out 25 ml of Bromothymol Blue using a pipette and then add the solution to the
opposite end of the bag.
6. Zip bag securely!
7. Blend the contents of the bag slowly
8. Write down observations in data table B
9. Clean up station accordingly

​ opper sulfate crystal crush

Procedure C: C
(​Replaced it with sugar crystals for visible show)
1. Carefully add a few crystals of copper sulfate to the mortar. (Keep the copper sulfate off
direct contact to the skin and eyes).
2. Describe the contents that reside in their mortar on data table C
3. Using the pestle, gently grind the crystals into a light powder.
4. Identify the observations made into data table C
5. Clean up station accordingly; Empty the residue into the designated waste beaker and
clean out the mortar and pestle

​ xidizing Magnesium
Procedure D: O
1. Set up the Bunsen burner; place the burner on a heat proof mat away from the edge of the
table. Connect its tube to the gas tap, then make sure its air hole is closed before lighting
the burner. Finally as you are turning on the gas, hold a match above where the fire is to
be lit first to avoid releasing dangerous chemicals to the atmosphere.
2. Adjust the burner to produce an inner blue cone.
3. Obtain a magnesium strip from your teacher
4. Record the physical properties of the magnesium strip on data table D
 59
5. Use crucible tongs to hold the magnesium strip into the inner blue cone. (Do not stare
directly into the bright light.)
6. Cautiously place the residue into the evaporating dish.
7. Record final observations on data table D
8. Clean station accordingly

Procedure E:​ Silver nitrate Sodium chloride

1. Using a Chemplate and a fine tip pipette, place roughly 4-5 drops of silver nitrate solution
in one of the wells. (Keep the silver nitrate off skin and away from eyes).
2. Identify the physical properties of silver nitrate onto table E
3. Using a different fine tip pipette, add about 4-5 drops of sodium chloride to the same well
of the Chemplate.
4. Before mixing the sodium chloride to the silver nitrate, describe its visible properties onto
table E
5. Record final observations onto data table E
6. Clean station accordingly

Procedure A:

Procedure B:
 60
Procedure C:

Procedure E:

Safety​:
In order to ensure safety, whilst in proximity of toxic substances and fire students MUST wear
lab coats, gloves, goggles, and tie one’s hair to prevent any contact to the body.
If there is any sign of irritation on skin: immediately rush to the sink and wash off the area with
soap and water (if further irritation persists, seek medical attention at once). If in contact with
eyes: Remove contacts if present, if not, immediately go to rinse eyes with water for 5 minutes.
Seek medical attention if irritation occurs and continues. If inhaled: If inhalation of the substance
causes you to feel ill, remove yourself from the area and seek fresh air. If there is a difficulty to
breathe, seek medical attention at once. Set up the Bunsen burner; place the burner on a heat
proof mat away from the edge of the table. Connect its tube to the gas tap, then make sure its air
hole is closed before lighting the burner. Finally as you are turning on the gas, hold a match
above where the fire is to be lit first to avoid releasing dangerous chemicals to the atmosphere.

Calculations​:
Calculations are not applicable to conducting the experiment itself. However, there are some
calculations for the prior conclusion questions…
 61

1000mL=1L=1000cm3
D= m/V
M= DxV
5.20mL x (1L/1000mL) x (1000cm3/1L)= 5.2cm3
M= 1.738g/cm3x 5.20cm3
= 9.04g of the substance

Conclusion​:
The information gathered at the end has proven my hypothesis to be wrong. Procedure A and C
are to be known as physical changes, whereas Procedures B, D, and E are chemical changes.
Procedure A is physical because the salt has only dissolved in the water, forming an aqueous
solution, therefore the salt has not lost his composition. Procedure C is physical because the
copper sulfate has only changed its appearance, its properties remain the same. Procedure B is
chemical as calcium carbonate and carbon dioxide is formed as a result of the reaction between
baking soda and vinegar. Procedure D is chemical, for the magnesium strip is oxidized, resulting
in the magnesium and oxygen in the air reacting (forming magnesium oxide). Finally, Procedure
E is chemical because of the formation of a precipitate, silver chloride.

References:
1. LibreTexts,
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook
_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Fundamentals/C
hemical_Change_vs._Physical_Change​, accessed 01/2/21
2. Ric.Edu, ​http://www.ric.edu/faculty/ptiskus/chemical/​ accessed 01/02/21
3. Youtube, ​https://youtu.be/Aw8kAVq6THM​, accessed 01/2/21
 62
Separation Techniques Investigation

BACKGROUND INFORMATION:

Separation techniques are used to separate substances within a mixture physically or

chemically by utilizing their unique properties (Green, 2018). Due to these unique properties,

there are different classifications of separation techniques to accommodate for different mixtures.

Some forms of physical separation, for example, can be commonly classified based on particle

size, state change, or magnetic attraction; more concisely, filtration, distillation, and a magnet

(Harvey, 2020). Then, by successfully isolating the components of the mixture, we are able to

identify the substances and manipulate them in their purer form. However, the purity can still be

affected by errors in these separations and discrepancies in the experiment results, called percent

error. Fortunately, these percent errors help scientists identify the success of their experiments,

and redo it, if necessary (​Bewick, Parsons, Forsythe, et al., 2020).

Expanding on the previously named physical separation techniques, each uses a different

method of obtaining the same end result, a pure substance. Filtration utilizes the property of

granular size, for which two of these methods are gravity filtration (see appendix 1 on page 18),

which draws out the liquid, and vacuum filtration, which draws out the insoluble solid. Gravity

filtration is more common and simpler for larger particle sizes like sand, but vacuum filtration is

also quicker and still considers different funnels for large particles, Buchner funnel, and small

particles, Hirsch funnel. Each has its own advantages, which goes to show how the technique

you use is usually specific to the substance. Along with each method, the folding patterns of the

filter paper also vary in two primary ways. To elaborate, pleating the paper disk in a fluted fold is

better for gravity filtration as it increases surface area and accelerates the process, whereas the
 63
filter paper should be flatter in a conventional fold to adhere to the funnel for vacuum filtration

(University of Calgary, 2015).

Similar to filtration, there are also two main types of distillation, simple and fractional.

Distillation itself has to do with manipulating temperature between different boiling points of

different mixed substances so that one will vaporize and condense into another container, which

is effective in separating the two materials and retaining both of them. Simple distillation has one

vaporization-to-condensation process for liquids with drastically different boiling points. In this

system, a distillation flask is heated to a temperature between the lower and higher boiling

points; the substance in the flask vaporizes and the vapor travels up and through the condenser;

after condensing, this substance reliquifies into the receiving flask as a pure substance. This is a

simple procedure that is also effective for separating a solvent from a solution. Fractional

distillation, on the other hand, is effective for substances with close boiling points, and its

apparatus has an addition, called a fractionating column, that typically contains glass beads (see

appendix 2 on page 19). The additional piece of equipment is attached on top of the distillation

flask, and the glass beads mimic several vaporization-to-condensation processes, or simple

distillations. When the substance with the lower boiling point vaporizes, it ascends to a cooler

area by the glass beads and condenses; then the hot vapor below reheats the condensed

substance, so it vaporizes and repeats the process again, moving a bit farther up the column every

time. Because the boiling points of the substances are so close, not only do we monitor the

temperature gradually and intently, but we also use the fractionating column to repeat the

mechanics of a simple distillation several times to get a purer substance in the end (McDaniel,

2018).
 64
Not all the separation techniques are as intricate as distillation and filtration, though.

Magnet separation, the last technique, is an example of a separation process that simply and

directly uses the properties of a substance. That is to say, ferromagnetic minerals are magnetic

and attracted to magnetic fields, so they will stick to the poles of a magnet, separating from the

rest of the mixture (see appendix 3 on page 20). To transfer the ferrous from the mixture to

another location, it is also common to wrap the magnet in paper or a plastic bag for a more

accurate, mess-free sample (Li, 2010).

OBJECTIVE:

In this experiment, we will be using multiple separation techniques to individualize each

component in the heterogeneous mixture that consists of water, sand, propanol, ferrous, and salt.

With this, we will also be able to calculate our percent error and gauge how much of each

substance we were able to collect and retain.

HYPOTHESIS:

We hypothesize that during the separation of the mixture of sand, salt, water, propanol,

and iron dust, we will result in a low percent error (less than 3%) for sand, salt, and iron dust, but

a high percent error (greater than 5%) for water and propanol.

MATERIALS:

● Hot plate

● Bar magnet
 65
● Distillation apparatus (containing 100mL distillation flask, 100mL receiving flask,

receiving adapter, condenser, rubber tubing, wire clips, rubber stopper, fractionating

column, etc.)

● Weighing paper

● Plastic bag

● Digital thermometer

● Scoopula (6”)

● Stirring rod (6”)

● Filter paper with funnel (50mL) and Erlenmeyer flask (100mL)

● Graduated cylinder (10mL)

● Erlenmeyer flask (25mL)

● Beaker (25mL)

● 3 Beakers (10mL each)

● Digital Scale (in grams)

● Sand (SiO2)

● Salt (NaCl)

● Propanol (C3H8O)

● Ferrous (iron dust)

● Water (H2O)

LAB SAFETY (Material Safety Background Sheet):

Substance Silica Sand, SiO2

Properties odorless, crystalline or amorphous solid

 66
Major Hazards Can cause silicosis, lung cancer, kidney
disease and breathing problems when exposed
for long periods of time with poorly ventilated
areas without respirators.

Toxicities LD50/LC50 = Not available

Storage and Handling Avoid conditions of extreme humidity.

Accidents IF INHALED: Remove oneself to fresh ai,

away from the proximity of the substance. If
symptoms persist, seek medical attention.
IF INGESTED: Rinse mouth and lips with
water. Do NOT induce vomiting. If symptoms
persist, do seek medical attention
IF IN CONTACT WITH SKIN: Remove
clothing instantly. Wash contaminated the
area with mild soap if available. If irritation or
burning of skin persists, seek help at once.
IF IN CONTACT WITH EYES: Rush
flowing water in eyes for several long minutes
to remove all traces of the substance. If
unable to remove the pieces, do not attempt to
remove the particles yourself. If irritation
pursues, seek attention!

Disposals Can be treated as a common waste for

disposal while under the local authority
guidelines.

Substance Sodium Chloride(Salt), NaCl

Properties silver-white crystals, transparent, colourless

Major Hazards Harmful if large amounts of salt are

swallowed; can cause hypernatremia

Toxicities LD50 3 g/kg (rat, oral)

12357 mg/kg (human, oral)

Storage and Handling If ever spilled, avoid methods that will raise
dust; cleaning the area with water and
detergent or vacuum its spilled contents. Keep
the container in a cool, dry, well ventilated
that is kept in a tight sealed container.
 67
Accidents IF INHALED: If inhalation of the substance
causes you to feel ill, remove yourself from
the area and seek fresh air. If there is a
difficulty to breathe, seek medical attention at
once.
IF INGESTED: Do not induce vomiting. If
large amounts are ingested, seek medical
attention.
IF IN CONTACT WITH SKIN: Remove the
contaminant clothing and wash affected areas
with soap and water thoroughly. If the skin
persists to irritate or a rash develops,
immediately seek medical attention.
IF IN CONTACT WITH EYES: Remove
contacts if present, if not, immediately go to
rinse eyes with water for 5 minutes. Seek
medical attention if irritation occurs and
continues.

Disposals Waste must be disposed of in accordance with

federal, state and local environmental control
regulations.

Substance Propanol (rubbing alcohol), C3H8O

Properties liquid, colorless

Major Hazards Highly flammable liquid and vapor, can cause

damage to organs through prolonged or
repeated exposure.

Toxicities LD50 5840 mg/kg (rat, oral)

LD50 Dermal
13900 mg/kg ( Rat ) LC50 Inhalation
72.6 mg/L ( Rat ) 4 h

Storage and Handling Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, or any
ignition sources. Keep the container tightly
closed in well ventilated areas. Wear
protective gloves, clothing, eye protection,
and face protection whilst handling the
substance.

Accidents IF INHALED: move to fresh air at once.

Obtain medical attention if symptoms of
 68
dizziness, tiredness, nausea, or headache
continue.
IF INGESTED: Do not induce vomiting. Seek
medical attention immediately.
IF IN CONTACT WITH SKIN: Wash off
immediately for at least 15 minutes with soap
and water. Seek medical attention if
necessary.
IF IN CONTACT WITH EYES: Rinse
immediately with plenty of water thoroughly
in all areas of the eye for at least 15 minutes.

Disposals Dispose the contents of the container only if

approved by a waste disposal plant.

