A R E L L A N OU N I V E R S I T Y

Manila, Philippines
School of Education
Course Assessment 2
AY 2021-2022, First Semester
Dr. Ferdinand C. Lacuata

Understanding the teaching profession is a lifetime undertaking because of the constant reshaping of education due to the
emergence of educational theories and principles either as a response to an emergent situation or as a response to address
an existing situation. Simply put, the definition of the teaching profession becomes volatile and flexible because it
depends on some potent factors that bring forth such situations. Therefore, a prospective teacher may partly gain an
understanding of the teaching profession by exploring several perspectives in education. Four Essential Lessons that
contain these perspectives are concisely presented and discussed below.

Essential Lesson 1: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION

Deepening one’s understanding of the Historical Perspectives of Education leads to a treasure trove of ideas tomodern
education. This legacy included many concepts that are still very important even today. Systems of laws and government,
architecture, literature, and language are just some key concepts brought to us by none other than the educational beliefs
and practices by the Ancient as well as today’s World.

Early Early Athenian’s Perspective of Education was anchored on the philosophy “Sound Mind in a Sound
Athenian Body”, which emphasized individual’s beauty and grace of the body, mind and spirit for good citizenship
Education and public usefulness. This educational perspective was developed through Civic Training, Physical
Training, Moral Training, and Intellectual Training.

Spartan As response to threats and dangers, Spartans called upon Lycurgus who wrote the Laws of Lycurgus that
Education became the foundation and formed the basis of the Spartan educational system.Spartan Education had the
main aim of training a powerful body of soldiers to be highly capable of surviving in the worst possible
situations, and to be always prepared in any threat against themselves and their country. Thus, it
emphasized individual excellence in military affairs for state usefulness following the Homeric ideal:
“man of action” rather than “man of wisdom” with the end goal of developing individual physical
perfection and habits of complete obedience. For the Spartans, the Ideal Good Citizenship was every
young man’s development of strength, courage, endurance, cunning, patriotism, and military efficiency.

Later The life of Athenians in the later period changed in their educational views and practices after the Persian
Athenian Wars. Athens began to take more on exchanging ideas with traders, travelers, and other foreigners. They
Education developed more interests for a more diversified community. As a result, the old traditions were
abandoned, and new ideas emerged. The activity of trading brought to an individual's wealth. Genuine
Service to the State was not the measurement of greatness, but wealth and power.Citizenship was opened
to all free inhabitants, and new opportunities were offered to the hands of young men of the city. Thus,
Later Athenian Education aimed for the: (1) preparation for personal advancement toward active and
successful life, and (2) development of young men’s individual excellence for individual success. These
aims were anchored on the philosophical perspectives of three great philosophers. According to
Protagoras, a man is the measure of all things. Knowledge comes from senses.According to Socrates,
universal concepts of piety, temperance and justice must exist in every man and must be understood
through thinking. To apply these universal concepts, virtue is needed.For Aristotle, man has to make
rational living: the man’s balance exercise of this thought and conduct.

Ancient The Roman education system was based on the Greek system – and many of the private tutors in the
Roman Roman system were Greek slaves or freedmen. Ancient Roman Education focused on the development of
Education the Gladiator who would strictly follow the rule of law and join the strong military; and thus, the Roman
Empire ruled most of the western civilized world.Rome's most obvious strength was its military. The
Romans had the best training and training facilities, the biggest budget and best armory the world at that
time has ever seen. Bearing in mind that the Roman empire spanned continents as well as vast cultural
differences. These strengths included a strong military leadership foundation, the standardization across
the empire of many aspects of life, such as language, law, and especially the extension of citizenship,
which made the empire more cohesive and easier to rule.

Ancient Ancient Egyptian education aimed at perpetuating social stability and the status quo. Education
Egyptian perpetuated a socially stratified society by slotting the various classes into their social, political and
Education economic riches in society.The upper class consisted of the royal family, rich landowners, government
officials, important priests, army officers, and doctors. The middle class was made up chiefly of
merchants, manufacturers, and artisans. The lower class, the largest class by far, consisted of unskilled
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 laborers.Formal education in ancient Egypt was mostly reserved for the boys of wealthier families.
Although there is some evidence that occasionally, girls did go to school and even became doctors. Boys
usually started school at the age of 7 and they were taught to read and write as well as
mathematics.Formal education was practical and aimed to train scribes and priests. It was extended from
basic reading, writing, and religion to higher learning in law, medicine, and astrology. Generally, youth
of the upper classes were prepared to become scribes, who ranged from copyists to librarians and
teachers.

Ancient It may sound incredible, but China's formal education system—the oldest in the world—was established
Chinese nearly two millennia ago.Ancient Chinese Education had four major purposes of education: cultural
Education conservation, vocational training, moral and character training, and control of cultural
deviation.Confucius greatly contributed to China's educational system not only through his teachings and
ethics but also by promoting education for the poor and underprivileged.Confucius believed in the
equality and educability of all people. He viewed education as a means of transformation, the discovery
of human nature, and the cultivation of character. Of all the Confucian virtues, Confucius and his
followers regarded fairness as the most important quality of a moral person.The Ancient Chinese were
famous for their inventions and technology. Many of their inventions had lasting impact on the entire
world. Other inventions led to great feats of engineering like the Grand Canal and the Great Wall of
China. Their inventions were paper, compass, silk, gunpowder and fireworks. The ancient Chinese
civilization had a huge impact on the modern world like the Civil Service Exam system in imperial
China, which was a system of testing designed to select the most studious and learned candidates for
appointment as bureaucrats in the Chinese government.

