MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT OF A COMPOSITE WALL

AIM:

To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient and the temperature distribution
across the width of a composite plane wall.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:

Many practical situations in engineering practice involve heat transfer through a

medium comprising two or more materials of different thermal conductivity, e.g., the walls of
buildings refrigerators, cold storage plants, hot water tanks etc.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

If we assume that the materials comprising a plane composite wall are in perfect thermal
contact, then the contact or interphase resistance is negligible and the temperature compatibility
of the two layers in contact exists. A typical composite wall consisting of three slabs of equal
thickness of different materials mild steel, asbestos and brass is shown in figure. The three
slabs are clamped on both sides with the help of bolts and nuts. One side of the composite is
filled with a heater, whereas a cooling water jacket is provided on the other side.
14thermocouples are embedded at different sections, 3 each on outside, inside and contact
surfaces and 1 each in the inlet and outlet of the circulating water lines. End losses from the
composite wall are minimized by enclosing it in box with glass wool insulation. Temperatures
T1 through T14 are measured on a digital temperature indicator and a selector switch.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

The overall heat transfer coefficient for the composite wall can be calculated by the
1
equation, U0 = 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 ……………. (1)
+ +
𝑘 1 𝑘 2 𝑘 3

PROCEDURE

1. Note down all the dimensions and specifications of the different components of the
apparatus.
2. Switch on the heater and adjust the heating rate, through the dimmer stat to a suitable
level(V.I).
3. Adjust mass rate of flow of circulating water and measure it in a glass jar.
4. Wait till the steady state is reached and than record the readings of 14 thermocouples
and voltmeter and ammeter.
5. Repeat the procedure for different heat rate.

OBSERVATIONS:

Average Temperature Experimental Theoretical

S.No Power Input (Oc) Value Of U Value Of U
(Watts) Ue Uo
Ti Tii Tiii Tiv

CALCULATIONS:

Using the measured data, at steady state, for each set, calculate the following.

1. Heat rate, Q=VI (watts)

2. Mass flow rate of water, m= ρq (kg/s)
(Where ρ is the density of water in kg/m3 and q the flow rate in m3/s)
3. Heat rate taken up by water , Qw= mCp (Tw2 – Tw1)
Where Cp=sp. Heat of water in J/kg 0C and

Tw1=water inset temperature in 0C, and

Tw2= water inset temperature in 0C

4. (i) Average temperature at the hot end of composite wall

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

𝑇1 +𝑇2 +𝑇3
Ti =
3

(ii) Average temperature at the cold end

𝑇10 +𝑇11 +𝑇12

Tiv =
3
𝛱
5. Heat transfer area, A = D2 where D is the diameter of plates in m.
4
6. The experimental overall heat transfer coefficient, Ue can be calculated by using

𝑄𝑤
Ue = (W/m2 0C)
𝐴(𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑖𝑣 )

7. The theoretical Uo is given by Eq.(1)

8. Compare Uo with Ue.

RESULTS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH LAGGED PIPE

AIM:

To determine the thermal conductivity of saw dust by knowing the thermal conductivity
of MgO powder using lagged pipe

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Heater,MgO powder ,saw dust ,power supply

FORMULA:

𝐾1 2𝜋𝐿∆𝑡1 𝐾2 2𝜋𝐿∆𝑡2
(V.I) Q = 𝑟 = 𝑟
ln(𝑟2 ) ln(𝑟3 )
1 2

Where,

∆t = temperature drop across the lagged pipe

K1 = thermal conductivity of MgO
K2 = thermal conductivity of saw dust
L = length of cylinder (500mm)
r1 = radius of heat pipe (9mm)
r2 = radius of MgO lagging pipe (21mm)
r3 = radius of saw dust lagging pipe (37.5mm)
Q = heat flow through lagging material
DESCRIPTION:

The experimental setup consists of a pipe lagged with two types of insulations. a heater
is provided for the heat input. Once the heater is switched on, the pipe gets heated and the heat
is transferred radially throughout the length. Sensors are placed on the regular intervals on the
pipe, lagging A and lagging B

The panel consists of ammeter and voltmeter, which gives the heat input reading. The
input heat can be varied by dimmer /voltage regulator.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

TABULATION:

S. Voltage Current Heat Heat rod Lagging1 Lagging2 Temp drop Temp drop Thermal
No V I flow Temp (MgO) saw dust ∆t1= ∆t2= conductivity
Volts Ampere Q (0C) Temp Temp TA-TB TB-TC ‘K’ (W/mK)
(W) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C)
T2 T3 TA T4 T5 TB T6 T7 TC

PROCEDURE:

1) Switch on the power supply

2) Switch on the heater and set the dimmer to required position
3) Wait for the steady state condition.
4) Note down the temperature readings, ammeter and voltmeter readings
5) Substitute the recorded readings in the required formula
6) Repeat the above for different heat inputs

RESULT:

Thus the thermal conductivity of saw dust is known to be ,,,,,,,,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A CONCENTRIC SPHERE

AIM:

To determine the thermal conductivity of an insulating powder.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:

It is desirable to reduce the heat loss to the surrounding in many heat exchange equipment.
Insulating material has a very low value of thermal conductivity and is used in different shapes,
sizes and forms. Insulating powders such as asbestos because of their ease of taking any
complex shape between the confining surface and their ease of taking any complex shape
between the confining surface and their having large air space in between particles are in great
demand these days. The thermal conductivity of an insulating powder will depend upon the
geometry of the surface, particles thermal conductivity, size and contained air space and the
modes of heat transfer in different situations of the application.

SPECIFICATIONS:

1. INNER SPHERE: 100mm O.D., halved construction.

2. OUTER SPHERE: 200mm I.D., halved construction.
3. HEATER: Mica flat heater, fitted inside inner sphere.
4. CONTROLS: a) Main switch- 30A, DPDT Switch.
b) Dimmerstat – 0-230 volts, 2A capacity.

5. MEASUREMENTS:
a) Voltmeter: 0-200volts.
b) Ammeter: 0-1Amp.
c) Multi channel digital temp indicator, calibrated for Cr/ Al thermocouples.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

The heat transfer rate (by conduction) Q through a hollow sphere of a material of thermal
conductivity k and maintained at Ti at the inner surface (ri) and at T0 at the outer surface (ro) is
given by

4𝜋𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 (𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 )

𝑄= (𝑟𝑜 −𝑟𝑖 )
……………………… (1)

(𝑟𝑜 −𝑟𝑖 )𝑄
Or k=
4𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 (𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 )

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

This equation is utilized in determining the thermal conductivity of an insulating

powder ( asbestos) in a typical set of apparatus shown in fig it consist two concentric copper
spheres and the insulating powder is firmly rammed between them . For ease of assembly the
surface may be made hemispherical in shape and joined together. a heating element (450W) is
fitted at the center of the inner sphere and is operated through a dimmerstat 10 thermocouples
six each on inner and outer surfaces are embedded in the rammed powder the 10 temperate T1
through T10 can be measured on a digital temperature indicator with the help of a thermocouple
selector switch provided on the panel board.

