POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY

UNIT-1

In the expression ‘population geography’, the term ‘population’ signifies the subject matter and
‘geography’ refers to the perspective of investigation. Population geography implies the investigation
into human covering of the earth and its various facets with reference to physical and cultural
environment.

 According to Trewartha, population geography is concerned with the understanding of the

regional differences in the earth’s covering of people (Trewartha, 1969:87)
 John I. Clarke, suggested that population geography is mainly concerned with demonstrating
how spatial variation in population and its various attributes like composition, migration and
growth are related to the spatial variation in the nature of places (Clarke, 1972:2)
 Wilbur Zelinsky defines it as “a science that deals with the ways in which geographic
character of places is formed by and, in turn, reacts upon a set of population phenomena that
vary within it through both space and time interacting one with another, and with numerous
non- demographic phenomena” (Zelinsky, 1966).
 R.J. Proyer suggested that population geography deals with the analysis and explanation of
interrelationship between population phenomena and the geographical character of places as
they both vary over space and time (Proyer, 1984:25).
It is, however, not to suggest that population distribution on the earth surface is determined by
physical factors alone, for within the broad framework of physical attractions and constraints, cultural
factors strongly influence the way mankind is distributed over the earth (Hornby and Jones, 1980:20).
Thus, apart from physical factors, numerous social, demographic, economic, political and historical
factors affect population distribution.

Factors Affecting the Distribution of Population

(1) Climate. This is an important factor for determining the spatial distribution of population. The
cold regions have the lowest population density. Cold temperature may increase respiratory diseases.
In the cold regions, the growing season is very short. Similarly, an extremely hot climate is harmful;
it may increase intestinal diseases. High temperature may be associated with humidity; its effect on
human life is deleterious. A good climate is a precondition for human settlement. Extremely dry or
cold climate is not suitable for human settlement. Thus, regions having a moderate climate have a
higher density of population. The materialistic civilization is a product of physical health and mental
energy imparted by good climatic environment.
(2) Fertility of the Soil. The quality of the soil is an important determinant of population density.
Other things remaining the same, the higher the fertility of the soil, the higher the density of the
population. Lateritic tropical soils are unsuitable for improved cropping practices. Alluvial soil is the
best for cultivation. The Indo-Gangetic area contains this soil. Therefore, population density is very
high there.

(3) Availability of water. Availability of water is a pre-condition for higher density of population.
Low rainfall restricts human settlement. The area of low rainfall is not helpful for agricultural
development. The density of population decreases with a decrease in rainfall and increases with an
increase in rainfall. However, the availability of water does not depend merely on rainfall or rivers,
springs or lakes. There may be artificial means for supply of water. In the desert areas, population
density is low because sufficient water is not available for survival of human beings, plants and
animals.

(4) Configuration of Land. On plains, population density is higher than the population density on
sloppy land, mountains and hills. About three-fourths of India’s population lives in the plains. It is
possible to have better farming, mobility, transport and communication, etc. in the plains than on
rocky lands. In the past, civilizations developed mostly in the plains. In the hilly areas, the amount of
cultivable land is small, productivity is low, cost is high and physical existence is uncomfortable.

(5) Geographical Location. Favorable geographical location is a very important factor for higher
density of population. Geographical location with respect to communication, trade and traffic, is an
important criterion for economic expansion. The concentration of population in large cities is mainly
due to the geographical factor of favored location. Transportation facilities increase ' mobility, expand
trade and commerce, and minimize the difficulties of movement. With the development of a modern
transport system, urban growth is concentrating in the large cities and towns.

(6) Availability of Power Resources. Power resources and mineral wealth influence the
concentration of population. For example, Birmingham and New Castle became great centers of
human agglomeration. In India, Raniganj, Jharia, Asansol, etc, are fast developing in population
because of the industries which are connected with the use of coals iron and otlier r.aw materials.
Industrial centers are generally congested. In the regions known for coal, iron ore and the like, density
of population becomes high. In the UK, the distribution of population is the distribution of the mining
areas of the country,

(7) Supporting Capacity. The means of subsistence is responsible for uneven concentration of
population over the world. The higher the supporting capacity of a region, the higher is the density of
population. The supporting capacity is determined by so many factors, e,g. fertility of land,
productivity, natural resources and so on. Intensive agriculture can support more people than what
extensive agriculture can do. The hilly tracts and deserts cannot support people. Thus, density in such
areas is low. Agriculture can support more people when it is devoted to the cultivation of cereal crops
rather than to the cultivation of fodder crops. The supporting capacity is also increased by the
industrial and commercial pursuits. The regions where hunting, herding and other primitive
occupations are prevalent, have low density of population. Technological development and
development of trade and commerce are mixed together, and they influence the growth of urban
centres. Technological changes can open new areas which are more helpful for human habitation,

(8) Nature of Crop Cultivated. The nature of crops influences the density of population. The rice
growing tracts, like Orissa, Malabar, West Bengal and the like are centers of dense population. High-
yielding crops can support a high density of population. But wheat growing centres have generally
low density of population, because wheat growing is suited to extensive agriculture. Rice requires far
more care and laborious cultivation. The yield of rice per acre is very high as compared to the yield of
other crops. Wheat with its one crop cannot support as large a population as rice can with its three
possible crops a year.

(9) Cultural and Non-geographical Factors. In the agricultural sector, the socio-economic outlook
is in favour of large families, early marriage and staying on ancestral lands. All these factors have
resulted in congestion of human population in the agricultural sectors in India, Japan and China. High
child-bearing capacity is sometimes glorified for Strengthening manpower and income-earning,
capacity. Ignorance of the techniques of family planning largely contributes to over-population. The
government’s policy may encourage emigration/immigration, or may restrict emigration/immigration.
Thus, government policy is a significant factor in the spatial distribution of people over the earth. On
many occasions, government has changed the distribution within the country for various reasons, to
use the resources, to improve military strength and security, or to achieve greater self-sufficiency.
People having the same cultural affinity will generally settle at the same place. This will increase the
density of population of that place. An improved standard of living, higher cost of education, greater
social security and so on will reduce the birth rate. Political forces are sometimes very strong factors
for changing the distribution of population. During the Great Leap Forward Movement in China,
most of the farmers were shifted from the agricultural sector. Thus, the density of population was
reduced considerably. In the matter of distribution of population, both geographical and non-
geographical factors play their roles, but none of these factors is individually responsible for any
change in the pattern of population distribution. In course of time, some factors loose their
significance and new and complex conditions crop up which may make the problem of distribution of
population acquire a state of constant flux.

Density of Population and Meaning of Density

The term ‘Density of Population’ refers to the number of persons per square kilometer. In other
words, density of population indicates the man-land ratio. This is calculated by dividing the number
of persons of a country or region by the total land area. In case the land area is small for a given
population, the density will be high; but if the land area is large, then the density will be low. Density
depends on many natural and human factors, such as soil, rainfall, climate, economic resources, the
stage of economic growth and so on. Since these factors differ in many places, density will also
differ. Density measures the degree of population concentration in a particular area. There are many
types of density of population. They are discussed below:
Types of Density

(1) Arithmetic Density. The number of persons per square mile or kilometer is Known as simple
arithmetic density. In other words, arithmetic density is nothing but the man-land ratio. In the year
1955, the man-land ratio of the world was 20 (per square kilometer). However, this type of density
does not speak about the real density because it does not take into account the fact that over 70 per
cent of the earth’s surface is water. If only the land areas of the earth are considered, the population
density becomes nearly 45 persons per square mile. However, in order to get the real picture, one
should have the idea of the pattern of distribution of population. If people are dispersed widely and
evenly over an area, the estimated figure for density becomes highly significant. Arithmetic density is
too crude a method for measuring the concentration of life.

(2) Economic Density. While calculating the economic density of population, one has to keep in
mind the productivity of the area under consideration. The index of population density can be realistic
if it can be considered with respect to per square mile of productive land of a region. The productivity
of land depends on soil, vegetation, mineral resources, climate and configuration. A piece of fertile
land can support more people than a hilly track. If the productive capacity is substituted for square
mile, we get a better estimate of density. This type of estimate is known as economic density. But, in
reality, it is very difficult to estimate the productive capacity of an area. Economic density (ED) may
be expressed by the following formula:

Economic Density (ED)= Po/PR X 100

Where, Po means the index of population and PR is the index of production.

(3) Agricultural Density. Agricultural density means the number of agricultural people' per unit of
cultivable land. The agricultural density of India is approximately 435 persons per square mile of
cultivable land. The agricultural density of Japan is 1800, of Italy 234, of Germany 125, of Great
Britain 49, of France 177, and of Denmark 99. Agricultural density varies from region to region in a
country because of the differences in the availability of cultivable land.

(4) Physiological {Nutritional) Density, Physiological density substitutes arable land for total area in
the man-land ratio. It omits the unproductive land from consideration. Physiological density takes
into account all types of population, whereas agricultural density takes into account only the
agricultural population. India’s physiological density per square mile of arable land is 630. The
physiological density of Holland is 2,500, Japan 4000, USA 77, Africa 35, and France 470 persons
per square mile of arable land.

(5) Critical Density (CD). This density is proposed by Allan. He defines it as ‘‘the human carrying
capacity of an area in relation to a given land-use system, expressed in terms of population per square
unit of area. It is the maximum population density that a S3^stem is capable of supporting
permanently in a given environment without danger to land.” It can be expressed by the following
formula:
Critical Density (CD) = 100 (C/F) x A/L

Where C is the extent of cultivated area, F is the extent of fallow land, A is per capita acreage
planted, and L is the percentage of land cultivable by traditional methods.