Saracenic The Saracens, in the Middle ages, are any persons who professed the religion of Islām,founded by
Education Mohammed. Early Muslim education emphasized practical studies, such as the application of
technological expertise to the development of irrigation systems, architectural innovations, textiles, iron
and steel products, earthenware, and leather products; the manufacture of paper and gunpowder; the
advancement of commerce; and the maintenance of a merchant marine. After the 11th century, however,
denominational interests dominated higher learning, and the Islamic sciences achieved preeminence.
Greek knowledge was studied in private, if at all, and the literary arts diminished in significance as
educational policies encouraging academic freedom and new learning were replaced by a closed system
characterized by an intolerance toward scientific innovations, secular subjects, and creative scholarship.

Saracenic Approach to Education had aims and purposes. Islam placed a high value on education, and, as
the faith spread among diverse peoples, education became an important channel through which to create a
universal and cohesive social order. By the middle of the 9th century, knowledge was divided into three
categories: the Islamic sciences, the philosophical and natural sciences (Greek knowledge), and the
literary arts. The Islamic sciences, which emphasized the study of the Qurʾān (the Islamic scripture) and
the Ḥadīth (the sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad) and their interpretation by leading
scholars and theologians, were valued the most highly, but Greek scholarship was considered equally
important, albeit less virtuous.

Chivalric Chivalric education was essentially a class education for entrance into aristocracy. This social discipline
education taught the young noble to manage his estate and to acquire the class consciousness of superiority over
lower class. The five aims of Chivalric Education are: (1) Morality--to inculcate in the minds of the
young nobles the virtues of honor, bravery, courtesy, etc., (2) Responsibility--to get the young nobles to
assume their responsibilities, how to manage their own estates, and how to deal with the lower class of
people, (3) Horsemanship--to train the young nobles in horseback warfare, hunting, and tournaments, (4)
Gallantry--to train the young nobles how to deal gallantry with the ladies of the nobility and to protect the
weak, and (5) Social Graces--to train the young girls in the social graces and manners fit for the ladies of
the nobility.

Democratic John Dewey championed today’s Democratic Education in higher education, whichallows the
Education decentralization of education because it provides teachers an academic freedom to exercise their teaching
profession within the bounds of existing laws and regulations. Moreover, it aims to empower students to
exercise self-determination in terms of their education. It means that students are allowed to choose what
and how they will study within the given framework of community greater leverage and also make them
accountable.In basic education, however, decentralization happens in the management of basic education
schools, but not in the teaching-learning situations. Because it is a formative education, teachers and
learners are duty bound to follow mandated curriculum guides and prescribed instructional delivery
systems especially from K-10 levels. Generally, choice, the ability to have autonomy in the direction of
one's own educational path, and control, the ability to decide how to approach major educational needs,
are the two main principles of democratic education. To these days, the public or state schools are the

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 ultimate realization of democratic education.

Essential Lesson 2: PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION

Essential Lesson 2 will provide you general understandingof the 10 philosophical perspectives in education which can be
classified in some ways.Those with relatively fixed and absolute beliefs that tend to preserve the past like Idealism,
Realism, Perennialism, and Essentialism can be classified as traditionally teacher-centered as well as homogeneously or
individually oriented educational philosophies.Those with changeable and subjective beliefs that try to reconstruct the
present, and shape the future, or change the society like Existentialism, Humanism, Pragmatism, and Social
Reconstructionism are progressively learner-centered as well as heterogeneously or socially oriented educational
philosophies. However, it must be noted that Existentialism, though progressively a learner-centered philosophy, is not a
socially oriented educational philosophy because it puts freedom, choice, and decision for development exclusively to the
individual or to the learner. Thus, it is highly individualistic.

Traditionalism is an educational movement by academic institutions with a more purely academic

Traditionalis purpose, which is to develop the mental ability of students whose learning and values must be grounded
m on the Western cultural heritagespecifically on traditional American education that is strongly founded on
Greek and Roman ideas and values, which must be passed on to the next generation. With the teacher as
the sole authority taking the center stage, traditional education provides less emphasis and concern on
learners who must get more learning outcomes from their mandated lessons which must mold or shape
students’ moral development and competence for their future contribution in the workplace. Moreover, it
protects, preserves, and develops traditional indigenous skills and cultures. By expectation, traditional
education empowers indigenous peoples to participate more fully in their communities. Through this
empowerment, the indigenous peoples are hoped to attain freedom and social justice in their
communities. Thus, traditional education aims to: (1) prepare the young into adult life; (2) enable the
young to understand fully the custom of the society and traditions; and (3) instill good norms and conduct
in the community and the future workplaces. In the classroom setting, these educational aims are
primarily realized by making students learn mostly through experiences, collaboration, and play.