PROCEDURE:

1. Note down all the specifications of the viz voltmeter ammeter dimmer stat heater
selector switch thermocouples inner radius (ri) and outer radius of sphere (ro) etc.
2. Switch on the heater and adjust the heating rate through the dimmer start to a suitable
level (V. I)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

3. Start the stop watch and take the temperature reading on one or two thermocouples at
frequent intervals (say 5 minutes) till steady state has been reached.
4. At steady state record the reading of voltmeter and ammeter and 12 thermocouple
temperature reading.
5. Repeat the experiment for a different heat rate.

OBSERVATIONS:
Q THERMO COUPLE READING TEMP’S K
S.NO VOLT AMP = (0C) Ti To W/m0C
(V) (I) V.I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10

CALCULATIONS:

Using the measured a at steady state for each set calculation the following items

1. Heat input rate Q=VI (watts)

1
2. Inner surface temperature, 𝑇𝑖 = 5 (𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇4 + 𝑇5 )
1
3. Outer surface temperature, 𝑇𝑜 = 5 (𝑇6 + 𝑇7 + 𝑇8 + 𝑇9 + 𝑇10 )
4. Calculation the thermal conductivity of the powder, k (W/m. K) by using
(𝑟𝑜 −𝑟𝑖 )𝑄
k=
4𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 (𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 )

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Operate all the switches and controls gently.

2. If thermal conductivity of the powder other than supplied is to be determined, then
gently dismantle the outer sphere and remove the powder, taking care that heater
connections and thermocouples are not disturbed.
3. Earthing is essential for the unit.
4. Always keep the voltage below 120 Volts.

RESULT:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL ROD

AIM:

To determine the thermal conductivity of a good conducting material says a brass rod.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:

Thermal conductivity is a physical property of a substance and is primarily a function

of temperature and the nature of the material.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

The thermal conductivity of a metal rod (isotropic material) can be determined

experimentally by measuring the rate of heat flow and the temperature gradient in the rod the
relevant equation for this experiment is Fourier’s law

𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑄𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(Or) k=− 𝐴 𝑑𝑇

Searle’s method may be employed to obtain reasonably good results at moderate temperature
levels in this method a know rate of heat is conducted through a metal rod of cross sectional
area A and length L between a heat source on one end and a cooling fluid (sink) on the other.
The entire test section is packed in a shell filled with a good insulating material to minimize
section is packed in a shell filled with a good insulating material to minimize the lateral heat
loss from the rod thus ensuring a constant temperature gradient along the rod a typical set of
apparatus used in the laboratory is depicted in figure. It consist of a brass rod of diameter d and
length, L (L/d=25). About half of the rod (central portion) is embedded in a metallic shell

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

rammed with asbestos powder. On one end of the rod is fixed an electric heater with dimmersat
supplying V.I watts of heat (where V is voltage and I is current). The other end of the rod is
enclosed in a cooling water jacket through which water is continuously circulated and measured
in flask. 4 thermocouples, uniformly spaced are mounted on the bar and two thermocouples are
provided on the water lines. The temperatures can be measured on a digital temperature
indicator with the help of a thermocouple selector switch.

PROCEDURE:

1. Note down all the specification of the equipment, viz length of metal bar, diameter of metal
rod(d) number of thermocouples mounted on the rod and water lines, temperature indicator,
dimmerstat for heater coil, measuring flask for water flow rate, heater, length of metal bar
between thermocouples 1 and 4 (L), voltmeter, ammeter etc.

2. Switch on the heater and through dimmer stat give some low input VI as indicated on the
voltmeter and ammeter.

3. Open the inlet and outlet valve cocks for a low water circulation rate. Collect the water in a
measuring flask.

4. After steady state conditions are established record the temperatures of the thermocouples
along the rod (T1 T2 T3 T4) and Twi and Tw0 (T5 T6), the inlet and outlet temperatures of the
circulating water.

5. Repeat the experiment for various input conditions (V and I) to obtain the thermal
conductivity of the brass rod at the corresponding average temperature in each of the sets.

CALCULATIONS:

Using the measured data for each input (VI), calculate the following items

1. Heat input rate, Q= VI watts (V in volts and I in amperes)

2. Heat output rate, Q = ρqCp(Tw0 - Twi)

Where q is the flow rate in m3/s,

ρ is the density of water = 1000kg/m3

Cp is the specific heat of water = 4.2kJ/kg

3. Calculate the area of cross section of tube, A = Πd2/4

4. Draw the T Vs L plot, a best fitting straight line for temperatures T1, T2, T3, and T4.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Graph: T Vs L plot

The average temperature gradient is the slope of this plot:

𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑇 𝑇1 − 𝑇4
− = =
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝐿
5. Calculate the thermal conductivity ‘k’ from the equation

𝑄 𝑑𝐿
k = − 𝐴 𝑑𝑇 (W/m2 K)

RESULT:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

HEAT TRANSFER IN PIN-FIN

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the temperature distribution, efficiency and effectiveness of a pin fin.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:

Heat transfer between a surface and the fluid surrounding it can be increased by
attaching to the surface certain thin strips called fins or extended surfaces. Pin fins or spines
are rods protruding from a surface. Fins are used in a wide range of practical applications, viz
cooling of motorcycle engines, electric motors, transformers, refrigerators etc.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

The determination of heat flow through a fin requires the knowledge of temperature
distribution through it. The performance of a fin may be assessed in terms of its efficiency and
effectiveness. Figure shows atypical set up of a pin fin placed inside a duct open on one side.
The other side of the duct is connected to the suction side of a blower. The delivery of air is
through agate valve and an orificemeter to the atmosphere. The air flow can be varied by the
gate valve and can be measured by a U tube differential manometer connected to an orifice
meter. A heating element operating through a dimmerstat is connected to one end of the pin-
fin and five thermocouples are connected equidistant all along the length of the fin. Sixth
thermocouple is left in the duct. The panel of the apparatus consisting of a voltmeter, an
ammeter temperature indicator, thermocouple selector switch, U-tube manometer etc. The
temperature distribution in a pin fin is given by
𝑇𝑥 −𝑇∞ cosh 𝑚(𝐿−𝑥)
= ………………. (1)
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇∞ cosh(𝑚𝐿)

ℎ𝑝
Where m= √
𝑘𝐴

h=heat transfer coefficient in convection (W/m2 0C)

p=perimeter of fin= πD, D being the diameter of fin (m)
𝛱 2
A=area of cross-section of fin= D (m2)
4
K=thermal conductivity of fin material (w/m0c)
L=length of fin (m)
x =distance from base of fin (m)
Tx =temperature at x (0c)
T0 =temperature at base of fin (0c)
T∞ = environment (duct) temperature 0c)
The heat transfer rate, Q by the fin is
Q= √ℎ𝑝𝑘𝐴(𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ ) tanh(𝑚𝐿) …………………….. (2)
The fin efficiency is given by
tanh(𝑚𝐿)
𝜂𝑓 = ……………………. (3)
𝑚𝐿
tanh(𝑚𝐿)
The effectiveness of the fin can be calculated from the equation: ∈=
ℎ𝐴
………….(4)
√𝑘𝑝

PROCEDURE:
Note the diameter, D and length L of the fin and also the location of 5 thermocouples.

