Contents

1. The Sun 3 11. The Place of our Solar System in the Universe 27
2. Why Do We Study the Sun? 4 12. Space Exploration 28
2.1. Top 10 Facts About the Sun: 4 13. South Africa and Space Exploration 30
2.2. A Closer Look at the Sun 5 14. Famous Astronomers 31
3. The Solar System 6 15. Famous Women Astronomers 32
4. The Planets 7 16. Women Astronomers in South Africa 33
4.1. Mercury 8 17. Astronomers in South African History 33
4.2. Venus 9 18. Astronomy In South Africa 34
4.3. Earth 10 18.1. History 34
4.4. Mars 11 18.2. Modern Times 35
4.5. Jupiter 12 18.3. Radio Astronomy 36
4.6. Saturn 13 18.4. The Square Kilometre
Array Radio Telescope 37
4.7. Uranus 14
18.5. Geodesy 38
4.8. Neptune 15
4.9. Pluto and Dwarf planets 16
4.10. Asteroids 17
4.11. Moon 18
4.12. Meteoroids, Meteors and Meteorites 19
4.13. Comets 20
5. Stars 21
6. Exoplanets 22
7. Galaxies 23
8. The Milky Way Galaxy 24
9. The Universe and the Big Bang 25
10. Cosmology 26
The Sun
We look at the Sun rising every day. It’s bright,
it’s big and it warms us up. Our Sun happens
to be the brightest object in our Solar System and
naturally we are really curious to know more about it.
The Sun’s heat and light provide the energy for life to exist on
Earth. The Sun is a giant ball of extremely hot hydrogen and he-
lium gases, nearly 150 million kilometres away. It is gigantic com-
pared to the Earth. If you think of the Sun as a football, Earth
would be the size of the head of a match. It is only because the
Sun is so far away that it appears to be the same size in the sky
as our Moon. The Moon is actually much smaller than our Earth,
but much closer to Earth than the Sun is.
The Sun is so extremely hot - nearly 16 million degrees cen-
tigrade at the centre and 6 000ºC on the surface. In the hot,
dense core of the Sun hydrogen atoms get squashed into
each other to produce helium atoms. This releases enormous
amounts of energy, which escapes as heat and light. The Sun
also produces X-rays and ultraviolet rays that are harmful to life,
but most of these rays get soaked up by the Earth’s atmosphere
and do not harm us.
Scientific research has shown that the Sun and planets formed
about 4,6 billion years ago out of a big cloud of gas and dust.
All the planets, asteroids and comets that orbit the Sun, includ-
ing the Earth, formed at the same time.

WARNING!
Never look directly at the Sun! It is even more
dangerous to look at the Sun through a pair of
binoculars or a telescope. You will be blinded for life!
Don’t even look at the Sun through sunglasses.
Photo of Solar corona (left) taken
by Fred Espenak and one taken by
Luc Viatour (right) during the total
eclipse of 1999

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 Top 10 Facts about the Sun
Why Do We Study the Sun? 1. Never forget that the Sun is a star. The Sun provides us with energy,
which sustains life on our planet. It gives rise to the seasons, the harvests
Our Sun gives us light, heat and energy. It may seem that
and even the sleep patterns of all living creatures on Earth. This makes it
energy comes from other sources such as gasoline and
extremely important for the continued existence of life on Earth.
electricity but one of the major source of energy for the Earth
is nothing else but the Sun. Without the Sun life on Earth 2. The Sun is the closest star to our planet. Why do we see it so much bigger
would not exist. It would be so cold that no living thing would and brighter than stars? Imagine two cars on the road during the night
be able to survive and our planet would be completely frozen. with their headlights on. One car is closer to you and the other one is
further away. Which headlights would seem brighter and bigger?
The Sun is a normal star. It is much closer to us than any other
star and by studying the Sun, we can therefore learn more 3. Remember - even though it looks to us as if the Sun goes around the
about other stars. The better we understand other stars, the Earth, the real situation is that the Earth goes around the Sun.
more we know about the Milky Way. From there we know more 4. The Sun is way bigger than the Earth. For those of you who are curious,
about other galaxies and in the end we learn more about the the Sun’s diameter is 1 392 000 kilometres and the Earth’s diameter is
universe. 12 756 kilometres. You could get, more than 100 Earths side by side across
The Sun also plays the role of a big anchor which creates the the Sun and it could hold more than a million Earths inside its volume.
gravity that keeps our planet and the other planets of the Solar 5. DON’T TOUCH THE SUN! IT’S HOT! The Sun’s average surface
System from flying off into inter-stellar space. temperature is 5 700ºC compared with the Earth’s average temperature
Our Sun changes constantly. It has the largest eruptions in the of 20ºC. The Sun’s core is about 16 million degrees centigrade.
Solar System. These eruptions can be so large that their effects 6. The Sun is approximately 150 million kilometres away from the Earth.
can reach our planet and cause serious damage by disrupting 7. How old is the Sun? The Sun is calculated to be 4.5 billion years old, a
satellites and other communication devices. Our TV may be dis- number so large that it is very difficult for the human brain to comprehend.
rupted, our cell phones drop calls and if an astronaut happens
8. The Sun will burn out one day. It is predicted that when the Sun reaches
to be on the sunlit side of the Moon when the Sun erupts, he
the end of its life, it will swell up to a few hundred times its current size.
or she would be in great danger.
It might just be big enough to engulf/swallow the Earth. But this is no rea-
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of son for concern, since it will take another 5 billion years for it to happen!
the United States uses satellites such as the Solar and Helio-
9. The Sun rotates on its axis approximately once every 25 days. The Sun is
spheric Observatory (SOHO), to predict these eruptions so that
made of gas, which is why its different parts rotate at different speeds.
we have a warning of only a day or two to protect our expen-
The fastest rotation is around the equator and the slowest rotation is at
sive communication devices during a solar eruption. SOHO is
the Sun’s polar regions - more than 30 days.
just one of the instruments that NASA uses to help scientists
understand our Sun better along with other satellites and large 10. The Sun changes. No matter when or where we look at the Sun, we will
observatories on Earth. always see something interesting. Scientists observe these changes by
watching the sunspots. These are dark spots which appear on the surface
of the Sun. They are cooler areas than the rest of the Sun’s surface and
are produced by strong magnetic fields. They increase and decrease on
Students of Parkland Magnet School in Rockville, a regular cycle of around 11 years even though the lenghth of individual
MD trace sunspots using sunspotters. cycles varies considerably.
Photo credit: NASA/Silvia Stoyanova.

4
 Is there any difference between the Sun and a planet or a moon?
There are a number of ways in which the Sun differs from a planet or a moon. Some of
A Closer Look at the Sun these are:
We know that the Earth’s structure consists of different
Z the Sun radiates heat and light. Planets and moons absorb and reflect heat and light
layers. The Sun also has layers but unlike the Earth,
coming from the Sun.
the Sun is entirely gaseous - there is no solid surface.
Z the Sun is very much brighter than any planet or moon. As a result it is considered a
When studying the structure of the Sun, solar physicists
phenomenal source of energy. Remember, without the Sun, life would not exist.
classify the layers into four domains:
Z The Sun is very much larger than any other planet in our Solar System. Its diameter
The Interior is said to be ten times greater than that of Jupiter, the largest planet in our Solar
The interior of the Sun includes the core, the radiating layer System and more than a hundred times larger than our planet Earth!
(which has an insulating effect that helps maintain the high
temperature of the core) and the convective layer through
which energy is transported to the surface by convection
(as opposed to radiation).

The Surface Atmospheres

These comprise the photosphere (the coolest part of the
Sun that we see with our eyes) and the chromosphere which
although being colourful, cannot be seen because it is out-
shone by the brighter light from the photosphere. When a
solar eclipse occurs, the reddish chromosphere is seen briefly
just before and after the total eclipse.

