LET ME GIVE SOME GENERAL DETAILS:

Define mole:
1 mole of any substance is its Ar or M r expressed in grams.

MASS OF SUBSTANCE
-no. of moles =
MASS OF ONE MOLE

VOLUME∈dm3
-no. of moles of gas =
24(1 dm3=1000 cm3)

-no. of moles of solute= CONCENTRATION. X VOLUME

(be careful in units either all dm3 or cm3)

-(YOU should know how to rearrange an equation.)

-When The Reaction Involve Only Gases Then We Can Use The Ratio Of Volumes
Instead Of Mole Ratio.

( THEORITICALYIELD X 100)
ACTUAL YIELD
-Percentage yield =

( )
MASS OF A PURE SUBSTANCE
-Percentage purity = MASS OF IMPURE SUBS TANCE X 100

 steps for finding molecular formula

 find no. of moles(method of finding this differs according to question)

 hence find the mole ratio
 and then calculate empirical formula

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

 find n which is=>
EMPRICLA FORMULAE MASS

 then find molecular formula=>(empirical formula)n and simplify

finally what SuperXDE said practice some past paper question as Practice makes
a man perfect!!

Mole ( Curses ) and their rules :

One Mole is 6.02 × 1023 Molecules of an Element ( or Atoms , in case of a pure non-
reacted element ) ,
a mole of En = n × E's Mass in grams and it contains 6.02 × 1023 ( Twenty one zeroes
, this number is called Avogrado's constant )
where E stands for Element or molecule and n stands for the number of elements
or molecules.

One mole's volume of a gas at room temperature is 24dm 3 ( 24 Litres )

Mole = Concentration × Volume

VOLUME ∈dm3
Mole =  3 3 3
24 dm (1 dm =1000 cm )

MASS OF A TOTAL SUBSTANCE

Mole = 
1 mole

1 mole= ( 1 mole or Relative Atomic/Molecular mass in Grams )

Ratio in compound xy3 is x:3y , in other words , mole(x):3mole(y) which is also 1:3.

Testing for Anions ( Negative Ions ) :

Carbonate ( CO 32−¿ ¿), add dilute hydrochloric acid ,result is effervescence , carbon

dioxide produced ( test with limewater )

Chloride in solution ( Cl−¿¿- ) , acidify solution with dilute nitric acid then add
aqueous silver nitrate , result is white ppt. of silver chloride formed. ( ppt soluble in
ammonia solution )

Bromide in solution (Br−¿¿ ) acidify solution with dilute nitric acid then add aqueous
silver nitrate , result is cream ppt. of silver bromide formed , ( only slightly soluble in
ammonia solution )

Iodide in solution (I −¿¿ ) acidify with dilute nitric acid then add aqueous silver
nitrate , result is yellow ppt of silver iodide , insoluble in ammonia
solution OR acidify with dilute nitric acid then add lead nitrate solution , result yellow
ppt. of lead iodide formed.

Sulfate in solution (S O 42−¿¿ ) acidify solution with dilute hydrochloric acid then add
barium chloride solution , OR acidify solution with dilute nitric acid then add barium
nitrate solution , result for both is white ppt of barium sulfate formed.
 −¿¿
Nitrate in solution ( N O 3 ) make alkaline with sodium hydroxide solution then add
aluminium foil ( or Devarda's alloy ) and warm carefully , result is Ammonia gas is
given off ( test with moist red litmus ).

Testing for Metal ions by burning :

+¿¿
Sodium ( Na ) burns giving yellow flame.

+¿¿
Potassium ( K ) burns giving lilac flame ( pale violet ).

Calcium (Ca2+¿ ¿) burns giving brick-red flame.

+¿¿
Lithium ( Li ) burns giving crimson flame.

Copper (Cu2+¿ ¿) burns giving a blue-green flame.

Barium ( Ba2+¿¿) apple-green (chartuese , close to lime a bit I think ).

Testing for Positive ions in solutions by adding sodium hydroxide:

+¿¿
Ammonium ( NH 4 ) , ammonia produced on warming.

Copper(II) (Cu2+¿ ¿) , light blue gelatinous ppt. of copper hydroxide ( insoluble in excess
sodium hydroxide ).

Iron(II) ( Fe2+ ¿¿) , green gelatinous ppt. of iron(II) hydroxide ( insoluble in excess ).

Iron(III) ( Fe3 +¿¿) , rust-brown gelatinous ppt. of iron(III) hydroxide ( insoluble in excess ).

Calcium (Ca2+¿ ¿) , white precipitation of calcium hydroxide ( insoluble in excess ).

Magnesium ( Mg 2+¿¿) white precipitation of magnesium hydroxide (insoluble in excess).

Zinc ( Zn2+¿¿) , white precipitation of zinc hydroxide ,soluble in excess ,giving a colourless

solution.

Aluminium ( Al3 +¿¿) white precipitation of aluminium hydroxide , soluble in excess ,giving

a colourless solution.

Testing for Positive ions in solutions by adding ammonia solution:

+¿¿
Ammonium ( NH 4 ) , ----- ( I think it means no reaction ).
 Copper(II) (Cu2+¿ ¿) , light blue gelatinous precipitation dissolves in excess ammonia ,
giving a deep blue solution.

Iron(II) ( Fe2+ ¿¿) , green gelatinous precipitation of iron(II) hydroxide ( insoluble in excess

).

Iron(III) ( Fe3 +¿¿) , rust-brown gelatinous precipitation of iron(III) hydroxide ( insoluble in

excess ).

Calcium (Ca2+¿ ¿) , no precipitation (or only a very slight ppt.).

Magnesium ( Mg 2+¿¿) white precipitation (soluble in excess).