(a) Forced Convection- with air circulation (Blower ON)

1. Set the power input to the heater to a desired level through the dimmerstat.(V. I)
2. Switch on the blower and set the air flow rate to any desired value.
3. Allow the system to attain the steady state.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

4. At steady state record the temperatures on the surface (T1,T2,T3,T4,T5) and the
ambient temperature, T6.
5. Note down the difference in level of the two limbs of the manometer.
6. Repeat the experiment by
(i) Varying the air flow rare and keeping the power input to the heater constant.
(ii) Varying the power input of the heater and keeping the air flow rate constant.
(b) Natural Convection- Without air circulation (Blower OFF)
1. Follow the steps 1,3 and 4
2. Repeat the experiment for different power input to the heater.

OBSERVATIONS:

Manometer
S.NO V I Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Reading
(Volts) (Amps) (Watts) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) h1 h2

CALCULATIONS:

(a) Forced Convection

2𝑔ℎ0 (𝜌𝑚 −𝜌𝑎 ) 1
1. Velocity of air at orifice, 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐶𝑑 √ * (m/s)
𝜌𝑎 √1−𝐵4
2. Where Cd= coefficient of discharge of orifice
ho = manometer reading (m)
ρm=density of manometric fluid (kg/m3)
ρa=density of air at ambient temperature (kg/m3)
2. Velocity of air in the duct, Va can be obtained by applying the continuity equation,
Va x cross sectional area of duct = Vo x cross sectional area of orifice
𝜋
𝑉𝑜 4 𝑑𝑜2
Or 𝑉𝑎 = (m/s)
𝑊𝐵
Where do =diameter of orifice (m)
W=width of duct (m)
B=breadth of duct (m)
𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝐷
3 Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒𝐷 of air flow =
𝜇𝑎
Where D is the diameter of fin (m)
𝑘𝑔𝑚
𝜇𝑎 = dynamic viscosity of air
𝑠

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

𝜇𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎
4. Prandtl No, pr = 𝑘𝑎
Where ka=thermal conductivity of air (w/m0C) at film temp.
Cpa=sp. Heat of air at film temp. (J/kg0C)
5. Heat transfer coefficient h can be calculated by using the correlation.
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = C (𝑅𝑒𝐷 )n (Pr)0.33
ℎ𝐷
Where 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 𝑘
And C and n are taken from the following table
𝑹𝒆𝑫 C n
0.4-4.0 0.989 0.33
4.0-40.0 0.911 0.385
40-4000 0.683 0.466
4000-40000 0.193 0.618

6. Using Eq (1) estimate To by using T1 at x=x1

(𝑇1 −𝑇∞ ) cosh(𝑚𝐿)
𝑇0 = 𝑇∞ + cosh 𝑚(𝐿−𝑥1 )
7. Using T0, estimated above, calculate the values of T2,T3,T4,T5 and compare with the
temperatures recorded by thermocouples 2,3,4,5.
8. Calculate the heat loss by the fin, Q by using Eq.(2) and compare it with the heat supplied
to the fin =V. I

9. Calculate the fin efficiency and fin effectiveness by using Eq.(3) and (4) respectively

(b) Free convection:

1 Assume a suitable value of the heat transfer coefficient, h for free convection or
determine the value of h using the correlations of heat transfer coefficient in natural
convention.
2 Follow steps 6,7,8,9 as in forced convection.

RESULTS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

EXPERIMENT ON TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION:

When a body is subjected to heating or cooling, irrespective of the material it requires certain
time to attain steady state. Hence the other way of expressing is that the unsteady process will
occur till it attains the steady process. In unsteady process the temperature will change with
respect to time.

Although, temperature of the body is generally expressed as the function of 3 different axis and
time, It is not easy to solve.

Unsteady state heating or cooling can categorize as:

i)PERODIC HEAT FLOW: Where the temperature within the system undergoes periodic
changes which may be regular or irregular.

ii)NON-PERIODIC HEAT FLOW: Where the temperature within the system within the system
changes non-linearly with respect to time.

Unsteady state heat flow is very common in all heating or cooling problems at the beginning
of the system. Hardening by quenching, cooling of IC engine cylinders, and heating of boiler
tubes are common examples of unsteady state heat flow.

2. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a hot water bath provided with electrical heater: so that water can be
heated up to desired temperature. A test piece with a thermocouple at the center is immersed
in the water bath and its temperature is measured at fixed interval of time. The unit is provided
with timer, which whistles every five seconds. The hot test piece then cooled in cooling water
tank. Thus heat transfer coefficient during heat and cooling process can be calculated.

3. EXPERIMENTATION:

I. AIM:

To determine heat transfer coefficient and instantaneous heat transfer rate for transient heat
conduction and draw the graph of temperature variation with time

II. PROCEDURE:

1. Take the fluid water in the tank.

2. Heat the fluid to the required temperature says 700C in case of water.

3. Note down the initial temperature of trod and hot fluid.

4. Immerse the rod in hot fluid bath for heating.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

5. Note down the core and outer surface temperature of the rod at every 10 seconds till it attains
fluid temperature

6. Take out the rod from hot fluid and cool it in cooling tank.

7. Note down the temperature at every 10 second till it reaches atmospheric condition.

8. Repeat the experiment for different temperatures of fluid.

III) OBSERVATIONS:

1. Test piece-M.S. [T0-T3 on selector switch]

0
2. Hot bath temp. = C [Tf-T1 on selector switch]
0
3. Ambient temperature. = C [Ta-on selector switch]

4. Density of specimen=8800Kg/m3

5. Cp=381J/kg K

6. Specimen size= 50mm x 80mm

7. Initial temperature of specimen= To

8. Temperature of surrounding bath: Tf

S.NO Heating process Cooling Process

Time in Temp of test h Time in Temp of h

Sec piece W/m2K Sec Test piece W/m2K

1 0[initial] T0 = 0 [initial]

2 10 T1 = 10

3 20 T2 = 20

4 30 T3 = 30

40 40

N Tn =

IV) THEORY:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Let the initial temperature of body be to and surface area of body be A m2.

When a body of volume ‘V’ is immersed in surroundings of temperature Tf. Then at any instant
of time t, rate of chance of internal energy of body is equal to heat transfer rate from the
surroundings.