The Corona
This is the part of the Sun that can be seen when the bril-
liant disk of the Sun is blocked by the Moon during the total
eclipse. It is said to be the source of X-rays which do not
penetrate Earth’s atmosphere and extends millions of
kilometres into space.

The Solar Wind

This is a wind made up of atomic particles such as electrons
and protons blown away from the Sun. It extends to the
outer regions of the solar system. The solar wind blows the
tails of comets away from the Sun which is why comet tails
always point away from the Sun and do not extend behind
the direction of the comet’s path.

5
 The
Neptune Solar System
Uranus

The Sun is at the centre of or Solar System. Orbit-

ing around the Sun is its family of major planets,
many with their own moons. There are also dwarf
Saturn planets and thousands of other smaller objects
such as asteroids, comets and meteors. The strong
pull of the Sun’s gravity holds it all together.
The Solar System is shaped like an almost flat disk
which means that all the planets orbit in roughly
the same plane.
Jupiter Our Sun is just one of about 100 000 million stars
that make up our Milky Way galaxy. The Milky Way
is one of many such star systems, each called a
galaxy. The Universe consists of at least 100 000
million galaxies, each containing their own stars,
Mars planets and clouds of gas and dust, out of which
stars and planets are born.

The Sun
The Solar System consists of:
Earth
Z the Sun
Z eight planets
Z five known dwarf planets
Z many moons orbiting the planets and the
Venus
dwarf planets
Z thousands of Solar System bodies
Z interplanetary dust.

Mercury

Not to scale

6
The
Planets
Although all the
planets of our Solar
System were formed at the
same time and from the same cloud of
gas and dust, there are great differences
between them.
The four inner terrestrial (Earth-like)
planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars and are mainly made of rock and
metal. Beyond Mars lie Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune which are giant gas
planets. Distant dwarf planets do not fit
into any of these groups. They are
probably made of ice and rock.
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun
Neptune is the farthest from the Sun.
The phrases in the textbox help you
to remember the order of the planets:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Asteroids,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

How to Remember the Planet Names

The planets are named after ancient Greek and Ro-
man gods. An easy way to remember these names is to
remember the sentence: “Many Very Elderly Men Just
Sleep Under Newspapers” or “My Very Excellent Mother
Just Served Us Noodles” or “Mary’s Violet Eyes Make
John Stay Up Nights”.

7
 Mercury

Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun. It

was named after the Roman god, Mercury,
the mercurial messenger of the other gods.
The planet Mercury moves quickly around
the Sun which causes it to frequently be
seen moving between our morning and
evening skies. This is similar to the god
Mercury’s swift flights from place to place.
This is why the fast moving element
Mercury is also known as quicksilver –
a name that the metal mercury used to be
known by.
Mercury is the smallest of the eight planets.
Due to a combination of its elliptical orbit
and its slow rotation speed, Mercury’s year
is shorter than its day! Due to it being clos- Mercury fact file
est to the Sun, Mercury has the shortest Z Diameter:
year in the Solar System – only 88 days. Its 4 880 kilometres, a
day – sunrise to sunrise - takes 176 Earth bit bigger than Earth’s
days. During its long daytime, its surface Moon.
becomes extremely hot and at night its
Z Average distance from
surface is icy cold. It is covered with
the Sun: 58 million
mountains, valleys and craters and looks
kilometres
like our Moon. Humans would not be able
to live on Mercury. Z Rotation period: 59 days
Z Day/night: 176 Earth
days
Z Length of year:
88 Earth days
Z Temperature:
-185˚C to 467˚C
Z Satellites:0

8
 Venus

Venus is the hottest planet in the Solar

System. It was named after the Roman god-
dess of love and beauty because it looks
like a beautiful gem in the sky. In reality,
Venus is a hot, rocky world under an
atmosphere almost entirely made up of
carbon dioxide. Its thick atmosphere holds
in the Sun’s heat.
The surface of Venus is completely hid-
den by dense, white clouds. However, we
know what its surface looks like thanks to
information received from space radar and
from photographs taken by two spacecraft
that landed on its surface, surviving only
long enough to send back data and images.
There are high mountains, craters and
volcanoes on Venus.
Venus fact file Venus and Earth are similar in size. Venus is
Z Diameter: also the planet that approaches closest to
12 104 kilometres, Earth. Venus is unusual because its rotation
about 0,8 times the size on its own axis is in the opposite direction
of the Earth to that of all the other planets.
Z Mean distance from the
Sun: 108 million
kilometres
Z Day/night:
117 Earth days
Z Length of year:
225 Earth days
Z Temperature:
460˚C on average
Z Satellites:0

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 Earth Earth fact file
Our planet is the largest of the rocky planets Z Diameter:
and is named Earth from the name we use for 12 756 kilometres
the ground in which plants grow. As far we know, Z Mean distance from
the Earth is unique in the Solar System for two reasons: the Sun: 150 million
it has liquid water on its surface and it supports life. If kilometres
you look at Earth from space it looks like a blue and white
Z Day/night: 24 hours
sphere. Before the time of space travel and satellite images,
people were not able to see Earth like this. Without pictures Z Length of year: 365
it is hard to imagine that the Earth we live on is a ball-shaped Earth days and 5 hours
planet travelling through space. Earth is not quite round. Z Temperature: maximum
It bulges at the Equator and flattens at the Poles. This shape 58˚C; minimum -89˚C
is called an oblate spheroid. Z Satellites: 1 – the Moon
The time it takes the Earth to complete one orbit around the
Sun is called a year. A year is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes
and 46 seconds long – the extra hours being nearly a quarter
of a day. We divide the year into 365 days, but every fourth
year an extra day is added to the calendar year to keep in
step with the extra quarter day in each of the preceding four
years. A year with an extra day – the 29th of February –
is called a leap year.

Day and Night

As the Earth orbits around the Sun, it rotates on its own axis.
This gives rise to us seeing the Sun appear to move over- At this time in South Africa the Sun passes
head from east to west. This naturally led mankind to believe nearly overhead at midday giving us lots
that the Sun travelled around the Earth. Today we know that of heat. An effect of the tilt is an increase
the Earth travels in an orbit around the Sun. in the length of the daylight hours. For the
Earth’s rotation on its own axis every 24 hours gives rise to other six months from April to September,
the change between day and night. the northern hemisphere tilts more towards
the Sun while the southern hemisphere tilts
The Seasons away from the Sun. During mid-winter the
The seasons – Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter – Sun no longer shines from overhead but
occur because the Earth’s rotation axis is tilted at 23.5º to passes from east to west only 45º above
the plane of its orbit around the Sun. The direction and angle the northern horizon. These effects com-
of the tilt do not change. This means that for six months of bine to give us less daylight hours, thus less
the year from September to March the southern hemisphere sunshine, thus colder weather, especially in
is tilted towards the Sun, most prominently in December. mid-winter around June and July.

10
 Mars

The fourth planet Mars was named after the Roman

god of war. It shines very brightly when closest to
the Earth, but at other times its orbit takes it so
far away, making it appear much dimmer. Mars has
an orange-red colour and so it is known as the Red
Planet. Mars is the only planet chosen for possible
exploration by humans because conditions there are
more like those on Earth than conditions on any of
the other planets are. There is evidence that Mars
once had rivers, streams, lakes and even an ocean.
Today the only water on Mars is either frozen in its
polar caps or is underground.
Mars is smaller than Earth and has many craters and
mountains. The highest mountain peak and some of
the deepest valleys in the entire Solar System are
found on Mars. The Martian mountain called Mons
Olympus is more than twice the height of Earth’s
Mars fact file Mount Everest!