Progressivism Progressivism is a philosophical movement that responds to traditional methods of teaching; and thus,
advances a way of thinking that focuses on social progress because of the belief that human society is
improving over time. It is based more on experiential learning that concentrates on the development of a
child's talents. Dewey believed that students learn better by experiencing the idea or principles first-hand,
and not vicariously from teachers’ lectures and discussions or merely from teachers requiring students to
just indulge into reading to gain learning from books. Dewey’s tenet that the school should improve the
way of life of the citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools is the end goal of his
philosophy. Therefore, in a progressive school, the learner becomes the center of the teaching process of
facilitating all processes towards the nurturing of the students for their development. All teaching
processes especially the lesson planning process must be based on the learners’ developmental needs and
interests. These processes are consonant to Dewey’s belief that education is life, growth, reconstruction
of human experiences, and a social process. This learning-by-doing philosophy engages learners actively
into the teaching-learning processes that is intended to usher them all into individual and collective
construction of learning through the cognitive processes of inquiry, discovery, and then finally,
experience. This learning by experiential construction and training stress that students should test ideas
and principles by active and actual experimentation. According to Dewey, learning is rooted in the
questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is an active, and not a passive learning
process. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her individual
experience in the physical, social, and cultural contexts.

Idealism Idealism generally asserts that "reality" is in some way indistinguishable or inseparable from human
perception and/or understanding. Further, it believes that the ultimate nature of reality is based upon
ideas, values, or essences. It holds that the external, or real world cannot be separated from
consciousness, perception, mind, intellect, and reason in the sense of science. Idealism relates or
associates reality to ideas in the mind rather than to material objects. It lays emphasis on the mental or
spiritual components of experience, and renounces the notion of material existence. Idealism proposes
that ideas are universal and eternal, unlike physical objects, which are subject to the alteration of the
forces of nature.Idealism emphasizes the principle of self-discipline, which leads to the development of
the 'Self' of an individual. Idealistic philosophy in education emphasizes 'the exaltation of personality',
which is the result of self-realization, and is achieved by spiritual knowledge and self-discipline.

Realism In philosophy, realism, which is usually seen as an opposite of idealism, holds the viewpoint, which
accords to things which are known or perceived an existence or nature, which is independent of whether
anyone is thinking about or perceiving them. Philosophers who profess realism often claim that truth
consists in a correspondence between cognitive representations and reality. When simply put, it is a way

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 of portraying or thinking about reality through an accurate, detailed, unembellished depiction of nature or
of contemporary life, which is the truthful treatment of the common, average, everyday life. Realism
rejects imaginative idealization in favor of a close observation of outward appearances. Realism focuses
on the immediate, the here and now, the specific actions and their verifiable consequences. Thus, a
realist sees the world “as it is,” and the realist has the natural inclination to view all sides of an issue from
an objective stance. A realist is not swayed by unconscious bias or idealistic aims that easily move most
people; rather, the realist sees the truth and prefers it to be unvarnished.

When applied to education, educational realism is the belief that we should study logic, critical thinking,
and the scientific method to teach students to perceive and understand reality. Educational realists believe
that the job of schools is to teach students about the world around them. To realize this belief, education
should aim to teach the learner truth rather than beauty, for the learner to understand the present practical
life; and thus, prepare the practical man to the present real world. Moreover, education must provide the
learner a complete knowledge and understanding of human society human nature, motives, and
institutions by explaining how each learner is related to the world of man, and to the world of nature.

Pragmatism Pragmatism is another philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology or
proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the
practical consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be rejected. Pragmatism means
thinking of or dealing with problems in a practical way, rather than by using theory or abstract principles.
Pragmatism focuses on the practical outcomes of what we think and do. Thus, a core focus of
Pragmatism is on practice.As an educational philosophy, pragmatism says that education should be about
life and growth. That is, teachers should be teaching students things that are practical for life, and
encourage them to grow into better people. Its key theorist is John Dewey who is the Father of
Pragmatism. It has four principles: Unity, Interest, Experience, and Integration. Pragmatism regards the
teacher as a helper, guide and philosopher. The chief function of a pragmatic teacher is to suggest
problems to his learners, and to guide and stimulate them to find by themselves the solution, which will
work. The essence of pragmatic method is learning through personal experience of the child. Generally,
pragmatist education means preparation for practical life. The child should be capable of tackling
practical problems in real-life situations by the use of a pragmatic method which is, thus, a problem-
solving method. Pragmatic curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and activities with the end
point of making learners practical thinkers whose focus is on the processes behind any task, initiative, or
goal. Pragmatists want to construct flexible, dynamic and integrated curriculum which aids the
developing child and the changing society more and more as the needs, demands and situation require.

Essentialism As an educational philosophy, essentialism focuses on transmitting a series of progressively difficult

topics and on the promotion of students to the next level or grade. Subjects to be studied are focused on
the historical context of the material world and culture, and move sequentially to give a solid
understanding of the present day. Essentialist teachers believe that learners should learn the traditional
basic subjects thoroughly. Essentialist teaching must ensure that the accumulated wisdom of human
civilization as taught in the traditional academic disciplines is passed on from the teacher to the student.
Henceforth, essentialist teaching tries to instill all learners with the most essential or basic academic
knowledge and skills for character development through traditional (or back-to-basic) approaches that
can promote reasoning, train the mind, and ensure a common culture for all citizens. Moreover,
essentialists believe that learners should be taught to be model citizens by emphasizing traditional moral
values and virtues. Essentialists argue that classrooms should be teacher-oriented, and the teacher should
serve as an intellectual and moral role model for the students. An essentialist program normally teaches
learners progressively, from less complex skills to more complex lessons. An Essentialist will usually
teach the fundamentals of Reading, Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Math, Science, Art,
and Music. According to the essentialists, when the essentials of these subjects are imbibed by the
learners, students will develop a sound foundation of basic knowledge. An essentialist curriculum is
structured to develop discipline and a common culture of knowledge. Essentialists value deep knowledge
on a few core subjects, as opposed to more general knowledge on a wider array of subjects.