Substance Ferrous (iron dust), Fe

Properties solid, black to gray

Major Hazards A highly flammable solid that may cause lung

damage, blood abnormalities, cardiac damage
from the inhalation of its fumes.

Toxicities Oral, rat: LD50 = 30 gm/kg

Storage and Handling Wear appropriate clothing and equipment to

prevent any exposure of skin, then wash
contaminated clothes before reuse. Keep the
container tightly sealed to prevent any
reactions from the outside atmosphere as well
as any ignition sources. Store in a cool, dry,
well-ventilated area away from other
substances.

Accidents IF INHALED: Loosen clothing as necessary

and position the individual in a comfortable
position. Give artificial respiration if
necessary. Get medical assistance if cough or
other symptoms appear.
IF INGESTED: Call a POISON CENTER. As
they are on their way, continue to rinse mouth
thoroughly.
IF IN CONTACT WITH SKIN:Wash the area
effectively with water and soap gently for
 69
15-20 minutes. If contact lenses are worn,
remove then rinse thoroughly. Seek medical
attention if irritation persists.
IF IN CONTACT WITH EYE: Rinse
immediately for several minutes.

Disposals Must consult state and local hazardous waste

regulations to ensure the ability to discard
substance into the environment.

Substance 1-Chloropropene, C3H5Cl

Properties Liquid, colorless, bad odor

Major Hazards Combustible liquid, when exposed for too

long, can cause respiratory distress, rejection
of air intake, and causes irritation of the eyes
and skin.

Toxicities Inhalation, rat: LD50= 221 gm/m3 (221000

mg/kg)

Storage and Handling Keep at room temperature away from any

ignition sources. Containers should be tightly
closed to refrain from any combustible
reactions as substance will become unstable at
elevated temperatures and pressures.

Accidents IF INHALED: can cause dizziness or

suffocation, rush to fresh air promptly.
IF INGESTED: can cause a buildup of fluid
in lungs, causing hypoxemia (suffocation);
hastily get medical attention.
IF IN CONTACT WITH SKIN: Seek medical
attention immediately as material may irritate
or burn skin.
IF IN CONTACT WITH EYE: Rinse
thoroughly with water for several minutes, do
not touch your eyes as it may damage vision.

Disposals Follow instructions given from local

hazardous materials officials or fire
department for disposal of substance.
 70

Substance Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH

Properties white, solid

Major Hazards If exposed to the substance for too long

without any protection, it can cause edema
and inflammation to the respiratory system.
Involuntary vomiting, nausea, headache, and
shortness of breath.

Toxicities N/A

Storage and Handling Must wear safety goggles and lab coat to
shield from bare physical interaction of
NaOH. Label waste and store the substance in
closed containers, in a secondary containment
in a safe,well ventilated location.

Accidents IF INHALED: Extremely damaging to the

tissues of the mucous membrane and upper
respiratory tract. Seek medical advice
immediately.
IF INGESTED: Rinse mouth for several
minutes and contact medical attention
instantly. Never give anything by mouth to
the unconscious recipient.
IF IN CONTACT WITH SKIN: Take off the
contaminated clothing and wash off with soap
and water for 15 minutes. Take the recipient
to hospital immediately.
IF IN CONTACT WITH EYE: Rinse eyes
thoroughly with water for 15 minutes and get
medical aid effectively.

Disposals Contact Environment, Health, and Safety for

instructions of disposing of the hazardous
waste.

PROCEDURES:

If the mixture is not prepared beforehand...

1. Turn on the digital scale, place the 25mL beaker on it, and tare the scale
 71
2. Using the 6” scoopula, transfer some of the sand from its container to the beaker until the

scale reads 2 grams

3. Tare the scale again

4. Repeat steps 2-3 for Ferrous until the scale reads 0.25 grams

5. Repeat steps 2-3 for NaCl until the scale reads 0.5 grams

6. Using the 10mL graduated cylinder, measure 5mL of water by observing the meniscus at

the 5mL line

7. Add this to the 25mL Erlenmeyer flask

8. Repeat steps 6-7 for 1mL of propanol

9. Then, slowly while stirring continuously with the 6” stirring rod, pour the mixture in the

25mL Erlenmeyer flask into the mixture in the 25mL beaker

Separating…

1. Turn on the digital scale, and place a slip of weighing paper on it; read and record the

mass of the weighing paper

2. Put the bar magnet in the plastic bag

3. Place the covered magnet against the beaker in various areas to attract the iron dust from

the mixture

4. While still holding it against the beaker, pull the magnet up toward the ceiling until it’s

no longer touching the beaker

5. Flip the plastic bag “inside-out” so that it now contains the iron dust that was just

collected
 72
6. Pour the contents of the plastic bag onto the weighing paper that was weighed in step 1 (it

should be designated for the iron dust only)

7. Repeat steps 2-6 several more times to retrieve as much Ferrous as possible

8. Place the weighing paper with the iron dust on the scale; read and record the mass

9. Subtract the original mass of the weighing paper from the measured mass of the weighing

paper and the Ferrous to find the mass of the sample of iron dust; record

10. Place the 50mL funnel into the 100mL Erlenmeyer flask, and place the filter paper on top

of the funnel

11. Gradually pour the remaining contents of the mixture (water, propanol, sand, and salt) in

the 25mL beaker over the filter paper

12. Transfer the (wet) sand that didn’t filter through from the filter paper to a separate 10mL

beaker

13. Take out the distillation apparatus

14. Transfer the (wet) sand from the 10mL beaker to the 100mL distillation flask

15. Attach the distillation flask to the condenser

16. Attach the drainage tube (rubber tubing) to the upper arm of the condenser while the

other end drains to the sink

17. Attach the water supply tube (rubber tubing) to the lower arm of the condenser and the

other end to a faucet

18. Clamp the wire clips where the tubes and condenser meet to secure the connection

19. Turn on the digital thermometer and insert it through the rubber stopper

20. Place the rubber stop securely in the top of the distillation flask
 73
21. Make sure the receiving adapter is attached to the condenser on one end and the receiving

flask on the other end

22. Turn the faucet and release a gentle stream of water

23. Shift your apparatus so that the distillation flask is just above the hot plate

24. Plug in the hot plate and gradually twist the knob to an end temperature of 150°C

25. Read the temperature on the thermometer periodically to check that it remains relatively

the same to the temperature on the hot plate that is heating the distillation flask

26. Once all the propanol and water has condensed (indicated by waiting and noting that the

receiving flask is no longer gaining liquid), turn off the hot plate and allow the apparatus

to cool to room temperature

27. Pour the mixture of propanol and water in the 100mL receiving flask into one of the

10mL beakers; it should be designated for the water and propanol only

28. Place a different slip of weighing paper on the digital scale; read and record the mass of

the weighing paper

29. Transfer the now dry sand from the distillation flask to the weighing paper; it should be

designated for sand only

30. Place the weighing paper with the sand on the scale; read and record the mass

31. Subtract the original mass of the weighing paper from this mass of the weighing paper

and the sand to find the mass of the sample of sand; record

32. Repeat steps 14-31 for the salt, water, and propanol mixture in the 100mL Erlenmeyer

flask (the mixture that filtered through in step 11)

33. Now attach the fractionating column in between the distillation flask and the thermometer

with the rubber stopper, and attached to the condenser

 74
34. Transfer the water and propanol mixture from the 10mL beaker to the 100mL distillation

flask

35. Repeat steps 16-23

36. Plug in the hot plate and very gradually twist the knob to an end temperature of 99°C

(never let it above 100°C!)

37. Read the temperature on the thermometer periodically to check for temperature consistent

to the temperature read on the hot plate

38. Once all the propanol has condensed (indicated by waiting and noting that the receiving

flask is no longer gaining liquid), turn off the hot plate and allow the apparatus to cool to

room temperature

39. Transfer the propanol from the receiving flask to a different 10mL beaker; it should be

designated for the propanol only

40. Transfer the water from the distillation flask to a different 10mL beaker; it should be

designated for the water only

41. Place the only empty 10mL beaker on the digital scale; read and record the mass

42. Remove this beaker, tare the scale, and place the 10mL beaker with propanol on the

scale; read and record the mass

43. Subtract the original mass of the empty 10mL beaker from this mass of the 10mL beaker

and propanol to find the mass of the sample of propanol; record

44. Repeat steps 42-43 for the 10mL beaker containing water

45. Now using the percent error formula —> “ ( |theoretical value - experimental value| ÷

theoretical value) x 100% “ <— calculate the percent error for each substance
 75
46. Note that the theoretical value = the original mass for the substance, and experimental

value = the recorded mass for the substance after it was collected

47. Disassemble the distillation apparatus, rinse the beakers and flasks, and dispose of any

waste safely

48. Clean the station accordingly.

(Picture 1 depicts a Filtration system, the filter pamper is set inside the funnel, which leads into

an Erlenmeyer flask.)

1.

Picture 2 indicates a Fractured Distillation Apparatus, the beads in the fractionating column

allow for a more precise distillation for liquids that have close boiling points. Due its more

accurate distillation method for miscible liquids, scientists make use of this technique to be able

to refine crude oil).

 76

2.

Picture 3 depicts:(Iron filings and magnet, the magnet attracts only the iron fillings in this

mixture due to its magnetic properties).

3.

CALCULATIONS:

Percent error formula:

( |theoretical value - experimental value| ÷ theoretical value) x 100%

Water
 77
Measured (experimental): 4.7mL of H2O

Actual (theoretical): 5mL of H2O

( |5.0mL-4.7mL| / (5.0mL) )x 100% = 6.0% error for H2O

Sand

Measured (experimental): 1.95g SiO2

Actual (theoretical): 2g SiO2

( |2.0g-1.95g| / (2.0g) )x 100% = 2.5% error for SiO2

Propanol

Measured (experimental): 0.9mL C3H8O

Actual (theoretical): 1mL C3H8O

( |1.0mL-0.9mL| / (1.0mL) )x 100% = 10% error for C3H8O

Ferrous

Measured (experimental): 0.245g Ferrous

Actual (theoretical): 0.250g Ferrous

( |0.250g-0.245g| / (0.250g) )x 100% = 2.0% error for Ferrous

Salt

Measured (experimental): 0.52gNaCl

Actual (theoretical): 0.5g NaCl

( |0.50g-0.52g| / (0.5g) )x 100% = 4.0% error for NaCl

 78

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

When completing this experiment and analyzing our results, there are many things to be

noted. We started the experiment with 5mL of H2O, 2g of SiO2, 1mL of C3H8O, 0.25g Ferrous,

and 0.50g of NaCl. Yet as shown, there are minor inconsistencies with the results. Firstly, we

end with 4.7 mL of H2O instead of 5mL. This may be due to droplets of water being absorbed by

the sand or possibly some water being lost when vaporizing and condensing H2O in the

distillation process. Following this, there is 1.95 g of SiO2 compared to the starting 2 g. The

aforementioned can be because of some small, overlooked particles of SiO2 clinging to the

beaker or filter paper at any point in the experiment. Next, the C3H8O is only 0.9 mL and not 1

mL. We may get this result because the transfer of recorded measurements from the measured

contents were mistakenly taken off a little bit. Alongside this, we only have 0.245 g of Ferrous

while we started with 0.25 g. A reason for this may be that some iron dust fell onto the table

when transferring out of the mixture. Lastly, there is actually 0.52g of NaCl, unlike the 0.50 g we

began with. This can be a result of salt having some contaminants of maybe water, iron dust, or

some other substance that wasn’t properly removed during their respective separation. Overall,

these are just some reasons that we may have some inconsistencies in the results compared to

what we started with.

SIGNIFICANCE:

While conducting this experiment we were able to see how separation techniques such as

distillation, filtration, and magnets can be used in a classroom setting. However, these three

techniques actually have countless other uses that we may not even realize. For example,
 79
distillation has many uses that improve the quality of life as well as help the world and economy

as a whole. A beneficial use of distillation is to make and purify crude oil through fractional

distillation (see appendix 2 on page 19). This example may be the most important one listed, as

for, if we were unable to separate crude oil into its many other counterparts, we as a society

would not have advanced nearly as much or as quickly as we have. Crude oil also fuels almost

everything used in today’s society, and it plays a huge part in our economy (U.S. Energy

Information Administration, 2012). Furthermore, we also see distillation used to distill and

purify water so that it is drinkable. The distillation of water can be done in multiple ways, but no

matter what way it is acquired, it is able to remove dissolved materials and biological

contaminants. Without this, it would be harder for people to get safe drinking water, which is

why we need this process to improve quality of life (International Water Association, 2011).