All the above types of density are subject to criticism. Firstly, the ratios are simply the averages, and
may not express the real picture when a broad area is taken into account. Secondly, sometimes, the
required data are not available for different political and administrative units. Thus, international
comparison is almost impossible. Thirdly, the population data are available for administrative units
and not for areas having homogeneous population distribution. Because of the above limitations, the
different methods cannot be used scientifically for the purpose of analysis. But Still, the concept is
very useful and revealing. In fact, density, like distribution, is a function of many factors— social,
economic, political, cultural and so on. One cannot explain properly these two important variables
without considering the associated complicated factors.

Population growth

Population growth is the most fundamental demographic process with which all other demographic
attributes are directly or indirectly associated. Population growth determines density, distribution
pattern and composition of population. Therefore, an understanding of the process of population
growth is essential to students of population geography which is related to the study of the dynamics
of population as it is found on the earth’s surface. In what follows, we undertake a study of the
process of population growth, its determinants, components and some broad theories and ideas
relating to it.

Meaning

Population growth refers to the growth of the human population in a particular area during a specific
period of time. The growth may be positive or negative. Population growth may be due to natural
increase. Rates of natural increase or decrease, that is, rates computed on the balance of births and
deaths, give some measure of the overall gain or loss in a population through the addition of births
and the subtraction of deaths. The annual rate of natural increase can be computed simply by
subtracting the crude death rate from the crude birth rate. The change in the rate of growth of
population can be measured either in terms of percentage or in absolute numbers. For calculating the
rate of growth of population, the actual population of a given area during a particular time-period is
used. Percentage rate of growth is usually calculated for a particular period. The absolute growth of
population can be found out by subtracting the population of an earlier date from that of the later
point in time.
Measurement o£ Population Growth

Geometric mean is most frequently used for measuring the rate of growth of population. For example,
if a city had a population of 2,00,000 in a given year and 2,40,000 ten years later, we may find out the
annual per cent of change. The increase per year per cent is 2. However, if we compute 2 percent
increase each year over the preceding year, the population figure turns out to be 2,43,800. This means
that the correct figure is slightly smaller than 2 per cent because we are actually compounding. The
average annual per cent increase may be computed by applying the formula:

Pn=Po (l+r)n,

where, Po=population at the beginning of the period, Pn=the population at the end of the period,
r=rate of change, n=number of time-periods.

Estimated Growth Growth

Population Population population
Rank Country (%) (%) 2010–
1990 2010
1990–2010 2018
2018
World 5,306,425,000 6,895,889,000 7,503,828,180 30.0%
1 China 1,139,060,000 1,341,335,000 1,384,688,986 17.1% 3.23%
2 India 873,785,000 1,224,614,000 1,296,834,042 40.2% 5.90%
United
3 253,339,000 310,384,000 329,256,465 22.5% 6.08%
States
4 Indonesia 184,346,000 239,871,000 262,787,403 30.1% 9.55%
5 Brazil 149,650,000 194,946,000 208,846,892 30.3% 7.13%
6 Pakistan 111,845,000 173,593,000 207,862,518 55.3% 19.74%
7 Nigeria 97,552,000 158,423,000 203,452,505 62.4% 28.42%
8 Bangladesh 105,256,000 148,692,000 159,453,001 41.3% 7.24%
9 Russia 148,244,000 142,958,000 142,122,776 -3.6% -0.58%
10 Japan 122,251,000 128,057,000 126,168,156 4.7% -1.48%
 UNIT-2

Population theories

Malthusian theory of Population In an inquiry concerning the improvement of society, the mode of
conducting the subject which naturally presents itself, is,

(1), to investigate the causes which have nither to impeded the progress of mankind towards
happiness; and

(2), to examine the probability of the total or partial removal of these causes in the future. The
principal object of this essay is to examine the effects of one great cause intimately united with the
very nature of man.

That is the constant tendency of all animated life to increase beyond the nourishment provided for it.
Through the animal and vegetable kingdoms Nature has scattered the seeds of life abroad with the
most profuse and liberal hand. If the germs of existence contained in the earth could freely develop
themselves, they would fill millions of worlds in the course of a few thousand years. Necessity, that
imperious, all-pervading law of nature restrains them and man alike within prescribed bounds. The
effects of nature’s check on man are complicated. Impelled to the increase of his species by an
equally powerful instinct, reason interrupts his career, and asks whether he may not bring beings into
the world, for whom he cannot provide the means of support.

If he hear not this suggestion, the human race will be constantly endeavoring to increase beyond the
means of subsistence. But as, by that law of our nature which makes food necessary to the life of
man, population can never actually increase beyond the lowest nourishment capable of supporting it,
a strong check on population, namely, the difficulty of acquiring food, must be constantly in
operation. This difficulty must fall somewhere, and must necessarily be severely felt in some or other
of the various forms of misery by a large portion of mankind. This conclusion will sufficiently appear
from a review of the different states of society in which man has existed. But the subject will be seen
in a clearer light if we endeavor to ascertain what would be the natural increase in population, if left
to exert itself with perfect freedom. Many extravagant statements have been made of the length of the
period within which the population of a country can double.

To be perfectly sure we are far within the truth, we will take a slow rate, and say that population,
when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every 25 years, or increases in a geometrical ratio. The rate
according to which the productions of the earth may be supposed to increase, it will not be so easy to
determine. However, we may be perfectly certain 195 MICROECONOMICS that the ratio of their
increase in a limited territory must be of a totally different nature from the ratio of the increase in
population.

A thousand millions are just as easily doubled every 25 years by the power of population as a
thousand. But the food will by no means be obtained with the same facility. Man is confined in room.
When acre has been added to acre until all the fertile land is occupied, the yearly increase in food
must depend upon the melioration of the land already in possession. This is a fund which, from the
nature of all soils, instead of increasing must be gradually diminishing. But population, could it be
supplied with food, would go on with unexhausted vigor, and the increase in one period would
furnish a power of increase in the next, and this without any limit. If it be allowed that by the best
possible policy the average produce could be doubled in the first 25 years, it will be allowing a
greater increase than could with reason be expected. In the next 25 years it is impossible to suppose
that the produce could be quadrupled. It would be contrary to our knowledge of the properties of land.
Let us suppose that the yearly additions which might be made to the former average produce instead
of decreasing as they certainly would do, were to remain the same; and that the product of the land
might be increased every 25 years, by a quantity equal to what it at present produces. The most
enthusiastic speculator can not suppose a greater increase than this.

Even then the land could not be made to increase faster than in an arithmetical ratio. Taking the
whole earth, the human species would increase as the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, and
subsistence as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. In two centuries the population would be to the means of
subsistence as 256 to 9; in three centuries as 4,096 to 13, and in two thousand years the difference
would be almost incalculable. In this supposition, no limits whatever are placed to the produce of the
earth. It may increase forever and be greater than any assignable quantity; yet still the power of
population, being in every period so much greater, the increase of the human species can only be kept
down to the level of the means of subsistence by the constant operation of the strong law of necessity,
acting as a check upon the greater power. But this ultimate check to population, the want of food, is
never the immediate check except in cases of famine. The latter consists in all those customs and all
those diseases, which seem to be generated by a scarcity of the means of subsistence; and all those
causes which tend permanently to weaken the human frame.

The checks may be classed under two general heads— the preventative and the positive. The
preventative check, peculiar to man, arises from his reasoning faculties, which enable him to calculate
distant consequences. He sees the distress which frequently presses upon those who have large
families; he cannot contemplate his present possessions or earnings, and calculate the amount of each
share, when they must be divided, perhaps, among seven or eight, without feeling a doubt whether he
may be able to support the offspring which probably will be brought into the world. Other
considerations occur. Will he lower his rank in life, and be obliged to give up in great measure his
former habits? Does any mode of employment present itself by which he may reasonably hope to
maintain a family? Will he not subject himself to greater difficulties and more severe labor than in his
present state? Will he be able to give his children adequate educational advantages? Can he face the
possibility of exposing his children to poverty or charity, by his inability to provide for them? These
considerations prevent a large number of people from pursuing the dictates of nature. The positive
checks to population are extremely various, and include every cause, whether arising from vice or
misery, which in any degree contributes to shorten the natural duration of human life. Under this head
may be enumerated all unwholesome occupations, severe labor, exposure to the seasons, extreme
poverty, bad nursing of children, great towns, excesses of all kinds, the whole train of common
diseases, wars, plagues, and famines.
The theory of population is resolvable into three propositions:

(1) Population is necessarily limited by the means of subsistence.

\(2) Population invariably increases where the means of subsistence increase, unless prevented by
some very powerful and obvious checks.

(3) These checks which keep population on a level with the means of subsistence are all resolvable
into moral restraint, vice, and misery

Optimum Theory of Population

Definitions of Optimum Theory of Population:

The concept of optimum population has been defined differently by Robbins, Carr-Saunders and
Dalton. Robbins defines it as “the population which just makes the maximum returns possible is the
optimum population or the best possible population Carr-Saunders defines it as “that population
which produces maximum economic welfare.”According to Dalton, “Optimum population is that
which gives the maximum income per head.”If we were to examine these views, we find that
Dalton’s view is more scientific and realistic which we follow

Assumptions of Optimum Theory of Population:

1. The natural resources of a country are given at a point of time but they change every time.

2. There is no change in techniques of production.

3. The stock of capital remains constant.

4. The habits and tastes of the people do not change.

5. The ratio of working population to total population remains constant even with the growth of
population.

6. Working hours of labour do not change.

7. Modes of business organisation are constant.

Explanation to the Optimum Theory of Population:

Given these assumptions, the optimum population is that ideal size of population which provides the
maximum income per head. Any rise or diminution in the size of the population above or below the
optimum level will diminish income per head.
Given the stock of natural resources, the technique of production and the stock of capital in a country,
there is a definite size of population corresponding to the highest per capita; income. Other things
being equal, any deviation from this optimum-sized population will lead to a reduction in the per
capita income.