Perennialism Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth
century. As an educational philosophy, perennialists believe that the focus of education should be the
ideas that have lasted over centuries. They believe the ideas are as relevant and meaningful today as when
they were written. They recommend that students learn from reading and analyzing the works by history's
finest thinkers and writers. Studying these finest works can develop learners’ power of thought, make
them internalize truths that are universal and constant, and ensure that students acquire understanding
about the great ideas of Western civilization.Likewise, perennialists believe that learners’ understanding
of great works of art, literature, history and other fields as timeless pieces can create stable, shared
cultures. Thus, teachers are not concerned about the students' interests or experiences. They use tried and

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 true teaching methods and techniques that are believed to be most beneficial to disciplining students'
minds. In addition, a perennialist classroom aims to be a closely organized and well-disciplined
environment, which develops in students a lifelong quest for the truth. Perennialists disapprove of
teachers requiring students to absorb massive amounts of disconnected information. Therefore,
perennialism is a teacher-centered philosophy of education, which is the most conservative, traditional,
and inflexible educational philosophy. However, the perennialists’ teachings which focus on everlasting
and enduring truths, which are constant, unchanging, may have been challenged by the sudden emergence
of the COVID 19 pandemic that emphasizes flexibility because it has brought forth a different way of
survival.

Existentialis Existentialism is a philosophical theory positing that people are free agents who have control over their
m choices and actions; and thus, society should not restrict an individual's life or actions because these
restrictions inhibit free-will and the development of that person's potential. More specially, it is a
philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice. It holds that, as there is no God or
any other transcendent force, the only way to counter this nothingness is by embracing existence.From
Jean-Paul Sartre’s “existence precedes essence”, it is only by existing and acting a certain way that a
person can give meaning to his life. According to him, there is no fixed design for how a human being
should be and no God to give him a purpose. Moreover, existentialists advance that NOTHING is
predetermined. There is NO fate or destiny. Humans make themselves what they are. Humans choose to
believe what they do about themselves. Existential themes are individuality, consciousness, freedom,
choice, and responsibility.

Existentialism in education is a teaching and learning philosophy that focuses on the student's freedom
and agency to choose their future. Existentialist educators believe there is no god or higher power guiding
their students. According to existentialists, good education emphasizes individuality. Making existential
methods within the classroom requires a balance during which both teachers and learners as human
beings preserve their identity. The main roles of teachers are to: (1) help students define their own
essence by exposing them to various paths they take in life, (2) create an environment in which they
freely choose their own preferred way. These existential methods must lead to learners’ development of
self-reliance and self-directedness. Therefore, schools exist to assist children in knowing themselves and
their place in society. The task of teacher is to awaken in students’ self-awareness and help them to be
'original' and 'authentic'. Existentialism states that a person’s life has no inherent meaning or purpose;
rather, it is the purpose that a person creates for his life that gives him a sense of meaning. Thus, once a
person accepts this as reality; then, he can live his life freely, doing what he enjoys, so far as society
allows him.

Humanism Humanism emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively. Generally,
humanism affirms some notion of human freedom and progress. Moreover, it believes that human needs
and values are more important than religious beliefs, or the needs and desires of humans. Likewise, it
believes that the person creates his own set of ethics, which is based on reason and common humanity,
recognizing that moral values are properly founded on human nature and experience alone. Thus,
humanism is a set of ethics or ideas about how people should live and act. People who hold this set of
ethics are called humanists. In modern times, humanism is close to secularism. It refers to a non-theistic
approach to life, looking to science instead of religious dogma in order to understand the world.

The ultimate purpose of humanistic approach in education is the learning process of humanizing humans
for the achievement of self-actualization, self-understanding, and self-realization. The four basic
principles of humanistic education can be summarized as follows: (1) Students' learning should be self-
directed. (2) Schools should produce students who want and know how to learn. (3) The only form of
meaningful evaluation is self-evaluation. (4) Feelings, as well as knowledge, are important in the learning
process.The humanistic classroom provides a holistic approach to learning by keeping the focus on the
child. The student is respected as an individual, and is responsible for making decisions about his
learning. Humanistic lessons are not rigidly prescribed, but flow according to the needs and inquiries of
the student. The humanistic approach emphasizes the personal worth of the individual, the centrality of
human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings. The approach is optimistic, and focuses
on the noble human capacity to overcome hardship, pain, and despair.

The Humanistic curriculum is based on the belief that education molds the person who will soon render
services for the well-being of the nation. Here, the individual learner is not regarded as a passive or at
least easily managed recipient of input. S/he is the choosing or self-selecting organism. Learners are
taught to value and respect their coworkers for who they are, despite the presence of individual
differences. This leads to stronger workplace relationships and a more inclusive work
environment.Humanistic learning is student-centered, so students are encouraged to take control over

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 their education. They make choices that can range from daily activities to future goals. Students are
encouraged to focus on a specific subject area of interest for a reasonable amount of time that they
choose.

Social Social reconstructionism addresses social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide
Reconstructio democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of
nism education. Specifically, concern for social values, humane justice, human community, world peace,
economic justice, equality of opportunity, freedom and democracy are the significant goals for
reconstructionism. In addition, it holds that societies should continually reform themselves in order to
establish more perfect governments or social networks. In application, the reconstructionist classroom
contains a teacher who involves the students in discussions of moral dilemmas to understand the
implications of one's actions. Students individually select their objectives and social priorities; and then,
with guidance from the teacher, create a plan of action to make the change happen. Thus, the goal of
reconstructionist learning for students is that they themselves may envision the good future and spend
their learning as a preparation for their role in the future. This is an idea of change for a better educational
system.By operational definition, social reconstructionism has the purpose of making learners aware of
the social issues and then drives them to individual experiences as tools to solving social problems. On
the other hand, constructivism works a lot for active learning; and thus, a constructivist puts the learner at
the center point of action.