Furthermore, we also see the technique of filtration used in a variety of ways. Ranging from

simple things we use in our day-to-day life, to processes that are required in order for humans to

survive. For instance, we use a mesh filter in order to make tea and coffee, and most vacuum

cleaners will have filters inside them to cumulate the dust. Those examples show how most

people will use filtration in a simple way in everyday life (Vendatu, 2019). In addition, every

person's kidneys use filtration to remove all toxins and waste from the body's bloodstream as

well as filtering out toxins from food and drinks. The process is vital to our existence, as without

the filtration of toxins from our bodies, there would be detrimental and even lethal consequences

to our health (Vecchio, 2020). Lastly, we can see how magnets are used to keep our society

clean, as well as how they are being used to advance the medical field. To elaborate, magnets are

used in electromagnetic cranes to separate scraps and unwanted substances from waste fields.

The magnets used in waste management can help reuse and recycle thrown-away metal instead
 80
of letting it go to waste (Powder Process, 2020). In conjunction with this, we can also see how

magnets are used in a process called immunomagnetic cell separation, which targets cells for

selection or depletion using antibodies which contain specific cell surface antigens.

Immunomagnetic cell separation has immense speed and simplicity, and has become one of the

main methods for separating cells used by scientists (Stemcell, 2020). The use of magnets,

filtration, and distillation have played a significant role in society in which without it, we may

not have advancements or the basic knowledge of survival.

CONCLUSION:

To conclude this investigation, we were able to efficiently and successfully complete this

separation experiment. We separated a heterogenous mixture made of water, propanol, ferrous,

sand, and salt using multiple different separation techniques. Consequently, we calculated and

found the percent error of each substance, which showed us how much of each component we

were able to retain after the procedure. However, we did get one result that conflicts with our

hypothesis. We had predicted to have a percent error of less than 3% for salt, ferrous, and sand,

but we ended with a percent error of 4% for salt. One reason this may have happened is because

another substance in the original mixture was not removed entirely, contaminating the results for

salt, as formerly discussed. In future experiments, we recommend to avoid situations like this by

taking extra precautionary measures as in doing the steps more than once and labeling the

beakers to ensure that there is no contamination between components and that 100% of every

component is completely extracted.

 81

APPENDIX:

1. Bewick, Parsons, Forsythe, Robinson, & Dupon, Chemistry LibreTexts, 2020, accessed

11/08,

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3A_Introductory

_Chemistry_(CK-12)/03%3A_Measurements/3.13%3A_Percent_Error

2. EHS Environmental Health, accessed 11/07, ​https://www.ehs.ucsb.edu/labsafety/msds

3. Fisher Sci Safety Data Sheet, accessed 11/07,

https://www.fishersci.ca/shop/msdsproxy?productName=A426P4&productDescription=2

-propanol-histological-fisher-chemical-5

4. Green, RSC, 2018, accessed 11/08,

https://edu.rsc.org/cpd/separation-techniques/3009787.article

5. Harvey, Chemistry LibreTexts, 2020, accessed 11/08,

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Book%3A_Analytical_Ch

emistry_2.1_(Harvey)/07%3A_Obtaining_and_Preparing_Samples_for_Analysis/7.06%3

A_Classifying_Separation_Techniques

6. HASD K-12, 2016, accessed 11/08,

https://www.hasdk12.org/cms/lib/PA01001366/Centricity/Domain/1149/Separations%20

Lab.pdf

7. Holcim Silica Sand (SDS), accessed 11/06,

https://www.holcim.com.au/sites/australia/files/documents/Holcim-SilicaSand-SDS-2017

Mar.pdf
 82
8. Li, Washington University in St. Louis, 2010, accessed 11/08,

http://epsc.wustl.edu/geochronology/frantz.htm

9. McDaniel, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2018, accessed 11/08

https://people.chem.umass.edu/samal/267/owl/owldist.pdf

10. Powder Process, 2020, accessed 11/08,

https://www.powderprocess.net/Equipments%20html/Magnets.html

11. Stemcell, 2020, accessed 11/08,

https://www.stemcell.com/cell-separation/magnetic-cell-isolation

12. The International Water Association Publishing, 2011, accessed 11/08,

https://www.iwapublishing.com/news/distillation-treatment-and-removal-contaminants-d

rinking-water

13. Topper Learning, 2020, accessed 11/08,

https://www.topperlearning.com/answer/can-expert-39-s-make-a-experiment-of-a-fractio

nal-distillation/03wybxee

14. University of Calgary, 2015, accessed 11/08,

http://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses/351/laboratory/filtration.pdf

15. U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2012, accessed 11/08,

https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=6970#:~:text=Crude%20oil%20is%20

made%20up,products%20boil%20off%20and%20are

16. Vedantu, accessed 11/08, ​https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/filtration

17. Vecchio, Inspira Health Network, 2020, accessed 11/08,

https://www.inspirahealthnetwork.org/healthy-living/kidneys#:~:text=But%20the%20mo

st%20important%20function,leaves%20the%20body%20as%20urine​.
 83

Metallic Bonding Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

1. Using your notes on metallic bonding, list the physical properties of metals.
-High melting points, Good conductors of electricity, Good conductors of heat, High
density, malleable, ductile, and Luster.

2. Using your list from question two, explain what properties of metals make them ideal for
making jewelry.
-​Malleability, ductility, and luster. Malleability allows the meal to be bent and shaped to
create new styles of jewelry. Ductility is when a metal can be hammered into thin wires, which is
good for making necklaces and bracelets, and more. Lastly, Luster is the ability that a metal has
to shine; the shinier a piece of jewelry is the more people would like it.

3. How can a “gold” penny be tested to see whether it’s real? (Hint: gold is one of the most
dense and softest metals.)
-One can either test it’s weight, test its magnetic ability, or test its hardness. Since gold is
such a dense metal one can research the average weight of a gold penny, which is roughly
one ounce, and weigh the penny they have. If the ‘gold’ penny is not heavy enough, it is
most likely not gold. Real gold is not magnetic, so if the ‘gold’ penny is picked up using
a magnet, it is not real gold. Lastly, gold is a very soft metal, if one bends or bites the
‘gold’ penny and it does not leave a mark, it is not real (Bullion).

4. Metallic bonding is between what types of elements?

-​Ionic bonds join metals to nonmetals, and covalent bonds join nonmetals to nonmetals; a
metallic bond is the reason for bonding between metal atoms.

5. Another alloy commonly used in industry is steel. What is steel a mixture of?
-Steal is a mixture, or alloy, of iron and carbon(BBC).

6. What are the advantages of steel to other metals?

-​Steel is more: cost-efficient, flexible, durable, reliable, and modifiable than other metals
(Midweststeel).
 84

Objective​:
The objective of this lab is to understand the formation of metallic bonds and alloys.

Introduction​:
Metallic bonding is a force that combines atoms to make a metallic substance. Metallic
bonds can also form alloys, a metallic substance made from two or more atoms. Alloys are used
in many of our day to day tasks, from jewelry to construction work. A multifaceted alloy is
sterling silver, made up mostly of 92.5% pure silver and 7.5% of other elements, mostly copper
(ThoughtCo). Sterling silver is primarily used for jewelry but it can also be used to make
ornaments, tableware, currency, and more; it also has very high electrical conductivity levels.
The main reason sterling silver is used more than silver is because silver scratches too easily.
When silver is mixed with copper its durability is increased; although sterling silver is more
prone to tarnishing than silver. This is because copper may react with oxygen or other elements
in the air to oxidize at a faster rate, in turn tarnishing the metal. When measuring metals a special
unit of measurement is used, Troy ounce or Troy weight (Investopedia). One Troy ounce is 2.75
grams heavier than the standard ounce (Investopedia). To form a metallic bond, the outermost
electron shell of each metal atom overlaps with other nearby atoms. Valence electrons are then
non-localized and are able to move from atom to atom. The atoms that are left behind become
positive ions; with an interaction between those positive ions and valence electrons, a binding
force is created that holds metallic crystals together (LibreTexts).

Research question:
How do elements of silver and copper combine to create an alloy of sterling silver?

Hypothesis​:
When used in fixed amounts, silver and copper will create a silver alloy.

Safety​:
➔ Must wear safety goggles at all times
➔ Secure hair with a hair tie or hair cap
➔ Secure loose clothing by rolling up sleeves or tucking in shirts
➔ Remove any flammable material in the area, ex) paper
➔ Wear gloves, especially when touching chemicals
➔ Wash hands before and after the experiment, do not touch face unless sanitized

Materials​:

➔ Pure silver shots/grains

➔ Pure copper wire/grains
➔ Digital precision scale
 85
➔ Borax
➔ Bunsen burner
➔ Pipeclay triangle
➔ Tripod
➔ Ingot mold
➔ Heat resistant mat for safety

Procedures​:
1. Lay the heat resistant mat on the surface of where you will work.
2. On a scale, add one Troy ounce of silver grains. Make sure the weight of the container is
not accounted for in the weight of silver.
3. Convert the scale into grams, the mass of silver should be 31.1 grams. Using correct
calculations, add roughly 2.3 grams of copper into the silver.
4. Transfer the metals into a crucible. Using a clay triangle secure the crucible to a tripod.
The tripod should be placed over a bunsen burner to heat the material.
5. Add roughly 1.5 teaspoons of borax to the metals.
6. Turn on the bunsen burner to its highest temperature. Allow the metals to fully melt into a
runny water-like consistency.
7. Carefully pour the blend of liquid metals into an ingot mold. Allow to cool, then open the
mold to retrieve an ingot of sterling silver.

(Royal Society of Chemistry, A picture

showing how to properly set up the
experiment)

(Youtube, A picture of one Troy

ounce of silver)

(Youtube, A picture of around 2.3

grams of copper added to silver)
 86

(Youtube, Silver and copper

being melted to create sterling
silver)

Calculations​:
To find the amount of copper needed in the experiment:

99.9% - 92.5% = 7.4%

➢ Subtract the percent of pure silver to find the percent of copper needed.

7.4% = 0.074
➢ Turn the percent into a decimal by moving the decimal point twice.

31.1 grams x 0.074 = 2.3 grams

➢ Multiply the decimal by the weight of silver to determine the amount of copper needed in
grams.

Conclusion​:
The hypothesis was proven correct. Not all silver alloys are created with the same
proportion, but the standard alloy of silver is made in a 92.5% amount of silver to a 7.4% amount
of copper. From this lab, we have learned not only about the creation of alloys, but also real-life
reasons why sterling silver is used more than silver. In a future experiment, I would recommend
testing different alloys, like gold.

References​:
1. BBC, ​https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z9m6v9q/revision/2​, accessed 1/15/21
2. Bullion, ​https://www.bullionbypost.co.uk/index/gold/how-to-tell-if-gold-is-real/​,
accessed 1/15/21
3. Investopedia,
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/troyounce.asp#:~:text=The%20troy%20ounce%20
is%20a,pound%20(14.6%20troy%20ounces)​., accessed 1/17/21
4. Libretexts,
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook
 87
_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bo
nding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Metallic_Bonding​, accessed 1/15/21
5. Midweststeel, ​https://www.midweststeel.com/about/advantages-of-steel.html​, accessed
1/15/21
6. MgsRefining,
https://www.mgsrefining.com/blog/2018/03/07/silver-alloys-and-their-uses/​ , accessed
1/15/21
7. Royal Society of Chemistry, ​https://edu.rsc.org/resources/making-glass/687.article​,
accessed 1/15/21
8. Thoughtco, ​https://www.thoughtco.com/sterling-silver-composition-608446​, accessed
1/15/21
9. Youtube, ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ol6-FfjwOIE&feature=share​, accessed
1/15/21
 88
Metal Activity Lab (Table J)

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

Metal Reaction time with HCl Observations

Ca Immediate Vigorous bubbling, fuzz

sound

Cu No reaction No observations

Mg Immediate Bubbling, Gas production,

Fizzing

Fe 4 seconds Some bubbling, Gas

production

Sn ~ 1 day Some bubbling, Fizzing

Zn 2 seconds Bubbling, gas production

Metal Reaction time with H2O Observations

Ca Immediate Bubbling,Gas production,

Color change from
phenolphthalein

Cu No reaction No observations

Mg ~ 1 minute Gas production, Color

change from phenolphthalein
Fe No reaction (unless heated) No observations

Sn No reaction (unless heated) No observations

Zn No reaction (unless heated) No observations

Most reactive to Least reactive:

Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Sn, Cu

Analysis Questions:
1- Compare your data with table J?
 89
My data is consistent with the activity series on Table J. Both indicate that the tested
metals listed from most reactive to least reactive is Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Sn, Cu.
2- List any possible errors that justify why your data is different from table J
Although my activity series is accurate, possible errors can be attributed to a
contaminated solution or different surface areas of different forms of metal, like strip versus
powder, which allowed some reactions to happen more rapidly than others.
3- Graph your metals and their reaction time.