If the increase in population is followed by the increase in per capita Population income, the country
is under-populated and it can afford to increase its population till it reaches the optimum level. On the
contrary, if the increase in population leads to diminution in per capita income, the country is over-
populated and needs a decline in population till the per capita income is maximised. This is illustrated
in Fig.1

In the figure population is measured along the horizontal axis and per capita income on the vertical
axis. In the beginning there is under-population and per capita income increases with population
growth, the per capita income of OB population is BA; which is less than the maximum per capita
income level NM. The ON size of population represents the optimum level where per capita income
NM is the maximum.

If there is a continuous increase in population from ON to OD then the law of diminishing returns
applies to production. As a result, the per capita production is lowered and the per capita income also
declines to DC due to increase in population. Thus ND represents over-population. This is the static
version of the theory.

But the optimum level is not a fixed point. It changes with a change in any of the factors assumed to
be given. For instance, if there are improvements in the methods and techniques of production, the
output per head will rise and the optimum point will shift upward.
What the optimum point for the country is today, may not be tomorrow, if the stock of natural
resources increases and the optimum point will be higher than before. Thus the optimum is not a
fixed but a movable point.

This is explained in terms of Cannan’s theory. According to Cannan, “At any given time, increase of
labour up to a certain point is attended by increasing proportionate returns and beyond that point
further increase of labour is attended by diminishing proportionate returns.”

The per capita income is the highest at the point where the average product of labour starts falling.
This point of maximum returns is the point of optimum population. This is illustrated in Figure 2.

The size of population is measured on the horizontal axis and the average product of labour on the
vertical-axis. AP is the average product of labour or income per head curve. Upto ON, increase in
population leads to a rise in the average product of labour and per capita income.

Beyond ON, the average product of labour and per capita income fall. Hence when population is ON,
the per capita income is the highest at point M. Thus, ON is the optimum level of population. To the
left of ON, the country is under-populated and beyond ON, it is over-populated.

However, ON is not a fixed point. If due to inventions there are improvements in the techniques of
production, the average product of labour might increase and push the level of per capita income
upward so that the optimum point rises. This is shown in Figure 2 where the AP 1 curve represents the
higher average product of labour and point M1 shows the maximum per capita income at the new
optimum level of population ON1.

Dalton’s Formula:

Dalton has deduced over-population and under- population which result in the deviation from the
optimum level of population in the form of a formula. The deviation from the optimum, he calls
maladjustment. Maladjustment is a function of two variables, the optimum level of population O and
the actual level of population A. Then the maladjustment is

M=

When M is positive, the country is overover-populated,

populated, and if it is negative, the country is under-
under
populated. When M is zero, the country possesses optimum popupopulation.
lation. Since it is not possible to
measure O, this formula is only of academic interests.

Criticisms of Optimum Theory of Population:

Despite the superiority of the Optimum theory over the Malthusian theory of population, it has
serious weaknesses.

(1) No Evidence of Optimum Level:

The first weakness of the optimum theory is that it is difficult to say whether there is anything like an
optimum population. There is no evidence about the optimum population level in any country.

(2) Impossible to Measure Optimum Level:

The optimum level of population is impossible to measure quantitatively. As pointed out by Prof.
Bye, it is “impossible to calculate it with any semblance of exactness for any country at any time.”

(3) Optimum Level Vague:

Optimum population implies a qualitative as well as a quantitative ideal population for the country.
The qualitative level implies not only physique, knowledge and intelligence, but also the best age
composition of population. These variables are subject to change and are rrelated
elated to an environment.
Thus the optimum level of population is vague.

(4) Correct Measurement of Per Capita Income not Possible:

Another difficulty pertains to the measurement of per capita income in the country. It is not an easy
task to measure changess in per capita income. The data on per capita income are often inaccurate,
misleading and unreliable which make the concept of optimum as one of doubtful validity.

(5) Neglects the Distributional Aspect of increase in Per Capita Income:

Even if it is assumed
med that per capita income can be measured, it is not certain that the increase in
population accompanied by the increase in per capita income would bring prosperity to the country.
Rather, the increase in per capita income and population might prove harmf
harmful
ul to the economy if the
increase in per capita income has been the result of concentration of income in the hands of a few
rich. Thus the optimum theory of population neglects the distributional aspect of increase in the per
capita income.

(6) Optimum Level not fixed but Oscillating:

The concept of the optimum population assumes that the techniques of production, the stock of
capital and natural resources, the habits and tastes of the people, the ratio of working population to
total population, and the modes of business organisation are constant. But all these factors are
constantly changing. As a result, what may be the optimum at a point of time might become less or
more than the optimum over a period of time. This is illustrated in Figure 3.

AP1 is the average product of labour or per capita income curve. Suppose there is an innovation
which brings a change in the techniques of production. It shifts the per capita income curve to AP 2.
As a result, the optimum level of population rises from ON1 to ON2with the increase in per capita
income from to N1M1 to N2M2. If the per capita income rises further due to a change in any of the
above assumed factors, the AP2 curve will shift upward. The AP2 or AP2 curve can also shift
downward if, for instance, the per capita income falls due to an adverse change in the given factors.

If the locus of all such points like M1, M2 etc., is joined by a line, we have the PI curve which
represents the path of the movement of the optimum population as a result of changes in the
economic factors. If, however, the actual level of population is assumed to be ON 0 and the optimum
level ON1, then the country is overpopulated. If ON2 is the optimum level, the country is under-
populated. Thus the optimum is not a fixed level but an oscillating one.
(7) Neglects Social and Institutional Conditions:

The optimum theory considers only the economic factors which determine the level of population.
Thus it fails to take into consideration the social and institutional conditions which greatly influence
the level of population in a country.

A lower level of optimum population may be justified from the economic viewpoint, but such a level
may be harmful keeping in view the defence considerations of the country. For instance, economic
consideration may prevent us from having a large population but the danger from foreign aggression
may necessitate a very large population to safeguard our territorial integrity. Thus the optimum theory
is imperfect and one-sided.

(8) No Place in State Policies:

The concept of optimum population has no place in the policies of modern states. While fiscal policy
aims at increasing or stabilishing the level of employment, output and income in a country, no
reference is made to the optimum level of population.

(9) Does not Explain Determinants of Population Growth:

It does not explain the reasons for rise or fall in birth and death rates, the influence of urbanisation
and migration on population growth, etc.

(10) The theory fails to explain about the nature of an optimum path of population growth.

(11) It does not explain how the optimum level once reached can be maintained.

The demographic transition

Frank W. Notestein (1902-1983)

To understand the variety of demographic regimes found across the world, it is necessary to
understand the history of demographic change globally.

The demographic transition theory is a generalised description of the changing pattern of mortality,
fertility and growth rates as societies move from one demographic regime to another. The term was
first coined by the American demographer Frank W. Notestein in the mid-twentieth century, but it has
since been elaborated and expanded upon by many others.

There are four stages to the classical demographic transition model:

 Stage 1: Pre-transition

 Characterised by high birth rates, and high fluctuating death rates.

 Population growth was kept low by Malthusian "preventative" (late age at marriage) and
"positive" (famine, war, pestilence) checks.

 Stage 2: Early transition

 During the early stages of the transition, the death rate begins to fall.

 As birth rates remain high, the population starts to grow rapidly.

 Stage 3: Late transition

 Birth rates start to decline.

 The rate of population growth decelerates.

 Stage 4: Post-transition

 Post-transitional societies are characterised by low birth and low death rates.

 Population growth is negligible, or even enters a decline.

These four stages are depicted on the graph below.

Stage 1

In stage one, pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates are high and roughly in balance. An
example of this stage is the United States in the 1800s. All human populations are believed to have
had this balance until the late 18th century, when this balance ended in Western Europe. In fact,
growth rates were less than 0.05% at least since the Agricultural Revolution over 10,000 years ago.

Population growth is typically very slow in this stage, because the society is constrained by the
available food supply; therefore, unless the society develops new technologies to increase food
production (e.g. discovers new sources of food or achieves higher crop yields), any fluctuations in
birth rates are soon matched by death rates.

Stage 2

In stage two, that of a developing country, the death rates drop rapidly due to improvements in food
supply and sanitation, which increase life spans and reduce disease. Afghanistan is currently in this
stage.

The improvements specific to food supply typically include selective breeding and crop rotation and
farming techniques. Other improvements generally include access to technology, basic healthcare,
and education. For example, numerous improvements in public health reduce mortality, especially
childhood mortality. Prior to the mid-20th century, these improvements in public health were
primarily in the areas of food handling, water supply, sewage, and personal hygiene. Another variable
often cited is the increase in female literacy combined with public health education programs which
emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In Europe, the death rate decline started in the late 18th century in northwestern Europe and spread to
the south and east over approximately the next 100 years. Without a corresponding fall in birth rates
this produces an imbalance, and the countries in this stage experience a large increase in population.

