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Microbial Spoilage of Tofu (Soybean Curd)

Article  in  Journal of Food Protection · February 1993

DOI: 10.4315/0362-028X-56.2.157

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 157
Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 56, No. 2, Pages 157-164 (February 1993)
Copyright©, International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians

Microbial Spoilage of Tofu (Soybean Curd)

KHADIJA E. FOUAD1 and GEORGE D. HEGEMAN*

Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405; and

'Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47097
(Received for publication April 14, 1992)

ABSTRACT Tofu is relatively easy to make (14,19). Soybeans are

first soaked in water, coarsely ground, and then heated. The
Plate counts and pH measurements were performed on tofu
cooked, ground beans, called go in Japanese, are pressed to
from different aged lots. The pH declined from to 5.8 to 5.2 with
age. Aerobic plate counts of 1- and 30-d-old samples were extrude the soymilk, leaving bean solids, called okara, as a
approximately 106 CFU/g. Older samples had counts of about 108 byproduct. A solidifier is added to the soymilk, such as
CFU/g. Anaerobic counts rose from 106CFU/g in the 1-d-old lot concentrated sea salts, called nigari, calcium sulfate (either
to a high of 109 CFU/g in the 30-d-old lot. The major species from in refined form, or as naturally occurring gypsum), or
the different age lots were lactic acid bacteria, enteric bacteria, magnesium sulfate. The mixture is gently stirred so that the
and Pseudomonas species. Representatives from each of these resulting curds have the desired size and consistency. The
groups were inoculated into autoclaved tofu and incubated at 5°C exact method of stirring varies from manufacturer to manu-
for 23 d. CFU/ml and pH of both water and cake were measured. facturer and is considered to be part of the "art" of tofu
Turbidity, mg protein per ml, and mg NH4+ per ml of the water
making. The resulting curds and whey are formed into
were measured. All species tested increased in numbers in the tofu
and caused changes in at least some of the characteristics mea- pressed cakes. Tofu is usually cut into smaller blocks in the
sured. Samples were taken during the manufacture of tofu, and all cooling water.
organisms found in each sample were characterized. All organ- Traditionally in the East, tofu is eaten on the same day
isms that were shown capable of causing spoilage in tofu were it is made, or shortly afterward, so spoilage and microbio-
present in large numbers early in manufacture but were no longer logical quality have not been important concerns. In the
found in samples subsequent to pressure cooking. All of the West, tofu is produced in factories, then shipped, often to
spoilage organisms reappeared later during manufacture. These another city, where it may remain for days or weeks in the
data indicate that tofu is spoiled by enteric bacteria and Pseudo- retail outlet before purchase. The consumer may store the
monas species, as well as by lactic acid bacteria. The spoilage
organisms are probably introduced by equipment and personnel tofu in the refrigerator for days before consumption. Micro-
with which the product comes in contact after it is pressure biological safety of tofu has become a concern due to these
cooked. In addition, aerobic plate counts can underestimate the recent changes in tofu consumption patterns (7). Even so,
bacterial load in tofu, and therefore, anaerobic plate counts should no microbiological standards currently are set for tofu
also be performed. a J2).
Hankin and Hanna (5) evaluated 17 soy products,
including 11 tofu products, according to standards set for
Tofu (soybean curd) is a versatile protein-rich food
dairy products. Most of the products failed to meet these
prepared from soybeans. In the West, tofu is commonly
standards. Their findings have been criticized on a number
found in 12 oz. (ca. 340 g) to 21 oz. (ca. 595 g) cakes of counts (1). The application of dairy standards to soy
packaged in plastic cartons covered with plastic film (14,19). products may not be appropriate because vegetable foods
The tofu used for this project is sold in 1-lb (ca. 456 g) can be safe with a bacterial load which might be considered
cakes sealed in airtight plastic bags packaged in boxes. too high in a food of animal origin, due to the difference in
Soybeans have traditionally been used as a source of the types of bacteria one is likely to encounter in these two
protein or meat substitute in Eastern diets (14). It has been sources.
suggested that tofu might be an aid in solving world food Dotson et al. (4) developed criteria for measuring
problems because soybeans have both high quality protein spoilage of tofu and suggested that spoilage is caused by
and a high yield of protein per acre (10,13,14). The high lactic acid bacteria. Tuitemwong and Fung (17) tested
nutritional value and low cost of soybean products make seven brands of tofu for microbial flora present, cell counts,
them a suitable solution for malnutrition problems for poor and pH after 1 and 30 d of storage. They found that
people living on grain centered diets (14). The versatility spoilage varied according to the bacteria initially present
of tofu and other soybean products makes them easily and the physical properties of the tofu itself. Other studies
adaptable to traditional diets even in countries where they of the microbiological quality of tofu have been reported
are not usually served (13,14). (12,16,18).

