CHAPTER TWO

FOUNDATION OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING IN AN

ORGANIZATION
Individual differences refers to the way in which factors such as abilities, personalities,
perceptions, attitudes, values, and ethics differ from one individual to another.
The basis for understanding individual differences stems from Lewin’s early contention that
behavior is a function of the person and the environment. Lewin expressed this idea in an
equation: B = f (P, E), where B = behavior, P = Person and E = environment. This idea has
been developed by the interactional psychology approach. Basically, this approach says that in
order to understand behavior; we must know something about the person and something about
the situation. There are four basic propositions of international psychology. These are discussed
below:
1. Behavior is a function of a continuous, multidirectional interaction between the person and
the situation.
2. The person is active in this process and both is changed by situations and changes situations.
3. People vary in many characteristics, including cognitive, affective, motivational, and ability
factors.
4. Two interpretations of situations are important: the objective situation and the person’s
subjective view of the situation.

The environment
The person
Organization
Skills and abilities
Work group
Personality
Job
Perception
Personal life
Attribution
Attitudes
Values
Ethics

Behavior

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Figure 2.1 Variables Influencing Individual Behavior

2.1. Perception
2.1.1. What Is Perception Mean?
Perception is the process through which the information from outside environment is selected,
received, organized and interpreted to make it meaningful to you. In fact you are forming a
meaningful picture of the world within yourself based on the information input from the
environment. Perception is defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impression in order to give meaning to their environment. It of course is a psychological
process. It is the most important cognitive factor of human behavior. There is no behavior
without perception. In other words, perception lies at the root of every individual behavior.
In other words perception lies at the root of every individual behavior. Perception is also referred
as an intellectual process by which a person acquires information from the environment,
organizes the same and obtain a meaning from it. It is this input of meaningful information that
results in decisions and actions. It may be noted that perception is a complex interaction of
senses like feeling, seeing, hearing, thinking and comparing with known aspects of life so as to
make some sense of the world around. But the quality of action and decision by a person depends
on the quality of perception. Thus when you see the object outside you because of light,
then light is the stimulus and eye is the sensor. The image formed in your mind is the
perception when the visual cortex of the brain interprets it. A visual perception refers to
interpreting the image of the external world projected on the retina of the eye and
constructing a model of the three dimensional world.
Perception involves the way we view the world around us. It adds meaning to information
gathered via the five senses of touch, smell, hearing, vision, and taste. Perception is the primary
vehicle through which we come to understand ourselves and our surroundings.
What is social perception? Social perception is the process of interpreting information about
another person. Virtually all management activities rely on perception. In appraising
performance, managers use their perceptions of an employee's behavior as a basis for the
evaluation.
One work situation that highlights the importance of perception is the selection interview. The
consequences of a bad match between an individual and the organization are devastating for both
parties, so it is essential that the data gathered be accurate. Typical first interviews are brief, and

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the candidate is usually one of many seen by an interviewer during a day. How long does it take
for the interviewer to reach a decision about a candidate? In the first four to five minutes, the
interviewer has often made accept or reject decision based on his or her perception of the
candidate.
Perception is also culturally determined. Based on our cultural backgrounds, we tend to perceive
things in certain ways.
Culture affects our interpretation of the data we gather, as well as the way we add meaning to it.
Valuing diversity, including cultural diversity, has been recognized as the key to international
competitiveness. This challenge and others make social perception skills essential to managerial
success.
2.1.2. Perceptual Process
Perception is influenced by characteristics of the object being perceived, by the
characteristics of the person and by the situational processes. Perception is a screen or filter
through which information passes before having an effect on people. It consists of the
following steps:
1 . Perceptual input- Information, object, event, people, symbols etc. Characteristics of
the object include contrast, intensity, movement, repetition and novelty. Characteristics of
the person include attitude, self-concept and personality.
2. Perceptual mechanism- Receiving of information by means of five senses from the
external environment and process them to form output. It includes:
A. Perceptual receiving
B. Perceptual selectivity
C. Perceptual organization
D. Perceptual interpretation (perceptual context, perceptual defense, halo effect,
projection, attribution, stereo typing etc.)
3. Perceptual output- behavioral outcome of perceptual mechanism. It is the result of
perceptual process. It includes attitude, opinions, feelings, values and behavior.
2.1.3. Factors Influence Perception
What factors influence perception? Three major categories of factors influence our perception of
another person: characteristics of ourselves, as perceivers; characteristics of the target person we
perceive; and characteristics of the situation in which the interaction takes place.

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Characteristics of the perceiver Characteristics of the target
Familiarity with target Physical appearance
Attitudes Verbal communication
Mood Nonverbal cues
Self-concept Intentions
Cognitive structure

Barriers
 Selective Perception
 Stereotyping
 First Impression error
 Implicit Personality Theory
 Self-fulfilling Prophecies Social
Perception

Characteristics of the situation

Context of the interaction
Strength of situational cues

Figure 2.2 Model of Social Perception

1. Characteristics of the Perceiver (Internal factors)

When an individual looks at the object and attempts to interpret the same, what he or she sees it
is largely influenced by the personal characteristics. An individual’s familiarity, habits, past
experience, ethics, needs, values, attitudes and personality can very well affect the perception
process.
Familiarity: Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect social perception. One such
characteristic is familiarity with the target (the person being perceived). When we are familiar

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with a person, we have multiple observations upon which to base our impression of him or her. If
the information we have gathered during these observations is accurate, we may have an accurate
perception of the other person. Familiarity does not always mean accuracy, however. Sometimes,
when we know a person well, we tend to screen out information that is inconsistent with what we
believe the person is like. This is a particular danger in performance appraisals where the rater is
familiar with the person being rated.
Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes also affect social perception. Perception is a matter of
attitude that can be positive or negative. Some workers would feel and perceive that the
prevailing working conditions in the organizations are congenial for work and it contributes
positively while for others, it would be inadequate and demand improvement. This is indicative
of positive and negative attitude patterns.
Suppose you are interviewing candidates for a very important position in your organization-a
position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. You may feel
that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will
doubtlessly affect your perceptions of the female candidates you interview.
Mood: Mood can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think differently
when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember information
that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood
state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impressions of others. When in a
negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavorably.
Motive: is another factor that plays an important role in perception. Motive is nothing but
unsatisfied needs. This exerts considerable influence on perception. Boss who is insecure
perceives subordinate who does well as threat to his position. Personal insecurity is a threat to
personal survival in a job especially if one is frequently transferred.
Interest: a person likes for a particular thing in an individual. May be some people get attracted
to eyes of a girl because he has interest in the eyes while other person may be interested in hair
style, therefore different person (perceiver) will perceive a girl based on perceivers’ interest. It
has also been observed in the work places that workers would display interest as per their liking.
Students in the class when preoccupied are not attentive in the class.
Past experience: also plays an important role in perception. Just as interest narrows down one’s
perception so does past experience. In contrast past experience nullifies an object interest. Object