Z Diameter: In recent years, unmanned spacecraft called space

6 794 kilometres, about probes have landed on Mars. The probes, sent to
half that of the Earth Mars by Russia and by the United States of America,
performed experiments to learn more about the
Z Mean distance from
surface and the carbon-dioxide atmosphere which,
the Sun: 228 million
although very thin, blows up dust storms that at
kilometres
times encircle the planet.
Z Day/night: 24 hours
Mars has two moons, called Deimos and Phobos.
37 minutes
They might be the remnants of a larger moon that
Z Length of year: broke up many millions of years ago, but they could
687 Earth days well be asteroids that have been captured by Mars.
Z Temperature:
-133˚C to +27˚C
Z Satellites: 2

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 Jupiter fact file Jupiter
Z Diameter: about 142 800
thousand kilometres
Z Mean distance from
the Sun: 778 million
Jupiter is by far the largest planet in the Solar System, and was
kilometres
named after the Roman mythological king of the gods. It is so big
Z Day/night: 9 hours that all the other planets can be squeezed inside it. Jupiter is the
55 minutes first of the gas giants, amongst the outer four planets of our Solar
Z Length of year: 4 333 System.
Earth days or 11,9 Earth Jupiter spins so fast that a day on the planet lasts less than 10 Earth
years hours. Jupiter is a huge ball of mostly hydrogen gas – about 90% and
Z Temperature: -110˚C 10% helium gas; it does not have a solid surface – thus not qualifying
Z Satellites: 63 discovered to be called a terrestrial planet as the first four planets are. However,
by 2013 in its centre these gases are compressed to a very hot liquid called
metallic hydrogen. Due to its 12 year long orbit around the Sun and
its fast rotation, there are 10 475 days in Jupiter’s year! Inhabitants
of Jupiter would need a long and complicated calendar!
The bands we can see above and below its equator are areas of
particular turbulence in its clouds. Large areas of swirling gases can
be found in Jupiter’s atmosphere. The largest of these areas is called
the Great Red Spot and scientists have been watching this giant
storm – wider than the entire Earth - rage for several hundred years.
Bolts of lightning have also been seen in Jupiter’s atmosphere.
Photographs taken by spacecraft have shown thin, dark rings
around Jupiter. In February 2010 two new moons orbiting Jupiter
were discovered bringing the total to 63 – yes, 63 moons around
one planet! The four largest moons were discovered by Galileo
Galilei with his small 2,5 centimetre diameter telescope in 1610.
They are Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. There are active
volcanoes on the smallest of the Galilean moons Io, which orbits
Jupiter in only one day. Europa is thought to have liquid water –
perhaps harbouring life –under its icy surface. Ganymede is the
largest moon in the whole Solar System.
The four Galilean moons can be seen using normal household
binoculars, the inner moons orbiting fast enough for us to see the
movement during the course of an evening.

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 Saturn
This planet was named after the Greek
god Saturn, because Saturn was the father
of Jupiter and not because of any characteristics
of Saturn that could be seen. Like Jupiter it was discovered
in 1610 by Galileo, who thought the rings were Moons.
Through further investigations, we now know that Saturn is
circled by a beautiful set of rings around its Saturn fact file
equator. Saturn was the last of the planets known in bygone Z Diameter:
days because the planets further out could not be seen with 120 000 kilometres
the naked eye. Z Mean distance from
The rings are made up of chunks of water ice, rocks and dust the Sun: 1 433 million
that range from specks to the size of a house. One of several kilometres
theories astrophysicists have says that the rings are the Z Day/night: 10 hours
remains of a small orbiting moon that was ripped apart by 14 minutes
nearby Saturn’s strong gravitational attraction.
Z Length of year:
Saturn is also a gas planet. Even though, like Jupiter, it also 29,5 Earth years
takes about 10 hours to rotate once on its own axis, its lower
Z Temperature:-140˚C
density causes its equator to noticeably bulge outward. There
is a flattening of the poles giving Saturn an oblate spheroid Z Satellites: 61
shape, much like that of the Earth but much more exagger- (as of 2013)
ated. White spots on Saturn’s surface are powerful storms. Saturn’s moons
Sixty-one moons have been discovered in orbit around Saturn word search
so far. Its 2nd largest moon Titan has a thick nitrogen atmos- Mimas Enceladus
phere that makes it an attractive exploration destination. Tethys Dione
In January 2005, the Huygens space craft plunged through Rhea Titan
Titan’s atmosphere and transmitted images back to us. Scien- Hyperion Iapetus
tists think that conditions on Titan are like those on Earth 4,6 Pan Atlas
billion years ago. Titan is the furthest place from Earth where Prometheus Pandora
a spacecraft has ever landed. Titan is also the only moon in Epimetheus Janus
the Solar System to have a dense atmosphere - one even Calypso Telesto
thicker than Earth’s atmosphere. Saturn is the second largest Helene Phoebe
planet in the Solar System. Ymir Paaliaq
Here are the names of 30 of Saturn’s moons. Try and find Siarnaq Tarvos
them in this word puzzle where names are written horizontal- Kiviuq Ijiraq
ly to the left or right, vertically up or down or even diagonal. Thrym Skadi
See the solution on the last page of this booklet – but not Mundilfari Erriapo
before trying for at least 60 minutes! Albiorix Suttung

13
 Uranus fact file
Uranus Z Diameter:
51 000 kilometres
Z Mean distance from
the Sun: 2 876 million
When Uranus was discovered by William Herschel in kilometres
1781, he wanted to name it George after the then Z Day/night:
English king. Fortunately sanity prevailed and the name 17 hours 14 minutes
Uranus was chosen, not so much because Uranus was
Z Length of year:
the god of the skies but because Uranus was the father
84 Earth years
of Saturn. Note that this was the first recorded
discovery of a planet – all the other planets had Z Temperature: -197˚C
been known since mankind evolved the ability to Z Satellites:
contemplate his surroundings. 27 discovered by 2013
Whereas Earth is tilted by 23.5º from the vertical,
Uranus tilts over by nearly 90º which means that it lies
on its side! Uranus’ odd tilt may be the result of a
powerful collision with another large object soon after
it had formed. The effect is that each pole spends about
40 years in constant summer sunlight and then another
40 years in winter darkness.
We did not know much about this distant planet until
the space probe Voyager 2 flew past it in 1986. Uranus
also has rings but much less dense than those of Saturn.
The planet itself is made up mainly of hydrogen and
helium gases. It has a rocky core and there may be an
ocean of water/ammonia beneath its clouds.
Uranus has 27 known moons as of 2013. Notable about
these moons is that they are smaller than the moons
orbiting the gas giants. The names of these moons were
chosen to honour Shakespeare – they are named after
characters in Shakespeare plays. The largest moons are
Titania and Oberon, both named after characters in
A Midsummer Night’s Dream. For comparison Earth’s
Moon is 3 476 kilometres in diameter while Titania is
less than half that diameter – 1 576 kilometres.

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 Neptune

Seeing that Uranus was the god of the skies, the

second planet to be discovered was named after
the Roman god of water and the ocean – Neptune.
Its discovery in 1846 was “by the point of a pen” as
described by the director of the observatory where
its French discoverer Urbain Le Verrier worked.
Le Verrier had calculated where an 8th planet
should be, based on the way Uranus was being ever
so slightly gravitationally pulled out of its expected
orbital path. The new planet was found exactly
where he predicted it would be! Mathematics –
the powerful language of the Universe!
In 2011 it was 165 years since Neptune’s discovery
which is the period of this planet’s orbit around the
Sun – in other words, its year. This meant that in
2011 it was at the same position amongst the back-
ground stars as it was when Le Verrier discovered it.
Neptune fact file Neptune has a large storm raging on its surface,
Z Diameter: much like Jupiter. It is called the Great Dark Spot.
49 500 kilometres This storm, discovered by Voyager 2, is also large
enough to contain the Earth.
Z Mean distance from
the Sun: 4 503 million We know of 13 moons orbiting
kilometres Neptune, the largest being
Triton, two-thirds the diameter
Z Day/night:
of Earth’s Moon.
16 hours 6 minutes
Z Length of year:
165 Earth years
Z Temperature: -210˚C
Z Satellites:
13 discovered by 2013