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 56, FEBRUARY 1993

158 FOUAD AND HEGEMAN

Two food poisoning outbreaks related to tofu have appropriate dilutions were made in PBS, and aerobic and anaero-
been reported. Yersinia enterocolitica was implicated in bic counts performed, as described above. A sample was prepared
one outbreak (3) and Shigella sonnei in the other (8). The for a total direct cell count by adding 0.04 ml glutaraldehyde
ability of foodborne pathogens to grow and produce toxins (50% weight to weight, Fisher), 0.001 ml 4'6-diamidino-2-
phenylindole (DAPI) (1 mg/ml), and 0.001 ml Triton X-100 to
in tofu has also been evaluated (7).
0.96 ml of tofu homogenate diluted 1:1 in PBS. A total direct cell
The object of the present project was to determine some count using a Petroff-Hauser cell counter was performed using
of the organisms that cause spoilage of tofu. It was also to epifluorescence microscopy with optics as described by Porter and
ascertain at what point these organisms are introduced during Feig (11).
the manufacturing process. In addition, the microbial quality
of the commercial tofu product used was evaluated. Taxonomy
For the experiment concerning tofu of differing ages all
MATERIALS AND METHODS gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacteria were classified
using the Enterotube IIR or OxifermR tube identification systems.
Tofu Other strains were characterized using established methods, as
Tofu samples used in all experiments were obtained from a described in Holt (6). All tests were performed as described by
nearby soyfood company. Their method of tofu production is as Smiebert and Krieg (15), except the DNAase test, described by
follows: 6.8 kg dry weight of yellow soybeans is placed in a large Difco (2).
plastic barrel. To wash the beans, the barrel is filled with water, Strains obtained during manufacture of tofu were classified
stirred, and drained. The beans are soaked in water from between as described above, except that rather than using prepared testing
8 h in the summer to 12 h in the winter, which increases the systems, the tests were prepared by us and then were keyed
volume of the beans 2 1/4 to 3 times. Soaked beans are put in to according to the material provided with the prepared tests. A test
a hopper to drain the water and then are rinsed in running water. for the presence of Escherichia coli was performed on all
The beans are ground into meal in a grinder. The ground beans are samples according to established methods by Mehlman and
cooked in a steam pressure cooker which starts at 54.4-60°C and Andrews (9).
finishes at 102-103CC and 0.68 atm after about 15 min. The slurry
is drained out through a valve into two filter bags, one coarse, one Sampling during tofu manufacture
fine. A hydraulic press extrudes milk into a large plastic barrel. Samples were taken at different stages during the production
This yields 121-127 L of milk and 13.6-18 kg okara. The milk of a single batch of tofu. All samples were placed in sterile
temperature is about 93CC and is reduced to 76.7-82.2°C. In WhirlpakR bags (NASCO) which were stored until use at <7CC.
summer, a fan blowing across the surface of the milk is used to A collection control was made by opening one of the bags in the
speed cooling. The tofu samples from different aged lots were factory, leaving it open long enough to have put a sample into it,
prepared during the winter months. The sampling during tofu and then closing it and storing it with the other samples. A bag of
manufacture was performed during the summer. Approximately tapwater served as a temperature control. All samples were plated
250 g calcium sulfate is added. The mixture is stirred, then left within 36 h.
to set about 10 min. It is periodically "lifted" with a paddle for The samples taken and the method used to prepare them for
15-20 min to cause the curds to drop. The yield is about half dilutions and plate counts were as follows: 5 g of raw beans was