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or events that have not been experienced before are more noticeable and creates an interest. E.g.
a female manager
Expectations: can distort one’s perception in what one sees and what one expects to see. For
example power hungry police officer to be strict regardless of his actual traits.
Self-concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceiver's self-concept. An
individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In
contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person.
Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others.
Cognitive structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects social
perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and
appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions.
Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person
rather than attending to just a few traits.
2. Characteristics of the Target
Characteristics of the target, who is the person being perceived, influence social perception. The
physical characteristics of others influence our perception about others. Thus age, appearance,
facial expressions, gender, mannerism, communication style, personality are all physical
characteristics and each one of them has its impact on our perception about the others. The
communication of others, verbal as well as non-verbal affect our perception about others.
The following are some of the typical characteristics of the target:
Physical appearance
Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. The perceiver will notice the
target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race, and gender. Clothing says a
great deal about a person. Blue pin-striped suits, for example, are decoded to mean banking or
Wall Street. Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast with the
norm, that are intense, or that are new or unusual. A loud person, one who dresses outlandishly, a
very tall person, or a hyperactive child will be noticed because he or she provides a contrast to
what is commonly encountered. In addition, people who are novel can attract attention.
Newcomers or minorities in the organization are examples of novel individuals.
Physical attractiveness often colors our entire impression of another person. Interviewers rate
attractive candidates more favorably, and attractive candidates are awarded higher starting

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salaries. People who are perceived as physically attractive face stereotypes as well. We will
discuss these and other stereotypes later in this chapter.
Verbal and Non-verbal communication:
Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics
they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgments based on this input.
Nonverbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. Eye contact,
facial expressions, body movements, and posture all are deciphered by the perceiver in an
attempt to form an impression of the target. It is interesting that some nonverbal signals mean
very different things in different cultures. The "okay" sign in the United States (forming a circle
with the thumb and forefinger) is an insult in South America. Facial expressions, however, seem
to have universal meanings. Individuals from different cultures are able to recognize and
decipher expressions the same way.
Intentions: The intentions of the target are inferred by the perceiver, who observes the target's
behavior. We may see our boss appear in our office doorway and think, "Oh no! She's going to
give me more work to do." Or we may perceive that her intention is to congratulate us on a
recent success. In any case, the perceiver's interpretation of the target's intentions affects the way
the perceiver views the target.
3. Characteristics of the Situation
The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place has an
influence on the perceiver's impression of the target
Social context: The social context of the interaction is a major influence. Meeting a professor in
his or her office affects your impression in a certain way that may contrast with the impression
you would form had you met the professor in a local restaurant. In Japan, social context is very
important. Business conversations after working hours or at lunch are taboo. If you try to talk
business during these times, you may be perceived as rude.
Strength of situational cues: The strength of situational cues also affects social perception. As
we discussed earlier in the chapter, some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate
behavior. In these situations, we assume that the individual's behavior can be accounted for by
the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's disposition. This is the discounting
principle in social perception. For example, you may encounter an automobile salesperson who
has a warm and perusable manner, asks about your work and hobbies, and seems genuinely

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interested in your taste in cars. Can you assume that this behavior reflects the salesperson's
personality? You probably cannot, because of the influence of the situation. This person is trying
to sell you a car, and in this particular situation he or she probably treats all customers in this
manner.
Barriers to Social Perception
What factors do you think affect social perception? Several factors lead us to form inaccurate
impressions of others. Five of these barriers to social perception are: selective perception,
stereotyping, first-impression error, implicit personality theories, and self-fulfilling prophecies.
Selective Perception: We receive a vast amount of information. Selective perception is our ten-
dency to choose information that supports our viewpoints. Individuals often ignore information
that makes them feel uncomfortable or threatens their view points. Suppose, for example, that a
sales manager is evaluating his employees. One employee does not get along well with
colleagues and rarely completes sales report on time. This employee, however, generates the
most new sales contracts in the office. The sales manager may ignore the negative information,
choosing to evaluate the salesperson only on contracts generated. The manager is exercising
selective perception.
Stereotypes: A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people. Stereotypes reduce
information about other people to a workplace level and they are efficient for compiling and
using information.
Stereotypes can be accurate, and when they are accurate, they can be useful perceptual
guidelines. Most of the time, however, stereotypes are inaccurate. They harm individuals when
inaccurate impressions of them are inferred and are never tested or changed. Thus, stereotypes
may not be effective if they are too rigid or based on false information.
Suppose that a Chinese Road and Bridge Construction (RBC) manager working in Ethiopia,
passes the road construction area from Harar to Jijiga Project and notices two Ethiopian men
talking there. He becomes irritated at them for wasting time. Later in the day, he sees two women
talking in the coffee area. He thinks they should do their gossiping on their own time. The next
morning, the same manager sees two Chinese men talking in the same area. He thinks nothing of
it; he is sure they are discussing business. The manager may hold a stereotype that women and
minorities do not work hard unless closely supervised.
In multicultural work teams, members often stereotype foreign coworkers rather than getting to