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 Pluto and Dwarf
Planets

What on Earth happened to Pluto? Powerful telescopes have been

discovering similar Pluto-sized objects beyond Pluto in a region
called the Kuiper Belt. It is estimated that many more of these small-
er objects will be discovered. The question arose: Should we also
call these new bodies planets and end up having 100 planet names
to remember, or should we create a new class of Pluto-like objects?
The sensible - although emotionally traumatic - decision was made in
2006 to place Pluto into a new category called dwarf planets. Pluto fact file
Another two objects discovered beyond Neptune, called Haumea Z Diameter:
and Makemake, have also been classified as dwarf planets. It is likely 2 306 kilometres
that there will be many more dwarf planets in the future as the sky Z Mean distance from
is more fully explored. All of the dwarf the Sun: 5 874 million
planets that we know of so far are smaller than our Moon. kilometres
The definition of a “dwarf planet” is a celestial body that: Z Day/night: 6 Earth days
a) is in orbit around the Sun, and 9 hours
b) has sufficient mass to become nearly round in shape, Z Length of year:
c) has not cleared its orbit of other celestial bodies (by gravita- 246 Earth years
tionally absorbing them or flinging them out of its orbit) and Z Temperature: -230˚C
d) is not a satellite (or moon) of another celestial body. Z Satellites:
Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930. An eleven year Five known by 2013
old girl, Venetia Burney, suggested it should be named Pluto after
the god of the underworld, seeing as this newly discovered celestial
body was dark and had been hiding away for so long.
Being so distant, discoveries continue to be made about Pluto. Cha-
ron was initially thought to be its one moon, but as recently as 2012
a fifth moon was discovered! Much more will be known about Pluto
when the New Horizons spacecraft flies dramatically past it 2015.
The Five moons of Pluto
Stay tuned for the breaking news!
Image: NASA, ESA and M Showalter
(SETI Institute)

16
 Asteroids

Orbiting the Sun between Mars and Jupiter are millions of rocks from small
chunks to the size of small moons. When some of the bigger ones were first
detected, they looked like stars and so were named ‘asteroids’ from the
Latin meaning ‘like stars’. Of course, they are not at all like stars but rather
are like planets. They should therefore have been called ‘planetoids’.
Diagram showing the
Asteroid Belt between Mars
Even though there are estimated to be many million asteroids, ‘only’ 310
and Jupiter thousand have been numbered and of those ‘only’ 16 thousand have been
given names. Examples are 2001 Einstein and 1134 Kepler. An important
one for South Africans is 4093 Bennett named after the late Pretoria based
comet discoverer, Jack Bennett.
Even though there are many million asteroids, their average distance apart
A Panorama of the Tswaing is a staggering million kilometres. Space is incomprehensibly huge!
Crater north of Tshwane
Nevertheless, occasionally one asteroid physically or gravitationally bumps
Credit: Neville Young
another one out of the belt sending it on a wildly eccentric orbit around
the Sun. Some of these wild orbits cross Earth’s orbit and during the past
aeons some have hit the Earth. Modern automated tracking telescopes are
detecting these Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs) so that mankind will at least
have some warning and can take possible action if a collision is forecast.
The largest known asteroid is the 950 kilometre diameter Ceres. Smaller
asteroids usually have irregular shapes, like potatoes for instance and are
not necessarily round.
Hills that are part of the ridge
around the Vredefort Crater The largest asteroid impact on Earth was 2 billion years ago in what is
now the Vredefort region in the Free State, 100 kilometres south of
Johannesburg. The crater was then noticeably deeper with bigger
surrounding hill-sized ridges. Erosion over the years has worn the ridges
away and filled the crater leaving an 85 kilometre wide ring of hills around
Vredefort.
Members of the Pretoria
Tswaing, 40 kilometres north of Tshwane, is a 1 kilometre wide crater made
Centre of the Astronomical
Society of Southern Africa only 200 000 years ago by a 60 meter wide asteroid. Have you visited either
watch the Sun rise over the of these impact sites?
ridge of the Tswaing Crater
Credit: Neville Young

17
 Moon

The Moon is the Earth’s only natural satellite and is spelled with
a capital ‘M’ to differentiate it from the known 168 moons in
the Solar System. The Moon is a rocky body orbiting our planet
at a mean distance of 384 000 kilometres. Like the planets, it
produces no light of its own, but we can see it because it re-
flects the light from the Sun. The illuminated shape that we see
depends on where the Moon is in its orbit around the Earth.
A fascinating view of the Moon is through binoculars. Try it!
Due to the Moon having a rotation rate on its own axis the
same as its orbital period around the Earth, we always see the
same side of the Moon. The side of the Moon we cannot see
is sometimes erroneously referred to as the Dark side of the
Moon. In the same way that the illumination of the near side
waxes and wanes, so too does the illumination on the Moon’s
far side.
The Moon’s surface has many craters, formed by large bod-
ies such as comets and asteroids that crashed into it between
3 and 4 billion years ago. Apart from the craters, the Moon’s
surface is like a desert with plains, mountains and valleys. The
Moon has no atmosphere, so there is no air to breathe and no
wind nor weather. Recently, water ice was discovered at the
poles of the Moon, buried beneath dust on the surface.
Moon fact file The Moon is the only place in our Solar System, other than the
Z Diameter: Earth, where humans have been. On 20 July 1969 astronauts
3 476 kilometres Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin landed the Lunar Module of
Z Mean distance from Apollo 11 on the Moon’s surface. Armstrong became the first
Earth: person to set foot on the Moon. A total of twelve astronauts
384 000 kilometres in 7 missions landed on the Moon between 1969 and 1972.
Apollo 13 developed life-threatening problems on the way to
Z Day/night:
the Moon and only just managed to bring its astronauts home
29,53 Earth days
alive. The dramatic story is re-enacted in the movie ‘Apollo 13’.
Z Temperature :
-170˚C min, +120˚C max.

18
Meteoroids, Meteors
and Meteorites

Seeing the streak of a shooting star across a dark

sky is always exciting. What are shooting stars?
Space is full of bits and pieces of the matter out
of which our Solar System formed. They have
orbited the Sun for 4 thousand 500 million years.
Other bits and pieces come from comets which boil
some of their material off as they round the Sun.
The cast off particles travel in the comet’s orbit
in huge swarms. Often the Earth crosses the path
that a comet once travelled and hundreds of these
particles enter its atmosphere. Travelling at up to
40,000 kilometres per hour, the friction as they
push through the air causes them to heat up and
vaporise in a brilliant streak of light. The streak is
called a meteor – commonly known as a shooting
star. Before the particle can be seen as a flaming
meteor, it is known as a meteoroid. If this mete-
oroid is big enough to survive being a meteor, it
will reach the surface of the Earth where it is then
called a meteorite.
Meteors burn up at a height of about 60 kilometres
from the Earth’s surface and – believe it or not –
are usually the size of a grain of sand! To top it all,
about 100 tons of these grains of sand and other
larger pieces impact the Earth every day! Space
never fails to astound us.

19
 Comets

Comets are lumps of ice and rock that orbit the Sun at the
outer edges of our Solar System. Sometimes one of these
lumps is knocked out of its distant path and its orbit changes
from nearly circular to one where it careens in towards a close
and hurried rendezvous with the Sun before taking a long and
slow trip back to the outer reaches of the Solar System, either
to turn around and repeat the Sunward journey or to leave our
Solar System entirely.
As the comet nears the heat of the Sun, its ice melts and gas
and dust are set free, which we see as a dramatic tail, reflecting
the Sun’s light. Such a tail can stretch for many millions of kilo-
metres. We expect the smoke from a steam engine to blow be-
hind the train. This happens because the smoke is held back by
the air through which the train is moving. A comet’s tail does
not always trail behind it. There is no air in space to hold the
gas and dust tail back, but there are winds of particles called
the solar wind radiating from the Sun. This wind is substantial
enough to blow the tail away from the Sun even if the comet is
leaving the Sun, in which case the tail precedes the comet. The
comet tail always points away from the Sun no matter in which
direction the comet happens to be moving.
Some comets take thousands of years to orbit the Sun, while
others take only a few years. Probably the most famous comet
of all is Comet Halley, which returns every 76 years. Comets
are usually named after the person who discovers them. Comet
Halley was named after Edmund Halley (1656 - 1742), an Eng-
lish scientist.
Comet Bennett was a famous comet of the 20th century. It was
discovered by Pretoria based South African astronomer Jack
Bennett in 1969. These pictures show Jack Bennett and his
stunning comet.