Objective​:
The objective of this lab is to test the activity series using oxidation-reduction reactions with HCl
and with water. We will also make observations of the reaction and compare the results with the
activity series provided on Table J.

Research Question:
How does the reactivity of metals vary when combined with hydrogen gas?

Introduction​:
The activity series organizes common metals based on how readily they undergo a chemical
reaction, starting with the more reactive metals. A metal‘s reactivity relative to an outer metal
 90
can be generally predicted by ionization energy and electronegativity since metals with low
ionization energy and high electronegativity are usually more reactive as they lose electrons
more easily and form ions faster in a solution. This is why alkali and alkaline earth metals tend to
be higher in the activity series than transitional metals. The activity series can also help gauge
whether a single replacement will occur, which happens when the lonely metal is more active
than the other bonded metal, or in some cases, nonmetal. In this experiment, we will be
attempting to replace the hydrogen in hydrochloric acid and water. Not only is the reaction single
replacement, but it also an oxidation-reduction reaction in which the metal is being oxidized and
the hydrogen is being reduced to produce flammable hydrogen gas (LibreTexts). Like the
production of hydrogen gas, which is very dangerous, metals also present many problems in
reality. For instance, purifying and transporting water. Corrosion significantly impacts dam
safety as nearby acid-runoff can breakdown the metal conduits and, if not addressed, can allow
water to flow through the rusted-affected areas and erode the embankment material, causing
complete failure of the dam (ASDSO). Even today, metal has produced a water crisis in Flint,
Michigan where the water was contaminated with lead and undrinkable. The pollution of the
Flint River began when chlorine was added to kill off bacteria, but ended up making the water
more acidic, and corroded the pipes. Thus, lead and other heavy metals contaminated the water
supply and created a city-wide lead poisoning issue, which creates irreversible health problems
and developmental issues (NRDC). For its shortcomings, metal is also very beneficial in
practical application. Namely, metal is used in most industries today in manufacturing machines
and electronics, and even revolutionized agriculture and industry a few centuries ago with many
new technologies like the steam engine, spinning jenny plough, seed drill, and more. Even our
economy today heavily integrated metal through certain currencies and coins. Not to mention,
medicinally, of course, metals are also used in supplements to restore the body’s equilibrium,
used in medicine and drugs for their antitumoral, antimicrobial, and antifungal activity, and used
to fortify prosthetic limbs (BYJU’s). This is still relevant today as brass doorknobs, which is an
alloy of copper and zinc, and other copper alloys have antibacterial properties, which, although
seemingly negligible, can make a large difference in a worldwide pandemic to stunt the spread of
germs (KR Landro).

Hypothesis​:
The observations when the metals react with hydrochloric acid and with water will be similar for
every metal tested.

Materials and Procedures:

The materials needed for this lab are goggles, a test tube rack, six test tubes, dilute hydrochloric
acid, water, optional phenolphthalein and the metals calcium, copper, magnesium, iron, tin, and
zinc in some kind of form, usually strips or wires. I was not able to actually conduct this
experiment at home, so I based my procedures and collected my data from two different people
on YouTube who did this experiment. First, you should put on your goggles, and place your test
 91
tubes in the test tube rack, along with the piece(s) of each metal in separate test tubes. Then, you
slowly pour in the dilute hydrochloric acid slightly below a third of the way up. Lastly, record
the observations and reaction time for each metal. Rinse out the test tubes and clean them
thoroughly. Repeat the former process but with water in place of hydrochloric acid (YouTube).
In one particular experiment, the conductor added phenolphthalein, a chemical indicator that
turns pink upon reaction, to the water. This is not necessary, but picture 1 below shows the pink
color present in some of the test tubes (YouTube).

1. (YouTube)

Safety​:
It’s imperative to wear goggles and gloves. The hydrochloric acid should be handled with care as
it can cause skin corrosion and respiratory irritation. The production of hydrogen gas, too, in
some of these reactions is extremely flammable, so be aware of open flames or ignition that
could trigger an explosion.

Calculations​:
No calculations were required for this experiment.

Conclusion​:
Although my activity series was consistent with Table J, my hypothesis was incorrect. I assumed
the observations would be consistent, which is true for the general type of observation, like
bubbling or fizzing, but not for this to occur for every metal. Comparing calcium (most reactive)
and copper (least reactive), for example, it’s clear they didn’t share any comparable observations
as calcium reacts almost instantly with both HCl and water, whereas copper had no reaction at
all. In the future, besides actually conducting the experiment, I would also recommend using
similar forms and amounts of each metal, like a 5g strip, for example, to more accurately
compare the time they take to react with the HCl and the water.

References​:
1. ASDSO, ​https://damsafety.org/dam-owners/problems-with-metal-materials​, accessed
1/14/21
 92
2. BYJU’s, ​https://byjus.com/chemistry/uses-of-metals/​, accessed 1/14/21
3. KR Landro, ​http://krlandro.co.za/advantages-brass-doors-brass-door-handles/​, accessed
1/14/21
4. LibreTexts,
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Ancillary_Materials/Reference/Reference_Table
s/Electrochemistry_Tables/P3%3A_Activity_Series_of_Metals​, accessed 1/14/21
5. NRDC, ​https://www.nrdc.org/stories/flint-water-crisis-everything-you-need-know​,
accessed 1/14/21
6. Youtube, ​https://youtu.be/2T51LB59jaU​, accessed 1/14/21
7. Youtube, ​https://youtu.be/78lKgam2WZc​, accessed 1/14/21
 93
Formula and oxidation states Lab (D)

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

1. In the provided data table, predict the chemical formula of each number by the “criss-cross
method”.
2. Give an appropriate name to the compound (remember to use Roman numerals for multiple
charged metals.) 5. Complete steps #1-2 for all 10 compounds.
6. Create 2 compounds of your own using the same procedure.

Data Table 1:

Reaction Substances Ion Formula Chemical Name of Compound

Formula

1.Aluminum and Bromide Al+3 and AlBr3 Aluminum Bromide

Br-1

2.Magnesium and Sulfur Mg+2 and. MgS Magnesium Sulfide

S-2

3.Lithium and phosphate Li+1 and P-3 Li3P Lithium Phosphide

4.Iron (lll) and Nitrate Fe+3 and Fe(NO3)3 Iron(lll) Nitrate

NO3-1

5.Lead (ll) and Chlorine Pb+2 and PbCl2 Lead(ll) Chloride

Cl-1

6.Aluminium and Oxygen Al+3 and O-2 Al2O3 Aluminum Oxide

7.Potassium and Phosphite K+1 and K3PO3 Potassium Phosphite

PO3-3

8.Ammonium and Sulfur NH4+1 and (NH4)2S Ammonium Sulfide

S-1

9.Iron (ll) and Sulfite Fe+2 and FeSO3 Iron(ll) Sulfite

SO3-2

10.Lead (lV) and Sulfate Pb+2 and PbSO4 Lead(lV) Sulfate

SO4-2

11.Create your own comp. Cu+2 and CuSO4 Copper(ll) Sulfate

Copper (ll) and Sulfate SO4-2
 94
12.Create your own comp. Ag+1 and AgBr Silver Bromide
Silver and Bromide Br-1

Questions and Analysis:

1. What does a binary ionic compound consist of?
A binary ionic compound consists of a metal (cation) and a nonmetal (anion).
2. What ending is given to the names of all binary ionic compounds? ​______-ide________
3. Using your data table, identify all the binary ionic compounds only.
Aluminum Bromide(AlBr3), Silver Bromide(AgBr), Aluminium Oxide(Al2O3), Lead(ll)
Chloride(PbCl2), Lithium Phosphide(Li3P), and Magnesium Sulfide(MgS).
4. What does a ternary ionic compound consist of?
Ternary ionic compounds consist of three or more elements, known as a polyatomic ion.
5. Most polyatomic ions end in “-ate” or “-ite”. Using your Reference Table E, identify two
polyatomic ions that have different endings.
Cyanide and Ammonium
6. Using your data table, identify all the ternary ionic compounds only.
Acetate, hydrogen carbonate, hypochlorite, chlorite, chlorate, perchlorate, thiocyanate, and
hydrogen sulfate are all ternary ionic compounds.
7. Using your data table, identify all the ionic compounds that contain a transition metal.
Chromate, dichromate, and permanganate are all ionic compounds that contain a transition metal.
8. Using your data table, identify all the compounds which contain both ionic and covalent
bonds. Explain how you can tell.
The compounds which contain both ionic and covalent bonds are iron nitrate, potassium
phosphite, iron sulfite, lead(lV) sulfate, and coppe(ll) sulfate. I can tell that they contain both
ionic and covalent bonds because the molecules are all polyatomic containing nonmetal and
metal ions that have molecular structures whose bonds are capable of forming ionic and covalent
attractions.
 95

3D Ball and Stick Models (D)

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

1) Obtain a molecular model kit. Note the following:

Atom Bonding Sites Color

(holes)

hydrogen one yellow

halogens one green, purple,

orange

oxygen two red

sulfur two red

nitrogen three blue

carbon four black

2) Draw a Lewis dot diagram for each molecule. The best Lewis structures will show:
a) All electrons as pairs-either in a bond or as non-bonded electrons.
b) Electron pairs bonds or non-bonded electrons) as far apart as possible.
c) Structures drawn asymmetrical if possible (but only after satisfying a and b)

3) Construct Models Of The Molecules In The Table Below:

➢ Wooden sticks are used to represent bonds. All bonding sites must be occupied.
➢ When double or triple bonds are needed, use the springs as bonds.

4) Provide a descriptive shape for the molecule. Your instructor will help you with the accepted
name for molecular shapes.

5) Determine if the molecule contains polar bonds and, based on symmetry considerations, if the
molecule is polar.

6) Tabulate your observation and inferences as follows.

Name Formula Lewis Structure Shape bond/

Molecular
polarity
 96
ammonia NH3 H trigonal pyramidal polar bond
I ———
: N–H polar molecule
I
H

hydrogen H2 H—H linear non-polar bond

———
non-polar
molecule

water H2O .. .. tetrahedral (bent) polar bond

O ———
/ \ polar molecule
H H

methane CH4 H tetrahedral non-polar

l ———
H —C— H non-polar
l molecule
H

chlorine Cl2 linear non-polar bond

Cl — Cl ———
non-polar
molecule

hydrogen HF .. Linear polar bond

fluoride H—F: ———
.. polar molecule

ethyne C2H2 _ linear non-polar bond

(HCCH) H - C= C - H ———
non-polar
molecule

dichloro- CH2Cl2 H tetrahedral polar bond

methane (C is the l ———
central Cl — C — Cl non-polar
atom) l molecule
H

nitrogen N2 linear non-polar

:N = N: ———
non-polar
molecule
 97
carbon CO2 .. .. linear polar bond
dioxide O=C=O ———
.. .. non-polar
molecule

methanol CH3OH H tetrahedral polar bond

(C is the l .. ———
central H—C—O—H polar molecule
atom) l ..
H

hydrogen H2O2 .. .. tetrahedral (bent) polar bond

peroxide (HOOH) H—O—O—H ———
.. .. non-polar
molecule

Questions
1. Which molecules are nonpolar with nonpolar bonds? What do these molecules have in
common?
Molecules that are nonpolar with nonpolar bonds are hydrogen gas, methane, chlorine gas,
nitrogen gas, and ethyne. These molecules all are symmetrical with an electronegativity
difference that is less than or equal to 0.4.
2. Which molecules are nonpolar with polar bonds?What do these molecules have in common?
Molecules that are nonpolar with polar bonds are dichloro-methane, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen peroxide. These molecules are all symmetrical but their electronegativity difference is
greater than 0.4.
These molecules all have a difference in electronegativity that is greater than 0.4
3. Which shapes appear to produce polar molecules?What do these molecules have in common?
Shapes that appear to produce polar molecules are those with a molecular geometry that is linear,
tetrahedral, or trigonal pyramidal. These molecules all are asymmetrical (electrons are unevenly
distributed), where the electronegativity difference for all is greater than 0.4.
4. A tetrahedral molecule has bond angles of 109.5 . The bond angles on ammonia and water are
similar. How would you explain this observation? (Hint: look at the Lewis structures)
Both contain 4 domains (tetrahedral molecular geometry) where the electron repulsion is
relatively similar, therefore formatting them in a way that orients them with similar bond angles.
 98
Mole Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

Moles of Chalk
Mass a piece of ordinary chalk and write your name on the
blackboard. Weigh the chalk again, and determine the number of moles of calcium carbonate that
were used.
Weight of chalk before writing your name: __​2.499g​_____
Weight of chalk after writing your name: ____​2.359g​_____ Grams of chalk required to write
your name: _____​0.1400g​_______
1- Chemical Formula for calcium carbonate: CaCO3
2- Gram formula mass for calcium carbonate:
40.1g+ 3(16.0)+12.0= 100.1g CaCO3
3- Calculate the number of moles of calcium carbonate in the number of grams of chalk you
consumed to write your name.
0.140gCaCO3 x (1 mol CaCO3/100.1gCaCO3)= 0.001399molCaCO3
4- Number of calcium carbonate particles used to write your name (using scientific notation):
0.001399molCaCO3 x (6.02x10^23/1mol CaCO3)= 8.422x10^20 particles of CaCO3
5- Number of calcium carbonate particles used to write your name (not using scientific notation):
8.422e20 particles of CaCO3

Objective​:
By the conclusion of this experiment, students will be able to understand how to convert between
mass, moles and atoms of a given substance. From there, they will also be able to identify a
substance based on its molar mass.