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know them before forming an impression. Team members from less developed countries are
often assumed to have less knowledge simply because their homeland is economically or
technologically less developed. Stereotypes like these can deflate the productivity of the work
team, as well as create low morale.
Attractiveness is a powerful stereotype. We assume that attractive individuals are also warm,
kind, sensitive, poised, sociable, outgoing, independent, and strong. Are attractive people really
like this? Certainly all of them are not. A recent study of romantic relationships showed that
most attractive individuals do not fit the stereotype, except for possessing good social skills and
being popular.
Some individuals may seem to us to fit the stereotype of attractiveness because our behavior
elicits behavior that confirms the stereotype from them. Consider, for example, a situation in
which you meet an attractive fellow student. Chances are that you respond positively to this
person, because you assume he or she is warm, sociable, and so on. Even though the person may
not possess these traits, your positive response may bring out these behaviors in the person. The
interaction between the two of you may be channeled such that the stereotype confirms itself.
First impressions: First impressions are lasting impressions, so the saying goes. Individuals
place a good deal of importance on first impressions, and for good reason. We tend to remember
what we perceive first about a person, and sometimes we are quite reluctant to change our initial
impressions. First-impression error means that we observe a very brief bit of a person's behavior
in our first encounter and infer that this behavior reflects what the person is really like. Primacy
effects can be particularly dangerous in interviews, given that we form first impressions quickly
and that these impressions may be the basis for long-term employment relationships.
Implicit personality theories: Implicit personality theories can also lead to inaccurate
perceptions. We tend to have our own mini-theories about how people look and behave. These
theories help us organize our perceptions and take shortcuts instead of integrating new
information all the time. We are cognitive misers. Because the world is complex and ambiguous
and we have a limited mental capacity, we try to expend the least amount of effort possible in
attempting to make sense of the world. We group traits and appearances into clusters that seem
to go together. For example, you may believe that introverted people are also worriers and
intellectuals, or that fashionable dressers are also up on current events and like modern music.
These implicit personality theories are barriers, because they limit our ability to take in new

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information when it is available).
Self-fulfilling Prophecies: Self-fulfilling prophecies are also barriers to social perception.
Sometimes our expectations affect the way we interact with others such that we get what we
wish for. Self-fulfilling prophecy is also known as the Pygmalion effect, named for the sculptor
in Greek mythology who carved a statue of a woman that came to life when he prayed for this
wish and it was granted. "Early studies of self-fulfilling prophecy were conducted in elementary
school classrooms. Teachers were given bogus information that some of their pupils had high
intellectual potential. These pupils were chosen randomly; there were really no differences
among the students. Eight months later, the "gifted" pupils scored significantly higher on an IQ
test. The teachers' expectations had elicited growth from these students, and teachers had given
them tougher assignments and more feedback on their performance.
Halo Effect: Halo effect refers to judging an individual based on single characteristics, such as
intellectual ability, sociability and appearance. Sales Manager’s visit to sales territory and
consequent increase in sales volume may be attributed to the visit of the sales manager to a
particular sales territory. Perceiver in this situation did not notice the cause of increased sales to
probably higher demand, change in market forces, subordinate sales employees past efforts to
woo customers to buy the product and host of other factors that go with increase in the sales
volume. This type of perception is quite common in any organization, which is called halo effect
in perceiving an individual or situation. A rater may rate a subordinate based on dominance of a
single trait of the subordinate. The halo effect has been very frequently noticed in performance
appraisal.
Contrast Effect: We do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction to one person is relative
to the other. During selection process, interviewer selects a particular person for a particular job
not because he fulfils all requirements but he is generally selected in relation to the other
candidates. Individual selected may be academically, skill wise, experience wise better than
those not selected. So it is a comparative or contrast phenomenon of perception. We generally
hear, people say that Mr. X presentation was good thereby meaning it was better in relation to
other people who would have made presentations in a particular session.

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2.2. Attitude
2.2.1. Definition of Attitude
Attitudes: evaluative statements – either favorable or unfavorable – concerning objects, people,
or events. They reflect how one feels about something.
In simple words, an "attitude" is an individual's point of view or an individual's way of looking at
something. To be more explicit, an "attitude" may be explained as the mental state of an
individual, which prepares him to react or make him behave in a particular predetermined way.
It is actually acquired feeling.
Attitudes are narrower; they are feelings or thoughts and behavioral tendencies towards an object
or situation.
Attitudes can affect an employee’s performance, satisfaction, and turnover. There are four main
issues we must examine regarding attitudes: (1) the main components that make up attitudes, (2)
how consistent they are, (3) how they relate to behavior, and (4) what are the major attitudes that
relate to jobs.
2.2.2. Characteristics of Attitudes
Attitude may be acquired by birth or learnt with experience.
 The acquiring process is so subtle that the individual may not know it.
 High intelligence does not ensure correct attitude.
 Attitudes may be rational or irrational.
 Prejudices or biases are attitudes - strong likes are attitudes - opinions are
attitudes.
 Attitudes may change.
 Attitudes tend to result in behavior or action.
 Irrespective of status, all people hold attitude.
 Attitudes can fall anywhere from very favorable to very unfavorable
2.2.3. Component of attitude
(a) Cognitive component: What a person thinks about an object, person, or event. This
component is often given in emotionless evaluative statements. These thoughts (or cognitions)
are the basis for the next component of attitude. It consists of belief, ideas, values and other
information that an individual may possess or has faith in. Quality of working hard is a value
statement or faith that a manager may have.

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“Ice cream is cold” is a cognitive statement.
(b) Affective component: Affective component of attitude is related to person’s feelings about
another person, which may be positive, negative or neutral. It expresses how we feel about that
object, person or event. The affective component builds on, and amplifies, the cognitive
component. In reality, these two components are often inseparable.
“I love ice cream on a hot day” is an affective (“I love”) statement.
(c) Behavioral component: It is what we will do about that object, person, or event. Behavioral
component of attitude is related to impact of various the situations or objects that lead to
individual’s behaviour based on cognitive and affective components.
“It is hot, I am going to the store to get a half-a-gallon of ice cream” expresses a behavior in
keeping with the person’s attitude toward ice cream.

2.2.4. How attitudes are formed

The factors responsible for learning are also the factors for the formation of attitude in
any person. The important aspects are that these factors are to be grouped properly.
The following age generally considered as the most important factors in formation of an
individual attitude.