curds, or tofu, and half whey, or leftover liquid from the soymilk. washed in 5 ml of PBS by manually rubbing the beans in the
Whey is removed by siphoning and dipping. Curds are put into a sampling bag, and this wash was used. Then, 10 ml of PBS were
pressing form lined with cheesecloth and then are covered with added to 15 ml of the two washed bean samples. These were
cheesecloth. A pressing board is placed on top and weighted with agitated by hand and the wash was used. The go and okara
large jugs of water for 15-30 min. The warm tofu is sliced into samples were diluted 1:1 in PBS, and then the liquid portions were
blocks. The tofu blocks are placed in ice water and cooled to diluted and plated. The soymilk, whey, and cooling water were
15.6°C. They are then weighed, packaged, and stored at 2-3°C. diluted and plated without prior treatment. The calcium sulfate
powder was suspended in PBS in a 1:1 weight/volume ratio and
Tofu of different ages the suspension was used undiluted. The sample taken just after the
Tofu samples were held at 2-3°C by the manufacture until coagulant was added to the soymilk and stirred was homogenized.
they were brought to the laboratory. Samples were 1, 30, 37, 62, The trim from the freshly pressed cakes and the sample from the
and 101 d old. Tofu cakes from each sample were homogenized final packaged product were diluted 1:1 with PBS and homog-
in an equal volume of phosphate buffered saline (PBS) (75), enized. The sample control bag and a sample of the packaging
diluted in PBS, and 0.1 ml of 103, 105, and 10"7 dilutions were were rinsed with 5 and 9 ml, respectively, of PBS, and this wash
plated on trypticase soy agar (TSA). Some of the liquid from each was plated undiluted.
sample was used as an inoculum for streak plates. Plates were All samples were plated on TSA and incubated both aerobi-
incubated both aerobically and anaerobically at room temperature cally and anaerobically at 25°C. Plate counts were performed after
for 4 d. BBL GasPakR anaerobic systems were used for anaerobic 4 d. Plates were examined and samples of each and every colony
incubations. After counting, well-isolated colonies of the most type observed in each sample were counted, transferred, purified,
common colony types were picked from the 10~5 or 10"7 plates. and identified.
These were incubated at 30°C, except for a few strains which
failed to grow at 30°C and were incubated at 20°C. All strains Introduction of spoilage organisms into sterile tofu
were purified by streak plating. Strains incubated in anaerobic jars Samples of tofu obtained within 24 h of manufacture were
during isolation were incubated in anaerobic jars during purifica- cut into chunks of 40 + 4 g .and then autoclaved in side-arm flasks
tion. All strains found to be facultative anaerobes upon purifica- containing 250 ml water. Bacterial strains isolated from the tofu
tion were subsequently maintained aerobically. of differing ages were chosen arbitrarily and then grown in
Trypticase soy broth to density of 15 to 20 Klett units [red (#66)
Total direct cell counts filter, Klett-Summerson photoelectric colorimeter], which is about
A package of tofu was purchased from a retail outlet 18 d 108 CFU/ml. In order to put about 107 CFU/g into each block of
after manufacture. A sample from the tofu was homogenized, tofu, 0.1 ml of this cell suspension per g of tofu was injected into
 MICROBIAL SPOILAGE OF TOFU 159
the middle of each block of tofu using a glass pipet. The flasks
were aseptically sealed with sterile rubber stoppers, covered with
aluminum foil, and then incubated at 5°C until the end of the
period indicated by the manufacturer's pull date (23 d). The
organisms present at the end of the spoilage experiment were
examined microscopically, macroscopically, and biochemically
for purity and for identity with the starting organisms. Samples
were diluted in PBS and plated as before. Due to the change in
texture of the tofu caused by autoclaving, it was not possible to