Introduction​:
In this lab, students will be doing gram to particle conversions using the difference of the mass of
chalk after it used to write one’s name. They will learn of Avogadro’s number, named after
Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro, as it was discovered in 1856. It paved the way into the
discovery of Avogadro's Law and contributed to the Molecular Theory. Avogadro’s number,
6.022e10^23, is used to represent the number of particles in one mole of any substance, giving us
a visual image of the massive volume of atoms contained within an element/substance.

Hypothesis​:
I hypothesize that after writing my name with the chalk, I will use more than one mole, 6.022 x
10^23 particles, of CaCO3.
 99

Materials​:
Chalk
Digital scale (in grams)
Blackboard
Calculator

Procedures​:

1. Set up scale accordingly whether that is to plug it into an outlet or put batteries inside.
2. Determine the mass of the chalk, weighing it on the scale. Record data.
3. Write your name on a blackboard/ground with the chalk.
4. Weigh the used chalk. Record data.
5. Identify the difference (in grams) of the chalk. Record data.
6. Clean station accordingly.

Safety​:
Chalk has no harming properties. It is harmless when in contact with skin, although, don’t inhale
its residue.

Calculations​:
-Gram formula mass for CaCO3
40.1g+ 3(16.0)+12.0= 100.1g CaCO3

-mass of chalk used after writing my name

2.499-2.359= 0.140g

-converting grams to moles of the mass of CaCO3 used

0.140gCaCO3 x (1 mol CaCO3/100.1gCaCO3)= 0.001399molCaCO3

Converting moles of CaCO3 to calcium carbonate particles used to write your name (using
scientific notation):
0.001399molCaCO3 x (6.02x10^23/1mol CaCO3)= 8.422x10^20 particles of CaCO3
Or written as: 8.422e20 particles of CaCO3

Conclusion​:
Gathering all the data that I collected, the number of particles used to calculate my name was
8.422x10^20 particles which is less than what I had predicted, indicating that my hypothesis was
wrong. I think I went wrong because I did not initially consider the fact that 1 mole of CaCO3 is
100.1g before I made my hypothesis. In a lab such as this one, it is imperative to use common
 100
sense and think about how much chalk you are actually going to use compared to the large
amount that needs to be used to be considered one mole of CaCO3.

References​:

1. Britannica.com, ​https://www.britannica.com/science/Avogadros-number​, accessed

12/29/20
2. The Organic Chemistry, ​https://youtu.be/74-X94OP2XI​, 12/29/20
3. Lumenlearning.com,
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/avogadros-number-and-the-mole/​,
accessed 12/29/20
 101
% Composition of a Hydrate

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

DATA TABLE:

a. Mass of the empty evaporating dish 24.02g

b. Mass of the evaporating dish and CuSO4xH2O sample before 34.17g

heating (hydrate)

c. Mass of the evaporating dish and sample after heating 28.89g

(anhydrous salt, CuSO4)

Analysis Calculations: (Work is shown in the ​Calculations​ subheading)

1. Determine the mass of the hydrated salt, MgSO4•xH2O alone.
The mass of the hydrated salt is 10.15 grams.
2. Determine the mass of the water lost from the hydrated salt.
The mass of water lost is 5.28 grams.
3. Determine the % composition of water in the hydrated salt based on your measurements.
The experimental percent composition of water in the hydrate is 52.0%.
4. Determine the % composition of the water theoretically based on the formula MgSO4. 7H2O.
The theoretical composition of water in the hydrate is 51.2%.
5. Calculate the percent error.
The percent error is 1.6%.

Objective​:
The objective of this experiment is to be able to drive off the water from magnesium sulfate
hydrate. Then, using the mass of the anhydrous salt, we will be able to calculate the percent
composition of water in the hydrate and the empirical formula.

Research Question:
What is the percent composition of water in magnesium sulfate hydrate?

Introduction​:
Along with dissolving substances, water can also be incorporated in an ionic substance’s
structure in which it bonds with the cations. This is called the water of hydration, and the most
common examples of these are hydrated salts. By the Law of Definite Proportion, the water is
usually presented in a stoichiometric amount that is always consistent for that salt hydrate, and
 102
the formula is represented by the chemical composition of the anhydrous salt, followed by a dot
(the water of hydration), and then that stoichiometric coefficient and H2O. Generally, the water
can be driven off by evaporation, but there are also different hydrates, like efflorescent and
hydroscopic hydrates, that are unique. To elaborate, efflorescent hydrates spontaneously lose
water and and hydroscopic hydrates spontaneously absorb water, which is useful for drying other
substances (LibreTexts). There are also larger-scale uses for hydrates based on their properties
like high thermal conductivity and stability, most notably thermal storage. Using hydrate salts for
thermal storage is significant in the textile industry where the salt hydrate can be incorporated in
the clothing to not only increase the thermal insulation of the wearer, but also do this without
compromising the thickness and comfort of the fabric. This isn’t infallible, of course, as
incongruent melting, in which the amount of water separated from the hydrated salt is not
sufficient to dissolve the salt crystals, can be a common issue that diminishes the thermal
properties of the hydrate. Other issues include supercooling, which doesn’t allow the substances
to solidify, and corrosive properties, too (Science Direct). Even then, there are many other
practical applications of hydrates like gypsum, which is calcium sulfate hydrate, borax, which is
anhydrous sodium tetraborate decahydrate, and epsom salt, which is magnesium sulfate hydrate.
Magnesium sulfate hydrate is the substance that will be tested in this experiment, and it has
additional uses medically as an anticonvulsant and electrolyte replenisher in eclampsia treatment
(The Chemical Company).

Hypothesis​:
The percent error for the percent of water in magnesium sulfate hydrate will be less than 2%.

Materials and Procedures:

The materials needed for this lab are goggles, digital scale, evaporating dish, wire gauze, crucible
tongs, ring stand with ring, burner, and MgSO4 hydrate. I was not able to actually conduct this
experiment at home, but I was able to generate realistic masses from a video of a similar
experiment with CuSO4 hydrate. We begin by turning on the digital scale, placing the
evaporating dish on it, and reading and recording the mass. Then, pour in some MgSO4 hydrate
and read and record the mass again. Place the crucible on the wire gauze and heat with a
non-luminous flame until most of the water has evaporated, after which you intensify the heat.
You do this for approximately 10 minutes until little to no water is left. Picture 1 below depicts
an unspecified hydrate that originally contains blue crystals turning white when the water has
been driven off and only the anhydrous salt remains. Allow the dish to cool to room temperature,
then using the tongs, transfer it to the digital scale and read and record the mass (YouTube).
 103

1. (Science Source)

Safety​:
Wear goggles and tie back any loose clothing or hair as this experiment uses an open flame.
Avoid contact and inhalation with MgSO4. Magnesium sulfate can irritate the eyes and
respiratory system.

Calculations​:
This lab did not require any calculations except for the analysis questions, for which the work is
shown below.

1. 34.17g - 24.02g = 10.15g hydrate

2. 34.17g - 28.89g = 5.28g water lost
3. Experimental percent composition of water = (5.28g / 10.15g) * 100 = 52.01% ≈ 52%
4. Molar mass of MgSO4 = (24.31)+(32.06)+(4)(16)= 120.37g/mol
Molar mass H2O = (2)(1.01)+16 = 18.02g/mol
Molar mass magnesium sulfate hydrate = (1 mole)(120.37g/mol) + (7
moles)(18.02g/mol) = 120.37 + 126.14g = 246.51 g/mol
Theoretical percent composition of water = (126.14g / 246.51g/mol) * 100 = 51.17% ≈
51.2%
5. Percent error formula = (|experimental value - theoretical value| / theoretical value) * 100
(|52 - 51.2| / 51.2)*100 = 1.56% ≈ 1.6%

Conclusion​:
My hypothesis was correct as my percent error is 1.6%, which falls under my predicted 2% or
less. Potential errors could arise from excess water that did not evaporate, salt splattering off of
the evaporating dish during heating, or digital inconsistencies with the scale. Since my percent
error is fairly low, the empirical formula for magnesium sulfate hydrate is MgSO4*7H2O, or
magnesium sulfate heptahydrate. In the future, I would suggest testing different hydrates to
observe special changes in color and texture.

References​:
 104
1. LibreTexts,
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Ancillary_Materials/Laboratory_Experiments/W
et_Lab_Experiments/General_Chemistry_Labs/Online_Chemistry_Lab_Manual/Chem_1
1_Experiments/05%3A_Properties_of_Hydrates_(Experiment)​, accessed 1/15/21
2. Science Source,
https://www.sciencesource.com/archive/Dehydration-of-copper-sulfate-SS2726680.html​,
accessed 1/15/21
3. ScienceDirect, ​https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/salt-hydrate​, accessed
1/15/21
4. The Chemical Company, ​https://thechemco.com/chemical/magnesium-sulfate/​, accessed
1/15/21
5. Youtube, ​https://youtu.be/Kx6IIqfeX0c​, accessed 1/15/21
 105
Gas Laws

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

Heated:
During the heated experiment, the particles were very visibly active. Pressure increased from 0 to
38.8 atm. Along with pressure, collision rates also increased from 0 to 85. Based on these
observations, we can conclude there is a relationship between heat, pressure, and collision rates.

Cooled:
During the cooled experiment, the particles looked extremely stiff and did not move. The
pressure did not rise, it stayed constant at 0. Like pressure, collision rates were nonexistent, at 0
collisions in 10ps. To simplify, when temperature is low, pressure is low causing collision rates
to be low as well. Based on this conclusion, it is safe to say that temperature affects pressure and
pressure affects collision rates.

Heated:

(Dahlia Elgendi, 1/15/21, 9:11 pm , “Heated particles”)

 106
Cooled:

(Dahlia Elgendi, 1/15/21, 9:13 pm, “Cooled particles”)

1. How can you increase collision rates?

-By using hotter temperatures, or heating a particle, pressure increases which cause an
increase in collision rates.

2. How can you decrease collision rates?

-By using colder temperatures, or cooling a particle, pressure decreases which cause a
decrease in collision rates.

3. How does increasing temperature increase pressure?

-Temperature is proportional to the gas’s average kinetic energy. With faster particles,
there will be more collisions; this causes the force inside the container to increase causing
an increase in pressure.

4. Why is it better to have more collisions?

-When there are more collisions, there will be more combinations of particles. With more
combinations, there is a higher chance that that combination can complete the reaction.

5. What type of relationship do pressure and temperature have?

-According to Gay Lussac’s law, pressure and temperature are directly proportional.
Meaning when temperature increases, pressure increases, and vise versa.
 107
Objective​:
The objective of this lab is to understand the relationship between temperature and the
rate of collisions of particles.

Introduction​:
Almost all gases obey gas laws. Gas laws deal with how gases behave in terms of
pressure, volume, temperature, and mass. Gas laws consists of 4 major laws: Boyle’s law,
Charles’ law, Gay Lussacs’, and Avogadro’s law. Boyle’s law dictates that when volume
increases, pressure decreases (GasLaws). Charles’ law explains that the volume of gas
increases as temperature also increases (GasLaws). Gay Lussacs’ law describes that when
heating a gas there is more energy, which causes an increase in pressure (GasLaws).
Avogadro’s law tells of when temperature and pressure are equal there are equal numbers
of particles (GasLaws). There is also one more theory, the Kinetic Molecular Theory. The
theory claims that when gas is heated to a constant temperature, its pressure increases
(GasLaws). Studying gas laws is actually integral to the safety in our day-to-day lives; for
example gas laws allow certain mechanisms that create airbags for cars, and they can also
be used to maintain ventilation systems in buildings (BYJU’S). The study of gas laws
allows for us to learn about the behavior of matter in its simplest form, individual
free-falling particles.