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1. Family: The mother, children, father, all the close relatives all are members of this
group. A person learns the very process of socialization only from his mother. All the
others have their influence in his attitude formation. Attitudes are formed during
socialization process .The child comes in contact with the members of the family but
not with the outsiders initially. The individual’s attitudes, values, and personality
characteristics are influenced by the mediation of the inside members. The members
have a certain attitudes, characteristics and evaluative criteria that have an impact on
the child for the initial formation of its own attitude and behavior.
2. Reference Group: A reference group is the model accepted by an individual and the
individual blindly follow the dictums of this particular group. Whatever social laws or
customs framed by this group will be followed in letter and spirit by the individual. This
reference group influences the awareness and behavior of the individual. It hence has a
say in the formation of attitude for the individual. The group can be primary group like
family or secondary group like a district association. The individual thus learns the
norms, values, and behavior pattern in society as well as in organizations.
3. Social Factors: Social classes influence the individual’s attitude. It is the social class
that transmits the cultural behavior and customs etc. to specific groups and families.
The social classes will define the system, expectations, etc. to the group’s first and then
to the families within the groups. The family then transmits this cultural values and
expectations to the individual whose attitude is then formed finally. Social classes put
restrictions on behavior between individuals belonging to different social classes.
Normally no intimate relationship is allowed between opposing groups. People have
close relationship within the same social class and this restricts the attitude formation
for members of other groups as well as the same group freely. In a nutshell, the attitudes like
values are acquired from parents, teachers, friends and colleagues. Attitudes are not stable like
values. An advertising appeal can change your attitude towards a product and you may
start using the product so far not used.
4. Personality Factors
The temperament, values and ideals are determined by heredity and this is a basis for
the attitude of the individual. Thus if one feels dissatisfied with an object he has a negative
attitude and it is common to see that things not liked by parents are disliked by children too.

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 The physical feature plays a role in personality and differences in such personality feature have
a big impact on the attitude. People with different personality have different attitudes towards
the same object. This is due to the fact that beliefs, customs values all differ according to
culture and these have an influence on attitude formation. Mainly personality creates attitudes
like conservatism, dogmatism, liberalism and authoritarianism etc. Various research studies
have established that there is a strong relationship between personality factors/variables and
attitude formation in individuals.
2.2.5. Types of attitude
1. Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its
characteristics.
The attitude any individual has towards the job is known as job satisfaction in the
positive sense.
A high level of satisfaction indicates that he has a positive attitude towards the job. A person
dissatisfied with the job holds a negative attitude towards the job. In fact job satisfaction is
nothing but employee attitude. A satisfied employee also tends to be absent less often, makes
positive contributions, and stays with the organization. In contrast, a dissatisfied employee may
be absent more often may experience stress that disrupts co-workers, and may keep continually
look for another job. Organizational factors that influence employee satisfaction include pay,
promotion, policies and procedures of the organizations and working conditions. Group factors
such as relationship with co-workers and supervisors also influence job- satisfaction. Similarly,
satisfaction depends on individual factors like individual's needs and aspirations. If employees
are satisfied with their job, it may lead to low employee turnover and less absenteeism and vice-
versa.
2. Job Involvement: The degree to which people identify psychologically with their jobs and
consider their perceived performance level important to self-worth.
Involvement refers to a person's willingness to be a team member and work beyond the usual
standards of the job. An employee with little involvement is motivated by extrinsic motivational
factor and an employee with strong involvement is motivated by intrinsic motivational factors. In
particular, designing jobs, which are interesting and stimulating, can enhance job involvement.
3. Organizational Commitment: A state in which an employee identifies with a particular
organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.

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Organizational commitment is the individual's feeling of identification with and attachment to an
organization. An employee identifies himself with the organization, its goals, its vision and
mission. He is proud to be a member of the organization and would like to maintain and protect it
at any cost. Even temporary dissatisfaction in the job will not take him away from the main
stream of the organization as long as he is identifying himself with the organization because of
his strong commitment to the organization. But if the dissatisfaction spreads to organizational
level then he feels like resigning. Hence, organizational commitment is a stronger way to
measure the positive attitude of employees.
4. Perceived Organizational Support (POS): The degree to which employees believe the
organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. A recent addition to the
studied work attitudes, this measures how much an employee trusts the organization.
 Organizations are considered to be supportive when they:
 Fairly provide rewards,
 Give employees a voice in decision-making, and
 Provide supervisors who are seen as being supportive.
5. Employee Engagement: An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm
for, the work they do.
Another recent addition, this attitude measures how deeply involved the employees feel they are in their
work.
Employee Engagement:
 Conditions that can increase engagement include:
Opportunities to learn new skills,
Important and meaningful work, and
Positive interactions with coworkers and supervisors.
This broad new attitude has been shown to relate positively with customer satisfaction, productivity,
profit, and lower turnover and accident rates.
2.2.6. Attitudes and consistency
People try to be consistent. They want their attitudes (and their behaviors) to be aligned so that
they appear rational. When people’s attitudes are not consistent, they will either change one of
the attitudes, their behavior, or rationalize away the inconsistency. For instance, a person who
has consistently said she hates tropical fruit might try a mango and find she really loves the
flavor and texture. Now her attitudes are in conflict. She might resolve that conflict by:

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 1. Change in attitude. “I thought I hated tropical fruit until I had a mango, now I love it!”
2. Change in behavior. She might stop saying she hates tropical fruit.
3. Rationalization. “Even though I hate tropic fruit, I love mangos, but then they aren’t
really all that tropical are they? They are grown in California after all.”
Leon Festinger called situations like the one above cognitive dissonance. Festinger’s theory is
that dissonance makes people uncomfortable and that they will take whatever actions they can
to reduce that discomfort, such as changing their attitudes or behaviors.
Cognitive Dissonance: refers to any inconsistency that an individual might perceive between
two or more attitudes, or between behavior and attitudes.
According to Festinger, the level of effort that is put forth to reduce the dissonance depended
on three moderating factors:
1. Importance. The importance of the elements creating the dissonance modifies the level
of effort. The greater the importance, the more effort will be expended to reduce the
dissonance.
2. Degree of influence. If a person feels he or she has some measure of control over the
elements, more effort will be expended. But if the elements are felt to be outside of the
person’s control, little effort will be made to reduce dissonance.
3. Rewards: What reward is there to keep or remove the dissonance? These rewards can affect
the motivation toward making changes. People who are rewarded well for living with high
dissonance tend to feel less pressure to remove the dissonance. (“I should be home with my
family, yet I need to work long hours in this job. But the salary is so high that I can’t leave. At
least I can now afford to send my kids to a private school.”).
Managers can use cognitive dissonance to discover how and when to help employees make
attitudinal and behavioral change.
2.3. Personality
Personality is an individual difference that lends consistency to a person’s behavior. Personality
is the unique characteristic of a person being influenced by personal factors and environmental
factors.
Personality is a relatively stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those
commonalities and differences in the psychological behavior (thoughts, feelings and actions) of
people that have continuity in time and that may not be understood easily as a result of social and