20
 Stars

Stars beautifully stud our night skies. What are they? In most stars, after the nuclear fusion has used up all its fuel,
We can learn about distant stars by looking at a star on our gravity pulls the remaining material closer together. The star shrinks
doorstep – the Sun. Like our Sun, a star is a ball of hydrogen to become what we call a dwarf star. In fact, it may get to be only a few
and helium gas, squeezed so hard into the middle by hundred kilometres wide when it finally stops radiating visible light.
gravitation that the gas heats up to the point where a Some stars can be up to 100 times as massive as the Sun, with much
nuclear reaction is triggered. The reaction releases huge shorter lives measured in only millions of years, and the nuclear reac-
amounts of energy in the form of heat and light, which we tions lead to the creation of the elements which are life’s building
can sense, as well as other energy forms such as X-rays. blocks – carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sodium, magnesium, aluminium,
Our ancestors only had their naked eyes to look at the stars. silicon, sulphur and iron. In these massive stars, when there is no
There are 6 000 stars visible to our naked eyes. longer hydrogen and helium left to sustain the nuclear reaction, the
star collapses in on itself. If the star is really big, the inward collapsing
Stars vary in temperature, brightness and size. Some are
star rebounds in a massive explosion during which not only are the
very hot and shine with a bluish light, while others are much
elements inside the star spewed out into space, but other elements
cooler and look orange or red. These colours can be seen
like copper, zinc, silver, tungsten and gold are created.
with the naked eye in some stars. Our Sun is an average star,
slightly yellow in colour. These explosions are called supernovas from the Latin where ‘nova’
means ‘new’. Supernovas appear to us as a new star not having been
The brightness of a star as we see it depends on the type of
recorded in star charts prior to brightening or perhaps having previ-
star as well as its distance from the Earth. The brightest star
ously been a very faint star. The last great supernova easily visible
in the sky is not the closest one to us. It is called Sirius and
to the naked eye was in 1604. Supernovas can also be seen in other
is much whiter and hotter than the Sun. The closest star to A Hubble Space Telescope galaxies besides our Milky Way galaxy.
us (after the Sun of course) is called Proxima Centauri. It is image of the very stunning
small, dim and red. The astronomer Robert Innes discovered planetary nebula called Any matter remaining after a supernova explosion is crushed by grav-
it from Johannesburg in 1915. It is the closest star to Earth the Cat-Eye Nebula ity to a very dense state equivalent to an object approximately 20
(NGC6543). kilometres across. The pressure is so great that electrons and protons
(after our Sun). Proxima Centauri is one star in a group of 3 The dying central star
stars orbiting each other. The other two are much brighter are squeezed together to form neutrons in the atoms. This star is thus
possibly produced this
and are so close to each other that our naked eyes see them simple, outer pattern of called a neutron star.
as one very bright star which we call Alpha Centauri. The dusty concentric shells by If the collapsing star was very big, the collapse does not stop at the
ejecting its outer layers
combination makes this star the 4th brightest star in our in a series of regular
neutron star stage. The leftover matter is crushed until gravity is so
heavens. You can easily see Alpha Centauri. It is one of the convulsions. strong that not even light can be radiated away. The matter
2 pointer stars that help us find the Southern Cross - the one Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC and The disappears from view and becomes a black hole. Nothing can be
Hubble Heritage Team cI/AURA).
further away from the cross. Taken from Astronomy Picture of detected from the black hole except its powerful gravitational
the Day.

21
 Exoplanets

Until late in the 20th century there

was only speculation whether there
were planets around other stars. The
first confirmed exoplanet (condensed
from the words extra solar planet)
was discovered in 1992 and by 2013,
861 exoplanets had been confirmed
while another 18,000 await confirma-
tion. Exoplanets raise the possibil-
ity that life exists elsewhere in the
Universe. Planets in the “Goldilocks
Zone“ – not too hot and not too cold
– are of particular interest because
they lie in a zone where life could
possibly develop. There are currently
262 potential Goldilocks planets
amongst the 18,000 potential
exoplanets.

22
Galaxies

Galaxies are collections of gas, dust

and a vast number of stars. Most are
are generally shaped like a flat disk
with spiral arms radiating out from the
centre and others are elliptical. Galax-
ies range from a few thousand to a
million light-years in diameter. Their
appearance to us depends on whether
we see them face-on or edge-on or
from some angle in between.
Galaxies often exist in groups,
referred to as clusters. Our galaxy
belongs to a group of galaxies called
the Local Group. Astronomers have A light-year is NOT a measure of TIME. A
discovered many thousands of other light-year is the DISTANCE that light travels
in one year. This is a long way. Light reflected
clusters of galaxies as far as we can
off the Moon reaches us only 1 second later. In
see in the Universe. one year light travels an incomprehensible 9.5
trillion kilometres!

23
 The
Milkyway
Galaxy
Our Sun is only one of 100 billion stars in the
Milky Way galaxy. Our Sun and Earth lie inside
this galactic disk some two thirds of the way
from the centre. On a clear, dark night you can
often see the bright band of the Milky Way arc-
ing across our skies in directions that depend
on the time of day and year we see them. When
you look at this band of stars, you are looking
along the inside of the disk. When you look
away from the band, you are looking up (or
down) out of the Milky Way.
The Andromeda Galaxy is the nearest major
galaxy to our own Milky Way Galaxy. It is similar
in size and shape, to our galaxy and both have
a number of dwarf galaxies orbiting them. You
can see Andromeda with your unaided eyes but
you will need a dark sky and someone to show
you where to look. Two small, rather irregularly
shaped galaxies nearer to the Milky Way galaxy
called the Large and Small Magellanic clouds
(because they look like tiny patches of cloud)
can also be seen with the unaided eye. You may
have even seen them before without knowing
what you were seeing.

M100, a typical spiral galaxy

24
The Universe
and the
Big Bang
The Universe is a huge wide-open space that contains eve-
rything from the smallest particle to the biggest galaxy. The
Universe is the totality of all space, time, matter and energy
– an idea that is very foreign to our human minds. No one
knows just how big the Universe is or even whether it does
have a size. All we can say is how far we can see.
A major breakthrough in our understanding of the universe
took place in the 1920’s thanks to American astronomer
Edwin Hubble. For centuries, astronomers believed that the
Milky Way made up the entire universe. Hubble was among
the first to show that the faint, fuzzy patches we see in the
sky through telescopes are other galaxies, not distant parts
of the Milky Way!
Hubble also realised that all galaxies are moving away from
each other. The rate of expansion is measured using a spec-
troscope - an instrument that breaks up the white light from
a star into its different colours. By carefully analysing the
colours, spectroscopists can tell if an object is moving away
from or towards Earth and how fast it is moving. Hubble also
determined that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it
seems to be moving. These gave rise to the conclusion that
space itself is expanding.
Based on this knowledge, Georges Lemaitre, a Belgian astro-
physicist and Catholic priest, came to be known as the “Fa-
ther of the Big Bang” by proposing in 1931 that the universe
began as a single primordial atom of energy, something hot
and dense that exploded, causing space itself to expand
outwards.
Based on the rate of expansion, astronomers have calcu-
lated that this expansion started 13.7 billion years ago. This
marked the beginning of the Universe as we know it.