Hence,
𝑑𝑇
𝜌 𝑉𝑎 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = ℎ 𝐴 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑓 )

If ϕ = (T-Tf) then
𝑑𝜙
𝜌 𝑉𝑎 𝐶𝑝 = −ℎ𝐴𝜙
𝑑𝑡

Integrating and using initial condition, at t = 0, ϕ = (T - Tf) = ϕo , then

−ℎ 𝐴 𝑡
𝜙 [𝜌 𝐶 ]
=𝑒 𝑝𝑉
𝜙𝑜

For cylinder of radius R and length L,

−2ℎ (𝐿+𝑅) 𝑡
𝜙 [ ]
𝜌 𝐶𝑝 𝑅 𝐿
=𝑒
𝜙𝑜

The equation can be expressed in terms of two dimensionless parameters, called Biot number
(Bi) and Fourier number (F0)
ℎ𝐿 ∝𝑇
𝐵𝑖 = And 𝐹𝑜 =
𝐾 𝐿2

Where,

K= Thermal conductivity,

L= Characteristic dimension,

∝=Thermal diffusivity
𝐾
∝=
𝜌 𝐶𝑝

For the cylinder, R is characteristic dimension,

𝐿 −1
𝜙 [−2 (𝐵𝑖 ) (𝐹𝑜 ) (1+𝑅) ]
∴ 𝜙𝑜
=𝑒

𝑇−𝑇 −𝐺.𝐿.𝑅 ∝ 𝑡
log 𝑒 𝑇 −𝑇𝐹 = [ 𝐾 𝑅2
]
1 𝐹

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

𝐾.𝑅 𝑇−𝑇
∴ ℎ = [𝐺∝𝑡] . log 𝑒 𝑇 −𝑇𝐹 W/m2K ………………….. (1)
1 𝐹

V.CALCULATIONS:
0
Initial temperature of body= T1 = C
0
Temperature of water bath (or surrounding) = Tf = C

Specimen size= dia 50mm*80mm Long

Hence,

a) Volume of specimen,
𝜋 2
𝑉= 𝐷 𝐿
4
= …………… m3

b) Surface area of specimen,

𝜋
𝐴 = 2 [ 𝐷2 ] + 𝜋𝐷𝐿
4
= …………. m2

Φo = (To - Tf)

c) After 5 seconds,

Φ5 = (T1 - Tf), Φ10 = (T2 - Tf), Φ15 = (T3 - Tf), ……… Φn = (Tn - Tf)

Now,
−2h (L+R) t
ϕ [ ]
ρ Cp R L
=e
ϕo

ϕ −2h (L+R) t
∴ log 𝑒 [ϕ ] = [ ]
o ρ Cp R L

ϕ
𝜌 𝐶𝑝 𝑅 𝐿 log𝑒 [ ]
ϕo
h=
2 (𝐿+𝑅)𝑡
Where,
ρ = Mass density of specimen
= 7800 kg/m3 for M.S.
= 8800 kg/m3 for Copper.
Cp = Specific heat of specimen
= 452 J/kg K (0.1 k.cal/kg m 0C) for M.S.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

= 381 J/kg K (0.09 k.cal/kg m 0C) for Copper.

R & L = radius and length of specimen.
t = time in hours.
The above calculations are made by neglecting the internal temperature
gradients of specimen. However there is criterion for neglecting the internal temperature
gradients of specimen. However, there is criterion for neglecting temperature gradient, which
is Bi<0.1 can be readily verified, because

ℎ𝐿
Bi =
𝐾

Hence, for cylinder R is characteristic dimension

ℎ𝑅
∴ 𝐵𝑖 =
𝐾

∝𝑡
Fourier Number; Fo =
𝑅2

Where ∝ is thermal diffusivity.

Now, we have
𝑇−𝑇
log 𝑒 (𝑇 −𝑇𝐹 ) = 𝑒 −( 𝐺.𝐵𝑖.𝐹𝑜 )
1 𝐹
Where for cylinders dimensionless quantity ‘G’ = 2.
𝐾.𝑅 𝑇−𝑇
∴ ℎ = [𝐺 ∝𝑡] log 𝑒 𝑇 −𝑇𝐹 W/m2K.
1 𝐹

VI) CONCLUSION:

1. Average heat transfer coefficient for heating is -----------

2. Average heat transfer coefficient for cooling is ---------

VII) PRECAUTIONS:

1. Operate all the switches and controls gently.

2. Do not heat water above 900C.

3. While heating the water, the small opening for inserting the test piece should be
covered.

4. Never start the heater without water in the tank.

VIII) RESULT:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

HEAT TRANSFER IN FORCED CONVECTION APPARATUS

AIM:

To determine the heat transfer coefficient in forced convection of air in a tube.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:

In many practical situations and equipments we invariably deal with flow of fluids in
tubes e.g., boilers, superheated and condensers of a power plant, automobile radiators, water
and air heaters or coolers etc. the knowledge about and evaluation of forced convection heat
transfer coefficient for fluid flow in tubes is essentially a prerequisite for an optimal design of
all thermal systems.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

The flow through a tube may be either laminar or turbulent or in transition. The heat
transfer rates under these situations may be quite different but the rate equation may, in general
be written as

Q = ℎ̅As(Tb-Ts ) ………………….. (1)

Where Q is the rate of heat transfer (W),

As is the surface area convecting heat (m2)
Ts is the mean surface temperature (0C)
Tb is the bulk mean temperature of fluid (0C), and
ℎ̅ is the average heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 0C)

Fig shows a typical setup used for this experiment. It consists of blower for supply of
air through a 40 mm I.D G.I. pipe, an air heater and the test section. The wattage to the heater
is controlled by a dimmerstat. Temperatures of the air at inlet T1 and outlet T7 of the test section
of measured by thermocouples located in the air stream. Test section wall surface temperatures

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

(T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6) are measured by thermocouples embedded in the surface at different
locations from the entrance. A gate value is provided in the passage to control the rate of air
flow through the system an orifice plat 20mm diameter is also fitted near the d\test section to
measure the flow rate. A U tube water manometer is mounted on the panel board which is also
having an ammeter, voltmeter, a temperature indicator, a thermocouple selector switch and a
dimmerstat fitted on it.

PROCEDURE:

1. Note down all the relevant specification of all the instruments provided on the panel
board and the test section along with the orifice.
2. Start the blower by keeping the valve fully open.
3. Switch on the heater and adjust the heating rate to a suitable level (V.I)
4. Allow the system to stabilize the,.ie. to attain the steady state.
5. Record all temperatures, heater input and pressure drop across the orifice.
6. Repeat the experiment for a different heat input and air flow rates.