Research question:
What is the relationship between temperature, pressure, and rate of collisions?

Hypothesis​:
With hotter temperatures, pressure increases which also causes an influx in the frequency
of collisions.

Safety​:
➔ Must wear safety goggles at all times
➔ Secure hair with a hair tie or hair cap
➔ Secure loose clothing by rolling up sleeves or tucking in shirts
➔ Remove any flammable material in the area, ex) paper
➔ Wear gloves, especially when touching chemicals
➔ Wash hands before and after the experiment, do not touch face unless sanitized
For the online simulation only:
➔ Only use the Colorado Phet website for the experiment (Internet safety)
➔ Do not publish private information online
➔ Do not click links that you do not know of / look suspicious
➔ Do not click pop-up ads
 108

Procedures​:
1. Go onto ​Colorado Phet Gas Properties simulation​ and click ideal gas
2. From the sidebar on the right click the option for ‘Collision Counter”
3. Press the pump to the right to spray particles into the chamber
4. Heat the chamber to 2000°K then quickly after press the play button on the
collision counter (there should be anywhere around 80-95 collisions)
5. Log the collisions and pressure
6. Click the eraser button to restart the experiment
7. Press the pump to the right to spray particles into the chamber
8. Cool the chamber until its hit 0°k (should be 0 collisions)
9. Log the collisions and pressure

Conclusion​:
To conclude, my hypothesis was proven correct. The lab shows a direct relationship
between temperature, collision rates, and pressure. When temperature was low, the pressure was
at zero which in turn caused collisions rates to decrease. On the other hand, when temperatures
were high, pressure was high causing collisions to become more frequent. This lab has shown the
tendencies of temperature and pressure in an interactive and fun way. Rather than only learning
about gas laws, the simulation allows for a clear understanding while also allowing a student to
understand gas rules by experimenting with them.

References​:
1. BBC, ​https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zc4xsbk/revision/4​, accessed 1/17/21
2. BYJU’S, ​https://byjus.com/jee-questions/what-is-a-real-life-example-of-ideal-gas-law/​,
accessed on 1/17/21
3. Florida State University, ​https://www.chem.fsu.edu/chemlab/chm1045/gas_laws.html​,
accessed 1/16/21
4. Libretexts,
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook
_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Propert
ies_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Gases/Kinetic_Theory_of_Gases/Basics_
of_Kinetic_Molecular_Theory​, accessed 1/16/21
5. Libretexts,
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook
_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Propert
ies_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Gases/Gas_Laws/Gas_Laws%3A_Overvi
ew#:~:text=Created%20in%20the%20early%2017th,coming%20to%20matters%20of%2
0gas​, accessed 1/16/21
 109

Colligative Properties of Water Ice Cream Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

1. How did adding salt help to freeze the ice cream?
Adding the salt made the ice liquid at 200oC and has a larger surface area to transfer heat to
allow the ice cream to freeze.
2. While making ice cream the ice melts. Is melting endo or exothermic. Explain with an
equation.
Endothermic; H2O(s) + heat ->H2O(l)
3. While making ice cream the milk freezes. Is freezing an endothermic or exothermic process?
Explain with an equation.
Freezing is exothermic; milk(l) -> milk(s) + heat
4. In which direction did energy(heat)flow for freezing the ice cream?(From what to what)?
The direction of the heat flowed from the milk (system) to the ice (surrounding).
5. If you did not add sugar, would the ice cream have frozen faster? Why?
Yes the ice cream would have frozen faster because the freezing point wouldn’t be so low (b/c
the concentration of the cream would be lower) and would freeze at a higher temperature to
make the ice cream.
6. What would change if you were to repeat this lab?
Use chocolate
8- Is freezing an exothermic or endothermic process?
Exothermic
9- Is melting an exothermic or endothermic process?
Endothermic

Note: 1⁄2 cup milk, 1tbs sugar, 1⁄2 tsp vanilla extract. 4 cups per quart. 24 kids = 12 cups = 3
quarts

Objective​:
Students will be able to successfully make ice cream whilst learning of the concept of colligative
properties.

Research Question​:
What effects does increasing the concentration of the solute have on colligative properties?
 110

Introduction​:
In 1891, the concept of colligative properties was developed by Wilhelm Ostwald, proposing that
they are only dependent on solute concentrations and temperature, rather than the nature of the
solute, Now further developed, we identify that colligative properties ARE properties that are
dependent on the amount of solute particles present within the solution. Following that, scientists
find that they affect different features of a solution such as if you increase the amount of solute in
a solution, you sharply decrease the vapor pressure, lower the freezing point, and increase the
boiling point. By utilizing these unique characteristics of colligative properties, we are able to
incorporate this information with situations in the present world, for example, rock salt on ice
lowers its freezing point, therefore it is used a lot when it snows to prevent the snow from
solidifying on the roads. Another example would be that adding alcohol to water would lower the
freezing point, thus why alcoholic beverages tend not to freeze in a home freezer (BCCampus).
A real problem related to colligative properties is that the polar ice caps are melting six times
faster than what it was in 1990, measured to have had 475 billion tons of annual ice loss since
then (Yale).

Hypothesis​:
With more MgCl placed outside the system(being the ziplock bag containing the ingredients to
make ice cream), it will require less shaking to result in the formation of ice cream.

Materials​:
-Whole milk
-Vanilla extract
-Sugar
-NaCl rock salt
-ice
-Spoons
-1 large Ziplock bag
-1 small. Ziplock bag
-MgCl2

Procedures​:
Preparations made beforehand:
1. Make/buy ice that is enough to fill half of the large ziplock bag.
Start:
1. Place the ice into the large ziplock bag, filling it half way
2. Place ½ cup of rock salt into the large ziplock bag .
3. Mix the bag to evenly distribute the rock salt among the ice in the ziplock.
4. Set it aside.
 111
5. (In a measuring cup) Add 1 cup of whole milk
6. Then add ½ teaspoon of vanilla extract to the cup
7. Place the small ziplock bag in a bowl to ensure no contents in the measuring cup is
wasted/spilled during the transfer.
8. Transfer the whole milk and vanilla extract solution into the ziplock bag
9. Add 2 tablespoons of sugar into the ziploc bag
10. Seal the bag, making sure it is tight, with little to no air remaining inside.
11. Place the smaller ziplock containing the mixed solution into the larger ziplock that
contains the ice and rock salt.
12. Seal the ziplock bag and begin to shake the bag for at least 5 minutes straight or until the
mixture hardens
13. Record time
14. Take out and enjoy!
15. Do steps 1-13 again with more rock salt placed inside the large ziplock bag; record time

1. 2. 3.

4.
Picture 1, 2, and 3&4 displays the before, middle, and after results of the ice cream experiment.
01/13/21, 7:50PM-8:50PM

Safety​:
-Keep lab station clean and pristine, mindful that other students are to use these materials and
area for further experiments
-No materials have toxic properties except rock salt:
 112
If ingested, seek attention and wait for further instructions.

Calculations​:
With measuring cups,
Whole milk: 1 cup of whole milk
Vanilla extract: ½ teaspoon
Sugar: 2 tablespoons
Ice: 300 mL
Salt: 50g
MgCl2:10g
Time measured with less rock salt with ice: 5:30seconds
Time measured with more rock salt in ice:
4:56seconds

Conclusion​:
The hypothesis proves to be correct although there isn’t much time difference between the two
trials with the control variable being the rock salt. Though, it still proves the theory that more
solute placed into the solution results in the lowering of the freezing point, thus allowing the
system to freeze quicker. To further verify or disprove this theory, I suggest you to do at least 3-4
more trial runs whilst recording the amount of solute (rock salt) in the ziplock to the amount of
time it takes for the ice cream to harden.

References​:
➢ BCCampus, ​https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/11-4-colligative-properties/​,
accessed 1/13/21
➢ BlueberriesWA, ​https://youtu.be/N4ztYjFxwmI​, 1/13/21
➢ Florida State University,
https://www.chem.fsu.edu/chemlab/chm1046course/colligative.html​, 1/13/21
➢ Yale,
https://e360.yale.edu/digest/theres-been-a-six-fold-increase-in-polar-ice-cap-melting-sinc
e-the-1990s​, accessed 1/13/21
 113

Solubility of KNO3

​Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

Test Tube Grams of KNO3/ 5mL of Crystallization Temperature,

water oC

2g 2.0g/ 5.0mL 25 oC

4g 4.0g/ 5.0mL 55 oC

6g 6.0g/ 5.0mL 70 oC

8g 8.0g/ 5.0mL 80 oC
(To see where this data was taken from, go to references 6-9.)

Observations (minimum of 3):

-As mass increases, so does crystallization temperature.
-Volume of water stays constant.
-The trend is not linear.

Calculations / Questions:
1.Convert your experimental concentrations to the equivalent mass/100mL using ratios (x/100g =
).

Test Tube Grams of KNO3/ Gram of KNO3/ Crystallization

5mL of water 100mL of water Temperature, oC

2g 2.0g/ 5.0mL 40.0g/ 100mL 25 oC

4g 4.0g/ 5.0mL 80.0g/ 100mL 55 oC

6g 6.0g/ 5.0mL 120.0g/ 100mL 70 oC

8g 8.0g/ 5.0mL 160.0g/ 100mL 80 oC

(To see where this data was taken from, go to references 6-9.)
 114
2. Plot your data below (grams of KNO3 /100 mL of water). Include all the elements of a good
graph...
3.Construct a solubility curve by connecting a smooth line (not necessarily a straight line through
the points...

4. Determine the grams of KNO3 that can be dissolved in 100mL of H2O at the following
temperatures from your curve and from Table G in your reference table.

Temperature g KNO3 /100 mL based on g KNO3 /100 mL based on

your experimental results. Table G

30o C 45g/ 100 mL 48g/ 100 mL

40o C 55g/ 100 mL 63g/ 100 mL

50o C 70g/ 100 mL 84g/ 100 mL

60o C 95g/ 100 mL 106g/ 100 mL

70o C 120g/ 100 mL 133g/ 100 mL

(To see where this data was taken from, go to references 6-9 and table G of the Reference Tables
for Chemistry.)

5. Define the terms saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated.

 115
A saturated solution has the maximum solute that will dissolve in the amount of solvent given,
at a given temperature, and reaches the solubility equilibrium. While an unsaturated solution
contains too little solute to become a saturated solution and reach its solubility equilibrium. A
supersaturated solution contains too much solute, and has gone past the solubility equilibrium
with excess solute.

6. Classify the following KNO3 solutions as saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated. Explain

your answer.
➢ 1. 75gKNO3 /100mL of water at 40oC
➢ 2. 60gKNO3 /100mL of water at 50oC
Solution number 1 is supersaturated, as approximately 63gKNO3/ 100 mL of water is needed
to reach the solubility equilibrium at 40oC. Since we have 75gKNO3/ 100 mL of water, we have
too much solute for the solvent to reach solubility equilibrium, thus it is supersaturated.
Solution number 2 is unsaturated, as approximately 84gKNO3/ 100 mL of water is needed to
reach the solubility equilibrium at 50oC. Since we have 60gKNO3/ 100 mL of water, we have
too little solute for the solvent to reach solubility equilibrium, thus it is unsaturated.

7. If you were going to get big bucks for accurately determining a solubility curve for KNO3,
what specific things would you do differently than we did in this lab?
The main thing I would change is the equipment used. For example, instead of a hot plate, I
was using a device that allows me to control the heat more accurately, such as a laboratory oven
that has a clear window into it so I can monitor the changes with greater accuracy.

Objective​:
The objective is to monitor the changes of different masses of KNO3, mainly the differences in
crystallization temperature with these different masses. This lab has been done using a
research-based and at-home model, so the crystallization temperatures will be based off of other
people’s experiments.

Research Question:
How do we graph the solubility curve of KNO3 under different temperatures?

