MSM R19 - Unit-1

Structure of metals & constitution of alloys unit -1
STRUCTURE OF METALS & ITS ALLOYS:

BONDING IN SOLIDS:
When the atoms of the elements combines to form molecules a force of attraction is
developed between the atoms, which holds them together this force is known as “Bond”.
Atoms are held together in solids by electrostatic forces of attraction.

An electric force of attraction occurs between positively and negatively charged particles,
and there are various ways in which such electric forces can be produced between atoms in
solids.
Causes of Bonding:
The atoms or molecules forms bonds with another, in order to achieve stable
configuration in the following 3 ways
➢ By loosing one or more electrons to another atom
➢ By gaining one or more electrons from another atom
➢ By sharing one or more electrons with another atom
Classification of Bonds :
• According to the nature of forces of attraction bonds are classified as

o Primary bonding
o Secondary bonding
• Primary bonds:
• Primary bonds are inter atomic bonds in which electro static force holds the atoms
together.
• They are more stable and relatively strong bonds.
• Examples- metallic, ionic and covalent bonds
• Secondary bonds:
• Secondary bonds are inter molecular bonds in which the weak forces holds the
molecules together
• These weak forces are known as vanderwall’s force.
• They are relatively weak.
• Examples- dispersion bond, dipole bond and hydrogen bond.

Secondary bond is weak and less stable when compared to primary bond
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Types of Primary Bond:

1. Ionic Bond
2. Covalent Bond
3. Metallic bond
1. Ionic Bond:
1. It is also known as electro valent bond
2. It is formed between atoms of metals and nonmetals
3. An ionic bond is formed when one or more electrons, from the outer most shell of one
atom, are transformed to the outermost shell of another atom
4. The electro static attraction b/w the oppositely charged ions forms the ionic bond
5. Following are the two conditions are necessary for the bond formation :
1. The atom which loses the electron should have low ionization energy. It means that a
small amount of energy is requires to remove the electron from its outermost energy level
2. The atom which gains the electron should have high electron affinity. It means that the
atom should be able to readily accept an electron from its outermost energy level
Ex: formation of ionic bond in sodium chloride (NaCl)
➢ The atomic no of Na is 11 and Cl is 17 .the atomic structure of both Na and Cl atoms are
shown in fig. Thus we see that the Na atom has 1electron in its outer most energy level and Cl
atom has 7 electrons in its outer most energy level
➢ The Na atom has tendency to lose its electron in its outermost energy level to have a stable
configuration. more over the Cl atom has a tendency to accept one electron (lost by Na
atom) in its outer most energy level to have a stable electronic configuration of argon
Properties of ionic solids:

1. Ionic solids are rigid, uni directional and crystal in nature
2. The ionic solids have very low electrical and thermal conductivities
3. The ionic solids have high hardness due to their crystalline structure
4. The ionic solids are not malleable and ductile
5. They have high melting and boiling temperature
6. They exist in the form of solids only
7. They are freely soluble in water but slightly soluble in organic solvents
Covalent bond:
➢ It exist due to the electrostatic force of attraction b/w atoms which share the electron
pairs to form a covalent bond
➢ It is formed b/w similar or dissimilar atoms
Ex: O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O, Sic
Fig: covalent bond formation of chorine molecule

In Cl molecule it consists of 7 electrons in its outer most shell. it need one more electron
to achieve stable configuration Argon it share another chlorine atom as shown in fig
Note :
➢ When the atoms share one pair of electron the bond formed is single bond, two or three
pair of electron, the bond formed is single or double or triple covalent bond
They are two types of covalent bands-
 Non Polar
- bonded atoms that share e-’s equally
- same atoms bonded
ex. Cl – Cl: Cl2
 Polar
- bonded atoms that do not share e-’s equally
- different atoms bonded
H
ex. H – N – H: NH3
Properties of ionic solids:
✓ These are bad conductors of electricity
✓ These compounds are low melting & boiling temp
✓ These are not soluble in water ,but are soluble in organic components such as benzene,
toluene etc
3. Metallic bond:
A bond formed by the attraction between electron cloud and positively charged ion (cation) of
same or different metals
Fig: Metallic bond formation
Properties of metallic solids:
✓ These are high electrical and thermal conductivities