OBSERVATIONS:

Manometer
S.NO V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Reading
0 0 0 0 0 0
(Volts) (Amps) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) h1 h2

CALCULATIONS:

1. Heat input rate, Q = Heat lost by air = m Cp (T1-T7) (W)

2. The mass flow rate of air through the test section, m a is where m is the mass flow
rate of air in kg/s and Cp is the specific heat of air in J/kg 0C.
𝑇2 +𝑇3 +𝑇4 +𝑇5 +𝑇6
3. Mean surface temperature, Ts = (0C)
5
𝑇1 +𝑇7
4. Bulk mean temperature, Tb = (0C)
2
5. Surface area, AS = 𝜋𝐷𝑖 𝐿 (𝑚2 )
Where Di and L are the inner diameter and length in m respectively of the test
section.
̅ e , by using Eq.(1)
6. Calculate The Experimental Heat Transfer Coefficient, ℎ

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

𝑄
ℎ̅e = (W/m2 0C)
𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑏 −𝑇𝑠 )
Given by: 𝑚𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ ÷ (1 − 𝐵 4 ) 𝜌𝑎 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)
Where Cd = coefficient of discharge of orifice.
𝜋
A0 = area of cross section of orifice = 4 (𝐷𝑜 )2 (m2)
Do diameter of Orifice
B= =
D Inner diameter of pipe
ρa = density of air at ambient temperature (kg/m3)
𝜌
h =ℎ𝑚 ( 𝜌𝑚 − 1), hm is the manometric head and ρm is the density of the
𝑎
manometric fluid.
̅ can also be calculated by using the
7. The value of heat transfer coefficient ℎ
correlations.
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒 0.8
𝐷 𝑟
𝑃 0.3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 10000
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.036 𝑅𝑒 0.8
𝐷 𝑟
𝑃 0.3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 2300
0.104(𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 . 𝐷/𝐿)
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 3.66 + 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝐷 < 2300
1 + 0.16(𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 . 𝐷/𝐿)0.8
Where:
̅𝐷
ℎ
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = (Dimensionless) = Nusselt number
𝑘
k = thermal conductivity fluid (W/m0C)
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = (Dimensionless) = Reynolds number
𝛾
𝑚̇𝑎
V= mean velocity of flow through tube = 𝜋 (m/s)
(𝜌 4 𝐷 2 )
γ = kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/s)
𝜇𝐶𝑝
𝑃𝑟 = (Dimensionless) = Prandtl number
𝑘

The fluid properties, µ, γ, k, ρ, Pr etc are to be evaluated at the mean bulk temperature of the fluid,
Tb.

RESULT:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION

AIM:
To determine the surface heat transfer coefficient for a heated vertical cylinder in
natural convection.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:
Free or natural convection is the principal mode of heat transfer from transmission lines,
pipes, refrigerating coils, hot radiators, buildings and many other practical situations in
everyday life.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

Considering a situation in which the body force is gravitational and the change in
density is brought about by a temperature gradient, the heat transfer rate in free convection is
given by Newton’s law of heating (cooling):
Q = ℎ̅As(Ts-T∞ )……………… (1)
Where Q is the rate of heat transfer (W)
As is the area of surface convecting heat (m2),
TS is the mean surface temperature (oC),
T∞ is the surrounding fluid temperature (oC),
And ℎ̅ is the average heat transfer coefficient,( W/m2k)

A typical experimental set up consists of a vertical metallic tube of diameter, D and

length, L enclosed in a rectangular duct open at top and bottom figure the duct should be of
such a size that it does not interfere with the convection process while at the same time prevents

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

external disturbances. The front side of the duct is made of a transparent material for visual
observations. An electrical heating element is embedded in the metallic tube surface. The heat
input is varied with the help of a dimmer stat. A number of thermocouples (say 7) are fixed on
the tube at equal distances and one thermocouples (8) is kept in the chamber for measuring the
surrounding temperature. Temperatures T1 through T8, voltage V and current I are measured in
a similar manner as described in earlier experiments.

PROCEDURE:
7. Note down the specification of all the instruments provided on the panel and also
the length (L) and diameter (d) of the metallic tube.
8. Switch on the heater and adjust the heating rate to a suitable level (V. I)
9. Wait for some time to ensure the unit to reach steady state.
10. At steady state record the voltage and current readings and the temperatures T 1
through T7 and T8
11. Repeat the experiment for a different heat rate.

OBSERVATIONS:

S.NO V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Volts) (Amps) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C)

CALCULATIONS:
8. Heat input rate, Q=VI(W)
𝑇1 +𝑇2 +𝑇3 +𝑇4 +𝑇5 +𝑇6 +𝑇7
9. Mean surface temperature, Ts= (0C)
7
10. Ambient temperature T∞ = T8 (0C)
11. Surface area As = Π DL (m2)
12. Calculate The Experimental Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient, ℎ̅e by using Eq.(1)
𝑄
ℎ̅e = (W/m2 0C)
𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 −𝑇∞ )
13. The experimental value of obtained above can be compared the one by using the
well known correlations as described below.
̅u = 0.59 (Gr.Pr)1/4 for Gr.Pr < 109
𝑁
̅u = 0.10 (Gr.Pr)1/3 for Gr.Pr > 109
𝑁
̅
̅u = ℎ𝐿 = average Nusselt number
Where 𝑁 𝑘

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

k = thermal conductivity of air in W/m0C

𝛽𝑔𝐿3 (𝑇𝑠 −𝑇∞ )
Gr = = grashof number
𝑣2
1
β = (𝑇 =coefficient of thermal expansion
𝑓 +273)
v = kinematic viscosity of air in m2/s
𝜇
Pr =
𝐶𝑝 𝑘
= prandtl number
Cp= specific heat of air in J/kg 0C
µ = dynamic viscosity of air in kg/ms
The fluid properties k, 𝜇, 𝛾, 𝐶𝑝 , 𝛽 are evaluated at the film temperature, Tf,, is given by
𝑇𝑆 +𝑇∞
Tf = (0C)
2
RESULTS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

PARALLEL FLOW AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

AIM:

To study and compare the heat transfer rate LMTD overall heat transfer coefficient and
effectiveness of a heat exchanger working in parallel flow counter flow mode

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:

Heat exchangers are devices used for effecting the process of heat exchange between two
fluids that at different temperature these are employed in many engineering processes like those
in power systems food processing system refrigeration and air conditioning systems chemical
space and aeronautical applications. The recuperators or surface heat exchangers in which the
two fluids do not come in direct contact are most commonly used in practice. In a double and
the other fluid moves through the inner pipe. If both the fluids move in the same direction the
arrangement is called a parallel flow type. In the counter flow arrangement both the fluids move
in parallel bur opposite directions.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

The LMTD (log mean temperature difference) for a parallel flow/counter flow heat
exchanger is given by

∆𝑇1 −∆𝑇2
LMTD = ∆𝑇 …………………………. (1)
ln∆𝑇1
2

Where ∆T1 and ∆T2 are the terminal temperature difference of the hot and cold fluid at inlet
and exit sections of a heat exchanger.

