Mine Planning and Design MN 471

CHAPTER 1
SCOPE OF UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND DESIGN
1.1 Course Aims and Objectives

The aims of the course are:

(i) To prepare the student to become a good mining engineer by exposing him or her to
engineering techniques used in designing and planning an underground mine, with
emphasis on mining systems.
(ii) To equip the student with engineering skills by which he or she can design an
underground mine and plan the mining operations so that the mining will be safe
and economically gainful.

The objectives of the course are:

(i) To expose the student to the objectives and problems of underground mining.
(ii) To introduce the student to the various underground mining systems and their
conditions of applicability.
(iii) To introduce the student to basic engineering concepts of, and techniques for,
underground mine planning & design.
(iv) To encourage the student to employ engineering concepts to design technically and
economically feasible underground mines.

1.2 Expected Course Outcome

At the end of the course, the student is expected to:

(i) Understand the engineering used to design and plan an underground mine.
(ii) Be able to analyse problems associated with underground mining systems and
solve them soundly by the application of engineering techniques.
(iii) Be able to design underground mining systems and plan the mining operations so
that mining will be safe and economically gainful in his or her professional life.

1.3 Course Outline and Presentation

Underground Mine Design and Planning (UMPD) is a 3 credit hour course dealing with
common sense and engineering techniques used in designing and planning safe and
economic underground mining systems and covers the following areas:
 Objectives and definition of UMPD.
 Factors that influence UMPD.
 Checklist for UMPD.
 Siting of surface facilities
 Primary and secondary development layout design.
 Design of mining systems, including:
 Naturally supported mining systems
 Artificially supported mining systems.

Notes prepared by Assoc. Prof. Raymond S. Suglo Course Lecturer: B. O. Afum 1-1
Mine Planning and Design MN 471

 Caving mining systems.

 Equipment selection.
 Long and short term planning

The course is taught through lectures and activities supported with hand-outs. In this way,
application of common sense and engineering principles can be directly demonstrated. The
student can best understand and appreciate the subject by attending all lectures and by
reading references and handouts and by completing all assignments and course work on
schedule.

1.4 Course Assessment

1.4.1 Student Assessment

Two forms of student assessment are designed for the course, namely:

(i) Continuous assessment: 40%

(ii) Examination: 60%

1.4.2 Lecturer Assessment

At the end of the course, each student will be required to evaluate the course and the
Lecturer’s performance by answering a questionnaire specially prepared to obtain the views
and opinions of the student about the course and the Lecturer. Students will be encouraged
to be sincere and frank in their answers so that the answers can be used as a good basis for
improvement.

1.5 The Syllabus

1.5.1 Overview of Underground Mine Design and Planning (UMPD)

 Objectives and Definition of UMPD
 Factors influencing UMPD
 Design and Planning as Complementary Partners
 Safety and Economy as Opposing Partners

1.5.2 Checklist for UMPD

 Climatic and Physiographic Data
 Geological Data
 Geomechanical and Geochemical Data
 Economic Data
 Corporate Policy
 Environmental and Mining Laws of Host Country

1.5.3 Design and Planning Strategies

 Definition and Classification of Mining Systems
 Mining System Selection

Notes prepared by Assoc. Prof. Raymond S. Suglo Course Lecturer: B. O. Afum 1-2
Mine Planning and Design MN 471

 Equipment Selection
 Short and Long Term Planning

1.5.4 Primary Development

 Siting of Surface Facilities
 Design of Primary Openings Layout
 Shaft Location and pillar Determination
 Determination of Mine Inter-Level Distance
 Mine Life and Working Regime

1.5.5 Naturally Supported Mining Systems

 Room and Pillar mining method.
 Sublevel Stoping mining method.

1.5.6 Artificially Supported Mining Systems

 Cut and fill mining method.
 Shrinkage mining method.

1.5.7 Caving Mining Systems

 Block Caving mining method.
 Sublevel Caving mining method.
 Longwall mining method.

1.6 Objectives and Expected Outcomes

The objectives of this lecture are:

 To discuss the nature of underground mining.