Stage 3

In stage three, birth rates fall. Mexico’s population is at this stage. Birth rates decrease due to various
fertility factors such as access to contraception, increases in wages, urbanization, a reduction in
subsistence agriculture, an increase in the status and education of women, a reduction in the value of
children’s work, an increase in parental investment in the education of children and other social
changes. Population growth begins to level off. The birth rate decline in developed countries started
in the late 19th century in northern Europe.

While improvements in contraception do play a role in birth rate decline, it should be noted that
contraceptives were not generally available nor widely used in the 19th century and as a result likely
did not play a significant role in the decline then.

It is important to note that birth rate decline is caused also by a transition in values; not just because
of the availability of contraceptives.

Stage 4

During stage four there are both low birth rates and low death rates. Birth rates may drop to well
below replacement level as has happened in countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan, leading to a
shrinking population, a threat to many industries that rely on population growth. Sweden is
considered to currently be in Stage 4. As the large group born during stage two ages, it creates an
economic burden on the shrinking working population. Death rates may remain consistently low or
increase slightly due to increases in lifestyle diseases due to low exercise levels and high obesity and
an aging population in developed countries. By the late 20th century, birth rates and death rates in
developed countries leveled off at lower rates.

Age composition of population

The population of an area includes persons of various ages. The age composition is important for
understanding the natality and mortality of a community. Age differences may create social and
economic differences. The importance of age composition is discussed in the next section.

Importance of Age Composition

The age composition of a population (sometimes called age structure or age distribution) is one of the
most basic characteristics of a population. One cannot proceed very far in the study of population
growth or migration without an examination of age composition. AH aspects of an individual’s or
community’s life — social attitudes, economic activities, political propensities and so on, are affected
by age. Age influences ' the needs, thinking, attitude and behaviour of people. The age structure very
much influences the socio-economic life of a nation. Age data are functional to those responsible for
planning different types of activities. The LIC depends very much on the age data. Age data are also
required for employment, marriage, retirement and a number of other social and economic activities
of life. The age structure enables us to determine the proportion of the labour force in the total
population. It is helpful in finding out the dependency load. It indicates the approximate number of
people who are attaining working age and retirement. Thus, an estimate may be made of the net
addition to the Working force for which new jobs are to be created. The relative proportion of
producers and consumers will determine the capacity of a community to save and invest.
Consumption and production also depends to a significant extent on the age structure. When the
dependency load is very high, there is a severe pressure on the working population. This requires
heavy demographic investment which is mainly unproductive in nature.

For understanding the future growth of population, it is necessary to know the age structure because it
affects the marriage rate and reproductive performance of the population. Thus, on the basis of age
structure, it is possible to know whether a country has a progressive or regressive type of population.
The study of age structure also helps us in knowing the number of old persons for whom old-age
pensions may have to be provided by the state.

However, age data in a country are most likely to be inaccurate. Apart from ignorance and
carelessness, there are many reasons to hide the actual age of persons. The parents of unmarried girls
who have reached marriageable age will under- state the age of the girls. Similarly, widowers and
bachelors (who are becoming old), will give lower ages, particularly if they are eager to marry.
Another reason for giving a wrong age is the superstitious belief that it is unwise to state one’s age
correctly as it is liable to reduce one’s span of life.

For the population geographers it is very difficult to map the age statistics. Secondly, not all countries
conduct censuses to collect regularly the data for age. In LDCs, people are also ignorant about their
exact dates of birth. Mostly, in the case of females instances of understatement regarding age seem to
be very high. The population geographers, while making use of age composition data, do take the
help of different devices like age grouping, age pyramids and age indices. These techniques can help
to minimize the incidence of errors in age statistics.

Determinants of Age Structure

The age structure of a population is determined basically by three factors — fertility, mortality and
migration. Fertility determines the population proportion in different age categories. The countries
which have high fertility rates have a large proportion of their population in the young age group (0-
15).

The life expectancy in these countries being low, there is a small proportion of population in the old
age group (60 and above). Thus, in these countries, the population is heavily weighted in favour of
the young age group. These countries are typically less-developed. However, the countries which
have low fertility and high life expectancy are characterised by small proportion of people in the
young age group and relatively large proportion of people in the old age group. Most of the DCs fall
in this category.

If mortality is low among the young and old it results in high and increasing proportion of persons in
the higher age groups. On the other hand, declining mortality in LDCs increases the proportion of
people in the young age group. .

Migration is very often age- and sex-selective. Generally, the people in the working age group (15-
45) are found to be extremely mobile as compared to the old and very young people. Thus, the place
wherefrom migration takes place has a smaller proportion of people in the working age group, but the
place of in-migration witnesses a larger proportion of such people. In this way, the age structure of a
country undergoes changes over time. The age structure is also influenced by natural calamities like
war, famine, pestilence, and the like.

Age data are conveniently analysed with reference to devices like age pyramids, age groups and age
indices. These devices are discussed in the following sections.

Age Pyramids

The age pyramid is constructive for analysing die age composition of a population. The usual
procedure for graphically representing the age structure of a population is by constructing ‘age
pyramids’. The vertical axis is graduated in groups of years, usually 5, beginning with 0 at the base
and up to 80 or 90 at the top; and the horizontal axis shows either the numbers or the percentage of
males and females within these groups. Under normal conditions, the number of people at each year
age will be fewer than in the preceding year. It is for this reason that the age structure of population
graphically represented tends to take the shape of a pyramid.

Normally, the males are kept to the left and females to the right side of the vertical axis. The shape of
the pyramid will differ according to the relative proportion of the different age- groups in the total
population. Certain basic types of pyramids may be distinguished. First, if a population has
unchanging fertility and mortality it is a stationary population and each step in the pyramid differs
from the one below only by the number of deaths in that age group. Death, emigration and reduced
fertility will affect the shape of the pyramid in those groups which are involved. If, however, the
number of births increases from year to year, the population type will become progressive and the
pyramid will widen at the base; decline in the number of births causes a regressive population with a
pyramid which is narrow at the base and has the shape of a bell. A high rate of growth of fertility
(baby boom) will enlarge the base of the pyramid. But low fertility and death will reduce the base of
the pyramid. The LDCs have broad- based pyramids, whereas the DCs have narrow-based pyramids.
The representative LDCs have a broad base but a narrow tip. This reflects a situation in which there is
a large percentage of children and a small percentage of elders in the population. In the industrialised
countries, however, the pyramid has a narrow base and tapers off much more gradually. The United
Kingdom is a typical example, although in the United States of America the recent rise in fertility has
caused the base to widen. In the case of India, the age pyramid has a very wide base because of the
large child population; but it tapers towards a point more sharply than in the case of any other
country, indicating the low longevity of the Indian population. There are relatively very few people in
India who live beyond the age of 50.

However, the age pyramids do not permit cartographic representation. Thus, they are not helpful for
making regional comparison of age structure.

Sex Composition of Population

Communities differ in sex composition, i.e,, composition of male and female. Sex composition is a
subject of great interest to the population geographer. Sex ratio is an index of the socio-economic
conditions of an area. It is an important tool for regional analysis. It has a profound effect on the
demographic structure of a region. It is an important feature of any landscape. It is a function of three
basic factors: sex ratio at birth, sex ratio at death and sex-selectivity among migrants.

Definition of Sex Ratio

Sex ratio signifies the number of females per thousand males. An inverse enunciation of the ratio
("i.e,, the number of males per 1000 females) is also given sometimes. Sex ratio may vary among
different regions. In the USA, the sex ratio is high (males arc larger in number). Primary sex ratio is
the sex ratio at the time of conception, secondary sex ratio is the ratio at the time of birth, and tertiary
sex ratio is the ratio found at the time of enumeration.

Importance of Sex Ratio

Sex ratio generally influences the form and tempo of life in any country. The balance between the
sexes is an important aspect of population structure. It is important for the following

Reasons;

(1) It affects the labour supply through marriage and fecundity. If the proportion of males is higher
than that of females, more workers will be available.

(2) The excess of males tends to lower the age of marriage for females. Early marriages lead to
considerable disparity in age between husbands and wives. This difference in age tends to increase
widowhood.

(3) Early marriage of females may also lead to increased fertility and population growth.
(4) Sex ratio which is affected by fertility, mortality and migration plays an important part in
determining birth and death rates in a community.

(5) It is found that a population which has a higher pro- portion of females also has a relatively lower
death rate as compared with a population where males preponderate,

(6) An adverse sex ratio (i.e., when the proportion of females is small) leads to the emergence of
many social and moral evils like prostitution and S.T.D., impairing the morale of the workers.

(7) Sex ratio is an important factor for determining the death rate of any population. Women
generally have lower death rates than men at most ages in most countries. If females constitute more
than half of the population, the total death rate is considerably affected. The scarcity of either women
or men of adult age will reduce the marriage rate; and this will affect the crude birth rate.

(8) Sex ratios of a population are related to the extent of employment of women outside home, status
of women, and so on.

Determinants of Sex Ratio

Sex ratio is influenced by birth, death and migration. Apart from these factors, natural calamities like
war, famine, earth- quake and so on will have their effects on sex ratio. It also depends on the status
of women, nature of enumeration of sexes in a particular population of an area and the like. Sex ratio
can be understood with reference to

(i) sex ratio at birth

(ii) sex ratio at death, and

(iii) sex selectivity among migrations.