Also Q= Uo Ao LMTD ……………………………. (2)

Where Q= heat transfer rate of the exchanger

Ao = outer area of the inner tube

Uo= overall heat transfer coefficient

The effectiveness, defend as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum possible heat
transfer is given by

𝐶𝑐 (𝑇𝑐𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
∈= 𝐶 ………………………… (3)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ𝑖 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 )

𝐶ℎ (𝑇ℎ𝑖 −ℎ𝑜)
Or ∈= 𝐶 ………………………..... (4)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ𝑖 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 )

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Where Cc and Ch are the cold and hot fluid heat capacity rates (product of mass flow rate and
specific heat) and Th and Tc are the hot and cold fluid temperatures at inlet, i or outlet o Cmin is
the smaller of Cc and Ch

A typical set of concentric tube (double pipe) heat exchanger is shown in figure. An electric
geyser is provided to supply hot water which flows through the inner tube. cold water is used
as the cold fluid and it can be admitted at either end enabling the same heat exchanger to run
in a parallel flow or a counter flow mode this achieved by operating different valves provided
in the water line . The outer tube is adequately insulated to minimize the heat loss to the
surrounding thermometers/thermocouples are used to measure the inlet and outlet temperature
of the cold and hot fluids. The flow rates of the two fluids are measuring flask/jar.

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the geyser and wait for some time. Start the flow on hot and cold water sides.
2. Adjust the flow rate on the hot water side to a suitable value .say 700 ml/min and that
on the cold side to 800 ml/min.
3. Keep the same flow rates till steady state condition is reached.
4. Note the inlet and outlet temperature of the cold and hot fluid.
5. Measure the flow rates of hot and cold fluid.
6. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates as well as for parallel flow and counter
flow modes.
7. Note down the I.D., O.D., of the inner and outer tubes and also the length of the
exchanger.

OBSERVATIONS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Type Hot Water Cold Water LMTD Overall Heat Effective-

of Mass Inlet Outlet Mass Inlet Outlet (0C) Transfer ness
Flow Flow temp temp Flow temp temp Coefficient
mh Thi Tho mc Tci Tco

CALCULATIONS:

(a) Parallel flow operation

1. Heat transfer rate from cold water Qc= mc ce (Tco-Tci)
=Cc(Tco-Tci)
2. Heat transfer rate from hot water Qh= mh ch (Thi-Tho)=Ch(Thi-Tho) where m and c
are the mass flow rate specific heat respectively
𝑄𝑐 +𝑄ℎ
3. Qaverage , Qa = (W)
2
∆𝑇1 −∆𝑇2 (𝑇ℎ𝑖 −𝑇𝑐𝑖 )−(𝑇ℎ𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 )
4. LMTD = ∆𝑇1 = 𝑇ℎ𝑖 −𝑇𝑐𝑖 (0C)
ln∆𝑇 ln[𝑇 −𝑇 ]
2 ℎ𝑜 𝑐𝑜
5. The overall heat transferee coefficient Uo can be calculated from Eq.(2)
𝑄𝑎
U0 = 𝐴 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 (𝑊/𝑚2 0𝐶)
0
Where A0 = π D0L (m2)
D0 = outer diameter of the inner tube in m
L = length of the heat exchanger in m.
6. Cmin =smaller of Cc and Ch
7. Calculate the effectiveness E of the heat exchanger by using either of Eqs. (3) and
(4).
(b) Counter flow operation
1. Proceed as in steps 1, 2, and 3 parallel flow operations.
∆𝑇1 −∆𝑇2 (𝑇ℎ𝑖 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 )−(𝑇ℎ𝑜 −𝑇𝑐𝑖 )
2. LMTD = ∆𝑇 = 𝑇 −𝑇
ln∆𝑇1 ln[𝑇ℎ𝑖 −𝑇𝑐𝑜 ]
2 ℎ𝑜 𝑐𝑖
3. Calculate U0 and ∈ as outlined in (a) above.

RESULTS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

EMISSIVITY APPARATUS
AIM:

To determine the emissivity of a metallic plate.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:

The concept of a black body is only an idealization for comparison of real body
performance, most surface in engineering practice do not behave like black bodies the
emissivity of a surface is a measure of how it radiates in comparison with a black surface at the
same temperature the emissivity of a surface is a function of its nature and characteristics it is
essentially a surface property.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

The emissivity of a surface is the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the emissive
power of the black surface at the same temperature. A typical experimental set up is shown in
figure. It consist of two identical circular brass plates provided with heating coils at the bottom
surface the plate are mounted on an insulation (asbestos cement ) sheet and kept in an enclosure
to provide identical undisturbed natural connection surroundings the heat input to the heaters
and varies by two separate dimmerstat and measured an ammeter and a voltmeter. The plates
are embedded with three thermo couples each to measure the average surface temperature the
seventh thermo couple is kept in the enclosure to measure the chamber temperature one plate
is blackened by a thick layer of lamp black to form the idealized black surface where the other
plate is treated as a test plate.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE:

1. Note down the dimension of the two plates and the specifications of all the instruments
provided on the panel board.
2. Switch on the power supply adjust the power input to the black body and the test
surface through dimmerstats so that VI for both the heaters is almost equal.
3. Wait till the steady state is reached. Record the temperature of the black surface T 1,
T2, T3, T4 and the test surface T5,T6, T7,T8 also measure the chamber temperature T9.
4. Repeat the experiment for different input conditions

OBSERVATIONS:

Black Plate Test Plate Enclosure Temp

S.NO V I Tb V I Ts Ta

CALCULATIONS:

Let D be the diameter of the black and test surface

𝜋
Area of black surface Ab = D2 (m2)
4
𝜋
Area of test surface A s = D2 (m2)
4

Power input to black surface Pb = V b Ib (W)

Power input to test surface Ps = Vs I s (W)

𝑇1 +𝑇2 +𝑇3+𝑇4
Temperature of black surface Tb = (K)
4
𝑇5 +𝑇6+𝑇7 +𝑇8
Temperature of test surface TS = (K)
4

Ambient temperature T∞ = T9

Also power input to test surface, Pb = ∊b σ Ab ( Tb4 - T∞4) (W)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

And power input to the test surface, Ps = ∊s σ As ( Ts4 - T∞4) (W)

Where ∊b and ∊s are the emissivitties of the test surface and the black body respectively.

Taking ∊b = 1 and Ps = Pb and As = Ab

𝑇𝑏4 −𝑇∞
4
∊s =
𝑇𝑠4 −𝑇∞
4

RESULTS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS

AIM:

To determine the Stefan Boltzmann constant of radiation heat transfer.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:

All equations of heat transfer by radiation whether from a single body or from multiple
bodies exchanging radiation will involve σ, the Stefan Boltzmann constant. Although its value
is universally known and is equal to 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4, yet it will be worth our while to
determine it experimentally in the laboratory.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

When a gray surface of are A1. at temperature, T1 surrounds another gray surface of
area A2 at temperature T2; the net rate of heat exchange by radiation between the two surfaces
is given by

̅ 𝜎𝐴1 𝐹12 (𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ) =∈

Q12 = ∈ ̅ 𝜎𝐴2 𝐹21 (𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ) ………….. (1)

Where the shape factors F12, F21 and effective emissivity of the two surfaces having
emmisivities ∈1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∈2 are related as:

1 1
̅ 𝐹12 = 1 𝐴 1
∈
1 [ −1]
& ∈̅ 𝐹21 = 1 𝐴2 1 …………… (2)
+ + [ −1]
∈1 𝐴 2 ∈ 2 ∈2 𝐴1 ∈1

𝜎𝐴1 (𝑇14 −𝑇24 ) 𝜎𝐴2 (𝑇14 −𝑇24 )

So 𝑄12 = 1 𝐴1 1 = 1 𝐴2 1 ………………….. (3)
+ [ −1] + [ −1]
∈1 𝐴2 ∈2 ∈2 𝐴1 ∈1

The use of eq. (3), is made of in determining the Stefan Boltzmann constant in a typical
apparatus, shown in figure.