homogenize the tofu cakes completely. Tofu cakes were ground
by placing them in a sterile Waring Blender cup with sufficient
1 3037 62 101
PBS to make a 10' dilution, and then blending them three times
for a few seconds each time. This produced a suspension of finer, Age of tofu (days)
sand-sized chunks which were diluted and plated. Both the sus- Figure 2. Bacterial counts of tofu of differing ages. Hatched bars
pension of the cakes and liquid surrounding the tofu were exam- represent aerobic plate counts. Solid bars represent anaerobic
ined microscopically. Plates were incubated at room temperature plate counts.
for 3 d prior to counting.
The amount of protein in the liquid surrounding the tofu was TABLE 1. Major organisms isolated from tofu of differing ages.
determined by biuret test. Readings were made on a Beckman
spectrophotometer, Model 2400, at 530 nm. The pH readings of Organism Tofu age (days)
the tofu cakes were taken at a distance of about 2 cm from the site 1 30 37 62 101
where the bacteria were originally injected into the cake.
To determine the amount of ammonia released into liquid Lactic acid bacteria
surrounding tofu, measurements were performed in a Klett- Lactobacillus X X X X
Summerson photoelectric colorimeter using a green filter (No. Lactic Streptococcus X X X X
54). Samples were prepared by putting 2 ml of the liquid sur-
rounding the tofu cake into a screw-capped tube, then adding 8 ml Pseudomonas
distilled water and 1 ml Nessler's reagent (15). The sample was Pseudomonas cepacia X X X
mixed by inversion and then inserted into the colorimeter to be Pseudomonas fluorescens X
read. The blank was prepared with 10 ml distilled water and 1 ml Pseudomonas putida X X
reagent. A standard curve was prepared in the same manner by Pseudomonas stutzeri X
using solutions containing a known amount of ammonia, added in Pseudomonas vesicularis X
the form of ammonium chloride (NH4CI), in place of the liquid
from the tofu. Enteric bacteria
Citrobacter freundii x
RESULTS Enterobacter agglomerans x x
Klebsiella pneumoniae X
In tofu from lots of different ages, the pH declined Serratia liquefaciens X X X X X
with increasing tofu age (Fig. 1). The 1- and 30-d aerobic
counts were approximately 106 CFU/g. The older samples Streptococci
had counts of about 108 CFU/g. The anaerobic count was Enterococcus
highest at 30 d at 1.25 x 10" CFU/g, then declined to 9 x
Others
107 CFU/g at 62 d (Fig. 2). The major flora differed in tofu
Staphylococcus epidermidis
of different ages (Table 1). Serratia liquefaciens is the only Rods, gram +, catalase +,
major organism which was found in all age lots. Lactoba- Non-sporeforming
cillus spp. were a major species in all age lots except the
30-d lot. Lactic Streptococcus spp. were major species in the group as a whole was represented by at least one major
all lots except the 101-d lot. Enterococcus spp. were major species in each lot. The other types of bacteria were major
species in all lots except the 1-d-old lot. Although no species in only some of the lots. No attempt was made to
Pseudomonas spp. appeared as a major species in all lots, determine the exact number of the major species found in
each age lot, but each was present in amounts of at least 105
CFU/g.
A total direct cell count performed on a batch of tofu
showed 1.6 x 108 CFU/g of tofu. Aerobic and anaerobic
counts performed on the same batch of tofu were 1.26 x 108
CFU/g and 1.07 x 108 CFU/g, respectively. Of the total,
o 79% were detected by the aerobic plate count and 67% by
X the anaerobic plate count.
Total aerobic and anaerobic counts of organisms found
in samples taken during the manufacture of tofu are shown
in Fig. 3. Organisms originally present on the beans multi-
30 37 101
plied during the time the beans were soaked. Grinding and
Age of tofu (doys) cooking the beans decreased counts of organisms by one
Figure 1. Change in pH of tofu with age. log unit. The lowest numbers were found in the samples