Female sex is biologically stronger than male sex. Consequently, the females tend to outlive the men.
In almost all countries the male mortality rate is higher than female mortality rate at all ages. As the
male infants have higher mortality rates, the sex ratio becomes balanced at about 4 years of age. After
this age, the imbalance begins to grow, so that at the age of 95 or so, there may be two thousand
females per 1,000 males. In LDCs, female mortality is higher than that of males. The following may
be the reasons for higher female mortality and lower sex ratio in LDCs.

Reasons for Lower Sex Ratio (Less females per 1,000 males)

(i) Girls in LDCs are not as carefully looked after as boys. As a result, infant mortality among girls is
very high.

(ii) Early marriage, absence of birth control, children at early age, and frequency of birth, lead to the
death of many women in the reproductive ages. At the time of census, women are not counted
properly because of their illiteracy and social customs which keep them behind curtains, resulting in
under-reporting of female population.

(iii) Migration from LDCs has largely been male-dominated,

(iv) The proportion of female births is lower in LDCs than in the DCs.

(v) In the past, female infanticide was very common.

(vi) Early marriage leads to diseases of the uterus and vagina. Early intercourse is injurious to health.
Thousands of child wives march from the nuptial bed to the funeral pyre every year.
 UNIT-3

Fertility

Fertility indicates the actual reproductive performance of a woman or a group of women. A woman is
considered fertile if she has ever borne a child. Fecundity, on the other hand, denotes the ability to
bear a child, and has no reference to whether or not a woman actually has borne a child. A common
measure of fertility, especially where adequate vital statistics and other types of direct information are
lacking is the ratio of children under 5 years of age to women in the child-bearing ages as computed
from census data on the total population. Thus, fertility rate is determined by the number of children
born every year to 1000 women of child-bearing ages (15-45).

The crude birth rate of population in any area is obtained by dividing the number of births recorded
in that area during a year by its total population (preferably the mid-year popu- lation). If we multiply
this by 1009, we get the birth rate per 1000 of population. All births are not generally recorded.
Therefore, the crude birth rate underestimates the rate of growth of population. The corrected birth
rate takes into account both the recorded birth and the possible unrecorded birth. In other words.

Corrected birth rate =Birth in a year recorded +

Possible birth x 1000
Mid-year population

General fertility rate is calculated by dividing the number of children born by the number of mothers
in the reproductive age-group (15-45), and the sum is multiplied by 1000. In order to calculate the
completed fertility rate, we divided the total number of children born by the total number of mothers
in all the age-groups, and the sum multiplied by 1000. Here, we take into account the children of any
mother (unmarried, widow, married, etc.) of any age-group. The birth rate can also be made age-
specific. Age specific birth rates of an area are obtained by dividing the number of births to mothers
of each age by the number of women of this age, and then multiplying by 1000; sometimes we are
interested in knowing the total fertility rate. In order to measure correctly the population growth, we
calculate the number of children born per thousand females in the child-bearing age divided into
different age-groups. This leads to the total fertility rate which is calculated by adding up the specific
fertility rates belonging to different age-groups. The total fertility rate is the mean number of children
which a female aged 15 can except to bear if she lives until at least the age of 50, provided she is
subject to the given fertility conditions over the whole of her child-bearing period. The total fertility
rate for a particular area during a given period is a summary measure of fertility conditions operating
in that area during that period. It is an estimate of the number of children a cohort of 1000 women
would bear if .they all went through their reproductive years exposed to the age-specific fertility rates
in effect at a particular time. This method is better than some other methods because it concerns itself
only with the women who are in the fertility age-group; and it is not influenced by the general age
groups. In order to make comparison, standardized birth rate may be calculated. Standardized birth
rate shows what the birth rate for a group of women would be if these women had the same age
distribution as those in some standard population. It is computed by taking age specific birth rate for
women and multiplying each of these rates by the number of women in the standard population in the
corresponding age category of each one million persons in the standard population. The sum of these
products divided by One million persons is the standard population. The sum of these products
divided by one million and multiple by 1000 is the standard birth rate.

Another index of fertility is the reproduction or replacement rate. In order to calculate the gross
reproduction rate, we do not take into account the number of males, and the women having no
reproductive power and also the male children born. We take into account only the number of
mothers who have produced children, and the female children born. The female children are the
future mothers. The gross reproduction rate (G.R.R.) is calculated in the following way:

G.R.R. = Number of female children born of mothers of an age-group X 1000

Total number of mothers of that age-group

What is of course more meaningful is not the gross reproduction rate but the net reproduction rate
(N.R.R.). Net reproduction rate indicates the average number of future mothers born to a mother of
today. It is an index of self-replacement potentiality of population with given age-specific rate of
fertility and mortality. The N.R.R. makes allowance for the fact that there would be deaths in any
group of females between the time they are born and the time at which they complete their
reproductive life. The N.R.R. is computed by applying the age-specific birth rates to the number of
years lived in each group by the survivors of the original cohort after mortality has operated,
summing the products, and then applying the ratio between the females born and total births, and
dividing the result by 1000. The net reproduction rate was first found out by Kuezynsky.

N.R.R=∑(𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑋 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒)

1000

If the N.R.R. is 1 , the populatipn is stationary i.e., the new mothers are just replacing the old
mothers. If N.R.R, is greater than 1, population is increasing; and if it is less than 1, population is
decreasing.

Mortality

Increase in population depends both on birth rate and death rate. Therefore, in demography, the
measurement of death rate is as important as the measurement of birth rate.

While the birth rate increases population, the death rate decreases it. The basic index of mortality is
the crude death rate. Crude death rate measures the number of deaths per 1000 of the population. In
order to measure the crude death rate we require the total number of deaths and the total number of
the population. It is calculated by dividing the total number of deaths by the total number of
population, and then multiplying by 1000.

However, the crude death rate is inadequate for many purposes as a measure of mortality differences
between different groups in different regions. Variations in groups occur due to variation in age and
sex. Some populations change considerably in age and sex from time to time. Therefore, change in
the crude death rate is of little use as an index of basic changes in mortality.

The death rate can be made age-specific. Age-specific death rate means the number of deaths of
persons of a given age per thousand population of that age, generally by sex. This can be calculated
precisely if we know the size of different age groups by sex, and if deaths for the same group are
correctly known. This rate is the basis of refinement in mortality rates which are used today. This rate
gives an accurate picture of mortality for both males and females of each group. For calculating the
age-specific death rate, we should divide the population into different age-groups, e.g., 0-5, 5-10, 10-
15, 15-20 and so on. Then, we should calculate the number of deaths occurring in each group. It is
necessary to know the age of the people who have died.

A.S .D .R= Death occurring in a particular group x 1000

Total population of that group
However, we require a single figure which takes into account age and sex differences, if we are to
compare the mortality rates of two populations. Such a rate is commonly called Standardized or
adjusted death rate.

Another index of mortality used by population geographers and demographers is infant mortality. The
infant mortality rate shows the number of deaths of children, generally under one year of age per
thousand live births occurring in the same year. Infant mortality rates serve as one of the best indices
to the general “healthiness” of a society and the level of living of any population. The lower the infant
mortality rate, the better is the level of living. The infant mortality rate can also be age- specific. For
calculating infant mortality, we take into account babies in the age-group 0-9. The infant mortality
rate (I.M.R.) is calculated thus;

L.M.R. = Number of children who died x 1000

Total number of children in that age group

To be meaningful, vital rates should be standardized. Standardized death rate is based on age-specific
death rate. Generally, the death rate is standardized for age and sex only. When the death rates of two
or more populations are standardized on the same population base, their rates can be compared and, in
such a case, the differences found will not be merely due to their age and sex differences. However,
death rates can also be standardized for other differences in composition, e.g., education, marital
composition, and the like.

In calculating the standardized death rate of standard populations, we require the number of standard
population in every age-group and the death rate per 1000 in every age group. Then the death rate per
1000 is multiplied by the amount of population in each age-group and the sum is divided by the total
amount of standard population.

The risk of dying from causes associated with child-birth is measured by the maternal mortality rate.
For this purpose, the deaths used in the numerator are those arising from puerperal causes i.e ,
deliveries and complications of pregnancy, child-birth and puerperium.

The numbers exposed to the risk of dying from puerperal causes are women who have been pregnant
during the period. Their number being unknown, the number of live births is used as the conventional
base for computing comparable maternal mortality rates. The formula is;

No. of deaths from puerperal causes which have occurred

Among the female population of a given geographic area
Annual maternal During a given year x 1000
Mortality rate =
No .of live births which occurred among the population of a
Given geographical area during the same year

The classification and coding of deaths as puerperal deaths vary from one country to another or even
within the same country, and hence we must be cautious in comparing maternal mortality rates for
different places.

Migration

Migration is shifting of the home, and not the house. In the context of migration, we come across two
processes: ‘emigration’ and ‘immigration’. Emigration refers to going out of a country, while
immigration refers to coming into a country. Thus, emigration reduces the population of a country,
and immigration increases it. Migration implies the movement of people from one place to another. It
is a highly selective process. It may be age-selective, occupation-selective or sex- selective.
Generally, migration is male dominated, particularly in developing countries.

Migration is not merely a process of shifting people from one place to another; it is a fundamental
process to change the structure of population and it contributes a lot for the under- standing of the
space-content and space-relations of a particular geographical area. Migration involves three types of
changes — change in the area of out-migration, change in the area of in-migration and change in the
migrants themselves. Migration is an instrument for the defusion of culture. It also serves as an
instrument for the redistribution of population from one place to another. Migration reflects the
changing pattern of opportunities in the affected places. For all these reasons, migration becomes an
important topic of analysis for the population geographers.