It comprises a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-conducting base plate. A

groove is made in the centre of the base plate in which is fitted a Bakelite sleeve. A small
copper disc of mass 0.5gm is made to exactly fit in this groove. Thus the hemisphere completely
encloses the small copper disc.

The outer surface of the hemisphere is enclosed by a metallic water jacket which is used to
heat the hemisphere is enclosed by a metallic water jacket which is used to heat the
hemispherical surface to a constant temperature. Three iron-constantan thermocouples are
attached to the hemisphere and a forth one is fitted on the small disc to measure their
temperatures. The small disc can be fitted in or removed from the groove at will.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE:

1. Heat the water in the water tank by the immersion heater provided to a temperature of
about 85oc.
2. Remove the copper disc from the base plate and keep it aside on the table.
3. Allow the hot water from the tank to fill and circulate through the water jacket.
4. Wait for thermal equilibrium to be attained between the copper hemisphere and the base
plate as indicated lay the three thermocouples provided on the copper bowl (T1, T2, and
T3).
5. Insert the small disc and position it exactly n the groove. Start the stop watch
immediately and record the disc temperature (by the thermocouple provided on the disc,
T5) at short intervals (15s or so). The disc temperature will increase with time as it
receiving heat by radiation from the hemisphere.
6. Remove the disc after recording 6-7 temperature readings.
7. Repeat the experiment for some other constant temp. of the hemisphere.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

OBSERVATIONS:

Average
S.NO Time T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 𝑻𝟏 +𝑻𝟐 +𝑻𝟑 +𝑻𝟒
T= 𝟒

Avg T6 = Avg T =

CALCULATIONS:

Mass of the copper disc = m (gm)

Specific heat of disc material =Cp= (J/kg K)

Diameter of the disc = d (m)

𝜋𝑑 2
Area of the disc = Ae= (𝑚2 )
4

Diameter of the copper hemispherical surface = D (m)

𝜋𝐷 2
Area of the copper hemispherical surface = (𝑚2 )
2

Emissivity of hemisphere = ∈𝑠

Emissivity of disc = ∈𝑒
𝑇1 +𝑇2 +𝑇3
Temperature of hemispherical surface, 𝑇𝑆 = (K)
3

Where T1, T2 and T3 are the temperatures read by the thermocouples 1,2 and 3.

Temperature- Time response of the disc.

Time, t (s) Temp Te (K)

1 -- --
2 -- --
3 -- --
4 -- --
5 -- --
6 -- --

Denoting the hemispherical enclosure by s and the enclosed disc by e, eq.(3) becomes

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

𝜎𝐴𝑒 (𝑇𝑠4 −𝑇𝑒4 )

𝑄𝑠𝑒 = 1 𝐴𝑒 1 ………………… (4)
+ [ −1]
∈𝑒 𝐴𝑠 ∈𝑠

In the above equation, Te varies with time.

The net rate of heat received by the disc, Q se depends on the instantaneous disc temperature,
Te. The heat received will increase the temperature, which can be related as
𝑑𝑇𝑒
Qse= mCp ………………………… (5)
𝑑𝑡

Equating (4) and (5), we get

𝑑𝑇𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑇𝑠4 −𝑇𝑒4

=𝜎[ ] 1 𝐴 1 …………… (6)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝐶𝑝 +[ 𝑒]{ −1}
∈𝑒 𝐴𝑠 ∈𝑠

𝑑𝑇𝑒
Now can be obtained by measuring the slope of the plot drawn between Te and t, using
𝑑𝑡
Eq. (6) calculate the value of σ.

RESULTS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS

AIM:
To draw the boiling curve for water and study the phenomenon of the water boiling
SPECIFICATIONS:
Voltmeter : 300V
Ammeter : 0-5amps
Temp indicator : 6channel, thermo couple chromel/alumel
Variac : 2amp/220V
Glass bowl : Φ8 inch
Nichrome wire dia,d : 36swg
Length, L : 100mm
Bulk heater : 250watts
DESCRIPTION:
The heat transfer rate per unit area is called as heat flux .it is denotaed as “q”. heat transfer
rate is the energy, which is transferred across a surface of interest due to temperature gradients
at the surface and temperature differences between the surfaces
Boiling of heat transfer:
Boiling occurs when heat transfer to the liquid phase of a substance causes sum of the liquid
to change in to the vapour phase. If the heater is submerged in a bath of essentially stationary
liquid, the process is refered to as pool boiling. In the pool boiling of saturated pure liquid,
three different types of boiling involved.
1 .Ordinary Free Convection Boiling :
It’s the type of boiling,in which no bubbles or vapour pockets are observerd in the saturated
liquid
2. Nucleat Boiling:
This particular boiling regime, where vapour bubbles originate at various point on the heater
surface
3. Film Boiling:
When the large fraction of heating surface covered by the bubbles,indicates beginning of the
film boiling

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

EXEPERIMENTAL SETUP:
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical glass container contained distilled water.the heating
surface is in the form of nichrome heater wire completely submerged in the water. There is
another heater submerged in the water to initially heat up the water to required temperature to
study the heat flux phenomenon at various bulk temperatures. Electrical supply to testing wire
is given through a dimmer stat and the power input is measured with the help of volt meter and
an ammeter.

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT FOR THE HEATERS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

FORMULAE:
1. Experimental heat flux, q = (0.86 V I)/πdl
2. 0.86 = resistance temp coefficient of nichrome wire.
𝜋 𝜎 𝑔 (𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑉 ) 0.25 𝜌𝐿 +𝜌𝑉 0.25
3. Theoretical heat flux, Q/A = ( ) 𝜆 𝜌𝑉 [ ] x[ ]
24 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉

4. 𝜆 = hfg (specific enthalpy of evaporation at req. bulb temp)

1
5. 𝜌L = (Vf – specific volume of water)
𝑉𝑓

1
6. 𝜌V = (Vg – specific volume of steam)
𝑉𝑔

7. ρ = surface tension of vapour-liquid interface (at atm. Temp = 58.9x10-3N/m)