25
 Cosmology

Cosmology is the study of the overall structure of the universe. Like early
astronomers from around the world, the ancient Greeks struggled to
understand the universe.
The beginnings of modern science can be attributed to Galileo and to
the British genius Isaac Newton. Newton was born in the same year that
Galileo died. Isaac Newton took known facts and used mathematics to
explain them. He developed mathematical laws that explained how
objects move on Earth as well as in space. Newton explained the move-
ment of orbiting planets as the result of motion along a straight line
combined with the gravitational pull of the Sun. His laws are based on
the idea that nothing is naturally at rest. He reasoned that all heavenly
bodies are constantly moving, with no limits on space and time.
In 1917, Albert Einstein proposed a description of the universe based
on his Theory of General Relativity. Einstein’s theory inspired many other
scientists, including Willem de Sitter in Holland and Alexandr Friedmann
in Russia. In fact, much of today’s cosmology is based on Freedman’s
solutions to the mathematical equations included in Einstein’s Theory.
Friedmann built on the General Relativity equations to develop models
that helped explain the evolution of the universe.
Today cosmologists are concerned with the ultimate fate of the universe.
Will it expand forever, expand to a certain size and stop, or will it stop
and begin to collapse? Data suggesting that the universe is expand-
ing at an increasing rate were published in 1998. For more than ten
years astronomers had been studying the expansion of the universe by
measuring the redshift and brightness of distant supernovae. By 1998,
enough information had been gathered to lead scientists to the startling
discovery that the expansion of the universe is not slowing down but is
accelerating. The supernova data combined with information from other
cosmological studies strongly suggest that the universe is filled with an
unidentified form of energy (currently being called “dark energy” since
we know nothing about it) that is causing the expansion of the universe
to accelerate. If these observations and analyses turn out to be correct,
the universe would be expected to continue to expand forever.

26
 The Place of our Sphere of the
Prime Mover
Fixed H
Saturn l
H Fixed
Solar System in the Saturn l
Stars
H Mars l
l Jupiter Stars

Universe H
Mars l
l Jupiter
H Moon l l Earth
H
Venus
Z Sun
H l Venus
l
In ancient times, the commonly and understandably accepted l Mercury
Mercury l
view was held that the Earth was the centre of the Universe Moon l
with everything else revolving around it.
Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 BC, believed the Earth H
l
Earth H
Z
Sun
was round. He thought Earth was the centre of the universe
and that the Sun, Moon, planets and all the fixed stars H
revolved around it. Aristotle’s ideas were widely accepted by H
the Greeks of his time. The exception, a century later, was H
Aristarchus, one of the earliest believers in a heliocentric or H
sun-centred universe. H
H
The first astronomer to make truly scientific maps of the H
heavens was Ptolemy 300 years later. Like most astronomers
before him, he believed that the Sun, Moon and planets
Aristotle’s’ Universe Copernicus’ Universe
circled the Earth. He thought that each celestial body was
fixed to a crystal sphere which held the body in place and
rotated around the Earth. Ptolemy’s view held that all stars
were fixed in an unchanging, everlasting outermost sphere
of the Universe.
The Earth-centred view of the universe was widely accepted
for about 1500 years. It was not seriously challenged until
1543 when Nicolaus Copernicus suggested that the Sun was
unchanging. In 1609, Italian scientist Galileo Galilei heard about
at the centre of the universe.. The two events most responsi-
the invention of a telescope. He made one for himself and turned
ble for eventual acceptance of Copernicus’ views were Tycho
it on the heavens. One of his first discoveries was the four moons
Brahe’s precise observations of the sky and Galileo’s use of
circling the planet Jupiter. Galileo’s telescope revealed a miniature
the telescope.
version of Copernicus’ solar system, with the moons moving around
One night in 1572, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe saw the planet in simple, nearly circular orbits. This proved that bodies
what he thought was a brilliant new star in the constellation could and did orbit bodies other than the Earth. Galileo’s discoveries
Cassiopeia, a phenomenon we now refer to as a supernova. forever changed the face of astronomy.
In 1604, a second supernova was seen. These discoveries
Now we know our planet is only one part of one solar system.
caused scientists to seriously question the ancient belief that
Our Sun is just one of billions of stars in our galaxy. Our galaxy and
stars and the sphere in which they were fixed was
countless others like it make up the Universe.

27
 SPACE EXPLORATION FACT FILE Moon and from which Neil Armstrong stepped to
Space Z Rocket-propelled spacecraft were first seriously
become the first human to set foot on another
celestial body.
considered by a Russian, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Exploration (1857 - 1935). Z The Russian Salyut 1 became the first space station
when it was put in orbit in 1971.
Z The first rocket to use liquid fuel was built in 1926 by
the American, Robert H. Goddard. Z 20 July 1976: The US probe, Viking 1, becomes the
For many centuries, space
first to land successfully on Mars.
exploration was unimaginable. Z 4 October 1957: the Soviet Union (USSR) began the
Overcoming the pull of Earth’s age of space exploration with the launch of Sputnik 1, Z First successful flybys of Jupiter and Saturn by the
gravity requires a strong the first artificial satellite. Sputnik orbited the Earth in space probes Pioneer 10 and 11 in 1973 and 1979.
engine capable of accelerat- 90 minutes and stayed in space for six months. Z In 1977 space probes called Voyager I and Voyager II
ing a rocket for about 10 to Z Sputnik 2 (USSR, 1957) launched the first living were launched. Their missions were to reach Jupiter,
15 minutes before it reaches a creature into space – a dog called Laika, but it died a Saturn, Uranus and Neptune and send pictures back to
distance of about 200 kilome- few hours after launch due to overheating Earth. By now (2010) Voyager I has travelled 170 billion
tres above the Earth’s surface, kilometres and is nearing the edges of the Solar System.
Z Explorer 1 (USA, 1958) was the USA’s first successful
where it can go into orbit and satellite. Z 12 April 1981: The first launch of the USA’s reusable
not fall back to Earth. In the spacecraft called a Space Shuttle.
Z Telstar 1 was the first communications satellite.
twentieth century, the inven-
Launched in 1962, it carried one television channel. Z 24 April 1990: The Hubble Space Telescope is carried
tion of powerful rockets made
Live television images could be sent to Europe from into orbit by the space shuttle Discovery.
space travel possible.
the USA for the first time. Z 2 November 2000: The first crew to stay aboard the
Z 12 April 1961: Yuri Gagarin (USSR) became the first International Space Station arrive.
man in space. Z July-Sep 1997: Mars Pathfinder, the first Mars rover,
Z 5 May 1961: Alan Shepard becomes the first explores the surface of Mars.
American to reach space. Z 12 February 2001: Spacecraft Near Earth Asteroid
Z Mariner 2 (USA) was the first successful spacecraft Rendezvous NEAR soft lands on asteroid Eros after
to visit a planet. It flew past Venus on 14 December studying it from orbit..
1962 and made temperature measurements. Z January 2004: Two Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity,
Z 16 June 1963: Valentina Tereshkova (USSR) became land on Mars. Spirit stopped working in 2010 but
the first women in space. Opportunity continues to explore Mars in 2013.
Z 8 March 1965: The first spacewalk takes place Z 1 July 2004: Spacecraft Cassini enters orbit around
(Alexei Leonov, USSR). Saturn to study the planet, its rings and moons,
after a six year journey from Earth.
Z In 1966, Luna 9 (USSR) becomes the first spacecraft
to make a soft landing on the Moon and radio Z 14 January 2005: Cassini’s probe Huygens soft lands on
pictures of the Moon’s surface back to Earth. Titan - the first landing on the moon of another planet.
Z The first manned flight around the Moon takes place Z The Kepler Space Telescope- launched 7 March 2009,
in December 1968 (Apollo 8, USA). designed to detect extrasolar planets – exoplanets.
The launch of a Soyuz rocket
into space Z 20 July, 1969: The USA’s Apollo 11 flies to the Moon Z New Horizons – launched 19 January 2006 – will fly by
and releases the lunar module which lands on the Pluto in July 2015.