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biological pressures of the moment.
Personality is not simply the external features of a man but includes his behavior, inner
awareness of self as a permanent organizing force and the state of his mind where his inner and
outer traits can be measured. You come across people who are good, bad, arrogant, aggressive,
affectionate etc. You also see people in agreements and disagreements resulting in friendship or
conflicts. The so-called personality can be reflected in the temperament of a man.
2.3.2. Determinants of Personality
The personality formation of an individual starts at birth and continues throughout his
life. These factors are interrelated and interdependent. However, for the purpose of analysis,
these can be classified into two categories- heredity and environment. Such classification is
extremely helpful in understanding personality of people and their behavior in the organizations.
I. Heredity: Heredity is transmission of the qualities from ancestors to descendants through a
mechanism lying primarily in the chromosomes of the germ cells. Heredity predisposes to certain
physical, mental, and emotional states. This goes to confirm that heredity plays a major role in
one’s personality. However the importance of heredity varies from one personality trait to
another personality trait. Even two brothers may have different personality traits. The traits can
be hair, color, eyes, eye color, height, attractiveness etc.
II. Environment
A person brought up in a poor family shows different characteristics from that of a person
brought up in a rich family. This is because the experiences and attitudes towards life are
different in both the cases. Especially the influence of family and the members like brothers,
sisters, uncles, cousins etc. play a major role in the early part of the development of the
personality of the person. The socio-economic level of the family, size of the family, race,
religion, the order of birth of the child, the geographic location, parent’s education all have an
effect on the personality as well as the behavior of the person. These groups have their impact
through socialization and identification processes.
Socialization Process: Socialization is mixing of a member in family with the society,
social groups and the culture. In a group and society there is enormous scope for the
individual to acquire behavioral potentials. This is so right from the time of birth, when
the individual begins to mix with children and others. It is the social norms and the
unwritten laws of the society that make an individual behave in a way dictated by the society.

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Identification Process: The identification process occurs when a person tries to
identify himself with some person whom he feels ideal in the family. Generally a child in
the family tries to behave like his father or mother. The identification process can be
examined from three different perspectives First; Identification can be viewed as the
similarity of behavior (including feelings and attitudes) between child and the model.
Second Identification can be looked as the child’s motives or desires to be like the
model. Third it can be viewed as the process by which the child actually takes on the
attributes of the model. Socialization and identification process is influenced by home
environment, family members and social groups.
Culture
Culture is the underlying determinant of human decision –making. It generally determines
attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, and co- operation.
Each culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the
group. Despite the importance of cultural contribution to the personality, a linear relationship
cannot be established between personality and a given culture. One problem stems from the
existence of numerous subcultures within a given culture. Thus workers are not influenced by the
same culture as managers are.
The Situations
Life is nothing but a collection of experiences. Each individual has different experiences and
faces unique events and all these determine his personality in the days ahead. The behavioral
expression receives sometimes-sudden impacts due to unexpected situations and these results in
quick adjustment of personality. For example a worker whose personality history suggests that
he had need of power and achievement, may become frustrated and react apathetically if he isput
in a bureaucratized work situation.
Thus he may appear lazy and trouble maker though his personality history may suggest
that he is very hard working and striving to get ahead. Thus, because of changed situation his
personality composition changes. This aspect is very important for organizational behavior
because a manager has control over the organizations situation.
The new personality hitherto absent gets manifested because of situations. Knowledge, skill,
language etc. are acquired from the environment and these have a tremendous
2.3.1. Types of Personality

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1. Introvert and Extrovert Personalities: Introverts prefer loneliness. They feel shy to
express themselves and also are not good communicators. The introvert is behaviorally
described as quite, introspective, intellectual, well ordered, emotionally unexpressive
and value oriented, prefers small group of intimate friends and plans well ahead.
Introverts are inward directed people and are less sociable; they are withdrawn and
absorbed in inner life. Introverts are guided by their own ideas and philosophy. They are
rigid and less flexible and are always subject oriented. By themselves they will not open
a dialogue with others and unless others speak they will not talk at all.
Extroverts are on the contrary sociable, optimistic and love companionship. They are
friendly and enjoy dialogues with others. Extrovert is sociable, lively, impulsive, seeking
novelty and change, care free and emotionally. A manager has to be an extrovert as he
has to exercise authority and command and lead. An introvert can work in an office free
of interference.
2. Type A and Type B Personality
The characteristics of Type A personality are as follows:
 They are achievement oriented
 They are competitive having initiative and drive
 They are impatient to achieve things and hence cannot accept slowdown in
work for any reason.
 Due to urgency of time they walk and eat fast
 Does several things at a time
 They want more and more things to be done in less and less time
 They always start the next work without completing the first work
 They do not relax nor enjoy the life.
These people have high standards of performance with obsessive behavior and hence have poor
interpersonal relations. They create stress for themselves and for others. They feel pressurized
whenever they want to complete a task before deadline.
Characteristics of TYPE B personality are as follows:
 They feel no urgency of time
 They have no competitive drive
 They are easy going