Introduction​:
The history of solubility and solutions is relatively new and unknown, but its discovery was
crucial to further understanding just how molecules and atoms interact with each other. The first
time the ionic nature of solutions was identified was by Svante Arrhenius, when he was studying
how electricity traveled through solutions. While at the time his theory was deemed untrue, when
later scientists determined atoms have a charge, his theory was widely accepted and he even won
 116
the Nobel Peace Prize for his accomplishments (Jrank Articles). This acceptance of his theory
led to a completely new understanding of how molecules worked, especially inside of solutions.
This discovery and further study of solubility also lead to many advancements. For example, an
understanding of solubility is used to make most oral medications, pills mainly, and parenteral
injections. Solubility helps doctors and pharmacists determine the ​desired concentration of drug
in systemic circulation for achieving required pharmacological response. As well, solubility
plays a role in almost everyone’s day-to-day life. For instance, if you put sugar in your coffee to
enhance the flavor, that is solubility at work (NCBI and UK Essays). Therefore, the knowledge
of solubility has allowed scientists to come to many feats and has helped scientists more fully
understand just how molecules work.

Hypothesis​:
We will have an average percent error below 10% when comparing our experimental results of
gKNO3/ 100 mL of water compared to the gKNO3/ 100 mL of water based off of Table G.

Materials​:
If you are actually conducting the experiment-
-Four 18 mm by 150 mm test tubes
-400 mL beaker
-Hot plate
-Test tube holder
-Thermometer
-Graduated cylinder, 10mL
-Glass stirring rod
-Distilled water
-Potassium Nitrate, KNO3

Procedures​:
While one partner prepares the test tubes in steps 1 – 4, the other partner should set up the water
bath as described in step 5.

1. Label 4 test tubes with a small piece of masking tape as “2g”, “4g”, “6g”, and “8g” and
place the test tubes in a test tube rack or large beaker.
2. Mass 2.0 ± .02 grams of potassium nitrate, KNO3, in a weighing boat or on a piece of
weighing paper. Carefully pour the salt into the “2g” test tube.
3. Repeat with 4.0 g, 6.0 g, and 8.0 g and transfer to the indicated test tubes.
4. Add exactly 5.0 mL of distilled water to each test tube using a graduated cylinder.
5. Fill a 400 mL beaker about ¾ full with tap water to use as a water bath. Heat the water to
approximately 90oC on a hot plate. Keep a medium setting on the hot plate to maintain
the water at approximately this temperature (if it boils, turn down the hot plate).
 117
6. Place all of the test tubes into the water bath (this can be done while the water is still
heating). The level of the solution in the test tube should be below the level of the water
in the water bath. Stir the “2g” solution with the stirring rod or digital thermometer until
all of the salt has dissolved. When all of the salt has dissolved (it does not need to be near
90oC), remove the test tube (using a test tube holder if it is too hot to handle).
7. One partner should begin heating and dissolving the “4g” test tube (repeat steps 6 and 7)
while the other continues the procedure with the “2g” test tube, step 8. All tubes can be
placed in the water bath simultaneously, but should not be removed until you are ready to
carefully observe the temperature.
8. Warm the thermometer by dipping in your water bath (or just remove it if it is already in
the water bath). Wipe off any excess water and while still warm place the thermometer
into the test tube. Hold the test tube up to the light and watch for the first signs of
crystallization. Immediately when crystallization is observed, record the temperature. If
crystallization occurs too rapidly (due to a cold thermometer), reheat / redissolve the
sample and repeat this step. (Note: you may need to cool the 2g sample in a room
temperature water bath until the temperature decreases to near 30oC. Allow the final
cooling in air. Do not cool any of the other samples in the room temperature water bath.)
9. Repeat steps 6 – 8 with all of the test solutions. If any of your results appear doubtful, the
solution can be reheated / redissolved and observed more carefully.
10. Clean up your work area. Unplug your hot plate. Discard the solutions in the filter flask
set up to collect and recycle the crystallized KNO3. Wash your test tubes with a soap
solution and test tube brush, rinse thoroughly, and invert in the test tube rack.

Safety​:
This lab can be very dangerous and harmful if you are not careful while doing it. For starters,
hot plates are very hot and can heat things to very high temperatures. Be sure to never directly
touch the hot plate when it is turned on, as you can severely burn your hands. In addition, keep
any flammable object away from the hot plate. We suggest you do this in an area near a sink or
fire extinguisher, just in case of an accident. As well, do not ingest the KNO3 and avoid
breathing it in as much as possible. High amounts of KNO3 can act as an asphyxiant and can
lead to nausea, trouble breathing, and maybe even death. In addition, KNO3 can be dangerous to
the lungs and kidneys and can cause anemia (New Jersey Department of Health and Senior
Services). We recommend wearing gloves, goggles, and a face covering while doing the
experiment, and we also recommend being very mindful of the hot plate as to prevent a fire.

Calculations​:
gKNO3/ 100 mL of water-
2g x 20 = 40gKNO3/ 100 mL of water
4g x 20 = 80gKNO3/ 100 mL of water
6g x 20 = 120gKNO3/ 100 mL of water
 118
8g x 20 = 160gKNO3/ 100 mL of water
Percent Error-
|(45g/ 100 mL - 48g/ 100 mL)/ 48g/ 100 mL| x 100% = 6.25%
|(55g/ 100 mL - 63g/ 100 mL)/ 63g/ 100 mL| x 100% = 12.70%
|(70g/ 100 mL - 84g/ 100 mL)/ 84g/ 100 mL| x 100% = 16.67%
|(95g/ 100 mL - 106g/ 100 mL)/ 106g/ 100 mL| x 100% = 10.38%
|(120g/ 100 mL - 133g/ 100 mL)/ 133g/ 100 mL| x 100% = 9.77%
Average Percent Error-
(6.25% + 12.70% + 16.67% + 10.38% + 9.77%)/ 5 = 11.15%

Conclusion/ Error Analysis:

To conclude this lab, we were able to safely examine the solubility process of different masses
of KNO3 in water of different temperatures. However, our hypothesis was wrong and we
received a percent error greater than 10%, that percent being 11.15%. This is most likely due to
the use of not completely accurate equipment. For instance, it is difficult to keep an exact
temperature with a hot plate compared to a laboratory oven. As well, some water may have
evaporated when being heated, causing inaccurate results. Despite the percent error, we still were
able to learn important skills from this lab. These skills being how to monitor a solution and the
importance of solubility in science. We also learned how to analyze and create solubility curves
based on given data. I would suggest doing multiple trials of this experiment to compare the
percent error results.

References and Photos​:

1. International Scholarly Research Network,

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3399483/​., accessed 1/14/21
2. JRank Articles, ​www.science.jrank.org/pages/6283/Solution.html​., accessed 1/14/21
3. New Jersey Department Of Health And Senior Services,
nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/1574.pdf., accessed 1/14/21
4. Sciencing, sciencing.com/types-heating-devices-use-science-experiments-12461.html.,
1/14/21
5. UK Essays, ​www.ukessays.com/essays/sciences/solubility.php​., accessed 1/14/21
6. Youtube, ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PRm9lTGqq-E&t=134s​, accessed 1/14/21
 119

7. Youtube, ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u33PkA-w_JY​, accessed 1/14/21

8. Youtube, ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RP16LGePz50&t=180s​, accessed 1/14/21

9. Youtube, ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kWNhTtfOAEE&t=232s​, accessed 1/14/21

120
 121

Titration Lab

Experiment Data and Analysis Questions:

Molarity of the standardized NaOH: ____​0.5M​____

Volume of vinegar titrated, mL 10.0mL

Initial burst reading of base 6.9mL

Final burner reading of base 15.6mL

Volume of NaOH (am) used in mL 8.7mL

Known Concentration of NaOH 0.5M

Questions:
1. Calculate the molarity of the HC2H3O2 using (MAVA = MBVB )
MA(10.0mL)=(0.5M)(8.7mL)
[MA(10.0mL)]/ [10.0mL]= [4.35M/mL]/ [10.0mL]
MA= 0.435M

2. Calculate the moles of HC2H3O2 in your 10.0mL of vinegar.

HC2H3O2 (aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaC2H3O2(aq)
10.mL/1000.mL=0.010L x 0.4M= 0.00435mol HC2H3O2

3. Using the moles of HC2H3O2 calculated above, calculate the mass (grams) of pure HC2H3O2 in your
10.0 mL sample.
HC2H3O2= 4(1gH)+ 2(12gC)+2(16gO)
=64g HC2H3O2
0.00435molHC2H3O2 x (64gHC2H3O2 /1 molHC2H3O2)= 0.2784gHC2H3O2 in the 10.0mL sample

Objective​:
Students will be able to learn how to use a buret in order to identify the titration point of vinegar
with the use of the known titrant concentration of NaOH. After collecting the data of the
experiment, students will be able to answer questions relating to the titration experiment given.

Research question​:
 122
How would you know when an acid-base titration has reached its equivalence point during the
experiment?

Introduction​:
First used in 1828 by the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, titration is a method that is
used to determine an unknown concentration of a solution (analyte) by neutralizing it using a
known volume of a concentration of a solution (titrant). The equivalence point(neutralization
point) is known as the point where the moles of the titrant are equal to the moles of the analyte.
An equation that is often used to find the equivalence point is MaVa=MbVb; the molarity of an
acid x volume of the acid= molarity of the base x volume of the base. Furthermore, the endpoint
is known as the point which is indicated by a color change from the indicator; to identify which
indicator to use, you must first find the pH range in which the acid-base titrations fall in. There
are various different applications of titration that are used in the real world, one which titration is
used to produce more efficient biodiesel fuels from balancing the pH level within the fuel
(Sciencing). Two, in the cosmetic industry where concentrations of chemicals are balanced using
titration so no underlying damage is dealt to the body as the products are used. However, this
also poses problems as some beauty companies focus more on the profit than quality of the
product, and fail to balance the pH of a solution which can result in damage to the skin, hair, or
face of its customers (Sciencing). Three, in the food industry, food manufacturers also utilize
isothermal titration calorimetry to determine the fundamental properties of components in food
that underlie its quality (NewFood).

Hypothesis​:
The volume of NaOH needed to reach the equivalence point between the NaOH and the 10mL
vinegar is 5.0mL of NaOH.

Materials​:
-Buret (measures to 0.1(mL) decimal places)
-Ringstand
-Buret clamp
-Phenolphthalein Indicator
-Buret reading card (White paper)
-small funnel
- 125mL Erlenmeyer flask
-volumetric pipet and pipet bulb
-wash bottle with distilled water
-beaker/flask of titrant
-beaker/flask of analyte
 123
Procedures​:
Preparations before titration
1. Rinse buret thoroughly with your deionized water
2. Then rinse with small amount of titrant (Repeat 3-4 times; after each open stopcock to
drain the liquid)
3. If solution still remains at the sides of the Bret. Rinse with deionized water until it is
cleansed
Start:
1. Mount and position the buret in the clamp vertically and with enough space at the bottom
to place your Erlenmeyer flask
2. Check that the stopcock is in its closed position (perpendicular to the buret)
3. Insert the funnel on top of the buret and fill with the titrant until it reaches roughly 0mL
(does not need to be exact)
4. Gently tap the buret to free existing air bubbles.
5. Remove funnel from the buret.
6. Place the Erlenmeyer flask underneath the buret and twist the stopcock parallel to let a
few milliliters of titrant to flow to release any trapped air.
7. Rinse the tip of the buret with your deionized water to rid of remaining droplets, letting it
collect in the Erlenmeyer flask. Then empty the liquids in the waste container and
thoroughly rinse the flask.
8. Record your initial concentration on the buret (identify the volume by reading the
meniscus at eye level); 6.9mL
9. Use the volumetric pipette to transfer the analyte to the flask, measure the volume to
10mL, checking by reading the meniscus.
10. Add about three drops of the indicator (Phenolphthalein Indicator) to the analyte and
swirl the flask.
11. Place the flask containing the analyte under the buret and record the volume of the
analyte (10.0mL).
12. Place a white paper underneath the Erlenmeyer flask (to make detecting the color change
of the solution easier).
13. Turn the stopcock so that it is slowly letting the NaOH flow into the flask whilst
swirling/mixing the solution
14. Repeat step 13 repetitively until the color of the indicator in the analyte (magenta)
appears more frequently and at much longer intervals
15. Adjust the stopcock to a drop-wise rate whilst continuing to swirl the flask with one hand
and keeping the other ready to close the stopcock once you notice that the indicator is
taking much longer to fade.
16. Rinse the buret with deionized water and swirl the flask
 124
17. When the analyte remains faintly colored, it indicates that you have reached the endpoint.
If you haven’t, repeat the procedure drop, rinse, swirl, then record until you’ve reached
your endpoint.
18. Record the final volume of buret.