 To define Underground Mine Planning & Design (UMDP) through examination of its
tasks.
 To present safety and economy as opposing partners.
 To discuss the course objectives and expected outcomes.
 To present the course syllabus.
 To outline the course presentation techniques and assessment procedures.

At the end of the chapter, the student is expected to:

 Understand the nature of Mine Planning & Design.
 Appreciate the scope of the course.
 Appreciate his input for good understanding.

Notes prepared by Assoc. Prof. Raymond S. Suglo Course Lecturer: B. O. Afum 1-3
Mine Planning and Design MN 471

1.7 Nature of Underground Mining

Underground mining is inherently less flexible than surface mining. The time taken to gain
access to the orebody is usually greater and it is much more difficult to deviate from the
planned production. The maximum output from any working place is usually much lower
than in surface mining and it is often necessary to mine simultaneously in several locations
to achieve the desired production rate. It is therefore extremely important that the overall
mine plan and work schedules are prepared well in advance of actual operations.

Before production begins, access must be provided to a sufficient number of mining areas to
ensure continuous flow of ore at the desired rate when production commences. This stage
can take several years to complete (pre-production period).

At the production stage, mining of the ore must be co-ordinated with underground
development of horizontal, vertical or inclined roadways to get access to particular blocks of
ore. To sustain a constant level of production, development must precede mining operations.

Because of the importance of advance planning, it is normal to programme work in some

detail for at least 12 months ahead with an outline plan for up to five years or longer. The 12
month programme normally specifies work schedules on at least a monthly, weekly or even
daily basis.

1.8 Definition of Mine Planning & Design

Underground mine design is a 2-D or 3-D technical drawing or artwork, based on

engineering, economic and safety considerations, showing the detailed framework of an
underground mine or part of it.

In 2-D form, the design is presented as sections and plans while in the 3-D form it is
presented as solid object. The presentation of the design of a whole underground mine in a
single technical drawing will be cumbersome, as the details are too many. A good practice
therefore is to present the design showing only salient features and present the design of
other features separately. Nonetheless, the design of an underground mine should show the
orebody and country rock, the layout of primary (capital) development openings such as
shafts, adits, ramps, bins and main level drives and crosscuts, orepasses, loading points and
the ventilation network. The details should include major distances such as inter-level, inter-
drive, inter-orepass and inter-raise distances and the dimensions of the openings and the
orebody. The other features of the design that may be shown separately are the shaft, the
stoping method, developments and stope blasting, supporting systems, loading and haulage
systems and ventilation network. The design of each of these should show the dimensional
details. Fig. 1.1 is a simplified mine design for the 21st century showing a section through the
shaft, mill plant, ore sorting plant and the orebody.

Can we identify any short falls and peculiarities? Can we discuss the dimensions? It will be
useful if we could put a scale on the section.

Underground mine planning is a scientific decision making process involving the selection of
actions to be taken to achieve set objectives such as achieving production targets, making
maximum profit, providing social benefits, causing less accidents and causing little or no
damage to the environment. The outcome of planning is a schedule of work showing the
times to work, the amount of work such as development to accomplish or tonnage to be
produced in a given time, the material, human and financial resources to be used as well as
the rules, regulations and code of ethics that apply. Table 1.1 shows some planning figures in
the 20th Century.

Notes prepared by Assoc. Prof. Raymond S. Suglo Course Lecturer: B. O. Afum 1-4
Mine Planning and Design MN 471

Fig. 1.1 Hypothetical Mine Design for the 21st Century

Can we account for the differences between the figures of the 20th Century and those of the
21st Century?

Table 1.1 Planning Strategies for the 21st Century

1993 2050
Capital $250 million $150 million
Tonnes/day 4000 4000
Workforce 200 67
$/hr $40 $20
Tonnes/Employee-shift 20 60
Cost/Tonne $34 $19
Time to Commission 5 yrs 2 yrs

1.9 Checklist for UMPD

UMPD requires a set of data which should include the following:

 Climatic and physiographic data;
 Geological data;
 Geomechanical and geochemical data;
 Economic data;
 Corporate policy; and
 Environmental and mining laws of host country.