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 56, FEBRUARY 1993

 160 FOUAD AND HEGEMAN

the lactic Streptococcus and Pseudomonas vesicularis caused

a slimy texture in the cake. Odor of the tofu correlated well
with CFU/ml in the liquid surrounding the tofu (r = 0.88),
but otherwise subjective criteria did not correlate with
objective measurements.

DISCUSSION

Counts in older samples for organisms which were

obtained anaerobically were higher than for those which
were obtained aerobically. This is probably due to the fact
that the packaging is impermeable to air, so that with
Figure 3. Total aerobic and anaerobic counts of samples collected
increasing time, the environment becomes more suitable for
during tofu manufacture (per gram). Hatched bars represent
aerobic plate counts. Solid bars represent anaerobic plate counts. organisms that can grow anaerobically.
Sampling sites are numbered as follows: 1 = raw beans, 2 = In the present study, lactic acid bacteria in pure culture
washed beans, 3 = beans washed twice, 4 = cooked, ground had a strong effect on pH of liquid surrounding tofu but a
beans (go), 5 = okara, 6 = freshly extruded soymilk, 7 - calcium measurable effect was also exerted by the S. liquefaciens
sulfate, 8 = stirred, coagulated soymilk, 9 = whey, 10 = pressed and the E. agglomerans and by the Pseudomonas cepacia
tofu cake, 11 = cooling water, 12 = empty package, 13 = and the P. vesicularis. Since lactic acid bacteria, enteric
packaged tofu cake, 14 = sampling control.
bacteria, and Pseudomonas spp. are among the major types
of bacteria found in aged tofu samples, and since they do
immediately subsequent to the cooking process. This is exert a measurable effect on pH, it is likely that they are
probably because organisms were not exposed to higher important in spoilage of tofu.
temperatures long enough for substantial killing to occur Evidence from the pH measurements, measurements of
during cooking. Since the batch size was large enough to protein and NH4+ in the liquid surrounding the tofu, and the
prevent rapid cooling, organisms were exposed to elevated CFU in the tofu and surrounding liquid supports the idea
temperatures long enough for most cells to be killed during that spoilage of tofu is more complicated than has been
cooling of the batch, so few would be left by the time assumed, and that organisms in addition to lactic acid
coagulant was added. The tofu cake sampled immediately bacteria play an important role. Non-sporeforming, gram-
after pressing had higher counts of organisms than soymilk positive rods other than lactic acid bacteria were among the
with coagulant added. Still higher counts were found in the major types of organisms observed in the aged tofu samples.
final product. Approximate counts for each individual or- Their presence in large numbers in aged tofu suggests that
ganism and the samples in which each organism was found it could be prudent to perform catalase tests on rod-shaped,
are shown in Fig. 4. gram-positive organisms observed in spoiled tofu before
All organisms used in the spoilage experiment altered assuming that they are lactic acid organisms.
tofu in at least some of the characteristics measured (Table We used two spoilage criteria which were not used by
2). It is interesting to note that all organisms tested lowered previous researchers, i.e., measures of mg protein per ml
pH of tofu, although lactic acid organisms lowered the pH and mg NH4+ per ml of the liquid surrounding the tofu. The
more than did other organisms. Turbidity correlated well release of soluble protein had no consistent relationship to
with pH (Table 3). All organisms tested released more any of the other measurements of spoilage, so it alone is not
protein per ml from the tofu than was released from a good indicator of spoilage. Possibly bacteria which are
uninoculated tofu. The enteric species, S. liquefaciens, efficient at releasing protein into the liquid have less effect
caused release of more protein per ml from the tofu than on flavor deterioration of tofu than do organisms releasing
did the others, and Enterobacter agglomerans also caused less protein. That is, some products of bacterial degradation
release of high amounts. However, the lactic and Pseudo- of tofu might be more palatable than others. This may not
tnonas groups had organisms that released both high and be true of organisms which were not tested in this study,
low amounts of protein from the tofu. The only organisms however.
that produced significant amounts of ammonia were two of Some organisms released significant amounts of NH4+
the lactic acid bacteria. The measurements of mg protein into the liquid, whereas others either had no effect on the
per ml liquid correlated poorly with other measures of amount of NH4+ present, or appeared to decrease it. Ammo-
spoilage we applied, with r values ranging from 0.30 to nia tended to increase with decreasing pH. The decrease in
-0.28. Mg NH4+ per ml correlated slightly with pH of the pH is probably due to other compounds, such as lactic acid,
liquid (r = -0.65) and quite loosely with pH of the cake (r which were not monitored, and not to the higher amounts
= -0.48) and with turbidity (r = 0.39), but did not correlate of NH4+. Since mg NH4+ per ml did not correlate well with
with any other measurement. CFU/ml and turbidity of the liquid, considered by Dotson
The second Lactobacillus species and the S. liquefaciens et al. (4) to be good indirect measurements of spoilage, mg
did not alter the smell or texture of the tofu. The lactic NH4+ per ml cannot be considered to be a reliable indicator
Streptococcus and the first Lactobacillus sp. caused a of tofu spoilage.
beany odor in the tofu cake, while the two Pseudomonas TSA is commonly used for growth of organisms found
spp. and E. agglomerans caused a putrid odor. All except in tofu (4,17). However, it does not duplicate the conditions
 MICROBIAL SPOILAGE OF TOFU
161