✓ Metallic solids have crystalline structure but are soft in nature
✓ These solids are low melting and boiling temperature than ionic solids
✓ These are exist in the form of solids only
✓ These are neither soluble in water nor organic solvents
2. Secondary Bond
1. Dispersion bond:
• This bond as shown in a symmetrical molecule.
• The electrons are uniformly distributed around the nucleus.
• But due to mutual repulsion, electrons disperse in asymmetrical manner the displacement
of positive and negative charges, and forms a dipole (pair of two opposite and equal
charges).
• These dipoles oscillate and influence each other resulting in a weak attraction force
which forms the dispersion bond.
• Example- molecules of the inert gas are held by dispersion bond.
2. Dipole bond:
• Unequal sharing of electrons between the atoms results that the center of positive and
negative charges does not coincide and the electrical dipole (molecule with one end
positive and other end negative).
• These dipoles provide molecular attraction resulting in the formation of dipole bond.
• Dipole bonds are weaker than ionic bonds but stronger than dispersion bond.
Example- formation of hydrogen chloride (HCL).
In HCL, molecule region near the hydrogen nucleus is highly positive and opposite region
near the chlorine nucleus is negative.
Attractive between the regions results dipole bond.
3. Hydrogen bond:
• Hydrogen bond results between hydrogen atom and any other elctro-negative atoms such
as oxygen and nitrogen.
Example-
In water molecules two H2 ends of the molecule being slightly positive (i.e. from
proton) relative to the oxygen atom (electron).
Each water molecule form a dipole.
Hydrogen bond occurs as a result of electro-static attraction between these molecule from
a dipole.
BOND ENERGY OR BINDING ENERGY: It is defined as the energy to break the bond or to
separate the atom is known as “bond energy”
➢ It is expressed in kj/mole
BOND LENGTH:
➢ The bond length may be defined as equilibrium separation (r) b/w the centre-to-centre of
two bonding atoms.
➢ The force of attraction b/w the two bonding atoms, smaller will be the equilibrium
separation and hence smaller the bond length.
➢ The primary bond are more stronger than the secondary bond, then the bond length of
primary bond are smaller than those of secondary bonds
➢ The bond length of primary bond are in the range of 1-2 AO,for secondary bonds of 2-5
AO
F
F
r
Fig: bond length
Crystallization of solids:
➢ crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules or ions
etc are arranged in an ordered pattern extending in all three dimensions. which are
acquired under the action of inter molecular forces.
➢ Crystals are also known as grains
➢ The boundary separating the two adjacent grains is called grain boundary
➢ The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as “crystallography.”
➢ The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called
“Crystallization or solidification.”
➢ All materials are crystalline in nature.
➢ Single Crystals: Crystals can be single crystals where the whole solid is one crystal.
Then it has a regular geometric structure with flat faces.
➢ Polycrystalline Materials:
o A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each other.
It is called polycrystalline.
❖ The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to each other. Where they meet is
called a grain boundary.
❖ Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials
➢ Crystalline Solids:-
❖ In crystalline substances the atoms are arranged in regular pattern then it’s called
crystalline solids.
❖ the distance b/w any two successive toms is equal
Example: Cu, Al, Fe etc
➢ Non-Crystalline Solids or Amorphous solids :

❖ The irregular arrangement of the atoms in a crystal is called Non-Crystalline
solids
❖ The atomic distance b/w any two successive atoms is not equal
Example: glass, rubber etc
Fig: Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials
Anisotropy & Isotropy:

➢ The properties of polycrystalline solids may be differ greatly in different directions and
such an unequality of properties in various crystallographic directions is called
Anisotropy.
➢ Amorphous substances such as glass will display the same properties in any directions or
planes are called isotropic.
Lattice: It denotes the position of atoms or molecules in the crystal.
Space lattice: It differs from a crystal structure in that a space lattice is an array of points
in three-dimensional space in which every point has surroundings identical to the every other
point in the array. Where as a crystal structure is an arrangement of atoms in crystal.
Or
The array of lattice points in three-dimensional space is called space lattice.
Unit cell : It is the smallest portion of the crystal which shows the arrangement and position of
atoms in a crystal structure
Where a, b,c,-intercepts along axes along x,y,z and
α, β, γ-interfacial angles
Primitive cell: It is defined as a unit cell which possesses lattice points at its corners only
Example: A simple cubic cell
Non-Primitive cell: The unit cell which contain more than one lattice point, are called Non-
primitive cell
Ex: body centered and face centered cubic structures contain more than one lattice point per unit
cell
❖ If no of lattice points per unit cell are two the unit cell is called doubly primitive cell.
❖ If no of lattice points per unit cell are three or four the unit cell is called triply primitive
cell or quadruply primitive cell
Packing factor (p.f)