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  They are relaxed, sociable and have a balanced outlook on life
 They take a lot more time to complete a work compared to type A
 They feel no pressure at all, still hardworking
 They do one at a time and slowly complete the work before going to the next
work
 They do not put any extra effort to meet dead line
 They are happy –go-lucky guys.
 They are not prone to stress and coronary problems
3. Personality Based on Locus of Control
This type of people is always in a state either in control of the situation or events or the
situation or events control them. Those who believe that they control the events and shape their
destiny are supposed to have internal locus of control, and those who believe that events occur
only by chance or due to factors beyond their control are supposed to have external locus of
control. Those in “internal locus of control “ seek opportunities for advancement in life and are
confident of their abilities and judgment at work while the other category remains inactive and
sometimes indolent allowing events to overpower them. Research has established that people
having internal control occupy high positions and expects rewards for achievements.
4. Authoritarian Personality
In this type people simply accepts authority and behaves in a dictatorial manner. They want
obedience from others and they stick to conventional values. These people are generally less
educated. They believe in directive supervision and are result oriented in an authoritarian
organization structure. They are very intolerant to others and are rigid in their approach. The
religious and political fanatics are in this category.
5. Bureaucratic Personality
These people are highly law-abiding. They believe in bureaucracy in the sense that they care too
much for rules and regulations. Though they respect authority they may not blindly follow
authority as done by authoritarians. A bureaucrat believes in subordination, orderly processes in
organization and in impersonal and formal relationship. They are not venturesome i.e. they do
not take any risks. Nor they are innovative. They believe in giving instructions as per rules and
are prepared to take directives from their boss as per rules. For routine and repetitive work,
which is, proceduralized bureaucratic managers are better.

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2.3.2. Personality Characteristics in Organizations
Managers should learn as much as possible about personality in order to understand their
employees. Hundreds of personality characteristics have been identified. But will focus on
selected five characteristics because of their particular influences on individual behavior in
organizations. These are: locus of control, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-monitoring, and
positive/negative affect.
Locus of Control
An individual's generalized belief about internal (self) versus external (situation or others)
control is called locus of control. People who believe they control what happens to them are said
to have an internal locus of control, whereas people who believe that circumstances or other
people control their fate have an external locus of control. Research on locus of control has
strong implications for organizations. Internals (those with an internal locus of control) have
been found to have higher job satisfaction, to be more likely to assume managerial positions, and
to prefer participative management styles. In addition, internals have been shown to display
higher work motivation, hold stronger beliefs that effort leads to performance, receive higher
salaries, and display less anxiety than externals (those with an external locus of control).
Knowing about locus of control can prove valuable to managers. Because internals believe they
control what happens to them, they will want to exercise control in their work environment.
Allowing internals considerable voice in how work is performed is important. Internals will not
react well to being closely supervised. Externals, in contrast, may prefer a more structured work
setting, and they may be more reluctant to participate in decision making.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is an individual's general feeling of self-worth. Individuals with high self-esteem
have positive feelings about themselves, perceive themselves to have strengths as well as
weaknesses, and believe their strengths are more important than their weaknesses. Individuals
with low self-esteem view themselves negatively. They are more strongly affected by what
other people think of them, and they complement individuals who give them positive feedback
while cutting down people who give them negative feedback.
A person's self-esteem affects a host of other attitudes and has important implications for
behavior in organizations. People with high self-esteem perform better and are more satisfied
with their jobs. When they are involved in a job search, they seek out higher-status jobs. A

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work team made up of individuals with high self-esteem is more likely to be successful than a
team with lower average self-esteem.
Very high self-esteem may be too much of a good thing. When people with high self-esteem
find themselves in stressful situations, they may brag inappropriately. This may be viewed
negatively by others, who see spontaneous boasting as egotistical. Self-esteem may be strongly
affected by situations. Success tends to raise self-esteem, whereas failure tends to lower it.
Given that high self-esteem is generally a positive characteristic; managers should encourage
employees to raise their self-esteem by giving them appropriate challenges and opportunities
for success.
Self-efficacy
An individual's beliefs and expectancies about his or her ability to accomplish a specific task
effectively is known as self-efficacy. Individuals with high self-efficacy believe that they have
the ability to get things done, that they are capable of putting forth the effort to accomplish the
task, and that they can overcome any obstacles to their success. There are four sources of self--
efficacy: prior experiences, behavior models (witnessing the success of others), persuasion
from other people, and assessment of current physical and emotional capabilities. Believing
in one's own capability to get something done is an important facilitator of success. There is
strong evidence that self-efficacy leads to high performance on a wide variety of physical and
mental tasks. High self-efficacy has also led to success in breaking addictions, increasing pain
tolerance, and recovering from illnesses.
Managers can help employees develop their self-efficacy. This can be done by providing job
challenges, coaching and counseling for improved performance, and rewarding employees'
achievements. Empowerment, or sharing power with employees, can be accomplished by
interventions that help employees increase their self-esteem and self-efficacy. Given the
increasing diversity of the force, managers may want to target their efforts toward women and
minorities in particular. Research has indicated that women and minorities tend to have lower
than average self-efficacy.
Self-monitoring
A characteristic with great potential for affecting behavior in organizations is self-monitoring-
the extent to which people base their behavior on cues from people and situations. High self-
monitors pay, to what is appropriate in particular situations and to the behavior of other people,

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and they behave accordingly. Low self-monitors, in contrast, are not as vigilant to situational
cues and act from internal states rather than paying attention to the situation. As a result, the
behavior that follow self-monitors is consistent across situations. High self-monitors, because
their behavior varies with the situation, appear to be more unpredictable and less consistent.
Research is currently focusing on the effects of self-monitoring in organization. High self-
monitors get promoted because they accomplish tasks through meeting the expectations of
others. However, the high self-monitor’s flexibility may not be suited for every job, and the
tendency to move may not fit every organization.
Although research on self-monitoring in organizations is in its early stages, we can speculate that
self-monitoring respond more readily to work group norms, organizational culture, and
supervisory feedback than do low self-monitors, who adhere more to internal guidelines for
behavior (“ I am who I am”). In addition, high self-monitors may be enthusiastic participants in
the trend toward work teams because of their ability to assume flexible roles.
. Positive/Negative Affect
Individuals who focus on the positive aspects of themselves, other people, and the world in
general are said to have positive affect.
Positive affect: An individual’s tendency to emphasize positive aspects of him/herself, other
people, and the world in general.
In contrast, those who accentuate the negative in themselves, others, and the world are said to
possess negative affect (also referred to as negative affectivity). Interviewers who exhibit
positive affect evaluate job candidates more favorably than do interviewers whose affect is
neutral. Employees with positive affect are absent from work less often.
Negative affect: An individual’s tendency to emphasize negative aspects of him/herself, other
people, and the world in general.
Individuals with negative affect report more work stress. Individual affect also influences the
work group. Negative individual affect produces negative group affect, and this leads to less
cooperative behavior in the work group.
Positive affect is a definite asset in work settings. Managers can do several things to promote
positive affect, including allowing participative decision making and providing pleasant working
conditions. We need to know more about inducing positive affect in the workplace.
The characteristics previously described are a few of the personality characteristics that affect