Zinc ( Zn2+¿¿) , white precipitation (soluble in excess).

Aluminium ( Al3 +¿¿) white precipitation (insoluble in excess.

Testing for gases:

¿
Ammonia ( NH 3 ) , colourless and pungent smell , hold damp red litmus paper ( or
universal indicator paper ) in gas , Indicator paper turns blue..

Carbon dioxide (CO 2), colourless and odourless , bubble gas through lime water
( calcium hydroxide solution ) , white precipitation of calcium carbonate formed
( solution turns milky ).

Chlorine (Cl 2) , pale green and choking smell , hold damp litmus paper ( or
universal indicator paper ) in gas , indicator paper is bleached white ( blue litmus
will turn red first ).

Hydrogen ( H 2) , colourless and odourless , hold a lighted splint in gas , hydrogen

burns with a squeaky 'pop'.

Oxygen (O2) , colourless and odourless , hold a 'glowing' wooden splint in gas . the

splint relights.

Sulfur Dioxide ( SO 2) , colourless and choking smell , dip a piece of filter paper in

potassium dichromate(vi) solution and hold it in gas . solution turns pale green
( SO2 is a reducing agent ).

Testing for purity of substance:

Solids : Testing for melting point , if it is the correct value ( like the data says )
therefore it is pure , if not hence it is impure. e.g. Ice at 0 C°
 Liquids : Testing for boiling point , if it is the correct value ( like the data says )
therefore it is pure , if not hence it is impure. e.g. Water at 100 C°

Drying agents :
Concentrated Sulfuric acid: used to dry all gases except ammonia.

Anhydrous calcium chloride: used to dry all gases except ammonia which forms a
complex with calcium chloride.

Calcium oxide : used to dry ammonia and neutral gases.

Testing for water and acidity :

pH Testing (1) :

Acidity and Alkalinity are found by Indicators ( Usually Universal Indicator

and Litmus paper )

For a more accurate result , use pH Meter

Testing for water :

By adding anhydrous Copper(II) Sulfate , which water will turn from white

to blue

By adding anhydrous Cobalt(II) chloride , which water will turn from blue

to pink ( or deep rose )

Organic Analysis : ( Yet still under construction )

Testing for unsaturated hydrocarbon ( Like Alkenes )

Liquid : By adding Bromine water to it and shaking.
Gas : By passing the compound through Bromine water.

If it is an unsaturated hydrocarbon , it will turn the orange-brown Bromine

water colourless

Food tests : ( Testing for nutrients)

Detecting starch in food ( and water of course ) : Adding Iodine solution
which will give a blue-black colour , indicating the presence of starch.

Detecting glucose in food ( and water of course ) : Add sugar-test

( Benedict's solution ) food and water , and heat it , it will give an orange-red
ppt. , indicating presence of glucose
 Detecting protein in food ( and water of course ) :
1. Add dilute sodium hydroxide
2. Add drops of copper(II) sulfate solution
Violet colour indicates the presence of protein

Detecting fat in food :

1. Smear food on paper
2. Leave to dry
3. Hold up to the light
Bright glossy area indicates the presence of fats

Test for Ethanoic acid and Ethanol : ( as in the book )

the two substances provide a simple test reaction for each other. They both react
with each other with the addition of a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid ,
producing a sweet-smelling ester , the mixture is warmed gently and the fruity smell
of the ester can be best detected by pouring the reaction mixture into a beaker of
water. this spreads the ester and disperses the distinctive 'pear-drop' smell.

Chromatography :
Individual monomers from proteins and carbohydrates can be separated by
chromatography and detected using locating agents because they are colourless. if
a Sample gives only one spot , therefore that sample is pure , use more than one
solvent for accuracy and making sure that it is pure. For 2D ( 2 Dimensional )
Chromatography , user the paper and get the results on one dimension ( Y ) then
you dry the paper from the solvent then you rotate it by 90° to get the other
dimension ( X ) , and it will give us the 2D chromatography that we always see in

the book 

Reducing error in experiments :

Using more accurate apparatus that has a reduced percentage of Systematic errors
( these cannot be avoided , the systematic errors in any tool in the world , No atomic
computers that can do this accurately ¬¬ )

Taking measurements carefully and multiple measurements , to achieve accuracy ( by

finding the average )

When drawing the best fit line in a graph , do not include points that seem to be out of
the curve ,use asharp and make the curve as smooth as possible , and remember to
plot the independent Variable ( Temprature in a Time-of-reaction ( Y ) / Temprature ( X )
graph ) and NEVER forget to write the labels.
What to do next :

Apparatus names , Apparatus names and Apparatus names , revise them and do not
mistake a boiling tube for a test tube ( They are almost clones of each other ).

all nitrates are soluble

all potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are soluble
all sulfates are soluble except barium sulfate, lead sulfate and calcium sulfate
all chloride and iodide salts are soluble except silver chloride/iodide, lead
chloride/iodide and mercury chloride/iodide
all sulfides are insoluble except K, Na and ammonium salts
¿
all carbonates are insoluble except K, Na and NH 4 salts
¿
all hydroxides are insoluble except K, Na and NH 4 salts and magnesium and
calcium hydroxide salts are partially soluble.

(1) : pH measurements and other analyses are often carried out on soil samples. Soil is
stirred with distilled water. The insoluble material settles out, but the solution above
remains unclear because of fine suspended particles. These fine particles can be made
to settle too by adding some barium sulfate to the suspension. The barium sulfate
particles , themselves insoluble, physically drag the fine suspended material to the
bottom of the container. The mixture can then be filtered and the solution tested in
various ways for soluble ions , pH , etc.