• Packing factor or packing density is defined as the volume occupied by the atoms in a
unit cell to the volume of unit cell.
• Packing fraction = vol.of atoms in a unit cell / volume of unit cell

For a cubic structure, p.f = n.4/3 πr3 /a3
Where r = radius of atoms

n = effective no.of atoms per unit cell
a = lattice parameter of the structure
P.Fis less then the atoms are arranged in loosely packed and when the P.F is more then the atoms
are arranged in close packed
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS

Most metals crystallize into 4 forms of crystal systems:
❖ Simple Cubic crystal structure (S.C.C)
❖ Face-centered cubic structure (F.C.C)
❖ Body-centered cubic structure (B.C.C)
❖ Hexagonal close-packed structure (F.C.C)
1. Simple cubic structure:

In this structure 8 corners of the cube are occupied by 8 atoms.
No of atoms in the unit cell of S.C.C:

The unit cell contains 8 atoms one at each corner of the cube, since each
corner atom is shared by 8 eight surrounding cubes the unit cell of
S.C.C contains
8 atoms at the corners 8X1/8 =1 atom
Atomic packing factor of S.C.C:
P.F = vol.of atoms in a unit cell / volume of unit cell

Consider a s.c.c structure as shown in fig;
Where; a=length of each side of cube
r=atomic radius
r=a/2
Volume of atoms in the unit cell =n.4/3 πr3
= 1X4/3 π (a/2) 3 = πa3 /6
Volume of unit cell = a3
p.f = (πa3 /6) / a = π / 6 = 52 %
P.f is the about 52% and hence this structure is loosely packed,
Polonium is the only element which shows this type of structure,
2. Body-centered cubic structure (B.C.C)

In B.C.C structure the unit cell contain 8 atoms and 1 atom in
the centre of the cell
No of atoms in the unit cell:
In B.C.C structure the unit cell contains 8 atoms at each
corner of the cube and one atom in the centre of the cube
Since each corner is shared by 8 surrounding cubes and

the atom in the centre cannot be shared by another cube.
Fig: B.C.C
8 atoms at the corners x 1/8 =1 atom
1 centre atom =1 atom
2 atoms
R
a
Atomic packing factor of B.C.C:

From le AEB; AE2 = A B2 + BE2
= a2 + a2
AE2 = 2a2
AE = √2a
From le AEF, AF2 =AE2+EF2
(4r) 2 = 2a2 + a 2
16r2 =3a2
a=4r/√3
We know that;
Volume of the unit cell = a3 = (4r/√3)3
Volume of the atom in the unit cell = n.4/3 πr3
= 2x4/3 πr3
Packing factor (p.f):

P.f = 2x4/3 πr3 /(4r/√3)3=0.68=68%
Examples- chromium, iron, molybdenum, potassium, sodium, tungsten, vanadium

P.f is 68% and it is not a closely packed structure.
Face-centered cubic structure:
In FCC structure, there are eight corner of the cube occupied by eight atoms, and six
atoms occupy the centre of six of the cube atoms
Examples- AL, copper, gold, lead, nickel, platinum, silver.
Effective no.of atoms: (n)

In FCC structure effective no.of corner atom is 8x1/8 = 1.
Each face centered atom is shared by two unit cells, there are six faces in a
unit cell of cubic structure.
Therefore, the effective face-centered atoms = 1/2x6=3

Thus, effective no.of atoms in FCC unit cell,
n = 1/8x8+1/2x6=1+3=4atoms

From le ABC, AC2 =AB2+BC2
(4r) 2 = a2 + a 2
16r2 =2 a2
8r2= a2 ; a=2 x /√2r
We know that;
Volume of the unit cell = a3 = (2 x /√2r)3
Volume of the atom in the unit cell = n.4/3 πr3

= 4x4/3 πr3
Packing factor (p.f): P.f = Volume of the atom in the unit cell/ Volume of the unit cell
= 4x4/3 πr3 /(2 x /√2r )3
=0.74 or 74% P.f is high compared to S.C.C and B.C.C
Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure:
The atoms in HCP unit cell touch each other.