Notes prepared by Assoc. Prof. Raymond S. Suglo Course Lecturer: B. O. Afum 1-5
Mine Planning and Design MN 471

1.9.1 Climatic and Physiographic Data

The climate and physiographic data is vital to assist in siting surface facilities and should
include vital information about the area such as:
 Maximum, minimum and average temperature.
 Maximum, minimum and average rainfall and its pattern.
 Maximum, minimum and average humidity.
 Predominant wind direction and average speed.
 Type of vegetation cover.
 A map showing streams, rivers and lakes; and
 Contour map and a good description of the topography.

The climate and the physiography of the area where an underground mine is to be developed
are important information for mine planning and design. The climate could simply be
permafrost, temperate or tropical but each of these climates can influence the choice of
surface facilities especially roads. For example, heavy rainfall or snow may make roads
impassable, whereas a rail system would be more secure. Roads may have to be sealed and
well-drained for all-weather work. The topography of the area will also dictate the type of
transportation system and sometimes the facilities to be constructed. In hilly areas, roads
will require less civil engineering works than rail and therefore roads may be preferred to rail
transportation system. In very rugged areas, however, some composite arrangement may be
made such as an aerial ropeway down to a valley, or rope haulage or conveyors to minimize
the cost of road way construction for trucks. In Ghana, for example, most of the mines are
located in hilly areas so roadways for trucks are preferred. At Prestea, an aerial ropeway
connected the Central Shaft to the mill. Numerous streams or rivers in the concession area or
the mountainous nature of the area may necessitate that only essential facilities may be
constructed on the mine vicinity; the rest may be located further away where flat ground can
be found.

1.9.2 Geological Data

Complete geological and mineralogical information are required to assist in selecting the
appropriate mining method, type and layout of development openings and the appropriate
mining technique. The geological and mineralogical data should include the following:
 A map and good description of the regional and local geology.
 Thickness of overburden.
 A good description of the country rocks (hanging and footwalls).
 Plans and sections and a good description of the mineable orebodies.
 Size and orientation of orebody including the depth, dip, strike and thickness.
 The continuity or discontinuity within the mineralized zones.
 The distribution of various minerals in the mineable orebodies.
 The sharpness between mineralized zones and waste material.
 Presence of alteration zones in both mineralized and waste zones.

Notes prepared by Assoc. Prof. Raymond S. Suglo Course Lecturer: B. O. Afum 1-6
Mine Planning and Design MN 471

1.9.3 Geomechanical and Geotechnical Data

Geomechanical and geotechnical data are required as a basis for designing stable openings,
supporting systems and working out the way broken material should be treated so that
mining can be safe. The geomechanical and geotechnical data should include the following:
 Depth and characteristics of overburden.
 Structure of host rock (hangingwall and footwall).
 Approximate strengths of the overburden, host rock and orebody (compressive
strength, RQD).
 Any weakness such as noted zones of high stress.
 Temperature of zones to be mined.
 Any acid generating nature of host rock.
 Any tendency of the mineral to change character after being broken, e.g. oxidizing,
recompacting, becoming fluid or generating acids.

1.9.4 Economic Data

Economic data is required as the basis by which an underground mine can be designed and
planned to be economically gainful. The economic data should include the following:
 Mineral reserves, i.e. the grades and tonnages of the orebody categorised into
measured, indicated and inferred reserves.
 Possible dilution and losses and the grade of run-of-mine ore.
 Recovery of ore and price of saleable mineral(s). ‘
 Details of land ownership and lease holdings.
 Benefits, tax and royalties payable.
 Infrastructural details such as location of the mining area in relation to existing
roads, railroads or navigable rivers, power, commercial supplies and residential,
social and health facilities.

1.9.5 Corporate Policy

Corporate policy is required so that UMPD can be carried out to meet set objectives of the
company. The corporate policy may dictate, for example, that:
 The mine must be planned and designed to have high production rate and short mine
life or vice versa.
 Purchase or hire equipment or employ particular type of equipment.
 Construct residential facilities or pay workers to find their own accommodation.
 Process the run-of-mine ore at the mine or sell it out.