28
 Satellites
and their Uses

A man-made satellite is a spacecraft placed in orbit

around a planet. Thousands of satellites have been
launched and are currently in orbit around the Earth
and also around other planets, where they gather
information about the Earth, other planets and the
Universe.
Z Satellites are launched into space to do a specific
job. Some examples:
Z Remote sensing satellites carry cameras that take
pictures of the Earth.
Z Weather satellites take pictures to help experts
predict weather patterns and their movements.
Z GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites carry
special transmitters to help people work out ex-
actly where they are.
Z Communication satellites bounce messages such as
telephone calls, television images and Internet in-
formation from one side of the world to the other.
Z Space tourism satellites transport, transfer and care
for people who want to holiday in space. This is a
relatively new idea and only affordable to the super
rich. The entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth became
the second space tourist and the first South African
in space in 2002. Until 2013 there have been 7
space tourists.
Z Military satellites are used for spying or to guide
missiles.

A NASA satellite caught this image of fires

in the Western Cape Province

29
 South Africa and
Space Exploration

From the late 1950s to the 1970s South Africa operated

Mike Melvill on Space
Ship One
spacecraft tracking stations for NASA. Deep Space Station 51 at
Hartebeesthoek later became the Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy
Observatory, while the STADAN site nearby became the CSIR’s
Satellite Application Centre.
Two South Africans have been into space. IT millionaire Mark Shuttle-
worth from Cape Town spent a week as a “space tourist” in the Inter-
national Space Station (ISS). He was launched into space in a Russian
Soyuz three-person space capsule from the Baikonur cosmodrome
on 25 April 2002. Launching people into space is very expensive,
so it was always government funded. However, modern technology
has brought down costs and private companies are now developing
manned space travel. The first privately built space-ship was Space-
ship One, designed by Burt Rutan. The pilot who first took it all the
way into space – higher than 100 kilometres above the ground –
Mark Shuttleworth in space on a test flight on 21 June 2004 was Mike Melvill, who comes from
Durban. SpaceShipOne can now be seen in the National Air and
Space Museum in Washington D.C.
South Africa has also built two space satellites. The first, called
Sunsat, was built by Stellenbosch University. It was launched on an
American rocket in 1999. It operated for about a year. The second,
called SumbandilaSat, was launched on 17 September 2009 on a
Russian rocket. It was built by Sun Space and Information Systems in
Stellenbosch. Sumbandila, meaning “lead the way” in the Venda lan-
guage, carried powerful cameras onboard, able to distinguish objects
as small as 6.25 meters from its 500 kilometre orbit above the Earth.
Sumbandila ceased functioning in July 2011 after it was damaged by
The Fregat Upper Stage of a blast of solar radiation.
the Soyuz Rocket with all
payloads fully integrated onto South Africa has now formed its own Space Agency to promote the
it. The huge orange coated peaceful uses of space. Would YOU like to go into space?
satellite is the Meteor M-1 and
SumbandilaSat is the tiny black
square on the left

30
 Famous up the Milky Way, kept precise records of sunspot activity
and the phases of Venus and discovered four moons orbiting
Astronomers Jupiter.
Z Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630, German) used the idea of ellip-
tical orbits to describe the motions of the planets around the
Sun.
Z Giovanni Cassini (1625 - 1712, Italian) was the astronomer
Z Anaximander (611 - 546 B.C, Ionian) was a Greek
who first discovered the division in the rings of Saturn. He also
philosopher who made the first detailed maps of the
found four moons orbiting Saturn and measured the periods
Earth and the sky. He knew that the Earth was round
of rotation of Mars and Jupiter.
and believed that it was free-floating and unsupport-
ed. He measured its circumference and was the first Z Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727, British) was a mathematician who
to put forward the idea that celestial bodies make full described the astronomical models of Copernicus and Kepler.
circles in their orbits. Newton showed that the laws governing astronomical bodies
were the same laws governing motion on the surface of the
Z Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C, Greek) the great philosopher,
Earth. Newton’s scientific ideas still offer an accurate descrip-
proved that the Earth is spherical and believed that it
tion of physics today, except for certain cases in which
was at the centre of the Universe.
Einstein’s Relativity Theory must be brought into consideration.
Z Aristarchus (310 - 230 B.C, Greek) was the first to
Z Edmond Halley (1656 - 1742, British) became famous for predict-
believe that the Sun was in the centre of the Universe.
ing the 1682 appearance of a comet now named after him.
Z Hipparchus (190 - 120 B.C, Greek) is considered to
Z Arthur Eddington (1882 - 1944, British) lead an expedition in
be the greatest ancient astronomer. He compiled the
1919 during a solar eclipse to test a prediction made by Ein-
first star catalogue and also came up with a scale to
stein based on Einstein’s theory of general relativity. He made
define the brightness of stars. A version of this scale is
the first direct measurements of stellar masses and discovered
still used today. He discovered the precession, or slow
the link between the mass of a star and its energy output. He
rotation, of the direction of the Earth’s axis, which is
also correctly suggested that nuclear fusion was the primary
caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon.
source of energy in stars.
Z Al-Khwarizmi (780 - 850, Islamic) was the inventor of
Z Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955, German) was probably the
algebra. He performed detailed calculations of the
greatest mind of the twentieth century. His Special Theory of
positions of the Sun, Moon and planets and did a
Relativity was proposed in 1905. In 1915, Einstein extended
number of eclipse calculations.
this further in the General Theory of Relativity, which includes
Z Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543, Polish) began a the effects of gravitation.
new era of astronomy when he concluded that the
Z Edwin Hubble (1889 - 1953, American) discovered that
Sun was the centre of the Solar System instead of the
faraway galaxies are moving away from us. This concept is a
Earth.
cornerstone of the Big Bang model of the universe.
Z Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642, Italian) is the father of
Z Stephen Hawking (1942 - , British) is another brilliant mind of
observational astronomy. In 1609, he heard about the
the twentieth century. He combined the theory of general
Dutch invention of the telescope and built one for
relativity and quantum theory in order to prove that black
himself. He saw the craters, mountains and valleys of
holes emit radiation and eventually evaporate.
the Moon, noticed the huge number of stars making

31
 Famous Women
Astronomers

Z Annie Jump Cannon (1863 – 1941,

USA) was the first astronomer to
classify the heavens systematically.
She worked as an astronomer and
published information about 225
000 stars.
Z Henrietta Swan Leavitt (1868
– 1921, USA) discovered that a
particular type of variable star
known as a Cepheid could be used
as a distance marker, making it
possible to determine astronomi-
cal distances to other galaxies.
Z Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900
– 1979, British). Her PhD disser-
tation, showing stars are made
primarily of hydrogen and helium,
was said to be one of the best in
20th century astronomy.
Z Carolyn Shoemaker (1929 – ,
USA) had discovered 32 comets
by 2013, more than any living
astronomer. As of 2013 she has
also discovered more than 800
asteroids.
Z Jocelyn Bell-Burnell (1943 – ,
British) discovered pulsars in 1967
as a PhD student at Cambridge
University, while supervised by
Antony Hewish (who received the
Nobel Prize for the discovery).