Since the corner atoms are touching, a = 2r
Effective no. of atoms: (n)
There are six corner atoms on both top and bottom layers and each corner atom accounts for 1/6
atom.
Thus contribution from the corner atoms is 2(1/6x6) =2.
Also, there are 3 atoms in the middle layer which are not shared by any other unit cell.
The atoms at the center of top and bottom layers one atom (1/2x2=1)
Thus, effective no. of atoms in HCP unit cell,
n =2(1/6x6) +3+ (1/2x2) =2+3+1=6

Volume of unit cell can be found by finding out the area of the basal plane and then multiplying
this by its height
Area of basal plane is the area ABDEFG.this area is six times the equilateral triangle ABC
Area of ABC = 1/ 2 x b x h
= 1/2 x a x a sin 600
= 1/2 x a2 x sin 600
Total area of the basal plane = 6 x 1/2 a2 sin60=3 a2 sin600
Vol of unit cell = Area of basal plane x height

= 3 a2 sin600 x c
We know; a = 2r
Vol of atoms in unit cell = n.4/3 πr3 = 6x4/3 πr3
Packing factor (p.f):= Volume of the atom in the unit cell/ Volume of the unit cell
= 6x4/3 π (a/2)3 /3a2sin60xc
= π a /3xc xsin600
The c/a ratio for ideal H.C.P crystal structure is 1.633
= π /3x1.633 xsin600 =0.74 or 74%
Examples - cadmium, zinc, magnesium, cobalt, zirconium, titanium, beryllium.
P.f is 74% and hence it is closely packed structure.
CRYSTALLIZATION OF METALS
➢ Crystallization or solidification is the process of transition from the liquid state. When the
molten metal is cooled, the whole mass does not solidify instantaneously.
It comprises two steps
1. Nucleation (the formation of stable nuclei in the melt)

2. Grain or crystal growth (the growth of nuclei into crystal and the formation of the grain
structure.)
GRAIN
Solidified metal containing many crystals is called polycrystalline metals. The crystals in
polycrystalline metals are of irregular shape and are called grains.
GRAIN BOUNDARIES
A grain boundary is the interface between two grains, or crystallites, in a polycrystalline

material
Or
A grain boundary may be defined as the region b/w two adjacent grains
The grain size expressed in terms of number of grains per unit area or volume
Factors affecting grain size

➢ Size of grain depends on rate of nucleation and rate of crystal growth
➢ The combination of high rate of nucleation (N) with a slow rate of crystal growth (G)
yields fine grains this combination can be achieved due to rapid cooling
➢ At faster rate of cooling a large no of grains are nucleated and there is less time for them
to grow
➢ A high value of (G) and low value of (N) coarse grains are formed this combination can
be achieves in slow rate of cooling
➢ Besides the rate of cooling and rate of nucleation the grain size also depends on the
temperature of liquid metal, the chemical composition and the impurities present there in
➢ When the grain size is small the structure of the metal is known as “fine grained
structure”
➢ When the grain size is large the structure of the metal is known as “coarse grained
structure”
➢
Effect of grain size on properties:
➢ The grain size of the metal strongly effects its mechanical properties
➢ Metals and alloys are stronger if the grain size is reduced there fore every effort is
made to produce structure with fine grains
➢ Metals with fine grain structure possess high strength and hardness also they
possesses high fatigue strength and toughness (i.e, resistance to impact).
➢ Metals with coarse grain structure possesses less tough and less hard but exhibit
better creep resistance
➢ Coarse grain structure gives high ductility good machinability and formability but
decrease the hardenability
GRAIN SIZE DETERMINATION

Three basic methods has recomondded by ASTM (AMERICAN STANDARD TESTING
AND MATERIALS)
1. Comparison method
2. Heyn method or intercept method

