Energy-momentum relation

(That Famous Equation…..)

Energy: E = ! u mc 2

Momentum: p = ! u mu

Squaring and subtracting the second equation from the first:

# u2 & 1
E ! p c = m c " u % 1 ! 2 ( = m c " u 2 = m2 c 4
2 2 2 2 4 2 2 4 2

$ c ' " u
Energy-momentum relation:

( )
2
E = p c + mc
2 2 2 2

If the particle is at rest, p=0. Thus the rest energy is

E = mc 2
 Energy-momentum relation
( )
2
E = p c + mc
2 2 2 2

Particles with zero mass (example: photons) have total energy:

E = pc
The rest mass of a particle mc2 is invariant in all inertial frames.
Thus the quantity
( )
2
E ! p c = mc
2 2 2 2

is also invariant in all inertial frames.

Note: The total rest mass of a composite system is not equal to the
sum of the rest masses of the individual particles.
 Energy-momentum relation
( )
2
E = p c + mc
2 2 2 2

Energy is often expressed in electron-volts (eV):

1eV = 1.60 ! 10"19 J , 1MeV = 106 eV

# m2 &
1J = 1kg % 2 (
$s '

Some Rest Mass Values: Photon = 0 MeV, Electron = 0.511 MeV,

Proton = 938.28 MeV

It is also convenient to express mass m and momentum p in energy

units mc2 and pc.
 Energy-momentum relation

If u approaches c (relativistic limit)

E pc E ! pc

mc 2

If u/c << 1 (classical limit)

E pc E ! mc 2
mc 2
 Solving for E, m, K and p

Two identical particles with rest mass 12 kg y u1 = 0.6c u2 = !0.6c

approach each other with equal but opposite
velocities u1 = –u2 = 0.6c. Find the total rest m1 = 12 kg m2 = 12 kg
x
mass of this system.

1 1
! = = = 1.25
1 " u 2 c2 2
1 " (0.6 )

Etot = E1 + E2 = 2! mc 2 = 2 (1.25 )(12 kg )c 2 = 30 kg # c 2 ; ptot = 0

2 2
$ 30 kg # c 2 %2
$ Etot % $ ptot %
mtot = & "& = & ' " 0 = 30 kg
2 ' ( c )
' & 2 '
( c ) ( c )
 Solving for E, m, K and p
Find the kinetic energy, rest energy and total energy of a 1g particle
with speed of 0.8c.

1 1 5 5 2
!u = = = # !u "1= "1=
1 " u2 c2 ( ) 3 3 3
2
1" 0.80

( )( )
"3 2
E 0 = mc = 1 .0 $ 10 kg 3 .0 $ 10 m / s = 9.0 $ 10
2 8 13
J

The rest energy is E0 = mc2 = 9.0 $ 1013 J.

The kinetic energy is K = ! p " 1 E 0 ( )

%2 (
( )
# K = ' " 1* 9.0 $ 1013 J = 3.0 $ 1013 J
&3 )

The total energy is E = E0 + K = 9.0 $ 1013 J + 3.0 $ 1013 J = 1.2 $ 1014 J.

 Solving for E, m, K and p
At what speed is a particle’s kinetic energy twice its rest energy?

E = umc2 = E0 + K. For K = 2E0,

2 2
u mc = E 0 + 2E 0 = 3mc
1 u2 1 8
⇒γu = = 3 ⇒1− 2 = ⇒ u = c = 0.943c
1− u c
2 2 c 9 3
 Solving for E, m, K and p

What is the speed and momentum pc (MeV) of an electron (rest mass

0.511 MeV) with a total energy of 12 MeV?

E
12 MeV
!u = = = 23.483
2 0.511 MeV
mc

u 1 1
= 1" = 1" = 0.9991
c !u 2
( 23.48) 2

( )
2
2
pc = E " mc 2
= (12 MeV ) " (0.511 MeV )
2 2
= 11.99 MeV
 Conservation of mass-energy

The sum of the relativistic total energies of a system of particles before

interaction is equal to the sum of the relativistic total energies of the
system of particles after the interaction. The total relativistic energy of the
ith particle in the system is given by

mi c 2
Ei = ! u mi c 2 =
i
1 " ui2 c 2
 Conservation of mass-energy
Consider an inelastic collision of two particles of equal mass approaching each
other with speed v in the lab frame S.
Before collision After collision
1 2 1 2
v v V=0
Applying the conservation of mass-energy:

! u mc 2 + ! u mc 2 = ! u Mc 2
1 2 f

2m 2K
M= = 2m + 2
1! u c
2 2 c

Note that total mass is not conserved. Kinetic energy has been converted
to mass.
 Conservation of mass-energy
Nuclear Fission: The decay of a heavy nucleus into several lighter nuclei.
Example:
U ! 144 Ba + 89 Kr + 3n
236

By conservation of mass-energy:
mBa c 2
mKr c 2 mn c 2 mn c 2 mn c 2
mU c =
2
+ + 1
+ 2
+ 3

1 ! uBa
2
c2 1 ! uKr
2
c2 1 ! un2 c 2 1 ! un2 c 2 1 ! un2 c 2
1 2 3

The rest mass of the uranium nucleus is greater than the sum of the masses of the
daughter products. The extra mass is converted to kinetic energy causing the
products of the fission to be ejected at extremely high velocities.

Nuclear fission is the basis of nuclear reactors as well as nuclear bombs.

Fusion: Collision of nucleii in which the kinetic energy is used to overcome the
repulsion of protons to form a heavier nucleus. In this case the total incoming
energy must equal the rest energy + the binding energy:
 Conservation of mass-energy

A Σ particle decays into a neutron (pc = 4702 MeV) and pion (pc = 169
MeV). Find the total rest mass and kinetic energy of the Σ particle.

En = ( pc )n 2 + (mc 2 ) 2 = (4702 MeV )2 + (940 MeV )2 = 4795 MeV

n

E! = ( pc )! 2 + (mc 2 ) 2 = (169 MeV )2 + (140 MeV )2 = 219 MeV

!
E" = En + E! = 4795 MeV + 219 MeV = 5014 MeV

(mc2 )" = E" 2 # ( pc" ) =

2
(5014 MeV )2 # (4871 MeV )2 = 1189 MeV

where pc" = pcn + pc! = 4702 MeV + 169 MeV = 4871 MeV

( )" = 5014 MeV # 1189 MeV = 3825 MeV

K " = E" # mc 2
 Conservation of mass-energy

The reaction that powers the sun consists of the fusion of four protons into
a helium nucleus. How much energy is released in each fusion? (Mass of a
helium nucleus = 6.64 x 10-27kg).

Mass lost in the fusion process:

4mp – m He = 4(1.67 × 10 27
kg) – 6.64 × 10 27
kg = 0.04 × 10 27
kg

Energy released:
E = mc2 = (0.04 × 10 27
kg) (3.0 × 108 m/s)2 = 3.6 × 10 12
J
 General Relativity

Postulates:
The laws of physics are the same in all frames (including accelerating
frames).

Principle of equivalence: A gravitational field in a region around a point

is equivalent to an accelerating reference frame.

Consequences:
• Curvature of spacetime
• Explanation of gravity
• Gravitational time dilation, gravitational red shift