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behavior in organizations. Can managers predict the behavior of their employees by knowing
their personalities? Not completely. You may recall that the interactional psychology model
requires both person and situation variables to predict behavior. Another idea to remember in
predicting behavior is the strength of situational influences. Some situations are strong
situations in that they overwhelm the effects of individual personalities. These situations are
interpreted in the same way by different individuals, evoke agreement on the appropriate
behavior in the situation, and provide cues to appropriate behavior. A performance appraisal
session is an example of a strong situation. Employees know to listen to their boss and to
contribute when asked to do so.
A weak situation, in contrast, is one that is open to many interpretations. It provides few cues to
appropriate behavior and no obvious rewards for one behavior over another. Thus individual’s
personalities have a stronger on weak situations than in strong situations. For example, an
informal meeting without an agenda can be seen as a weak situation.
Organizations present a combination of strong and weak situations; therefore, personality has
stronger effect on behavior in some situations than others.
2.4. Learning
If experience can bring about a relatively permanent change in your behavior, then you
have learnt. The change can be in the potential behavior also. The behavioral scientists
say, “Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in the present or potential
behavior that occurs as a result of experience or reinforced practice”. So the definition
confirms that there must be change in the behavior after learning. This change can be for better
or worse than the previous behavior. You learn to drive a car and you did not know this
before. You use the driving skills as long as you want and this is a permanent change in you. The
other word in the definition says that the change occurs due to experience and not due to change
in biological growth like a child growth. You do not learn to drink or eat, it is natural pick. But
learning must result from interaction with environment and that is how you learn word-
processing, software design etc.
The following are characteristics of learning;
 Learning is possible only through experience.
 The effectiveness of learning process is directly proportional to the degree of permanent
change.

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  Learning should always be followed by practice or reinforcement as otherwise the new
behavior disappears.
2.4.1. Strategies of reinforcement, punishment and extinction
Behaviors are acquired through learning. Those behaviors that are rewarded are repeated and
unrewarded behaviors are discarded. It is well established that reinforcement is essential in the
learning process. That is to say those individuals tend to retain a behavior or practice, which are
reinforced in them.
Reinforcement is nothing but an external reward or an external reinforces that can retain or
maintain the learnt behavior. In other words the behavior gets repeated only because of
reinforcements.
Reinforcement also increases the strength of response. Reinforcement also generates a
reproducible behavior.
2.4.2. Theories of Learning
1. Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning adherents believe that behavior is a function of
its consequences. B. F. Skinner argued that people modify their behaviors either to receive
something they desire or to avoid a negative consequence. Learning is a result of the repeated
experience of reinforcement following an exhibition of behavior.
Skinner’s learning philosophy, behaviorism, removed the mind and thoughts from learning.
Behavior was solely based on an unthinking response to a stimulus. The traffic light turns red
and you stop without thinking: you have been conditioned (you have learned) to do so.
Some of Skinner’s key observations were:
 The incidence of behavior increases when that behavior is positively reinforced.
 Rewards are most effective in reinforcing behavior when they are given immediately after
the performance of the desired behavior.
 Behaviors that are not rewarded, or which are punished, are less likely to be repeated.
2. Cognitive Learning
This theory suggests that learning is the result of deliberate thinking about the problem or
situation intuitively and based on known facts and responding in an objective and goal oriented
manner. Cognitive learning hence is a deviation from the other two theories discussed wherein
the Stimulus-Response situation played the shot—for cause and effect phenomenon. Cognition
itself means the person has the knowledge of an item of information and this knowledge has an

25
impact on the behavior of the person in such a way that the information provides cognitive cues
towards the expected goal.
3. Observational Learning Theory
Observational learning results from watching the behavior of another person and appraising the
consequences of that behavior. It does not require an overt response. When Mr. X observes that
Y is rewarded for superior performance; X learns the positive relationship between
performance and rewards without actually obtaining the reward himself. Observational learning
plays a crucial role in altering behaviors in organizations.
4. Social Learning: In this learning theory, people do not have to directly experience something
to learn it. People can learn through observing the experience of others either by reading about
it, listening to it, or watching it.
Like operant conditioning, social learning theorists believe that behavior is a function of
consequences, but unlike behaviorists, social learning theorists believe that not only can people
learn from direct experience, people can learn from observation as well. Because of this
emphasis on observation, social learning focuses on perception. The consequences themselves
are not as important to learning as how people perceive those consequences.
One of the ways to learn is through observing a model – a person or thing that demonstrates the
behaviors to be reinforced or reduced. (This is where the term “modeling the behavior” comes
from.)
There are four processes that determine the strength of influence a given model will have on a
person:
a. Attentional Processes. People must be able to pay attention to the model and recognize its
critical features. Factors that increase attention are models that are attractive, available,
important to the viewer, and which appear to be similar to the viewer.
b. Retention Processes. To be effective, the model must be memorable. Actions must be
able to be recalled in the absence of the model.
c. Motor Reproduction Processes. Observing a behavior is insufficient. The actions modeled
must be performed by the employee to become learned.
d. Reinforcement Processes. Harking back to operant conditioning, people will behave in
the modeled fashion if that behavior is accompanied by positive incentives or rewards.