3. Planimetric method or Jeffries method
1. Comparison method:-
In this method the grain size is measured by comparison under a magnification of 100X(after
etching )with standard grain size AS
Where N = no of grains per inch square at a magnification of 100 X

n=ASTM grain size number
2. Heyn method or intercept method :

Grain size may be estimated by using an intercept method, described below:
• Straight lines, all of the same length are drawn through several photomicrographs that
shoe the grain structure.
• The grains intersected by each line segment are counted.
• The line length is then divided by an average of no.of grains intersected, taken over
all the line segments.
• The average grain diameter is found by dividing this result by the linear
magnifications of the photomicrographs.
To each assigned a number, the smaller the grains.
A specimen must be properly of 100x.
Grain size is expressed as the grain size no of the chart that most nearly matches the
grains in the micrograph.
Thus, a relatively simple and convenient visual determination of grain size number is
possible.
Grain size number is used extensively in the specification of steels.
IMPERFECTIONS IN CRYSTALS
The perfectly regular crystal structures that have been considered upto now are called ideal
crystals in which atoms are arranged in a regular way.
In actual crystals, however, imperfections or defects are always present and their nature and
effects are very important in understanding the properties of crystals.
These imperfections affect the properties of crystals such as mechanical strength, chemical
reactions, electrical properties etc. to a great extent.
Crystal defects are classified as :
• Point defects or zero dimensional defect
• Line defects or one dimensional defect
• Surface defects or two dimensional defect
• Volume defect
1. Point defects:
Point defects are imperfect point like regions in a crystal. The size of a point defect is one or two
atomic diameters.
These defects are completely local in effect, e.g.,a vacant lattice.
Point imperfections are always present in crystals and their presence results in a decrease in the
free energy.
The point defects may created as follows:
• By thermal fluctuations
• By quenching (quick cooling) from a higher temperature
• By severe deformation of the crystal lattice; e.g., by hammering or rolling.

The various point defects are discussed as below:
1. Vacancy
A vacancy is the simplest point defect and involves a missing atom within a metal. These
defects may come up as result of imperfect packing during the original crystallization.
They may also arise from the thermal vibrations of the atoms at high temperatures.
2. Schottky imperfections
These are closely related to vacancies but are found in compounds with must maintain a
charge balance.
In schottky defect the removal of positive ion must be counter balanced by the removal of
negative ion in order to maintain neutrality.
The pair of vacancies caused by removal of positive ion and negative ion is called
schottky defect.
3. Interstitialcy
It is formed when an extra atom is inserted into the lattice at a normally unoccupied site.
This results in atomic distortion.
The foreign atom may form added alloying agent or simply an impurity.
The vacancy and interstitialcy are therefore, inverse phenomena.
4. Frenkel defect
If a ion displaced from the normal lattice point to an interstial site, then the defect is
known as frankel defect.
The interstitials and frankel defects are less in number than vacancies and schottky
defects, because additional energy is required to force the atom into the new position.
2. Line defects:
➢ A linear disturbance of the atomic arrangement, which can move very easily on the slip
plane through the crystal is known as dislocation.
➢ This dislocation may be caused during growth of crystal form a melt or form a vapour or
they may occur during a slip.
➢ This defect is created along a line which is also the boundary between the slipped and
unslipped regions of the crystal. This defect is common called a “dislocation” and the
boundary as the “dislocation line”.
Types of dislocations are:
• Edge dislocation (or taylor-orowan dislocation)
• Screw dislocation
1. Edge dislocation
• An edge dislocation may be described as an extra plane of atoms within a crystal

