Fabrication of Plastics,

Ceramics, and Composites

14.1 Introduction
 Plastics, ceramics, and composites have
different structure and properties than
metals
 Principles of material selection and
manufacturing are different
 Provide required properties and fabrication
processes to produce desired shape in an
economical way
 Large, complex shapes can be formed as a
single unit
 Processes can produce a near perfect shape
and surface product
14.1 Introduction
 Many of fabrication processes convert raw
materials into a finished product in a single
operation
 Properties of these materials are affected by
processes used to produce shapes.
 Fabrication of an acceptable product involves
selections:
◦ Appropriate material, and
◦ Companion method of processing, such that the
resulting combination provides the desired shape,
properties, precision, and finish surface.
14.2 Fabrication of Plastics
 A successful plastic product is
manufactured so that it satisfies the
various mechanical and physical
property requirements
 The preferred manufacturing method is
determined by the desired size, shape,
and quantity and type of polymers.
 There are three main different types of
polymers: thermoplastics, thermosets,
and elastomers
14.2 Fabrication of Plastics
 Thermoplastics can be heated to produce
either a soft, formable solid, or liquid. It can
be cast, injected into a mold, or forced into
or through dies to produce a desired shape.
 Thermosets can’t be further deformed once
polymerization has occurred.
 Elastomers are sufficiently unique.
14.2 Fabrication of Plastics
 Fabrication Processes of Plastics
◦ Casting
◦ Blow Molding
◦ Compression Molding
◦ Transfer Molding
◦ Cold Molding
◦ Injection Molding
◦ Reaction Injection Molding
◦ Extrusion
◦ Thermoforming
◦ Rotational Molding
◦ Form Molding
◦ Other Plastic-Forming Processes
Casting
 Simplest of the
shape-forming
processes
 No fillers and no
pressure is required
 Thermoplastics are
the main type of
polymer that can be
casted
◦ Acrylics, nylons, Figure 14-1 Steps in the casting of plastic parts
urethanes, and PVC using a lead shell mold.

plastisols
 Some thermosets can
also be cast
Blow Molding
 Thermoplastics can be converted to hollow-
shape containers such as bottles
 The preform is heated and placed between
the two mold halves
 The mold closes and the preform is expanded
from air or gas pressure
 The mold is then cooled, halves separated,
and the product is removed
 Flash, extra material, is trimmed from the
part and recycled
Blow Molding

Figure 14-2 Steps in

blow molding plastic
parts: (1) a tube of
heated plastic is
placed in the open
mold; (2) the mold
closes over the tube,
simultaneously sealing
the bottom; (3) air
expands the tube
against the sides of the
mold; and (4) after
sufficient cooling, the
mold opens to release
the product.
Blow Molding

Figure 14-2 Steps in

blow molding plastic
parts: (1) a tube of
heated plastic is
placed in the open
mold; (2) the mold
closes over the tube,
simultaneously sealing
the bottom; (3) air
expands the tube
against the sides of the
mold; and (4) after
sufficient cooling, the
mold opens to release
the product.
Compression Molding or Hot-
Hot-
Compression Molding
 Solid granules or
preformed tablets of
unpolymerized plastic
are placed into an open,
heated cavity
 A heated plunger applies
pressure to the plastics,
melting it and making it
Figure 14-3 The hot-compression molding
turn into a fluid process: (1) solid granules or a preform pellet is
 The pressure in the placed in a heated die; (2) a heated punch
descends and applies pressure; and (3) after
cavity is maintained curing (thermosets) or cooling
until the material is set (thermoplastics), the mold is opened and the
part is removed.
Compression Molding or Hot-
Hot-
Compression Molding
 Costs for compression molding are much
lower than complete processing
 High dimensional precision and high surface
finishing
 Typical parts are gaskets, seals, exterior
automotive panels, and aircraft fairings
 Manufacturing equipment typically consists of a
hydraulic or pneumatic press
 Primarily used with thermosetting polymers, but
recently it is also used for shaping thermoplastics
and composites.
Transfer Molding
 Reduces turbulence
and uneven flow that
occurs often in high
pressure, hot-
compression molding
 The material is first
heated until molten and
then is forced into the
cavity by a plunger
 The temperature and
Figure 14-4 Diagram of the transfer molding
pressure are maintained process. Molten or softened material is first formed
until the thermosetting in the upper heated cavity. A plunger then drives
the material into an adjacent die.
resin has cured
Cold Molding
 In cold molding, uncured thermosetting
material is pressed to shape while cold
 The material is then removed from mold and
cured in a separate oven.
 Advantages:
◦ Faster
◦ More economical
 Disadvantages
◦ Not good surface finish
◦ Not good dimensional precision
Injection Molding
 Used for high-volume production of
complex thermoplastic parts
 Granules of a raw material are fed through a
hopper into a cavity that is ahead of a
plunger
 The plunger moves forward and the material
is heated
 In the torpedo section, the material is mixed,
melted, and superheated
 The fluid then flows through a nozzle that is
against the mold
 Sprues and runners are used in the same
way as in metal casting
Injection Molding

