Submitted by:

Diana M. Resultay
A301/Group-3B

Submitted to:
Ms. Reyes
Introduction
An ectopic pregnancy, or eccysis, is a complication of pregnancy in which the pregnancy
implants outside the uterine cavity. With rare exceptions, ectopic pregnancies are not viable.
Furthermore, they are dangerous for the mother, internal bleeding being a common complication.
Most ectopic pregnancies occur in the Fallopian tube (so-called tubal pregnancies), but implantation
can also occur in the cervix, ovaries, and abdomen. An ectopic pregnancy is a potential medical
emergency, and, if not treated properly, can lead to death.
In a normal pregnancy, the fertilized egg enters the uterus and settles into the uterine lining
where it has plenty of room to divide and grow. About 1% of pregnancies is in an ectopic location with
implantation not occurring inside of the womb, and of these 98% occurs in the Fallopian tubes.
Detection of ectopic pregnancy in early gestation has been achieved mainly due to enhanced
diagnostic capability. Despite all these notable successes in diagnostics and detection techniques
ectopic pregnancy remains a source of serious maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide, especially
in countries with poor prenatal care.
In a typical ectopic pregnancy, the embryo adheres to the lining of the fallopian tube and
burrows into the tubal lining. Most commonly this invades vessels and will cause bleeding. This intra-
tubal bleeding hematosalpinx expels the implantation out of the tubal end as a tubal abortion. Tubal
abortion is a common type of miscarriage. There is no inflammation of the tube in ectopic pregnancy.
The pain is caused by prostaglandins released at the implantation site, and by free blood in the
peritoneal cavity, which is a local irritant. Sometimes the bleeding might be heavy enough to threaten
the health or life of the woman. Usually this degree of bleeding is due to delay in diagnosis, but
sometimes, especially if the implantation is in the proximal tube (just before it enters the uterus), it
may invade into the nearby Sampson artery, causing heavy bleeding earlier than usual.
If left untreated, about half of ectopic pregnancies will resolve without treatment. These are
the tubal abortions. The advent of methotrexate treatment for ectopic pregnancy has reduced the
need for surgery; however, surgical intervention is still required in cases where the Fallopian tube has
ruptured or is in danger of doing so. This intervention may be laparoscopic or through a larger incision,
known as a laparotomy.
Classification

Tubal pregnancy

The vast majority of ectopic pregnancies implant in the Fallopian tube. Pregnancies can grow in
the fimbrial end (5% of all ectopics), the ampullary section (80%), the isthmus (12%), and the cornual
and interstitial part of the tube (2%). Mortality of a tubal pregnancy at the isthmus or within the uterus
(interstitial pregnancy) is higher as there is increased vascularity that may result more likely in sudden
major internal hemorrhage. A review published in 2010 supports the hypothesis that tubal ectopic
pregnancy is caused by a combination of retention of the embryo within the fallopian tube due to
impaired embryo-tubal transport and alterations in the tubal environment allowing early implantation
to occur.

Nontubal ectopic pregnancy

Two percent of ectopic pregnancies occur in the ovary, cervix, or are intra abdominal. Trans
vaginal ultrasound examination is usually able to detect a cervical pregnancy. An ovarian pregnancy is
differentiated from a tubal pregnancy by the Spiegelberg criteria.
While a fetus of ectopic pregnancy is typically not viable, very rarely, a live baby has been
delivered from an abdominal pregnancy. In such a situation the placenta sits on the intra abdominal
organs or the peritoneum and has found sufficient blood supply. This is generally bowel or mesentery,
but other sites, such as the renal (kidney), liver or hepatic (liver) artery or even aorta have been
described. Support to near viability has occasionally been described, but even in third world countries,
the diagnosis is most commonly made at 16 to 20 weeks gestation. Such a fetus would have to be
delivered by laparotomy. Maternal morbidity and mortality from extra uterine pregnancy is high as
attempts to remove the placenta from the organs to which it is attached usually lead to uncontrollable
bleeding from the attachment site. If the organ to which the placenta is attached is removable, such as
a section of bowel, then the placenta should be removed together with that organ. This is such a rare
occurrence that true data are unavailable and reliance must be made on anecdotal reports. However,
the vast majority of abdominal pregnancies require intervention well before fetal viability because of
the risk of hemorrhage.

Heterotopic pregnancy

In rare cases of ectopic pregnancy, there may be two fertilized eggs, one outside the uterus and
the other inside. This is called a heterotopic pregnancy. Often the intrauterine pregnancy is discovered
later than the ectopic, mainly because of the painful emergency nature of ectopic pregnancies. Since
ectopic pregnancies are normally discovered and removed very early in the pregnancy, an ultrasound
may not find the additional pregnancy inside the uterus. When hCG levels continue to rise after the
removal of the ectopic pregnancy, there is the chance that a pregnancy inside the uterus is still viable.
This is normally discovered through an ultrasound.
Although rare, heterotopic pregnancies are becoming more common, likely due to increased
use of IVF. The survival rate of the uterine fetus of an ectopic pregnancy is around 70%.
Successful pregnancies have been reported from ruptured tubal pregnancy continuing by the
placenta implanting on abdominal organs or on the outside of the uterus.