structure. It is accompanied by zones of compression and tension so that there is a
net increase in energy along a dislocation.
• The displacement distance for atoms around the dislocation is called the
“BURGER VECTOR”(b). This vector is at right angle to the edge dislocation.
• In case of edge dislocation this vector is perpendicular to the dislocation line
2. Screw dislocation
➢ In screw dislocation the atoms are displaced in two separate planes perpendicular to
each other.
➢ The lattice points trace a helical path around the dislocation, therefore it is called
“screw dislocation”.
➢ A screw dislocation has its displacements of burger’s vector parallel to the linear defect
but there is a distortion of the plane.
➢ The displacements of the atoms from their original position in the crystal is described
by the equation:
➢ r = bθ/2π (spiral ramp)
▪ where, r= the displacement along the dislocation line,
➢ θ = the angle measured from some axis perpendicular to the dislocation line.
➢ The following dislocation of a screw dislocation are of great importance:
➢ Plastic deformation is possible under low stress, without breaking the continuity of the
lattice.
➢ The force required to form and move a screw dislocation is probably somewhat greater
than that required to initiate an edge dislocation.
➢ Screw dislocation causes distortion of a considerable distance from the centre of the
line and takes the form of spiral distortion of the planes.
➢ Dislocation of both types (combinations of edge and screw) are closely associated with
crystallization as well as deformation
3. Surface defects:
Surface defects are the two dimensional regions in a crystal. They arise from a change in the
stacking of atomic planes on across a boundary.
They are the following two types:
• External defects
• Internal defects
1. External defects
• The external type is just what its name implies, the defects or imperfections
represented by a boundary.
• The external surface of the material is an imperfection itself, because the atomic
bonds do not extend beyond it.
• The surface atoms have neighbours on one side only, while the atoms inside the
crystal have neighbours on either side of them.
• Since these surface atoms are not entirely surrounded by others, they possess
higher energy than those of internal atoms.
2. Internal defects
a) Grain boundaries:
• Grain boundary is a narrow region between two grains of about two to few atomic
diameters in width, and is the region of atomic mismatch between adjacent grains.
• Atoms are arranged less regularly at the grain boundary. This produce less
efficient packing of the atoms at the boundary.
• Thus the atoms along the grain boundary have a higher energy than those within
the grains.
• If the orientation between two neighbouring grains is less than 10 0, then it is

called low angle boundary or tilt boundary. In general low angle boundary may be
regarded as an array of dislocations.
• If the mismatch is more than 10-150, the grain boundary is known as high angle
grain boundary.
At the grain boundary, there is a disturbance in the atomic packing.

b) Tilt boundary:
• The simplest grain boundary consists of a configuration of edge

dislocations between two grains.
• The misfit in the orientation of the two grains (one on each side of the
boundary) is accommodated by a perturbation of the regular arrangement
of crystals in the boundary region.
• Fig shows some vertical atomic planes termination in the boundary and
each termination is represented by an edge dislocation.
Low-angle tilt boundary

• The mis-orientation at the boundary is related to spacing between dislocations,
D, by the following relation:
b b
D= 
  
2 sin  
2
for q very small)
where b is the Burgers vector.
• As the mis-orientation q increases, the spacing between dislocations is

reduced, until, at large angles, the description of the boundary in terms of
simple dislocation arrangements does not make sense.
• For such a case,  becomes so large that the dislocations are separated by one
or two atomic spacing;
• the dislocation core energy becomes important and the linear elasticity
does not hold.
• Therefore, the grain boundary becomes a region of severe localized

disorder.
• Boundaries consisting entirely of edge dislocations are called tilt boundaries,

because the misorientation
c) Twist (twin boundary)
• A boundary consisting entirely of screw dislocations is called twist

boundary, because the misorientation can be described by a relative rotation
of two grains about an axis.
• It is possible to produce misorientations between grains by combined tilt and

twist boundaries. In such a case, the grain boundary structure will consist of a
network of edge and screw dislocations.
Low angle twist boundary
Twin Boundary: when the boundaries in which the atomic arrangement on one side of the
boundary is some what mirror image of the arrangement of atoms of other side, the defect is
known twin boundary
4. volume defects:
• the volume defects are caused due to coglomarations of vacancies in a small region
within crystal or the presence of foreign atoms large sizes compared on atomic scale.
• The accumulation of vacancies produces voids, while the foreign atoms produce
dissymmetry within crystals.
• These defects effects properties of metal.
• Bulk or volume defects are normally introduced during processing processing and
fabrication steps.
THEORY OF DISLOCATION
• Dislocations are defined as the irregularities in the structure of metals.
• These arise from misplacement of bonds the atoms in a part of the plane of a crystal and
are considered to be weak centres.
• They are instrumental in affecting the breaking stress and plastic and chemical properties
of crystals.
• It is believed that dislocations originate mainly when a crystal is stressed, but some may
be produced during the solidification of the metal, due to impurity atoms and thermal
vibrations.
• In good crystals the normal density of dislocation lines is around 108/cm2 where as in
deformed crystals it may be as high as 102/cm2.
IMPORTANT TERMS
System: A part of the universe under study is called system.
Phase:Phase is a homogeneous, physically distinct and mechanically separable