Essential Lesson 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION

In its day-to-day application in the classroom, the Teaching Profession is heavily underpinned and directed by the
Psychological Perspectives of Education, which come in three classifications of theories: Cognitive, Psycho-Social/Sexual
and Behaviorist Theories. The sound practice of the Teaching Profession must be guided by these psychological
perspectives.

COGNITIVE THEORIES—Deriving Principles for Cognitive Teaching and Learning

Piaget’s Key Jean Piaget’s key principle is SCHEMAS which are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and
Cognitive understand the world. According to Piaget (1952, p. 7), a schema is a mental structure that helps us
Principle and understand how things work. It has to do with how we organize knowledge. As we take in new
its Three information, we connect it to other things we know, believe, or have experienced. And those connections
Processes form a sort of structure in the brain. Moreover, a schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps
organize and interpret information. According to Piaget, there three processes a person can acquire or
obtain a NEW SCHEMA, as follows:

(1) Assimilation is the process of taking in new information into our existing schema. It is the cognitive
process of making new information fit in with our existing understanding of the world. Essentially, when
we encounter something new learning, we process and make sense of it by relating it to things that we
already know. According to Piaget, through assimilation, we take in new information or experiences and
incorporate them into our existing ideas. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify
experience or information to fit in with our pre-existing beliefs. He continued positing that assimilation
plays an important role in how we learn about the world around us. In early childhood, children are
constantly assimilating new information and experiences into their existing knowledge about the world.
However, this process does not end with childhood. As people encounter new things and interpret these
experiences, they make both small and large adjustments to their existing ideas about the world around
them. Assimilation and accommodation both work in tandem as part of the learning process. Some
information is incorporated into our existing schemas through the process of assimilation, while other
information leads to the development of new schemas or total transformations of existing ideas through
the process of (2) accommodation. When the child encounters a horse, he might assimilate this
information and immediately call the animal a dog. The process of accommodation then allows the child
to adapt the existing schema to incorporate the knowledge that some four-legged animals are horses.(3)
Equilibration is Paget’s belief that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children
progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between
applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought
into the next.

For emphasis therefore, assimilation and accommodation are complementary learning processes that play
a role at each stage of cognitive development. According to Piaget, the learning process involves
attempting to interpret new information within the framework of existing knowledge (assimilation),
making small changes to that knowledge in order to cope with things that do not fit those existing
frameworks (accommodation), and eventually adjusting existing schemas or forming new ones in order to

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 adjust to a new understanding (equilibration).

Piaget’s In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses
Genetic to changes in mental operations. Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage
Epistemology theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages:

The Sensori-motor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•Infants know the world through their movements and sensations.
•Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening.
•Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen. According to Piaget, this is
object permanence.
•They are separate beings from the people and objects around them.
•They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
•Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
•While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very
concrete terms.

The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
•They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is
equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
•Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
•Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems.
•Abstract thought emerges.
•Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning.
•They begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

Sweller’sCog According to Sweller, cognitive load theory posits that learning happens best under conditions that are
nitive Load aligned with human cognitive architecture. Schemas are sophisticated structures that permit the learners
Theory to perceive, think, and solve problems that can lead them to the treatment of multiple elements as a single
element that will make up the learner’s knowledge base.

Four General Principles:

1. Change problem-solving methods to avoid means-ends approaches that impose a heavy working
memory load, by using goal-free problems or worked examples.
2. Eliminate the working memory load associated with having to mentally integrate several sources of
information by physically integrating those sources of information.
3. Eliminate the working memory load associated with unnecessarily processing repetitive information by
reducing redundancy.
4. Increase working memory capacity by using auditory as well as visual information under conditions
where both sources of information are essential (i.e., non-redundant) to understanding.

Festinger’s For Festinger, cognitive dissonance theory centers on how people try to reach internal consistency by
Cognitive ensuring that their beliefs and behaviors are consistent. Inconsistent or conflicting beliefs lead to
Dissonance disharmony, which people strive to avoid. Further, Festinger explained that cognitive dissonance can be
Theory seen as an antecedent condition, which leads to activity oriented toward dissonance reduction just as
hunger leads toward activity oriented toward hunger reduction.

Four General Principles:

The degree of dissonance people experience can depend on a few different factors, including how highly
they value a particular belief and the degree to which their beliefs are inconsistent. The overall strength of

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 the dissonance can also be influenced by several factors, such as:
1. Cognitions that are more personal, such as beliefs about the self, tend to result in greater dissonance.
2. The importance of the cognitions also plays a role. Things that involve beliefs that are highly valued
typically result in stronger dissonance.
3. The ratio between dissonant thoughts and consonant thoughts can also play a role in how strong the
feelings of dissonance are.
4. The greater the strength of the dissonance, the more pressure there is to relieve the feelings of
discomfort.