Persistent ectopic pregnancy

 A persistent ectopic pregnancy refers to the continuation of trophoplastic growth after a
surgical intervention to remove an ectopic pregnancy. After a conservative procedure that attempts to
preserve the affected fallopian tube such as a salpingotomy, in about 15-20% the major portion of the
ectopic growth may have been removed, but some trophoblastic tissue, perhaps deeply embedded,
has escaped removal and continues to grow, generating a new rise in hCG levels.  After weeks this may
lead to new clinical symptoms including bleeding. For this reason hCG levels may have to be monitored
after removal of an ectopic to assure their decline, also methotrexate can be given at the time of
surgery prophyllactically.

Signs and symptoms

Early symptoms are either absent or subtle. Clinical presentation of ectopic pregnancy occurs at
a mean of 7.2 weeks after the last normal menstrual period, with a range of 5 to 8 weeks. Later
presentations are more common in communities deprived of modern diagnostic ability.

Early signs include:

 Pain in the lower abdomen, and inflammation (Pain may be confused with a strong stomach
pain, it may also feel like a strong cramp)
 Pain while urinating
 Pain and discomfort, usually mild. A corpus luteum on the ovary in a normal pregnancy may
give very similar symptoms.
 Vaginal bleeding, usually mild. An ectopic pregnancy is usually a failing pregnancy and falling
levels of progesterone from the corpus luteum on the ovary cause withdrawal bleeding. This can be
indistinguishable from an early miscarriage or the 'implantation bleed' of a normal early pregnancy.
 Pain while having a bowel movement
Patients with a late ectopic pregnancy typically experience pain and bleeding. This bleeding will be
both vaginal and internal and has two discrete pathophysiologic mechanisms:

 External bleeding is due to the falling progesterone levels.

 Internal bleeding (hematoperitoneum) is due to hemorrhage from the affected tube.
The differential diagnosis at this point is between miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, and early normal
pregnancy. The presence of a positive pregnancy test virtually rules out pelvic infection as it is rare
indeed to find pregnancy with an active Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID). The most common
misdiagnosis assigned to early ectopic pregnancy is PID.
More severe internal bleeding may cause:

 Lower back, abdominal, or pelvic pain.
 Shoulder pain. This is caused by free blood tracking up the abdominal cavity and irritating the
diaphragm, and is an ominous sign.
 There may be cramping or even tenderness on one side of the pelvis.
 The pain is of recent onset, meaning it must be differentiated from cyclical pelvic pain, and is
often getting worse.
Ectopic pregnancy can mimic symptoms of other diseases such as appendicitis, other
gastrointestinal disorder, problems of the urinary system, as well as pelvic inflammatory disease and
other gynaecologic problems.

Causes
There are a number of risk factors for ectopic pregnancies. However, in as many as one third to
one half of ectopic pregnancies, no risk factors can be identified. Risk factors include: pelvic
inflammatory disease, infertility, use of an intrauterine device (IUD), previous exposure to DES, tubal
surgery, intrauterine surgery (e.g. D&C), smoking, previous ectopic pregnancy, and tubal ligation.
Although older texts suggests an association between endometriosis and ectopic pregnancy this
is not evidence based and current research suggests no association between endometriosis and
ectopic pregnancy.

Cilial damage and tube occlusion

Hair-like cilia located on the internal surface of the Fallopian tubes carry the fertilized egg to the
uterus. Fallopian cilia are sometimes seen in reduced numbers subsequent to an ectopic pregnancy,
leading to a hypothesis that cilia damage in the Fallopian tubes is likely to lead to an ectopic pregnancy.
Women with pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) have a high occurrence of ectopic pregnancy. This
results from the build-up of scar tissue in the Fallopian tubes, causing damage to cilia.  If however both
tubes were completely blocked, so that sperm and egg were physically unable to meet, then
fertilization of the egg would naturally be impossible, and neither normal pregnancy nor ectopic
pregnancy could occur. Tubal surgery for damaged tubes might remove this protection and increase
the risk of ectopic pregnancy. Intrauterine adhesions (IUA) present in Asherman's syndrome can cause
ectopic cervical pregnancy or, if adhesions partially block access to the tubes via the ostia, ectopic tubal
pregnancy.  Asherman's syndrome usually occurs from intrauterine surgery, most commonly after D&C.
Endometrial/pelvic/genital tuberculosis, another cause of Asherman's syndrome, can also lead to
ectopic pregnancy as infection may lead to tubal adhesions in addition to intrauterine adhesions.
 Tubal ligation can predispose to ectopic pregnancy. Seventy percent of pregnancies after tubal
cautery are ectopic, while 70% of pregnancies after tubal clips are intrauterine. Reversal of tubal
sterilization (Tubal reversal) carries a risk for ectopic pregnancy. This is higher if more destructive
methods of tubal ligation (tubal cautery, partial removal of the tubes) have been used than less
destructive methods (tubal clipping). A history of a tubal pregnancy increases the risk of future
occurrences to about 10%.  This risk is not reduced by removing the affected tube, even if the other
tube appears normal. The best method for diagnosing this is to do an early ultrasound.