1. (Youtube)
Picture 1: the Erlenmeyer flask on the left is at a point that shows when the reactants and
products have reached their equivalence point, on the other hand, the flask on the right shows
that excess titrant was used to titrate the analyte.

2. (Youtube)
Picture 2: the visual identifies the process to successfully mix the titrant and analyte together;
whilst adjusting the stopcock to a drop-wise rate equivalence point is reached (liquid remains a
magenta tone for 15 seconds or more)

Safety​:
-No horseplay
-Clean spills effectively and immediately
-Hair must be tied back to make sure there is no accidental contact during the experiment
-Goggles and gloves must be worn to prevent contact of solution with eyes and skin
- If it is to have contact with skin, immediately go to sink and rinse the acid/ base with
soap and water, if there is any further irritation, seek medical help

Calculations​:
Volume of vinegar titrated: 10.0mL
Initial buret reading: 6.9mL
Final Buret reading: 15.6mL
Volume of NaOH (aq) used in mL:
Tf-Ti= volume of NaOH used
15.6mL-6.9mL=8.7mL
Known Concentration of NaOH: 0.5M

molarity of the HC2H3O2:

 125
MAVA=MBVB
MA(10.0mL)=(0.5M)(8.7mL)
[MA(10.0mL)]/ [10.0mL]= [4.35M/mL]/ [10.0mL]
MA= 0.435M

The moles of HC2H3O2 in your 10.0mL of vinegar:

HC2H3O2 (aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaC2H3O2(aq)
10.mL/1000.mL=0.010L x 0.4M= 0.00435mol HC2H3O2

Mass (grams) of pure HC2H3O2 in your 10.0 mL sample:

HC2H3O2= 4(1gH)+ 2(12gC)+2(16gO)
=64g HC2H3O2
0.00435molHC2H3O2 x (64gHC2H3O2 /1 molHC2H3O2)= 0.2784gHC2H3O2 in the 10.0mL sample

Conclusion/Error Analysis​:
After the data was collected during the titration experiment, it proves my hypothesis to be wrong.
The concentration (in mL) of NaOH necessary to neutralize the vinegar was found to be 8.7mL.
This may be due to the higher volume of vinegar present in the flask, resulting in the use of more
than 5mL of NaOH as predicted. If not for that, it may be due to the lack of repetitive trials
given, so I suggest to do this experiment at least 3-4 times to see if the data is proven to be
constant.

References​:
➢ NCCSSM, ​https://youtu.be/i7jnSaf1Muc​, accessed 1/13/21
➢ NewFood Magazine,
https://www.newfoodmagazine.com/article/1485/titration-techniques-in-the-food-industr
y/amp/​, accessed 1/13/21
➢ Sciencing, ​https://sciencing.com/list-5772040-titration-used-industry-.html​, accessed
1/12/21
➢ Youtube, ht​tps://youtu.be/9pS7Q4MQCYI​, accessed 1/10/21
➢ Youtube, ​https://youtu.be/sFpFCPTDv2w​, accessed 1/9/21
 126
Electrochemical Cell Lab

Background:
A battery stores energy, then releases it by converting chemical energy into electricity.
Batteries can be made from many materials, most commonly it is made from: ​ alkaline,
lithium-ion, lithium-polymer, and nickel-metal hydride (Energyeducation). Different batteries
are formed with different cells. A cell is, in simplest form, one metallic cathode and one metallic
anode (Batteryguy). A battery with only one cell is commonly called a ‘single celled battery’;
when there is more than one cell they are internally combined, meaning on the outside it still
looks like a single celled battery (Batteryguy). Batteries can be used for everyday life use, or for
more important uses. For everyday life use, batteries can be used to: power remotes and charge
cell phones, and bigger batteries can be used to charge laptops or digital cameras. For more
serious tasks, batteries can be used for: artificial limbs, hearing aids, insulin pumps, ECG heart
monitors, and much more (BYJU’S). Most modern day batteries include a separator, usually
made from sheet form, to ensure that the cathode and anode do not touch (Batterguy). If the
cathode and anode do interact, the same chemical reaction would occur but it will not naturally
stop, causing an explosion.

Problem:
Although with the use of electrochemical cell batteries society can reduce the amount of
fossil fuels burned, its disadvantages may balance its pros as a result of its questionable longevity
and efficiency. Unless experimented and refined into a stable source of energy that can power the
world with little to no wasteful residue, fossil fuels will continue to play a major role in powering
the society. Many of the batteries used today are within common products which contain
mercury, cadmium, lithium, and lead that can lead to contamination of the soil and water; Tesla
uses Lithium-ion batteries to power their car. If the ideal version of batteries are made, there
would be a massive decrease in pollution levels over a period of time. This would lead to a
longer lasting eco-friendly environment that will stabilize the future, without the worry that
pollution is what is soon to kill the world we reside in (Congressional Research Services).

Question:
How does a car battery operate in an electric car versus a standard gas car?

Hypothesis:
In an electric car, the battery must be of greater power and size compared to a standard
gas car.

Research:
The purpose of a car battery is to provide an electric current to the starting motor, which
then powers the internal combustion engine and actually drives the car. This electric current is
 127
produced by the flow of electrons in oxidation-reduction reactions within the battery.
Specifically, electrons are transferred from one electrode, the anode, to the other, the cathode,
through a circuit, and are separated by an electrolyte (Australian Academy of Science). In the
standard car battery, lead dioxide is the cathode and a sponge of lead is the anode, with a sulfuric
acid solution as the electrolyte (University of Illinois). The oxidation half-reaction occurs at the
anode and electrolyte, while the reduction half-reaction between the cathode and the electrolyte.
As the battery is used, the half-reactions at both electrodes occur, and there is a continuous flow
of electrons through the external circuit while positively charged ions flow through the
electrolyte. And because a car battery is actually a series of six smaller batteries, this carries out
several times, increasing the voltage, or electromotive force, and offering more power to the
overall system of the car (Australian Academy of Science).

How do car batteries differ from others?

There are many different types of batteries to accommodate for a wide range of products
that require different levels of power or elemental reactions. For example, the average small and
non-rechargeable dry-cell batteries are used for most household items. Duracell AA and AAA
batteries are alkaline and zinc carbon batteries that are compatible with items like smoke
detectors, cameras, and toys. Lithium energizer batteries can be used similarly, with the addition
of watches, tire pressure sensors, memory backup, and alarms. Regarding safety, the duracell
batteries can leak corrosive materials over time and the energizer batteries can cause fire if
damaged or improperly disposed; however, they are fortunately non-spillable. Not to mention,
these batteries can be recycled as micronutrients for fertilizer (zinc manganese concentrate),
concrete strengthener in road construction, and recovery of metals in high temperature metal
reclamation. Where these batteries are usually cylindrical, the average rechargeable flood-cell
and multi-cell car battery is much bigger in comparison and rectangular in shape. These
lead-acid batteries are actually very recyclable but usually only go toward making more car
batteries. They are also more dangerous as they are spillable, contain toxic lead, and contain a
corrosive acid electrolyte. Electric car batteries, on the other hand, are dry-cell and rechargeable
with safety hazards lying in its high voltage and potential for fire if damaged or incorrectly
disposed of. As for recycling, they can be disassembled into modules which are then
mechanically separated to recover the lithium and plastics to be reused in cell phones, laptops,
and more (Battery Solutions). The lead plates in car batteries are thin to allow a more rapid
movement of electrons. However, in electric cars, which have more cells than gas cars, the plates
are thicker to permit a slow and steady discharge of power so the battery can be used for longer
(Evolve). It’s also important to consider the different types of electric cars, battery-electric
(BEVs), hybrid-electric (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid-electric (PHEVs), when comparing how a
gas car operates to an electric car. For instance, instead of an internal combustion engine, BEVs
have an electric traction motor, whereas HEVs and PHEVs have both an electric traction motor
to run on electric power and an internal combustion engine to run on fuel once the battery is
depleted. The two most common electric car batteries include the aforementioned lithium-ion
 128
batteries and the nickel-metal hydride batteries. Lithium-ion batteries, which are used in most
electric cars, have a high power-to-weight ratio and high temperature performance, making them
more energy-efficient and environmentally-friendly. Nickel-metal hydride batteries are usually
used in HEVs and PHEVs due to their longer life cycle. They aren't common in all-electric
vehicles, though, because of the high cost and heat generation over time (Energy Sage). With so
many options, more and more gas-powered car companies are also engaging in electric car
models. Popular BEV types include the ​Chevy Bolt, Honda Clarity, Tesla Model S, Tesla Model
X, BMW i3, and the Volkswagen e-Golf. For PHEVs, there is the Chevy Volt, Chrysler Pacifica
Hybrid, Hyundai Sonata PHEV, and Toyota Prius Plug-in. Finally is the HEV models, like the
Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid, and Toyota Prius Hybrid, with the Civic and Camry
models available in both standard and hybrid ​(Car and Driver). Some renowned car companies,
like Volvo, even go as far as to believe that the increasingly more cost-efficient electric cars are
the future, and conventional engines are becoming obsolete (The New York Times).

Conclusion:
Throughout this research investigation of electrochemical cells, we studied and learned about
batteries, primarily car batteries. We researched and learned what car batteries are made of, why
they are so important to us, the many different versions of car batteries, how those versions
highly differ from one another, the positive and negative effects of car batteries, and how we can
improve on the modern day model of the common car battery. Focusing on car batteries, we also
saw how car batteries can be improved to fix a world-wide problem that we have been facing for
years, and it’s the use of fossil fuels, as well as the inevitable lack of these fossil fuels. We were
shown through our research that the modern day common car battery could actually be turned
into an environmentally safe, cost-efficient, and overall easier to obtain replacement for fossil
fuels. While it may be a while to achieve perfection in terms of the environmentally safe car
battery, which would power almost everything if it was to be found, certain people are already
taking the steps to find this solution. For instance, a company named Relectrify has found a use
for “dead” car batteries, as through their research they have found that when a car battery is no
longer useful to a car its energy can actually be reused to power many other things. Specifically,
they found that after a car battery can no longer power a car, it actually still has approximately
2,000 cycles left in it, cycles meaning it’s able to be recharged and reused this many times. As
well, they found that the most efficient and safe way to power these batteries was solar energy,
this protecting the environment even more (ArenaWire). This shows how the car battery can be
refined and reused to provide a much more safe and beneficial solution to the use of fossil fuels.
Therefore, we were able to thoroughly study and examine car batteries, and find a way that they
can be used to benefit society greatly.
 129
References:

➢ ArenaWire,
https://arena.gov.au/blog/how-to-use-an-electric-car-battery-to-power-your-home/​,
accessed 1/20/19
➢ Australian Academy of Science,
https://www.science.org.au/curious/technology-future/batteries​, accessed 1/19/21
➢ Batteryguy,
https://batteryguy.com/kb/knowledge-base/whats-the-difference-between-a-cell-a-battery
-and-a-battery-bank/#:~:text=A%20battery%20is%20made%20up,positive%20and%20o
ne%20negative%20terminal​), accessed on 1/19/21
➢ Battery Solutions, ​https://batterysolutions.com/learning-center/battery-types/​, accessed
1/20/21
➢ BYJU’s, ​https://byjus.com/physics/uses-of-battery/​, accessed on 1/19/21
➢ Car and Driver,
https://www.caranddriver.com/research/a32781943/electric-cars-vs-gas-cars/​, accessed
1/20/21
➢ Congressional Research Services, ​https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R46420.pdf​ accessed
1/20/21
➢ Energyeducation, ​https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Battery#cite_note-A-2​,
accessed on 1/19/21
➢ Energy Sage,
https://www.energysage.com/electric-vehicles/101/how-do-electric-car-batteries-work/​,
accessed 1/20/21
➢ Evolve,
https://www.evolvewithliberty.com/news/the-difference-in-the-batteries-of-an-ev-and-gas
-car/#:~:text=A%20traditional%20vehicle's%20battery%20is,heat%20requirements%20o
f%20electric%20cars.&text=The%20batteries%20used%20in%20electric,when%20the%
20vehicle%20is%20started.&text=The%20batteries%20used%20in%20electric%20vehic
les%20are%20designed%20to%20supply,power%20in%20between%20charging%20sess
ions​., accessed 1/20/21
➢ The New York Times,
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/05/business/energy-environment/volvo-hybrid-electric
-car.html​, accessed 1/20/21
➢ University of Illinois,
https://van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=567#:~:text=During%20normal%20oper
ation%2C%20a%20chemical,that%20flow%20through%20the%20circuit.&text=In%20a
%20car%20battery%20(sometimes,(H2SO4)., accessed 1/19/21