Cognitive Cognitive flexibility has been more broadly described as the ability to adjust one's thinking from old
Flexibility situations to new situations as well as the ability to overcome responses or thinking that have become
Theory habitual and adapt to new situations. As such, if one is able to overcome previously held beliefs or habits
(when it is required for new situations) then they would be considered cognitively flexible. Lastly, the
ability to simultaneously consider two aspects of an object, idea, or situation at one point in time refers to
cognitive flexibility.Cognitive flexibility is a switch in thinking, whether that is specifically based on a
switch in rules or broadly based on a need to switch one's previous beliefs or thoughts to new situations.
Moreover, it refers to simultaneously considering multiple aspects of thought at once, whether they be
two aspects of a specific object, or many aspects of a complex situation. Other terms for and components
of cognitive flexibility include mental flexibility, mental set shifting, cognitive shifting, tasks
switching/shifting, and attention switching/shifting.

Influencing Factors:
Cognitive flexibility is a component of executive functioning, higher-order cognition involving the ability
to control one's thinking that includes inhibition, memory, emotional stability, planning, and
organization. Thus, when individuals are better able to suppress aspects of a stimulus to focus on more
important aspects, they are also more cognitively flexible. In this sense, they are better at planning,
organizing, and at employing particular memory strategies.

Metacognitio Metacognition is thinking about thinking. It is an increasingly useful mechanism to enhance student
n learning, both for immediate outcomes and for helping students to understand their own learning
processes. Metacognition is the ability to examine how learners processes their thoughts and feelings.
This ability encourages students to understand how they learn best. It also helps them to develop self-
awareness skills that become important as they get older. Simply put, it refers to the processes used to
plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and performance. Metacognition enables students to reflect
on who they are, what they know, what they want to know, and how they can get to that point.
Metacognition helps students recognize the gap between being familiar with a topic and understanding it
deeply. Metacognition includes a critical awareness of (a) one's thinking and learning and (b) oneself as a
thinker and learner. Although the term metacognition is complex, it may besummarized asknowledge of
knowledge itself. In other words, the ability to know and regulate how you think and what the conscious
control of cognitive processes such as memory, attention, and understanding encompasses.

Generally, there are two components of metacognition: (1) knowledge about cognition and (2) regulation
of cognition. Metamemory, defined as knowing about memory and mnemonic strategies, is an especially
important form of metacognition. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive
processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell further divides
metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables and
strategy variables.

PSYCHO-SOCIAL/SEXUALTHEORIES—Deriving Principles for Affective Teaching and Learning

Freud’s Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-
Psychosexual seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is
Theories characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation.During the five
psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages, the erogenous zone
associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.If certain issues are not resolved at the
appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage.
Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at
the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through
smoking, drinking, or eating.

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting

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 and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure
from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is
entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a
sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning
process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in
problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

Trust vs. Mistrust: Learning to Trust the World Around Us

The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and
bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to control their
bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. According
to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training.
Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive
outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during
the toilet training stage serve as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative
adults. However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this
stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.According to Freud, inappropriate
parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud
suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful,
or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an
anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this
age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The
Oedipus describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father.
However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed
castration anxiety. The term Electra Complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy. Eventually
however, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the
other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all
women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children
develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. The
development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time
that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other
interests.The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This
energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social
interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to
become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to
form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage
begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows
during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas. If the
other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and

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 caring. Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego
were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands
immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.Teens in the genital stage of development are
able to balance their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social
norms.

Erik Erikson's Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of
Stages of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud’s work, Erikson's theory
Psychosocial centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development. The stages that make up
Development his theory are as follows:

Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart

Age Conflict Important Events Outcome
Infancy (birth to 18 Trust vs. Mistrust  Feeding Hope
months)
Early Childhood (2 Autonomy vs. Toilet Training Will
to 3 years) Shame and Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
years)
School Age (6 to 11 Industry vs. School Confidence
years) Inferiority
Adolescence (12 to Identity vs. Role Social Relationships Fidelity
18 years) Confusion
Young Intimacy vs. Relationships Love
Adulthood (19 to Isolation
40 years)
Middle Generatively vs. Work and Parenthood Care
Adulthood (40 to Stagnation
65 years)
Maturity (65 to Ego Integrity vs. Reflection on Life Wisdom
death) Despair

Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual
stages; however, Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.
Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and
growth of human beings. Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way
for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that
serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either
developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for
personal growth is high but is likewise the potential for failure. If people successfully deal with the
conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of
their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills
needed for a strong sense of self. Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors
and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If
the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy
in that aspect of development.

Kohlberg’s The psychologist Lawrence Kohlbergmodified and expanded upon Jean Piaget’s previous work to form a
Moral theory that explained how children develop moral reasoning.He outlines six stages of moral development
Development within three different levels.
Theories
The Heinz Dilemma
Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects. Participants
were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario. One example
was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her doctors believe only one drug
might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and he was able to make it for $200
per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the
drug. He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to pay for it over
time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz
instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband
have done that?" Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to whether Heinz was wrong or right

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 but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then classified their reasoning into the stages of
his theory of moral development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment, are especially common in young
children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, Kohlberg says,
people see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid
punishment. At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development, children account for
individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz
dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs.
Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, the stage of the interpersonal relationship of
moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on
conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships. This stage is focused
on maintaining social order. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing
one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for
the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.6 Rules of law are important for maintaining a
society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. Kohlberg’s final level of moral
reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow
these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

BEHAVIORIST THEORIES—Deriving Principles for Psychomotor Teaching and Learning

Behaviorism In the 20th century, the clearest heir to associationism is behaviorism, whose principles of conditioning
are based on the association of responses to stimuli (and on one's association of those stimuli with
positive or negative reinforcement). Therefore, behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a
theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning
occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to
environmental stimuli shape our behaviors. Behaviorism is clearly explained by the Stimulus-Response
Theory, which is a concept in psychology that refers to the belief that behavior manifests as a result of the
interplay between stimulus and response. In other words; behavior cannot exist without a stimulus of
some sort, at least from this perspective.The Three Most Popular Behaviorist Theories of Learning
are:Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning, Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, and Bandura’s Social Learning
Theory.