part of the system under study.
Component: Pure metal of which the alloy is composed.
Solubility limit:Maximum concentration of solute that can dissolve in solvent
Variable: A particular phase exists under various conditions of temperature,

pressure and concentration. These parameters are called as the variables of the
phase.
Component:The elements present in the system are called as components.
Example- Cu-Al system contains compounds CuAl and CuAl2 and therefore, all
compositions can be expressed by the molecular species of Cu and Al and hence it
is two component system i.e. binary system.
Alloy:
Alloy is mixture of two or more elements having metallic properties. The element present
in the largest proportions is a metal and others can be metals or non-metals.
The element which is present in the largest amount is called as the base metal or parent
metal or solvent and other elements are called as alloying elements or solute.
Constitution:
• The constitution of an alloy is described by
• the phases present
• the weight fraction of each phase
• the composition of each phase
• The equilibrium constitution is when the alloy has no further tendency to change at a
given temperature and pressure
ALLOYING ELEMENTS
The elements deliberately added to the steel in order to modify its properties are called alloying
elements.
Classification of alloying elements:
1. Based on their relation with carbon, alloying elements may classified as:
o Graphitizing elements – silicon, nickel, copper and aluminium.
These elements may cause the breakdown of cementile and lead to the presence of
graphite in the alloy. This result is a decrease in the strength and hardness.
o Carbide forming elements – manganese, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, etc.
These elements may form stable, hard carbides, and if they are in appropriate
form (fine carbide particles) increases the strength and hardness
o Neutral elements – cobalt
These elements neither form carbides nor causes graphitization.
2. Based on their effect on critical points, alloying elements may be classified as:
o Austenite stabilizers – nickel, copper, manganese, cobalt
They arise A4 point and lower A3 point. Thus they increase the range of stability
of austenite.
o Ferrite stabilizers – chromium, molybdenum, vanadium
They lowers A4 point and rise A3 point. Thus they increase the range of stability
of ferrite.
Necessity of alloying:
Alloying elements are added to achieve the properties suitable for service conditions. The
reasons for alloying may be one or more of the following.
• To improve the hardness and wear resistance.
• To improve corrosion resistance.
• To improve magnetic and electrical properties.
• To improve strength and toughness.
• To improve machinability, weldability, hardenability.
• To retain properties at elevated temperature.
SOLID SOLUTION
A solid solution is formed when two metals are completely soluble in solid state and also
completely soluble in liquid state.
In other words, when homogeneous mixture of two or more kinds of atoms (metals) occur in the
solid state, they are known as a solid solutions.
Types of solid solution:
o Substitutional solid solution
o Interstitial solid solution
• Substitutional solid solution:
o it means the atoms of B element i.e solute are substituted at the atomic sizes of A
element i.e solvent.
o Depending up on the distribution of B atoms in A, Substitutional solid solutions