Other
Although some investigations have shown that patients may be at higher risk for ectopic
pregnancy with advancing age, it is believed that age is a variable which could act as a surrogate for
other risk factors. Also, it has been noted that smoking is associated with ectopic risk. Vaginal douching
is thought by some to increase ectopic pregnancies.  Women exposed todiethylstilbestrol (DES) in utero
(aka "DES Daughters") also have an elevated risk of ectopic pregnancy, up to 3 times the risk of
unexposed women. It has also been suggested that pathologic generation of nitric oxide through
increased iNOS production may decrease tubal ciliary beats and smooth muscle contractions and thus
affect embryo transport, which may consequently result in ectopic pregnancy.

Diagnosis

An opened oviduct with an ectopic pregnancy at about 7 weeks gestational age.

An ectopic pregnancy should be considered in any woman with abdominal pain or vaginal
bleeding who has a positive pregnancy test. An ultrasound showing a gestational sac with fetal heart in
the fallopian tube is clear evidence of ectopic pregnancy.
An abnormal rise in blood β-human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG) levels may indicate an
ectopic pregnancy. The threshold of discrimination of intrauterine pregnancy is around 1500 IU/ml of
β-hCG. A high resolution, trans vaginal ultrasound showing no intrauterine pregnancy is presumptive
evidence that an ectopic pregnancy is present if the threshold of discrimination for β-hCG has been
reached. An empty uterus with levels higher than 1500 IU/ml may be evidence of an ectopic
pregnancy, but may also be consistent with an intrauterine pregnancy which is simply too small to be
seen on ultrasound. If the diagnosis is uncertain, it may be necessary to wait a few days and repeat the
blood work. This can be done by measuring the β-hCG level approximately 48hrs later and repeating
the ultrasound. If the β-hCG falls on repeat examination, this strongly suggests a spontaneous abortion
or rupture.
A laparoscopy or laparotomy can also be performed to visually confirm an ectopic pregnancy.
Often if a tubal abortion or tubal rupture has occurred, it is difficult to find the pregnancy tissue. A
laparoscopy in very early ectopic pregnancy rarely shows a normal looking fallopian tube.
Culdocentesis, in which fluid is retrieved from the space separating the vagina and rectum, is a
less commonly performed test that may be used to look for internal bleeding. In this test, a needle is
inserted into the space at the very top of the vagina, behind the uterus and in front of the rectum. Any
blood or fluid found may have been derived from a ruptured ectopic pregnancy. Cullen's sign can
indicate a ruptured ectopic pregnancy.

Treatment

Medical
Early treatment of an ectopic pregnancy with methotrexate is a viable alternative to surgical
treatment since at least 1993.  If administered early in the pregnancy, methotrexate terminates the
growth of the developing embryo; this may cause an abortion, or the tissue may then be either
resorbed by the woman's body or pass with a menstrual period. Contraindications include liver, kidney,
or blood disease, as well as an ectopic mass > 3.5 cm.

Surgical
If hemorrhage has already occurred, surgical intervention may be necessary. However, whether
to pursue surgical intervention is an often difficult decision in a stable patient with minimal evidence of
blood clot on ultrasound.
Surgeons use laparoscopy or laparotomy to gain access to the pelvis and can either incise the
affected Fallopian and remove only the pregnancy (salpingostomy) or remove the affected tube with
the pregnancy (salpingectomy). The first successful surgery for an ectopic pregnancy was performed
by Robert Lawson Tait in 1883.
Complications
The most common complication is rupture with internal haemorrhage which may lead to
hypovolaemic shock. Death from rupture is rare in women who have access to modern medical
facilities.

Prognosis

Future fertility
Fertility following ectopic pregnancy depends upon several factors, the most important of
which is a prior history of infertility.  The treatment choice, whether surgical or nonsurgical, also plays a
role. For example, the rate of intrauterine pregnancy may be higher following methotrexate compared
to surgical treatment.  Rate of fertility may be better following salpingostomy than salpingectomy.

Cases with lived birth

There have been cases where ectopic pregnancy lasted many months and ended in a live baby
delivered by laparotomy.
On 19 April 2008 an English woman, Jayne Jones (age 37) who had an ectopic pregnancy
attached to the omentum, the fatty covering of her large bowel, gave birth. The baby was delivered by
a laparotomy at 28 weeks gestation. The surgery, the first of its kind to be performed in the UK, was
successful, and both mother and baby survived.
On May 29, 2008 an Australian woman, Meera Thangarajah (age 34), who had an ectopic pregnancy in
the ovary, gave birth to a healthy full term 6 pound 3 ounce (2.8 kg) baby girl, Durga, via Caesarean
section. She had no problems or complications during the 38-week pregnancy.
The case of Olivia, Mary and Ronan had an extrauterine fetus (Ronan) and intrauterine twins. All three
survived. The intrauterine twins were taken out first.