Pavlov’s Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning through
Classical association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked
Conditioning together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.According to this theory, behavior is
Theory learned by a repetitive association between the response and the stimulus.Here, an organism learns to
transfer response from one stimulus to a previously neutral stimulus.Classical conditioning is a type of
learning that happens unconsciously. When you learn through classical conditioning, an automatic
conditioned response is paired with a specific stimulus resulting into the creation of a behavior. There are
5 key elements of Classical Conditioning:

(1) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a
response. In other words, the response takes place without any prior learning.
(2) Unconditioned Response (UCR)is the unlearned response to a stimulus. In other words, it is any
original response that occurs naturally and in the absence of conditioning (e.g., salivation in response to
the presentation of food).
(3) Neutral Stimulus (NS)is a learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes
associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behavior. After the association is learned,
the previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to produce the behavior.
(4) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the
unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.A conditioned stimulus is a
learned substitute stimulus that triggers the same response as an unconditioned stimulus. In other words,
a conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus that, over time and training, garners a response by repeatedly
being linked with another naturally occurring stimulus
(5)Conditioned Response (CR) is the learned response (reflexive behavior) to a conditioned stimulus

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 (CS). For example, a dog salivates (UR) from the smell of a bone (US) naturally, without any
conditioning.

In short, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) always elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). When the
conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired over and over again with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), it
eventually elicits a response, equivalent to an unconditioned response (UCR) that is now a conditioned
response (CR).For example, the smell of food is an unconditioned stimulus, a feeling of hunger in
response to the smell is an unconditioned response, and the sound of a whistle when you smell the food is
the conditioned stimulus. The conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound
of the whistle.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning normally
Operant attributed to B.F. Skinner who believed that humans and animals learn to behave in such a way as to
Conditioning obtain rewards and avoid punishments. The basic concept behind operant conditioning is that a stimulus
Theory (antecedent) leads to a behavior, which then leads to a consequence. This form of conditioning involves
reinforcers, both positive and negative, as well as primary, secondary, and generalized reinforcers.

Positive reinforcement is a process that strengthens the likelihood of a particular response by adding a
stimulus after the behavior is performed whileNegative reinforcement also strengthens the likelihood of
a particular response, but by removing an undesirable consequence. In other words, Positive
reinforcement is a reward for doing something well while Negative reinforcement occurs when an
aversive stimulus (a 'bad consequence') is removed after a good behavior is exhibited.

On the other hand, Positive punishment involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following
an undesirable behavior, especially when the subject performs an unwanted action, then some type of
negative outcome is purposefully applied while Negative punishmenthas the goal of punishment which
is to decrease unwanted behavior. In the case of negative punishment, it involves taking something good
or desirable away to reduce the occurrence of a particular behavior. Therefore, Positive punishment
involves adding an aversive consequence after an undesired behavior is emitted to decrease future
responses while Negative punishment includes taking away a certain reinforcing item after the
undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future responses. In positive punishment, you add an
undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to
decrease a behavior. For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this
case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.

The Principles of Operant Conditioning are: (1) Reinforcement that makes use of a phenomenon in which
a stimulus increases the chance of repetition of previous behavior is called reinforcement, (2)
Punishment, and finally (3) Shaping.

Bandura’s Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling,
Social and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory considers
Learning how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior.Social
Theory learning theory proposes that individuals learn by observing the behaviors of others (models). They then
evaluate the effect of those behaviors by observing the positive and negative consequences that
follow.Social learning theory consists of four steps: attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation.According to Bandura's social learning theory, learning occurs through observations and
interactions with other people. Essentially, people learn by watching others and then imitating these
actions. Aggression lies at the root of many social ills ranging from interpersonal violence to war.

Social learning theory examples in everyday life are common, with one of the most evident being the
behaviors of children, as they imitate family members, friends, famous figures and even television
characters. If a child perceives there is a meaningful reward for such behavior, they will perform it at
some point.Social learning theory can be used to encourage and teach desirable behaviors in the
classroom through the use of positive reinforcement and rewards. For example, a student who is praised
for raising their hand to speak will more than likely repeat that behavior.

Essential Lesson 4: SOCIETAL PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION

The Philippine society expects all prospective teachers to possess upon graduation the Philippine Professional Standards
for Teachers (PPST).

The The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) shall be used as a basis for all learning and
Philippine development programs for teachers to ensure that teachers are properly equipped to effectively

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Professional implement the K-12 Program. The PPST stipulates the Professional standards which are statements of a
Standards for teacher's professional attributes, professional knowledge and understanding, and professional skills. They
Teachers provide clarity of the expectations at each career stage. It can also be used for the selection and
(PPST) promotion of teachers.This set of standards makes explicit what teachers should know, be able to do and
value to achieve competence, improved student learning outcomes, and eventually quality education. It is
founded on teaching philosophies of learner-centeredness, lifelong learning, and
inclusivity/inclusiveness, among others.The importance of PPST is to ensure better accountability--
holding teachers and schools responsible for what goes on in the classrooms, and to apply a uniform
measure to assess teacher performance, identify needs, and provide support for professional development.