1.9.6 Environmental and Mining Laws

Obviously, underground mining should comply with the environmental and mining laws of
the host country. Consequently, the design of the mine and planning of mining operations
should take full account of the environmental and mining laws of the host country.

Notes prepared by Assoc. Prof. Raymond S. Suglo Course Lecturer: B. O. Afum 1-7
Mine Planning and Design MN 471

Can we state some environmental and mining laws of Ghana that are crucial to
underground mining?

Important note:

One would have wished that all the information necessary for UMPD is available before the
start of a project. Unfortunately, this is never the case. The information is never complete
and most of available information is speculative at the beginning of a project. There is a limit
as to how much it is prudent to spend and how much time should be taken to determine all
the information while still at the exploration stage, even when it is established that
mineralisation is of commercial value. The mining engineer often has to make do with
available information. For this matter, general knowledge of similar rocks or structures in
existing mines is always helpful. Initial designs and planning will definitely need revision as
mining proceeds and more accurate information becomes available.

1.10 Design and Planning as Complementary Partners

By their nature, the main objective of both design and planning is to mine economically and
safely. However, while design is concerned mainly with the type, specifics and method of
mining, planning is mainly concerned with what and when to mine, quantity of what to use
and who to mine. A thorny question is: Which comes first, design or planning? There is a
school of thought that holds the view that the decision to open an underground mine is a
decision process, which is planning, and therefore planning comes before design. It is
therefore not surprising that authorities belonging to this school of thought prefer to call the
discipline as “Underground Mine Planning and Design”. There is another school of thought
which believes that design comes before planning because one needs to put the design of an
underground mine in place before you plan what, when, what to use and who to mine
according to the design. The idea that the decision to open an underground mine is planning
and therefore planning comes first is refuted by the argument that at that point the decision
could be open pit or underground mine.

The best is to note that design and planning are complementary. It is futile to attempt to
place one before the other as in the case of chicken and egg. Design and planning are indeed
complementary partners with the same objective of mining safely and economically.

1.11 Safety and Economy as Opposing Partners

The main objective of UMPD is to mine a given orebody as safely as possible and as
economically as possible. This means that, ideally, all development openings need to be
spacious, reinforced and supported in such a way that there can be no failure; all stoping,
loading and haulage operations must be carried out with such equipment and in such a way
that there can be no accidents whatsoever; and the mine’s ventilation or air conditioning
system need to be superb. Unfortunately, creating such ideally safe conditions of mining
requires a lot of money. The cost could erode the whole revenue and render the mining
project unprofitable. On the other hand, concentrating on making maximum profit at the
expense of safety could collapse the mine.

Safety and economy are therefore, unarguably, opposing factors. One of the problems of the
mining engineer is finding a compromise between these two opposing partners so that
mining will be adequately safe and technologically and economically feasible.

Notes prepared by Assoc. Prof. Raymond S. Suglo Course Lecturer: B. O. Afum 1-8
Mine Planning and Design MN 471

References
Beniawski, Z.T. (1974). “Estimating the Strength of Rock Materials”, J.S. Afr., Inst. Min
Metall, pp. 312-320.
Bready B.H.G. and Brown, E.T. (1985). “Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining”, George
Allen & Unwin, 527 pp.
Hartman, H.L. & Mutmansky, J.M. (2002), “Introduction to Mining Engineering”, 2nd
edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 570 pp.
Hustrulid, W.A. (1982). “Underground Mining Handbook”, Society of Mining Engineers,
1726 pp.
Janelid, J.C and Kvapil, R. (1966). “Sublevel Caving”, Int. J. Rock, Mech. Min. Sci., pp. 129-
153.
Thomas, L.J. (1978). “Introduction to Mining”, Broken Hill Division, University of New
South Wales, Australia, 471 pp.
Salamon, M.D.G. And Munro, A.H. (1967). “A Study of the Strength of Coal Pillars", J.S. Afr.
Inst. Min. Metall, pp. 55-57.
Stock, J. and Chris, D. (1979). “Mineral Processing”, Open University Technology, a Third
Level Course, pp. 43-55.

Notes prepared by Assoc. Prof. Raymond S. Suglo Course Lecturer: B. O. Afum 1-9