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SSJJLi T °{ nanisms found during the manufacture of tofu. Bars are numbered as follows: 1 = Lactobacillus, 2 = lactic
v S a r i . s ' Y ^ ° m ° n a S h y d r ° P h l V = ^vobacterium sp., 5 = Pseudomonas cepacia, 6 = Pseudomonas putida, 7 = Pseudomonas
S K - P ^ S S r / i / = * ? ? ° b ? , C t e r freundu; 7 0 = c i t r o b a c t e r freundii or Enterobacter agglomerans, 11 = Enterobacter
E n t e r n r ™ 7n % / ^ ^ " Klebsiella ozaenae, 14 = Serratia liquefaciens, 15 = Serratia rubidea, 16 = Shigella boydii, 17 =
Enterococcus:sp 18 = oral Streptococcus, 79 = Staphylococcus sp., 20 = aerobic coccus, 21 = faculatative coccus, 22 = Actinomyces
§ P
Tnnr/fn7Jno?T T ' TU = aC) US * P - 2 ^ f0*' ?""""' «*"*««-. 2 6 = rods, Sram-, oxidases, 27 = rods, gram+, catalase+, non-
sporeforming, 28 = fungi. The sampling control (not shown) had 50 CFU/ml each of Bacillus sp. and fungi

InilDAlAT nrr i?nnr\ Dnrvrnr-Tirwi \rr\i c*r

162 FOUAD AND HEGEMAN
TABLE 2. Measurements of tofu spoilage.'

Organism tested pH pH O.D. CFU/ml CFU/ml Protein NH4

Liquid Cake cake liquid mg/ml mg/ml
x 108 x 108

Control 5.66 5.70 0 0 0 4.05 1.25

Lactic Streptococcus 4.80 5.11 47.5 1.6 26 5.6 2.97
Lactobacillus sp. #1 5.30 5.37 24 2 16 5.8 0.72
Lactobacillus sp. #2 5.31 5.49 17.8 0.5 5 6.36 3.27
Pseudomonas cepacia 5.54 5.67 20.5 7 7 8.9 0.65
Pseudomonas vesicularis 5.59 5.68 16.2 9 7 5.4 1.82
Serratia liquefaciens 5.49 5.53 15.2 3 10 11.28 1.39
Enterobacter agglomerans 5.62 5.52 22 7 44 8.28 1.07

a
For all tests, n = 1.

TABLE 3. Correlations of all data from spoilage of autoclaved tofu.

pH pH Protein NH4 CFU CFU O.D. i3dor Texture

Water Cake mg/ml mg/ml cake water

pH Water 1.00
pH Cake 0.94 1.00
Protein mg/ml 0.19 0.10 1.00
NH 4 mg/ml -0.65 -0.48 -0.28 1.00
CFU cake -0.22 -0.49 0.20 -0.06 1.00
CFU water 0.43 0.40 0.30 -0.38 0.27 1.00
O.D. -0.87 -0.88 0.03 0.39 0.56 0.02 1.00
Odor 0.16 0.12 0.06 -0.37 0.46 0.88 0.30 1.00
Texture 0.22 0.03 -0.02 -0.62 0.65 0.48 0.15 0.75 1.00