PROCEDURE:
1) Switch on the power supply
2) Fill the glass tube with three liters of water
3) Switch on the bulk heater
4) Wait for the required bulk temperature
5) Now switch of the bulk heater switch on the nichrome heater switch
6) Increase the variac and note the change in surface temperature at each input curvature
7) Keep on increase the variac up to the burn out period of nichrome wire
8) The above can be repeated for the different bulk readings
TABULATION:
S.NO Bulk Temp Tsat Voltage Current
(0c) (0c) (Volts) (Amps)

RESULT:
Thus the boiling curve of water is drawn and the phenomenon is __________.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

STUDY OF HEAT PIPE AND ITS DEMONSTRATION

AIM:

To compare the performance characteristics of a heat pipe with two other geometrically
similar pipes of copper and stainless steel.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:

It is believed that smaller and more compact the heat exchanger, the better the design
for transferring energy from one location to other. The heat pipe is a novel device for high
thermal conductance, i.e., it allows the transfer of large quantities of heat through small surface
areas with very little temperature difference from end to end. The heat pipe is similar to a
thermal syphon but has the added advantage of being used in any orientation unlike a thermal
syphon wherein the evaporator must be situated at the lowest point. A heat pipe in its simplest
form is shown in fig. It consists of a circular pipe with a layer of wicking material covering the
inside surface and a hollow core in the centre. A condensable fluid like water is placed in the
pipe and the liquid permeates the wicking material by capillary action. When are end of the
pipe (the evaporator section) is heated, liquid is vaporized in the wick and the vapour moves to
the central core. At the other end of the pipe, heat is removed (the condenser section) and the
vapour condenser back into the wick. The liquid is replenished in the evaporator section by
capillary action. A typical heat pipe of copper using water as the working fluid can transport
an axial heat flux of 6500kw/m2 at 200oc. Heat pipes are now being used in several applications
in engineering practice e.g., cooling of micro electric circuits, power transistors, cryogenic
targets in nuclear accelerators, temperature control devices, waste heat recovery boiler, heating
and cooling of engines and space vehicles.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND APPARATUS:

The performance of a heat pipe as a superconducting device can be studied by

measuring the temperature distribution along its length and it can be compared with two other
similar metallic pipes. A typical setup is shown in fig. it comprises three geometrically identical
(Same diameter and length) pipes. One of them is a copper seamless pipe with copper
perforated sheet used as wicking material with pure distilled water as the working fluid i.e. the
heat pipe. The other two pipes are made of copper and stainless steel. One end of these pipes
is heated by electrical heaters while small capacity tanks acting as heat sinks are provided at
the other end. These tanks are filled with water upto a certain level. 3 thermocouples are
embedded along the length of each pipe to measure the temperature distribution. Heat transfer
rate can be calculated from the rise in temperature distribution. Heat transfer rate can be
calculated from the rise in temperature of water in the heat sinks. Power input to the heaters is
varied through dimmerstats and can be measured by ammeter and voltmeter.

PROCEDURE:

1. Note the diameter and length of three pipes, viz copper pipe, stainless steel pipe and
the heat pipe.
2. Pour water into the heat sinks (reservoir) of the three pipes and measure their
quantities.

3. Measure the temperature of water in these sinks with a thermometer.

4. Using dimmerstats give the same power input to the heating elements of the three
pipes.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

5. Under steady state conditions note the readings of thermocouples 1, 2, and 3 for heat
pipe.
6. Measure the final temperature of water in the sink.
7. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.
CALCULATIONS:
(a) Heat pipe
1. Power input, P1=V1 I1 (W)
2. Temperatures, T1=0C, T2=0C, T3=0C, T4=0C
3. Quantity of water = m1 (kg)
4. Initial temperature of water, Ti=0C
5. Final temperature of water, To=0C
6. Heat gained by water, Qh=m1Cpw (To-Ti) (W)

7. Draw the plots of temperature distribution along the length of the heat pipe.
8. Compute the heat transfer rate Qh.
RESULTS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

FILM AND DROP WISE CONDENSATION APPARATUS

AIM:
To determine the heat transfer in filmwise condensation and study the dropwise
condensation
SPECIFICATION:
Pressure vessel : 7 lit capacity
Pressure gauge : 7 kg/cm2
Rotameter : 10 LPM
Collecting beaker : 250 ml
Voltmeter : 300V
Ammeter : 0-15amp
Heater : 2kw
Temperature indicator : 6channel, thermo couple, chromel/alumel
DESCRIPITION:

CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER:

The condensation process is the reverse of boiling process. Whenever the saturation
vapour comes in contact with a surface whose temperature is lower than the saturation
temperature corresponding to the vapour pressure. As the vapour condenses, latent heat is
liberated and there is flow of heat to the surface.

Dropwise Condensation:
In drop wise condensation the vapour condenses in to small liquid droplets of various
sizes, which fall down the surface in random fashion. The drops form in cracks and pits on the
surface, grow in size, break away from the surface, knock off other droplets and eventually
run off the surface the surface under influence of the gravity. In this type of condensation, a
large portion of the area of solid surface is directly exposed to vapour. In this type of
condensation the heat transfer rate will be high.

Filmwise Condensation:
In film wise condensation, the condensate wet the surface and there by forms liquid
film. The liquid flows down the cooling surface under the action of gravity and the layer
continuously grows in thickness because of newly condensing vapour.
The continuous film offer thermal resistance and checks further transfer of heat between
vapour and surface. Further the heat transfer from the vapour to cooling surface takes place
through the film formed on the surface. This reduces the heat transfer rate considerably.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Equipment designed for finding heat transfer coefficients of two modes of
condensation and for visualization of these processes. It consists of vertical frame,
condensation tubes are fitted in side glass cylinder. Steam generator is fitted back side of the
cylinder. Steam comes directly from generator to cylinder.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Two valves are fitted to control the direction of flow. Temperature indicator will show
temperatures. Pressure gauge is fitted to measure steam pressure. Rotameter is fixed to observe
flow rate of cooling water. Power to heater is controlled by dimmerstat. The condensate is
measured by measuring flask.

FORMULAE:
Filmwise Condensation:
0.25
1) Heat transfer coefficient, h=1.13 [(𝜌𝐿 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉 )𝐾 3 𝑔ℎ𝑓𝑔 )/(𝜇𝐿(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑆 ))]
2) All liquid properties at (Tsat + Ts)/2.
3) hfg to be evaluated at Tsat
4) Total heat transfer to the surface Q = h As (Tsat-Ts).
5) As= Area of surface.

TABULATION:
S.NO V I Flow Tsat Ts Pressure Condensate
(Volts) (Amps) Measurement (0C) 0
( C) in ml
(LPM)

PROCEDURE:
1) Switch on the main power.
2) Switch on heater and adjust the variac to set in the desired position.
3) Wait for attaining the required pressure in the pressure gauge.
4) Open the water valve on the filmwise side (1 LPM is suggested).
5) Open the steam valve at the desired pressure.
6) Note down the temperature of the steam, water flow rate and time taken for 50ml
of condensate collected.
7) Close the valve and wait for attain the same pressure level.
8) Now repeat the same for the dropwise side.

RESULT:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER LAB