Types of Migration

There arc two types of migration: (i) International migration, and (ii) Internal migration.

International migrationIs migration from one political boundary to another political boundary. It
depends on the laws regarding migration of the two countries. Internal migration Is migration from
one place to another within the same country. Internal migration may be divided into the following
four types;

(a) Migration from the village to the city,

(b) Migration from one village to another village,

(c) Migration from one city to another city, and

fd) Migration from the city to the village.

According to Kingsley Davis, Internal migration Is more important than international migration from
the point of view of demography. In the case of internal migration, there are less restrictions on
individuals, resources and capital. Therefore, internal migration is more frequent than international
migration. The distance involved in internal migration may sometimes be greater than that involved
in international migration. During the Sino-Japanese War (1939-45), lakhs of Chinese left the eastern
sea-side and went towards the interior of the country. During the period of this great internal
migration, there was large, scale social change in China. Similar important internal migration took
place in America when people in large numbers migrated towards the western side of the country.
International migration is based on some legal control and regulation, but in the case of internal
migration, there is no such control on the movement of population.

Therefore, internal migration is practically more important. Internal migration may be divided into
the following two types on the basis of the advantage of the migration:

(i) Inter-regional migration. This involves migration from one region to another.

(ii) Migration front village to city. Village people come to city areas for education, for white-collar
jobs, and so on.
Push factor Pull factor

1. Unemployment and under- employment. Better economic prospects

2. Economic underdevelopment Higher salary and income

3. Low wage and salary Better level of living and way of life.

4. Political instability . Better research facilities

5. Overproduction and under-utilisation of Modern educational system and better.

talented people opportunity for higher qualification

6. Lack of research and other Prestige of foreign training and education.

facilities.

7. Lack of freedom. Intellectual freedom.

8. Discrimination in appointment Better working conditions and better

and promotion. employment opportunities

9. Discrimination based on religion and No discrimination.

politics.

10. Poor working facilities. Relative political stability.

1 1 . Lack of scientific tradition and culture. Presence of a rich,scientific and cultural

tradition

12. Unsuitable institution. Attraction of urban centres

13. Desire for a better urban Availability of experienced supporting staff.

life.

14. Desire for higher qualification and Frequent chances of a lucky break in life.
recognition.

15. Better career expectation Technological gap.

16. Lack of satisfactory working conditions. Allocation of substantial funds for research.

17. High man-land ratio. Low-density of population and better housing

and medical facilities.

18. Existence of surplus labour. Increasing demand for labour and skill.
 UNIT-4
Site and Situation

The study of settlement patterns is one of the most important aspects of urban geography. Settlements
can range in size from a small village with a few hundred residents to a metropolitan city of over one
million people. Geographers often study the reasons behind why such cities develop where they do
and what factors lead to their becoming a large city over time or remaining as a small village.

Some of the reasons behind these patterns are thought of in terms of the area's site and its situation -
two of the most important concepts in the study of urban geography.

Site

The site is the actual location of a settlement on the earth and is composed of the physical
characteristics of the landscape specific to the area. Site factors include things like landforms (i.e. is
the area protected by mountains or is there a natural harbor present?), climate, vegetation types,
availability of water, soil quality, minerals, and even wildlife.

Historically, these factors led to the development of major cities worldwide. New York City, for
example, is located where it is because of several site factors. As people arrived in North America
from Europe, they began to settle in this area because it was a coastal location with a natural harbor.
There was also an abundance of fresh water in the nearby Hudson River and small creeks as well as
raw materials for building supplies. In addition, the nearby Appalachian and Catskill Mountains
provided a barrier to movement inland.

The site of an area can also create challenges for its population and the small Himalayan nation of
Bhutan is a good example of this. Located within the world's highest mountain range, the terrain of
the country is extremely rugged and hard to get around. This, combined with the incredibly harsh
climate in many areas of the country has made much of the population settle along rivers in the
highlands just south of the Himalayas. In addition, only 2% of the land in the nation is arable (with
much of it located in the highlands) making living in the country highly challenging.

Situation

Situation is defined as the location of a place relative to its surroundings and other places. Factors
included in an area's situation include the accessibility of the location, the extent of a place's
connections with another, and how close an area may be to raw materials if they are not located
specifically on the site.

Though its site has made living in the nation challenging, Bhutan's situation has allowed it to
maintain its policies of isolation as well as its own highly separated and traditionally religious culture.
Because of its remote location in the Himalayas getting into the country is challenging and
historically this has been beneficial because the mountains have been a form of protection. As such,
the heartland of the nation has never been invaded. In addition, Bhutan now controls many of the
most strategic mountain passes in the Himalayas including the only ones into and out of its territory,
leading to its title as the "Mountain Fortress of the Gods."

Like an area's site however, its situation can also cause problems. For example Canada's Eastern
Provinces of New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island
are some of that country's most economically downtroddenareas due in large part to their situations.
These areas are isolated from the rest of Canada making manufacturing and the little agriculture
possible too expensive. In addition, there are very few close natural resources (many are off the coast
and due to maritime laws the government of Canada itself controls the resources) and many of the
traditional fishing economies they did have are now crashing along with the fish populations.
 Site and Situation
The location and growth of a settlement depended upon its siteand situation. The sitewas the
actual place where people decided to locate their settlement. The growth of that settlement then
depended upon itssituationin relation to accessibilityand availability of naturalresources.

Site Factors
• Reliable WaterSupply

• Away From FloodRisks

• Defense

• Building Materials (Stone OrWood)

• FertileLand

• Sheltered FromWinds
• Fuel Supply(Wood)
• South-Facing Slope(Aspect)
• Flat Land, Easy To BuildOn
• Natural Harbor
Situation Factors
• Route centre

• Gap town
• Lowest bridging point on ariver
• Port

• Minerals forexport

Settlement Patterns

Nucleated or clustered settlements often form at crossroads or route centres.

Dispersed settlements have no obvious centre and are often hamlets spread over
fertile farmland.

Linear settlements: settlements grow along a road (e.g. in a narrow valley) or along
the coast. Ribbon development is when housing grows out from a town along a main
road.
What is a settlement?
A settlement is a place where people live. A settlement could be anything from an isolated
farmhouse to a mega city (settlement with over 10 million people).Settlements can either be
temporary or permanent. Temporary settlements include things such as refugeecamps. Some
temporary settlements have become permanent over time such as the Rochina, the largest favela in
Rio de Janeiro,Brazil.The reason why a settlement developed in the first place is said to be its
function. For example the function of Liverpool was as a port.

What do we mean by site and situation of a settlement?

The site and situation of a settlement are very different things. The site of a settlement is the
land upon which it was built. There are a range of factors that can determine the site of a settlement.
These are:
 Wet point site - these are sites close to a supply ofwater
 Dry point site - these are sites that avoided the risk offlooding
 Defensive site - these were sites that were on high ground and allowed the inhabitants to see enemies from adistance
 Aspect - many settlements in the northern hemisphere are located on south facing sides of valleys where it issunny
 Shelter - away from rain and prevailingwinds
 Trading point - often settlements developed where natural training points meet such asalong rivers or natural
routeways
 Resources - many settlements developed close to where natural resources could befound .
The situation of a settlement is its location in relation to surrounding human and physical features.
We usually describe the situation when we are telling someone where a settlement is.

What are the functions of a settlement?

Most settlements in MEDCs have multi-functions. This includes education, retail and
industry. However, when settlements first formed they often had one main function. These functions
included:
 Port
 Markettown
 Resort

What is a settlement hierarchy?

We can categories settlements according to their size and shape. The result is a settlement hierarchy.
As you move up the settlement hierarchy the size of the settlement increases, as does the population
and the range of services available. Smaller settlements tend to provide only low order services such
as a post office and newsagents. Whereas, larger settlements have more high order services such as
leisure centers and chain stores. As the result of this the larger the settlement, the greater the range of
services and therefore the market area or sphere of influence. This is the market area that a settlement
services (the distance people will travel to useservices).
High order services usually have a high threshold. This means they need a higher number of people to
use the service in order to remain profitable. This means high order service such as department stores
need a greater number of customers than a low order service such as a newsagent. This is why there
are so few department stores in villages!
Rural settlement
We must ask ourselves what factors cause farms to be isolated and spread apart - or why they are
nucleated and close to one another. There are three major aspects that result in different farming
patterns:

 Physical
 Social and cultural
 Economic
Factors resulting in a nucleated or dispersed settlement
Nucleated Dispersed
Physical

Relief Gentle slopes and plains Scarce Mountainous and hilly Abundant
Water settlements, i.e. wet point water therefore people can settle
settlementoasis anywhere Infertile soil and poor
Soil Fertile soil therefore farmers cluster pastures, i.e. stock farmers

Social and
cultural

a) Safety Peaceful times - farmers disperse

Fortified villages in times of war
Capitalism - free market system Sub-
Communism and socialism, i.e. division of inherited land, breakdown
Political
commune in China of tradition
Sense of belonging and a desire to
c) Tradition
maintain villages and united family
andreligion
Economic

a) Land Private ownership, loose pieces of

Communal, collective utilisation;
ownership land.
hired workers Collective farming, i.e. Extensive stock farming Individual
Agricultural
entire community is concentrated in a farmer on his ownland
centrally located village
Rural settlement

Dispersed rural settlements Advantages - economic

 Farmer lives on his or her ownfarm

 Farmer decides how to manage the farm and makes his or her owndecisions
 Lives on a single holding and makes maximum use of machinery
 Greater profit
Disadvantages - social

 Living in isolation, therefore there is little socialcontact

 Safety of farmer threatened because ofisolation
 Farmer has to travel great distances for basiccommodities
 Living in isolation may lead to boredom, however tv, radio, alarms have minimised the fact that
farms do not have access to security andcommunication
Urban morphology
Urban morphology comprises the structure of a city and pattern or plan of its development. It is
actually the layout of a city both in its historical as well as geographical contexts which gives it
individuality. Therefore, the internal pattern or structure of each city is “unique in its particular
combination of details”.