actually present in a cake of tofu. For instance, the lactic bacteria during processing of the samples prior to plating,
Streptococcus used in the spoilage experiment did not grow and to presence of nonviable cells in the sample.
well on TSA or Trypticase soy broth. However, it grew All of the organisms tested in the present work pro-
well in the tofu itself; it was one of the major species found duced changes in tofu which are consistent with normal
in the tofu samples from different age lots. It also grew well spoilage. That is, they altered the smell or texture of tofu,
in autoclaved tofu. Some species, such as Clostridium or lowered its pH, or both. This evidence lends support to
perfringens, that can grow in tofu cannot grow on TSA (L. the idea that organisms found in the older age lots of tofu
S. McClung, personal communication), although it is not are indeed responsible for spoilage. Not all organisms
known if this organism is actually found in tofu. responsible for spoilage were among the major species
Some strict anaerobes which could conceivably grow present in the 1-d-old tofu sample. One possible explana-
in anaerobic microenvironments in tofu may not have been tion for this is that, in the selective environment of pack-
detected by the anaerobic techniques used here. Any anaer- aged tofu, some organisms initially present in low numbers
obes detected using this system would have to be aerotolerant grow to become abundant. An alternative explanation is
in order to survive handling and the lag time before anaero- that the initial flora differed among different lots and,
biosis occurring in the anaerobic jar. C. perfringens and therefore, these organisms were simply not present in the 1-
Clostridium sporogenes strains were capable of growth d-old lot. Since none of the species present only in small
under these conditions on appropriate media (data not numbers were characterized, it is not possible to decide
shown), but more research is needed in order to determine between these two alternatives. Another possibility is that
whether other anaerobes which might be present in tofu part of the initial flora was missed due to sampling error.
would be detected under these conditions. A visit was made to a tofu manufacturer to attempt to
The comparison between direct cell count of a sample determine where and how spoilage organisms enter tofu. A
and counts obtained by plating the sample showed that the reasonable assumption is that they come from the soybeans.
majority of organisms present in tofu are detectable by The beans did indeed have high bacterial counts, but none
plating them on TSA, aerobically and in anaerobic jars. of the spoilage organisms were found on the raw beans.
Since aerobic plate counts were one-fifth lower, and anaero- Beans that had been soaked overnight, then had the excess
bic plate counts one-third lower than direct cell counts, it is water drained off and were washed once again in tap water,
probable that some types of organisms were missed en- yielded a wide variety of organisms, including all organ-
tirely, and that other methods would be needed to detect isms which tested positive for their ability to spoil tofu.
them. Some of the difference between the total direct cell Many of these organisms were also seen in the go. In
count and plate counts was probably due to killing of subsequent steps, total bacterial count decreased drastically,
 MICROBIAL SPOILAGE OF TOFU 163
and none of these organisms were detected again until they 109 CFU/ml. It is also important to perform total direct cell
appeared in the pressed tofu cake. counts when attempting to estimate the total numbers of
Lactic acid bacteria first reappeared in the pressed tofu bacteria in a sample to insure that a large proportion of the
cake, Pseudomonas sp. in the cooling water, and enteric organisms present is not being missed by the plating tech-
bacteria in the final packaged product. This suggests that niques employed.
these bacteria are reintroduced into the tofu from the General tests for "coliforms" should not be considered
equipment, cooling water, and personnel handling the tofu. relevant for evaluation of tofu. Specific tests for known
In addition, two bacterial species, E. coli and Bacillus pathogens in this group should be performed instead. Many
group I (possibly Bacillus cereus), that could potentially organisms that are harmless from a public health standpoint
pose a health hazard to consumers, were found in the will appear in a coliform enrichment. If the focus of the
finished product. E. coli is usually of human or animal research is spoilage rather than safety, general tests for
origin, so it was probably introduced by persons who Enterobacteriaceae might be appropriate, since we have
weighed and packaged the tofu. Bacillus group I (possibly shown that some members of this group can spoil tofu.
B. cereus) may have come from the same source, or from However, it is not known if this is a general characteristic
surfaces the tofu contacted during packaging, or from the of the group or is peculiar to some species only. Further
soybeans. research is needed before a general test could be deemed
A standard test for E. coli in foods was performed on appropriate.
all samples obtained from the tofu factory, but results were One major problem with evaluations of microbial qual-
negative. This could have been due to sampling error; that ity of tofu is lack of appropriate microbiological standards.
is, the sample used for the test had no E. coli, whereas the If standards are set, they should take into account the
sample that was plated and characterized did. Alternatively, microbial flora present in actual samples of tofu and the
the strain of E. coli present might have been too few in likelihood that these organisms would potentially threaten
numbers or might have an atypical reaction under the test the health of consumers. Because the types and numbers of
conditions. organisms that constitute a hazard in tofu and in other foods
are different, it is not sufficient to "borrow" standards from
Recommendations for improving the shelf life of tofu another food and apply them to tofu. In studies requiring
It is unlikely that the bacterial load present on the sterile tofu, it would usually be preferable to prepare tofu
beans contributes significantly to spoilage organisms in the in a sterile manner, according to Kovats et al. (7) because
finished product. They are probably reintroduced late in autoclaving introduces additional variables by changing the
processing. Therefore, efforts to reduce bacterial load should characteristics of the tofu.
be concentrated on later stages of manufacture. Care should
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
be taken to insure cleanliness of equipment between batches
to prevent contamination from an earlier batch. The cooling The authors wish to thank the Zakhi Soy Foods Co. of Fort Wayne,
water is a likely source of contamination, especially of IN, for kindly supplying the tofu for this project. We would also like to
Pseudomonas spp., and should be changed between batches. thank Kent Murphy for his help and advice. The authors wish to thank
Good sanitary practices are particularly important to Karen Redmond for assisting the research by performing tasks for the
experiment in which spoilage organisms were introduced into sterile tofu
those persons who handle the tofu press and pressed tofu, and helping in characterizing some organisms.
and who weigh and package tofu. Cleaning of all surfaces
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