The PPST has seven Domains, namely: Content Knowledge and Pedagogy, Learning Environment,
Diversity of Learners, Curriculum and Planning, Assessment and Reporting, Community Linkages and
Professional Engagement, Personal Growth, and Professional Development.The PPST Career Stage 1
sets the minimum expectations for pre-service teachers. With this in place, a strong link between DepEd
(schools) and CHED (TEIs) can be implemented by placing both institutions on the same 'quality' teacher
continuum.

Code of The Philippine society expects every professional teacher to observe the 1987 Code of Ethics for
Ethics for Professional Teachers which outlines teachers' primary responsibilities to their students and defines their
Professional role in a student's life. The professional teacher must demonstrate impartiality, integrity, and ethical
Teachers behavior in the classroom, whether virtual or in-person and in their conduct with parents and
coworkers.Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible standards of quality education, shall make the
best preparations for the career of teaching, and shall be at his best at all times and in the practice of his
profession. Likewise, it is designed to protect the rights of all students. Therefore, it is important that
teachers understand the contents of the code as they embark into the teaching profession. The
professional teacher is governed by these important articles: (1) The teacher and the State, (2) The
Teacher and the Community, (3) A Teacher and the Profession, (4) The Teachers and the Profession, (5)
The Teacher and Higher Authorities in the Profession, (6) School Officials, Teachers, and other
Personnel, (7) The Teachers and the Learners, (8) The Teachers and the Parents, (9) The Teacher and
Business, and (10) The Teacher as a Person.

The The PQF is a national policy that describes the levels of educational qualifications and sets the standards
Philippine for qualificationoutcomes. It is a quality assured national system for the development, recognition and
Qualifications award of qualifications based on standardsof knowledge, skills and values acquired in different ways and
Framework methods by learners and workers in thecountry. It iscompetency-based, labor-marketdriven, and
(PQF) assessment-based qualificationrecognition. Its objectives are to: (1) establish national standards and
levels for outcomes of education and training, (2) support the development and maintenance of pathways
and equivalencies which provide access to qualifications and assist people to move easily and readily
between different sectors and the labor market, and (3) align the PQF with international qualifications
framework to support the national and international mobility of workers thru increased recognition of the
value and comparability of Philippine qualifications.

The ASEAN TheAQRFisahierarchyoflevelsofcomplexityoflearning,whichuselearningoutcomesasthe

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Qualifications metricforthehierarchy.Touseothermeasuressuchasdurationofprogramsisnotafeasible
Reference option.Thus,thedescriptorsintheAQRFaimtouselearningoutcomestofacilitatecomparisonsof
Framework andlinksbetweenqualificationsandqualificationssystems.
(AQRF)
ItfollowsthattofacilitatethelinkingofNQFlevelsagainstthelevelsintheAQRF,NQFsor
qualificationssystemsshouldhavequalifications‘demonstrablybasedonlearningoutcomes’.For NQFs
that are not based on learning outcomes, the referencing process and report should
demonstrateprogresstowardsalearningoutcomes-basedapproach.

Level descriptors
TheleveldescriptorsoftheAQRFaimtoprovideareferencepointforthelevelsinNQFsand national
qualificationssystems.Tofacilitatethereferencingprocess,theAQRFisbasedonbroadleveldescripto
rswhichinclude
eightlevelsofcomplexityoflearningoutcomes.Theleveldescriptorsincludethenotionofcompetence,
whichistheabilitythatextendsbeyond thepossessionofknowledgeandskills.Itincludes:

 Cognitivecompetenceinvolvingtheuseoftheoryandconcepts,aswellasinformaltacit
knowledge gainedexperientially
 Functionalcompetence(skillsorknow-how),thosethingsthatapersonshouldbeableto
dowhentheyworkinagivenarea
 Personalcompetenceinvolvingknowinghowtoconductoneselfinaspecificsituation
 Ethicalcompetenceinvolvingthepossessionofcertainpersonalandprofessionalvalues
(ColesandWerquin2006)

The level descriptors do not make explicit reference to personal competence or ethical
competence. However, personal competence and ethical competence are valued by ASEAN
MemberStatesastheycontributetothecapacityofpeopletoknowthings, actskillfully,work
effectively in different settings, and to show responsibility and accountability. Personal
competenceandethicalcompetenceincludeattributessuchasattentiveness,intercultural
awareness,activetoleranceandacceptanceofdiversity.Theseattributescouldbeincludedin
individualNQFs.
The level descriptors include two domains:

1. Knowledge andSkills

2. Application andResponsibility

The Knowledge and Skills domain includes the various kinds of knowledge such as factsand
theoriesaswellastheskillsused,suchaspracticalandcognitiveskills.
TheApplicationandResponsibilitydomaindefinesthecontextinwhichtheknowledgeandskills
areusedinpracticeaswellasthelevelofindependenceincludingthecapacitytomakedecisions
andtheresponsibilityforoneselfandothers.

Theleveldescriptorsassumethatthelearningoutcomesarecumulativebylevel.Inotherwords,
onelevelassumesthattheknowledge,skillsandconditionsatonelevelincludethoseatthelower
levels.Inaddition,thedomainsmustbereadtogethertogiveatrueindicationoflevel.

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