Combinations involving structure of most American cities have business, industrial and residential
districts. The cities of the Western world in their structure display generally city centre or downtown,
Central Business District (CBD) including shopping centre, industrial estate, and housing estate
giving it a spatial framework in order to make sense of the environment in which people live and
work
 Rural-Urban fringe

Rural-Urban fringe is an important concept in settlement

geography. The rural-urban fringe is the boundary zone
outside the urban area proper where rural and urban land
uses intermix. It is the area where the city meets the
countryside. It is an area of transition from agricultural
and other rural land uses to urban use. Located well
within the urban sphere of influence the fringe is
characterized by a wide variety of land use including
dormitory settlements housing middle-income
commuters who work in the central urban area. Over
time the characteristics of the fringe change from
largely rural to largely urban. Suburbanization takes
place at the municipal boundary of rural-urban fringe.

Source: https://www.examrace.com/Study-
Material/Geography/Human-Geography/Rural-Urban-
Fringe-Youtube-Lecture-Handouts.html

Primate city

A primate city is an extensive urban environment that

is disproportionately the larger city in the country or
the region. Primate cities brag of dominance over other
cities, they are unrivaled political and economic hubs,
and in most cases, they are the capital and the
administrative centers of the country.
Geographer Mark Jefferson developed the ideology of
the primate city in 1939. Jefferson defined a primate
Source:http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/27617/1/Un
city as the city that is twice as large as the next city and
it-6.pdf
twice as significant. Primate cities are the face of the
country, they tend to host international events and
develop better infrastructure that other cities or town.

Source:https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-
primate-city.html

UNIT 5
 CENTRAL PLACE THEORY
Central place theory is a geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and location of
human settlements in a residential system. The theory was created by the German geographer Walter
Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing services to
surrounding areas.

To develop the theory, Christaller made the following simplifying ASSUMPTIONS:

 An unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface (abstract space)

 An evenly distributed population
 All settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
 Evenly distributed resources
 Distance decay mechanism
 Perfect competition and all sellers are economic people maximizing their profits
 Consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour
 All consumers have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services.
 Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand. They
minimize the distance to be travelled
 No provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a monopoly
over a hinterland)
 Therefore, the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service
must all be of equal size
 There is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions
 Transport cost is directly proportional to distance travelled

The theory then relied on two concepts: threshold and range.

THRESHOLD

Threshold is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a
particular good or service.

RANGE

Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods - at some point the
cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good.

The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge.
Each center will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional
hierarchies, generalizations can be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements.
  The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i.e. there are many
small villages, but few large cities.
 The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i.e. villages are
usually found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart.
 As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase.
 As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher
higher-order
order services will also increase, i.e. a
greater degree of specialization occurs in the services.
 The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the
larger the range of the goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel
to acquire them.
At the base of the hierarchy y pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order
goods. These centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These
centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, g
bakeries and post offices. Examples for high order goods and services include jewelry, large shopping
malls and arcades. They are supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.

KEY PRICIPLES

He deduced that settlements would tend to form in a triangular/hexagonal lattice, as it is the most
efficient pattern to serve areas without any overlap. [1]
In the orderly arrangement of an urban hierarchy
hierarchy,, seven different principal orders of settlement have
been identified by Christaller, providing different groups of goods and services. Settlement are
regularly spaced - equidistant spacing between same order centers, with larger centers farther apart
than smaller centers. Settlements have hexagonal market areas, and are most efficient in number and
functions.
The different layouts predicted by Christaller have K-values
values which show how much the Sphere of
Influence of the central places takes in — the central place itself counts as 1 and each portion of a
satellite counts as its portion:

K = 3 MARKETING PRINCIPLE

K = 3 Principle
According to the marketing principle K = 3, the market area of a higher-orderorder place(node)
place( occupies
1/3rd of the market area of each of the consecutive lower size place(node) which lies on its neighbor;
the lower size nodes (6 in numbers and 2nd larger circles) are located at the corner of a largest
hexagon around low value the highhigh-order settlement. Each high-order
order settlement gets 1/3rd of each
satellite settlement (which are 6 in total), thus K = 1 + 6×1/3 = 3.
However, in this K = 3 marketing network the distance traveled is minimized.
K = 4 TRANSPORT/TRAFFIC PRINCIPLE

K = 4 Principle
According to K = 4 transport principle, the market area of a higher-order place includes a half of the
market area of each of the six neighbouring lower-order places, as they are located on the edges of
hexagons around the high-order settlements. This generates a hierarchy of central places which results
in the most efficient transport network. There are maximum central places possible located on the
main transport routes connecting the higher order center.The transportation principle involves the
minimization of the length of roads connecting central places at all hierarchy levels. In this system of
nesting, the lower order centres are all located along the roads linking the higher order centres. This
alignment of places along a road leads to minimization of road length. However, for each higher order
centre, there are now four centres of immediate lower order,as opposed to three centres under the
marketing principle.

K = 7 ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLE

K = 7 Principle
According to K = 7 administrative principle (or political-social principle), settlements are nested
according to sevens. The market areas of the smaller settlements are completely enclosed within the
market area of the larger settlement. Since tributary areas cannot be split administratively, they must
be allocated exclusively to a single higher-order place. Efficient administration is the control principle
in this hierarchy.
CRITICISM

The Central Place Theory has been criticized for being static; it does not incorporate the temporal
aspect in the development of central places. Furthermore, the theory holds up well when it comes to
agricultural areas, but not industrial or postindustrial areas due to their diversified nature of various
services or their varied distribution of natural resources.

THE RANK-SIZE RULE

The rank-size rule says that ‘when ranks of cities, arranged in descending order, are plotted against
their populations (rank 1 being given to the largest, and so on) in a doubly logarithmic graph, a rank-
size distribution results’ (Das and Dutt 1993: 125), or to put it in much simpler words: ‘In an ordered
set of cities representing a given country, the product of the rank and size of a city is constant’
(Dziewonski 1972: 73). The rank-size rule is also commonly referred to as Zipf’s Law because the
model describing a constant relation between the size of an event and its rank was at first developed
by G. Zipf. In the case of cities distribution by population, when the natural logarithms of the rank
and of the city size (in terms of the number of people) are calculated and represented graphically, a
remarkable log-linear pattern is attained, which is called the rank-size distribution. If the slope of the
line is equal or close to -1 (a straight line), the relationship is known as Zipf’s Law.

Zipf’s has probably the best presentation of the empirical findings on rank and size of the cities. The
rank size rule states that for a group of cities, usually those exceeding some size in a particular
country, the relationship between size and rank of cities is given by:

Pr = P1/r

Where Pr = population of the largest city ranked r

P = population of the largest city

r = rank of city r

Rank Size Rule is a simple model which states that population size of a given city tends to be equal to
the population of the largest city divided by the rank of the given city.

Pattern as per rank-size rule

Settlements in a country may be ranked in order of their size. The ‘rule’ states that, if the population
of a town is multiplied by its rank, the sum will equal the population of the highest ranked city. In
other words, the population of a town ranked n will be 1/nth of the size of the largest city—the fifth
town, by rank, will have a population one-fifth of the first.

It is usually possible to relate the ranks and sizes of the central places in country by using a regression
analysis

logPk = log P1 – b log k

where P1 is the population of the largest city or town, Pk is the population of the kth town by rank,
and b is a coefficient which must be established empirically for each investigation. The greater the
value of b, the steeper the slope, and the greater the primacy of the largest city or town. Many
developing countries show a sharp fall from the largest, primate city to the other cities, and this is
known as the primate rule.
The theoretical rank size rule pattern is a straight line.

In urban primacy, a single city dominates and is much greater than the next large center (primary
pattern).

In Binary pattern two or more cities are larger than the predicted size.

In Stepped order pattern there are series of levels and steps (conurbations, cities, towns etc.).

LOSCH THEORY
August Losch, a German economist, published his theory of ‘Profit Maximisation’ in the year 1954.
The least cost location theory of Weber was wholly discarded by Losch. In fact, he suggested that,
‘profit maximization’ is the only objective of the entrepreneur, whether it is state or an individual.
The major objective of the industry is, therefore, to find out the place where maximum profits occur.

Unlike Weber, who postulated his entire theory in an economic state of perfect competi-tion, Losch,
on the other hand, explained his theory within the environment of monopolistic competition.
According to Losch, industry will not necessarily be located within the least cost (transport cost and
labour cost) location; rather it would locate in areas where maximum profit will occur. So, ignoring
transport cost, labour cost and agglomeration cost, he emphasized more on the total production cost.

To get the maximum profit, as stated by Losch, total consumption is important. Higher the
consumption rate, greater will be the profit. In this case, he emphasized most on the price reduction of
the commodity. Any decrease of price would automatically stimulate the volume of consumption.
This can be illustrated by the following diagram.