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 Positively reinforced learned behaviors will result in higher attention levels, better retention
and more frequent performance.
Shaping: A Managerial Tool
One of management’s tasks is to train employees. That is, to modify their behaviors to suit
organizational requirements. The attempt to change an individual’s behavior through gradual
sequential steps of reinforcement is called shaping behavior.
Four Methods of Shaping Behavior:
a.Positive Reinforcement. Performance of a desired behavior is followed with something
pleasant (a reward). For instance, the salesperson with the highest level of sales this year
(desired behavior) would be given a free trip to Hawaii (reward). Behavioral goal: increased
sales efforts by all salespeople who are aware of the reward being given (frequency increase).
b. Negative Reinforcement. Performance of a desired behavior is followed by the removal of
something unpleasant. A kitchen busboy that helped the chef out on the “line” during a rush
(desired behavior) is told that he doesn’t have to clean the restrooms (unpleasant activity)
because of his help during the rush. Behavioral goal: to get the lower levels of the kitchen staff
to help the cooks during crises (frequency increase).
c. Punishment. Performance of an undesired behavior is followed by an unpleasant response.
A busboy that arrived late to work (undesired behavior) is given the additional task of cleaning
the restrooms (unpleasant consequence). Behavioral goal: to eliminate the undesired behavior
of arriving late not only of the unfortunate busboy, but also for everyone else who hears about
it (frequency decrease).
d. Extinction. Performance of an undesired behavior is followed by no response. A
subordinate who constantly sends the supervisor meaningless memos and emails (undesired
behavior) but receives no response from the boss over a period of time, will eventually cease
sending them (extinction). Behavioral goal: to stop unwanted and unnecessary emails and
memos (frequency decrease).
Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing of the reinforcements is critical for the success of behavior
shaping. There are two main reinforcement schedules:
1. Continuous: Reinforcement is provided after each instance of performance of the behavior.

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2. Intermittent (or varied): Reinforcement is provided after only some of the instances of
behavior performance, but often enough to have an effect on the desired outcome. There are two
types of varied reinforcement schedules:
i. Ratio: Reinforcement is dependent on the number of responses an employee makes.
The number of required responses can be based on either a:
a) Fixed-Ratio: A constant number of responses must be made before reinforcement is given.
When a salesperson is offered a $100 bonus each time he or she sells $5000 worth of
merchandise, that reinforcement is on a fixed-ratio.

b) Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement varies relative to the behavior. A salesperson who can

make a 2% commission on the first Birr 10,000 worth of sales, a 4% commission for sales
from Birr 10,001 to Birr 30,000, and 5% for sales above Birr 30,000 is on variable ratio
reinforcement. The same effort might be required for each sale, but that effort is worth much
more once the salesperson has reached a given plateau of sales. This reinforces continued
selling behavior and higher sales volumes.
ii. Interval: Reinforcement is provided when a behavior is given after a set period of time
has elapsed since a previous reinforcement. The means of selecting this period of time are:
a) Fixed-Interval: reinforcement is spaced at uniform time intervals. An example would be
annual bonuses.
b) Variable-Interval: reinforcement frequency is randomly timed. The “catch them doing
something right” rewards given by managers who happen to see employees behaving in the
desired manner would be considered to be on a variable interval schedule.
Reinforcement Schedules and Behavior: Continuous reinforcement gives quick initial results but
rapidly becomes less effective once the reinforcement is removed. Intermittent reinforcement
does not change behavior as quickly but does show greater changes in behavior once the
reinforcement is removed.
Variable schedules lead to higher performance than do fixed schedules.
Problems with Reinforcement Theory: The greatest weakness of reinforcement theory is that it
ignores thoughts and feelings. Yet these thoughts and feelings have been shown to exist in the
space between the stimuli and the response, perhaps even influencing the behavior despite the
assumptions of reinforcement theory.
2.5. Values

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Values exist at a deeper level than attitudes and are more general and basic in nature. We use
them to evaluate our own behavior and that of others. As such, they vary widely among
individuals. Values are enduring beliefs that a specific mode of conduct or end state of
existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or
end state of existence. Values give us a sense of tight wrong, good and bad.
Values are learned by individuals as they grow and mature. They may change over the life
span as an individual develops a sense of self. Cultures, societies, and organizations shape
values. Parents and others who are respected by individual play crucial roles in value
development by providing guidance about what is right and wrong. Adolescence is a time
when values come to the fore front of an individual's development, and many individuals
stabilize the systems during this life stage.
Businesses have shown increasing interest in values over recent years. This goes along with
the emphasis on ethics in organizations that we will see in the next section. Because values
are general beliefs about right and wrong, they form the basis for ethical behavior. Values
generally influence attitudes and behavior. Suppose that you enter an organization with the
view that allocating pay on the basis of performance is right, while allocating pay on the basis
of seniority is wrong or inferior. How are you going to react if you find that the organization
you have just joined rewards seniority and not performance? You are likely to be
disappointed –and this can lead to job dissatisfaction and the decision not to exert a high level
of effort since ‘it is probably not going to lead to more money, anyway’.
Types of Values
Milton Rokeach distinguished between two types of values: instrumental and terminal.
Instrumental values: Values that represent the acceptable behaviors to be used in achieving
some end sate. Instrumental values reflect the means to achieving goals; that is, they represent
the acceptable behaviors to the acceptable behaviors to be used in achieving some end state.
Instrumental values identified by Rokeach include ambition, honesty, self-sufficiency, and
courageousness.
Terminal values: Terminal values in contrast, represent the goals to be achieved, or the end
states of existence. Rokeach identified happiness, love, pleasure, self-respect, and freedom
among the terminal values.
Work Values

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Work values are important because they affect how individuals behave on their jobs in terms of
what is right and wrong. The work values most relevant to individuals are achievement, concern
for others, honesty, and fairness. Achievement is a concern for the advancement of one's career.
This is shown in such behaviors as working hard and seeking opportunities to develop new skills.
Concern for others reflects caring, compassionate behaviors such as encouraging other
employees or helping others work on difficult tasks.
Honesty is accurately providing information and refusing to mislead others for personal gain.
Fairness emphasizes impartiality and recognizes different points of view. Individuals can rank-
order these values in terms of their importance in their work lives. Although individuals vary in
their value systems, when they share similar values at work, the results are positive.
Employees who share their supervisor's values are more satisfied with their jobs and more
committed to the organization. Values also have profound effects on the choice of jobs.
Traditionally, pay and advancement potential have been the strongest influences on job choice
decisions. However, a recent study found that three other work values-achievement, concern for
others, and fairness-exerted more influence on job choice decisions than did pay and promotion
opportunities. This means that organizations recruiting job candidates should pay careful
attention to individuals' values and to the messages that organizations send about company
values.

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