are classified into two types
▪ Regular or ordered
▪ Random or disordered
In regular solid solution, the substitution of B atoms in A by a definite order.
While there is no definite order or regularity in random solid solution.
o Au-Cu solid solution shows ordered structure upto 4000C and disordered structure
at high temperature.
o Complete regularity through the structure is possible only when two metals are
mixed in some proportion like 1:1, 3:1 etc.
o Substitutional solid solution formation is favored if the atomic sizes of two metals
are nearly equal.
o Ordered substitutional solid solution alloys in general are hard and require more
energy for plastic deformation than disordered substitutional solid solution alloys.
• Interstitutional solid solution:
o In inter solid solutions; the atoms of B occupy the interstitial sites of A.
o This type of solid solution formation is favored when the atomic size of B is very
much small as compared to the atomic size of A.
o The elements which can form interstitial solid solution with iron are carbon,
boron, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen.
• Properties of solid solution
o Soft
o Ductile
o Malleable
• Advantages of solid solution
o Easily cold rolled
o Pressed or worked
HUME-ROTHERY’S RULES OF SOLID SOLUBILITY
In formation of solid solutions, the solubility limit of solute in the solvent is governed by
certain factors. These factors are known as hume-rothery rules of solid solubility. They
are as below:
• Atomic size factor:
o If the atomic sizes of solute and solvent differ by less than 15%, it is said to have
a favorable size factor for solid solution formation.
o If the atomic size difference exceeds 15%, solid solubility is limited.
• Chemical affinity factor:
o The greater the chemical affinity of two metals, the more restricted is their solid
solubility and greater is the tendency of formation of a compound.
• Relative valency factor:
o A metal of higher valency can dissolve only a small amount of a lower valency
metal.
o While the lower valency metal may have good solubility for the higher valency
metal.
• Crystal structure factor:
o Metals having same crystal structure will have greater solubility.
o Differences in crystal structure limit the solid solubility.
For continuous solid solubility, atomic size difference should preferably be less than 8%
with other factors favorable.
INTERMEDIATE ALLOY PHASES AND ELECTRON COMPOUNDS
• When an alloying element (solute) is added to a given metal (solvent) in such an amount
that the limit of solid solubility exceed, a second phase appears with the solid solution.
• This second phase may be another solid solution or an intermediate phase.
• These intermediate phases differ in composition as well as crystal structure from the
parent metals and hence their properties also different.
• These phases may have narrow or wide ranges of homogeneity and may or may not have
simple chemical formula.
• Some intermediate phases have a fixed composition and they are called intermetallic
compounds
• In general intermetallic compounds are hard, brittle and have high melting points.
• The intermediate phases in which the ratio of number of free electrons to the number of
atoms is constant are called electron compounds and they exhibit similar characteristics.
• Intermediate phases exhibit order-disorder transformation.
Example- β brass in Cu-Zn alloy system is disorder between 453 and 4700C and order at
a lower temperature.

MSM R19 - Unit-1

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Structure of metals & constitution of alloys unit -1

STRUCTURE OF METALS & ITS ALLOYS:

Atoms are held together in solids by electrostatic forces of attraction.

• According to the nature of forces of attraction bonds are classified as

• They are more stable and relatively strong bonds.

• Examples- metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

• These weak forces are known as vanderwall’s force.

• They are relatively weak.

• Examples- dispersion bond, dipole bond and hydrogen bond.

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 1

Types of Primary Bond:

Ex: formation of ionic bond in sodium chloride (NaCl)

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 2

Properties of ionic solids:

Fig: covalent bond formation of chorine molecule

They are two types of covalent bands-

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 3

Fig: Metallic bond formation

Properties of metallic solids:

✓ These are high electrical and thermal conductivities

✓ These are neither soluble in water nor organic solvents

• This bond as shown in a symmetrical molecule.

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 4

• The electrons are uniformly distributed around the nucleus.

• Example- molecules of the inert gas are held by dispersion bond.

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 5

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 6

❖ Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials

➢ Non-Crystalline Solids or Amorphous solids :

Fig: Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials

Anisotropy & Isotropy:

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 7

Where a, b,c,-intercepts along axes along x,y,z and

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 8

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 9

Packing factor (p.f)

• Packing fraction = vol.of atoms in a unit cell / volume of unit cell

Where r = radius of atoms

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 10

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS

1. Simple cubic structure:

No of atoms in the unit cell of S.C.C:

P.F = vol.of atoms in a unit cell / volume of unit cell

p.f = (πa3 /6) / a = π / 6 = 52 %

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 11

2. Body-centered cubic structure (B.C.C)

Since each corner is shared by 8 surrounding cubes and

Atomic packing factor of B.C.C:

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 12

Packing factor (p.f):

Examples- chromium, iron, molybdenum, potassium, sodium, tungsten, vanadium

Face-centered cubic structure:

Examples- AL, copper, gold, lead, nickel, platinum, silver.

Dept of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 13

Effective no.of atoms: (n)

Therefore, the effective face-centered atoms = 1/2x6=3

Packing factor (p.f):

8r2= a2 ; a=2 x /√2r