In this simple model, it is evident that when price of the commodity drops from R to P, the
consumption increases from M to N. The theory of August Losch considered demand as a most
important variable. The funda-mental objective behind the theory was to find out the most profitable
location for industrial establishment.
To determine the location of maximum profit, Losch said, “The complexity stems from the fact that,
there is more than one geographical point where the total demand of a surrounding district is at a
maximum, We are thus reduced to determine separately for every one of a number of virtual factory
location the total attainable demand, and for similar reasons the best volume of production as a
function of factory price (Market and Cost analysis). The greatest profit attainable at each of these
points can be determined from the cost and demand curves, and from this place of greatest money
profits, the optimum location can be found”.

Losch argued that most of the existing theories are all simplified and generalizations of the complex
problem of industrial location. Like Weber, he also considered certain assump-tions for the success of
his theory.

Assumptions of the Profit Maximisation Theory:

Like Weber’s theory, ‘profit maximization’ theory of Losch is not universally applicable.

In the presence of certain optimum conditions the maximum profit location may occur:

1. The area under consideration should be an extensive homogenous plane where raw
materials are distributed evenly.

2. The ‘transport cost’ is uniform and directly proportional in all the directions.

3. The people inhabiting the region have a general homogeneity either in taste, knowl-edge
and technical skill.

4. There is no economic discriminations among the people. The economic and ca-reer
building opportunities are open and uniform to all individuals.

5. The population distribution is very even and the area is self-sufficient in agricul-tural
production.

In the case of excess production of agriculture, the status quo of economy will be distorted. To
achieve homogeneity of economy within the region, the theory required some more
condi-tions.

These are as follows:

1. The entire area should be equally served by the factories. No area should be ex-empted
from the supply; therefore, no new firm would dare to venture in the area.

2. There must be conformity in the range and quantum of profit. In case of abnormal profit,
new firms may try to establish their own plant.

3. The location must satisfy both producer and consumer. The profit of the firm and
satisfaction of the consumer must be optimum through the location.

4. There must be provisions for consumers to get the products from other adjacent areas.
 5. The number of consumers, producers and areas should be well defined and not very
extensive. Only a limited number of producers within a small area will be able to overcome
the complexities and satisfy completely the handful of consum-ers.

According to Losch, to get the desired result from the location and sustained growth of the industry,
these conditions are pre-requisites.

Explanation to the Profit Maximisation Theory:

The major objective of the location theory is to attain equilibrium in the producing area and the
product and the ability of the producer. If a single entrepreneur enters in the produc-tion process,
within a vast area, the distribution cost will be very high.

But when several small producers are engaged in the production process in separate regions, the
distribution cost will come down and due to increasing competition, efficiency of the product and
cost of produc-tion will be lower.

The profit will increase substantially. Due to increasing competition, the area served by individual
manufacturing units will be reduced. In the reduced area, several producing units will remain adjacent
with each other, without leaving any area un-served. So, in this particular situation, a hexagonal area
would serve the purpose. To establish his theoretical model of the theory, August Losch proposed
three distinct phase of development.

The phases are as follows:

I. In this first phase Losch observed that if sufficient and symmetrical demand of a prod-uct prevails
in the market, the market conditions may be explained by a demand cone. The following diagram
illustrates that the effective demand of the particular product will be exactly same to the volume of
the cone.

In Fig. 5, P is a producer, and demand curve is lying on QF. P or price line, controlled jointly by
transport cost and distance. The price increased from P to F. Along the Y axis or PQ, demand of
quantity is measured between PF and QF.
When PF is taken as a measure of distance and is rotated about P, the circular market area is formed,
bounded by the locus of points F, where the price becomes too high. Total sales are given by the
volume of the cone produced by the rotation of PQF.

In Fig. 5, it is clear that, away from centre, with increasing distance, demand of the quan-tity drops
drastically.

II.In the second phase, within the vast rounded area, several factories will concentrate. The virgin,
extensive market area will automatically give a lucrative operational area.. But despite the growing
competition among the firms to capture larger share of consumer and larger market areas, there
should be some void in the boundary zones.

Like intra-molecular space, a certain amount of region will remain un-served or poorly served.
Though the mal--distribution of firms may result in shrinkage of areas in some instances, some other
regions will be devoid of any industry. The circular pattern of industrial hinterland in phase two will
ultimately decide the future of the industry in that region.

In Fig. 6, the space situated outside the circular areas are still lying vacant. It is quite natural for the
other industries to capture this potential market areas, hitherto unexploited. The influx of new
industries in the region will result in shrinkage of the market areas (denoted in Fig. 6 by circle) of
different production centres.

The intrusion of one market area to other will distort the circular market areas and the market areas of
different production units will further reduce. This situation will lead to the initiation of the third
phase.

Second Stage of Profit Maximization Theory

III. In the third phase of industrial location witness the narrowing of the intermediate space between
two market areas. The areas fall vacant between the different market areas become the target of new
enterprises.
As new firms set up within the vacuum, the hinterlands of earlier industries become reduced. The
reduction of the market area results in rapid disrup-tion of the early circular pattern. Gradually the
market area of the industries attain a hexago-nal shape.

According to Losch, when any area possesses several hexagons, lying upon each other and
surrounding a particular centre, a metropolitan city will grow. In other words, it may be said that
around the nucleus of a city, numerous hexagons or market areas of different com-modity will grow.

So, in this fashion, industries would concentrate within a region, each having different products. So,
almost all types of materials including raw materials should be available on that point. Hence, any
new industry would get its required raw material within near distance. Obviously, the total transport
cost in that place will be minimum. In this way, ‘equilibrium conditions’ as stated by Losch may be
attained (Fig. 6).

Losch, however, himself hinted about the deviation of his theory in some special condi-tions.
According to his conception, when price of the commodity of a particular firm increases,demand of
the product decreases considerably.

Naturally, due to higher price, the company loses some of its market area. Automatically, that area is
encroached by the adjacent firm. In this fashion, market area of a unit changes continuously. This
incident was explained by the figure given by Losch in Fig. 7.

Fig. 6 shows the development of hexagonal market area in the third stage. The dotted lines represent
market boundaries of respective production centres. The crossed area is the production centre.

In Fig. 7, as stated by Losch, A and B are two producing centres, with total production cost of P and
Q. Their respective market boundaries are CPD1 and EQD1. At the product cost of M, their
production touches the optimum level and equilibrium is attained. But when production cost at A
increase from P1 to P2, the equilibrium condition is dis-rupted. The product of A becomes less
attractive than before, so market boundaries also re-duces from CP1D to C1P2D2.

Following the reduction of market of A, automatically market area of B advances in that void region.
The previous area of EQD1 increases to EQD2. This D1D2 areal increase is well reflected in the
circular diagram of Losch. The BD1 radius increases to BD2 and former AC radius reduces to AC1.

Merits of the Profit Maximisation Theory:

1. August Losch tried to restore a order in the former chaotic classifications of industrial
location.
2. He was the first person to consider the influence of the magnitude of demand on indus-trial
location.
3. August Losch rightly emphasizes upon the role of competition as an important determinant
of location analysis.
4. The calculations adopted by Losch were simple and easily applicable to any place.
5. The theory has also a philosophical contribution on the motive of entrepreneurs’ role.
6. His equilibrium concept is perhaps the greatest contribution among the location theories
developed later on.
7. The least cost concept of Weber was nullified by Losch and instead more precise ‘profit
maximization’ concept was adopted.

Demerits of the Profit Maximisation Theory:

Of course, the theory of Losch was not entirely flawless. Numerous criticism from differ-ent quarters
were put forward against the theory on various grounds.

The major points against the theory are as follows:

1. This theory is essentially a simplified model or theorizing of an ideal condition. In reality,
only in a rare occasion, these events may occur.
2. The assumed conditions of homogeneous plain region, equal distribution of raw mate-rials
and uniform transport rates never occur in the real world. Therefore, Losch’s theory, as said
by some critics, is nothing but only intellectual exercise.
3. Losch even assumed the cultural homogeneity and uniform taste of the people within the
region. This is nothing but absurdity.
4. He ignored the variation of technological development of different regions. The differ-ence
of technical know-how may offset the theoretical model.
5. Political decisions play an important role in the industrial location. Losch ignored it.
6. The variation of the cost of raw materials and labour wage rates were not given proper
weightage in the theory.
7. Losch categorically separated the role and effect of agriculture and industry. But this
difference is somehow arbitrary in nature.
 8. The abstract and optimum situation demanded by the theory may be available in
agri-culture but not in the complex production process of modern manufacturing industries.
Thus, Losch theory is more practical in agriculture, rather than in industry.

REFERENCES
 Openshaw S, Veneris Y, 2003, "Numerical experiments with central place theory and spatial
interaction modelling" Environment and Planning A 35(8) 1389–1403 ([1])
 Smith, Margot W. Physician's Specialties and Medical Trade Areas: An Application of
Central Place Theory. Papers and Proceedings of Applied Geography Conferences, Vol. 9,
West Point NY 1986.
 Smith, Margot W. A Guide to the Delineation of Medical Care Regions, Medical Trade Areas
and Hospital Service Areas. Public Health Reports, 94:3:247 May 1979
 Smith, Margot W. The Economics of Physician Location, Western Regional Conference,
American Association of Geographers, Chicago, Illinois, 1979
 Smith, Margot W. The Distribution of Medical Care in Central California: a Social and
Economic Analysis, Thesis, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, 1977
- 1004 pages
 Veneris, Y, 1984, Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis,
University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.