32
 Women Astronomers in South
Astronomers in African History
South Africa

There are many women playing Due to its ideal position in the southern hemisphere, South Africa
a big role in astronomy in South has been a favoured destination for astronomers.
Africa. It would not be fair to Z Sir John Herschel the British son of William Herschel, the
attempt to list them all, so these discoverer of Uranus, was not only an excellent observer but
women below are a but a small also a pioneer of photography as well as one of the fathers of
sample. education in South Africa. He spent a few years in South Africa.
Z Dr Patricia Whitelock of the Z Thomas Maclear was an Irish-born South African astronomer
South African Astronomical who became Her Majesty’s astronomer at the Cape of Good
Observatory uses the Hope. His geodetic work (see the Geodesy paragraphs towards
variable Mira stars to the end of this booklet) led to the establishment of the Govern-
establish distances. ment Trigonometrical Survey Office of South Africa.
Z Dr Sharmila Goedhart of Z David Gill – a Scottish astronomer - pioneered astronomical
South Africa’s Karoo Array photography and became the president of the Royal Astronom-
Telescope/Square Kilometer ical Society.
Array, KAT/SKA project is
Z Robert Innes, a Scottish born astronomer, showed that Proxima
an expert on the formation
Centauri was the nearest star to the Sun. He was a brilliant
of high-mass stars.
self-taught mathematician and astronomer who left school at
Z Dr Claire Flanagan at age 12 and became a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society
the Johannesburg when he was only 17.
Planetarium studies
Z Dr Bernie Fanaroff studied radio galaxies and has classes of gal-
neutron stars.
axies named after him. He now leads the Karoo Array Telescope
Z Dr Catherine Cress at project.
the University of the
Z Dr Thebe Medupe grew up near Mafikeng. He earned his MSc
Western Cape is a
(cum laude) in Astrophysics and then obtained his Astrophys-
cosmologist.
ics Doctorate at the University of Cape Town. He founded and
Z Professor Renee Kraan- leads the University of North West’s theoretical astrophysics
Korteweg heads the programme and became a steering committee member of the
Astronomy Department National Astrophysics Space Science Programme in 2002.
at the University of Cape
These astronomers are just a small selection of the people who have
Town, UCT and studies
enriched our astronomical heritage.
galaxies.

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 Astronomy In The history of the South African astronomy also has
South Africa roots in other parts of the country. The Natal Obser-
vatory was founded in Durban at the time of the 1882
transit of Venus. The observatory was closed in 1911.
In 1903 the Transvaal Meteorological Department,
History from which the Republic Observatory in Johannesburg
South Africa has a rich heritage of ethno-astronomy and later developed, was created. The present South
star lore within several of its many cultural groups. African Astronomical Observatory (SAAO) was formed
Modern astronomy in South Africa begins with ships. in 1972 by combining the Royal Observatory (Cape
Accurate positions for southern stars were simply not Town) with the Republic Observatory (Johannesburg).
available to navigators and the position of the African Its headquarters are in the old Royal Observatory
coastline was not very well known either. In 1685 a buildings in Cape Town. The three most modern
Frenchman, Father Guy Tachard, set up a small temporary telescopes from the two observatories found a new
observatory in the Cape. He and his assistants discovered home in the Karoo just outside the town of Suther-
that most of the stars shown on their charts of the ex- land. In 1974 the Radcliffe Observatory telescope at
treme southern sky did not exist at the marked positions, Pretoria was also moved to the Karoo.
while many others were omitted altogether. He also
estimated (from observations of Jupiter’s moons) that
Cape Town was nearly 300 kilometres west of its position
on his maps of the Earth.
The first dedicated astronomer in South Africa was
Nicholas-Louis de la Caille, who spent two years (1751-
53) in the Cape. He charted the positions of almost 10
000 stars and measured the shape of the Earth. His geo-
detic measurements wrongly showed that the Earth was
slightly pear-shaped.
In 1820, a permanent observatory was established
outside Cape Town. It was headed by a brilliant young
Cambridge mathematician, astronomer and clergy-man,
the Reverend Fearon Fallows. Two observers were often
necessary to get results with the instruments of
Fallows’ day, but Fallows had great difficulty getting
even one reliable assistant. As a result he often observed
with his wife, Mary Ann. Her independent discovery of a The 0.5-m Telescope at the SAAO near Sutherland with
comet in 1830 places her first on the roll of South African the 0.75-m Telescope in the background.
Photo: Helga Nordhoff
women observers in this field.

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Modern Times
Since 1972, the SAAO has had the advantage of the
dark, unpolluted skies of the Karoo, with no special
‘cloudy season’ when observing would be difficult.
Research has concentrated on understanding the
nature and life cycle of stars of various kinds. Galax-
ies, both the nearby Magellanic Clouds and the more
distant galaxies are observed from Sutherland.
SAAO research has also contributed to understanding
the centre of our own galaxy, using infrared cameras
and detectors to pierce the thick dust clouds that hide
the centre from view. A particular field of interest is the
study of stars whose size and light vary.
In 1961 South Africa became a Republic and as a result
of the policy of apartheid, sanctions were imposed.
Most of the foreign institutions withdrew their support.
South African institutions were financially hard-pressed
to keep the observatories running. In 1994 South
Africa held its landmark democratic elections and sanc-
tions were withdrawn. The international astronomical
community started to re-invest in South Africa’s clear
dark skies. The southern African region has become
a premier destination for cutting-edge astronomy
projects. Boyden Observatory in Bloemfontein
became operational again after a period of dormancy.
The most exciting post-sanction infusion into
Southern African astronomy is the Southern African
Large Telescope (SALT) Sutherland, which was opened
in November 2005. South Africa’s neighbours are also
benefiting. In Namibia, the High Energy Stereoscopic
System, H.E.S.S. Gamma Ray Telescope is in operation.
The H.E.S.S. team includes astronomers from
North-West University in South Africa.

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 Radio
Astronomy

In the late 1950s, tracking stations for man-made

satellites were erected in South Africa. The Harte-
beesthoek Radio Astronomy Observatory (HartRAO)
near Krugersdorp had its origins in collaboration
with the US Jet Propulsion Laboratory and later
NASA. The telescope was originally part of NASA’s
deep space network of telescopes responsible for
supporting a number of early interplanetary and
lunar missions. Recently there has been increasing
interest in radio astronomy. Until the early
developments in the Square Kilometre Array project,
HartRAO was the only radio telescope in Africa and
is in much demand for international collaboration.

HartRAO

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The Square Kilometre
Array Radio Telescope

In 2012 South Africa won the major part of the bid

to host the Square Kilometre Array (SKA), the larg-
est ever radio telescope. Australia will be hosting
the remaining parts of the SKA project. This radio
telescope will be able to probe the secrets of the
beginning of time.
To help develop the new technologies needed for
the SKA, South Africa embarked on the MeerKAT
project, a precursor to the eventual SKA. A precur-
sor to MeerKAT itself was the Karoo Array Telescope
– being the first 7 MeerKAT radio dishes. It is thus
called KAT-7, the seven telescopes each being 12
metres in diameter and built west of Carnarvon in
the Northern Cape. This project has been so
successful that it is fully booked by local and
international astronomers.

An artist’s impression of the completed SKA

37
 Geodesy

“Geodesy” means the measurement of the shape of the Earth.

Space Geodesy in South Africa is a spinoff of radio astronomy
at Hartebeesthoek. It started as part of a NASA programme
to measure the present-day movement of the continents. The
Hartebeesthoek 26 metre diameter radio telescope took part
in this programme, starting in 1986. The telescope, which is
attached to bedrock, was found to be moving North-East at 25
millimetres per year. This 1992 result was the first measurement
of the motion of the African continent and has been confirmed
by many years of measurements since then. As a result of its
accuracy, from 1998 its position has been used as the reference
point for the survey system of South Africa, used for accurate
position measurement. This replaced the old system which
dated back to the 1880s and in which the astronomers at the
Cape Observatory (now SAAO) had been involved.
The Space Geodesy Programme in South Africa now also oper-
ates a NASA Satellite Laser Ranger (SLR), which fires high power
laser pulses at satellites. Mirrors on the satellites reflect the light
back to the SLR, which measures how long the round trip took.
This system can measure the orbits of satellites to an accuracy
of a few centimetres. This is so accurate that it even takes into
account the effects on the calculations of the speed of light.
In addition, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers have
been set up in several places in South Africa and in other
Southern African countries, on Mauritius and Marion Island in
the Indian Ocean and at the South African National Antarctic
Expedition (SANAE) base in Antarctica, in order to measure
their movements. Several GPS receivers are placed alongside
tide gauges so that together they can accurately measure the
change in sea level caused by global warming.

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Solution to the Saturn Word Puzzle

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