Figure 14-5 Schematic diagram of the injection molding process. A moving

plunger advances material through a heating region (in this case, through a
heated manifold and over a heated torpedo) and further through runners
into a mold where the molten thermoplastic cools and solidifies.
Reaction Injection Molding
 Two or more liquid reactants are mixed
under pressure
 The mixture then flows through a pressure-
reducing chamber and into a mold
 Exothermic reaction causes the
thermosets to polymerize
 Curing times are typically less than a
minute
 Low processing temperatures and low
injection pressures
◦ Typical for casting large parts
Reaction Injection Molding

Figure 14-6 The reaction injection molding process. (Left) Measured

amounts of reactants are combined in the mixing head and injected into the
split mold. (Right) After sufficient curing, the mold is opened and the
component is ejected.
Extrusion
 Used for long plastic products with a
uniform cross-section
 Pellets or powders are fed through a
hopper and then into a chamber with a
large screw
 The screw rotates and propels the
material through a preheating section
where it is heated, homogenized, and
compressed
 To preserve its shape, the material is
cooled by jets of air or water spraying
Extrusion

Figure 14-7 A screw extruder producing thermoplastic product. Some units may have a
changeable die at the exit to permit production of different-shaped parts.
Thermoforming
 Thermoplastic sheet material is heated
and then placed over a mold
 A vacuum, pressure, or mechanical
tool is applied to draw the material
into the mold
 The die can impart the dimensions and
finish or texture on the final product
 Typical products are thin-walled parts,
plastic luggage, plastic trays, and panels
for light fixtures
Thermoforming

Figure 14-8 A type of thermoforming where thermoplastic sheets are shaped using a combination
of heat and vacuum.
Rotational Molding
 Produces hollow, seamless products
 Typical products are tanks, bins, refuse
containers, doll parts, footballs, helmets, and
boat hulls
 A mold or cavity is filled with a specific amount
of thermoplastic powder or liquid
 The molds are then placed in an oven and
rotated simultaneously about two perpendicular
axes
 The resin is evenly distributed across the mold
walls
 All of starting material is used in the product, no
scrap is generated.
Foam Molding
 A foaming agent is mixed with a plastic
resin and releases gas when the material is
heated during molding
 The materials expand to 2 to 50 times their
original size
 Produces low density products
 Both rigid and flexible foams can be produced
◦ Rigid type is used for structural applications such as
computer housings, packaging, and shipping
containers
◦ Flexible foams are used for cushioning
Other Plastic-
Plastic-Forming Processes
 Calendering process
◦ A mass of thermoplastic is forced between and
over two or more counter-rotating rolls to
produce thin sheet or films of polymer.
 Drawing
 Rolling
 Spinning
 Many of these processes can be combined
with other processes to produce a final part
Machining of Plastics
 Plastics can undergo many of the same
processes of metals
◦ Milling, sawing, drilling, and threading
 General characteristics of plastics that affect
machining
◦ Poor thermal conductors
◦ Soft and may clog tooling
◦ Softening may reduce the precision of the final
dimensions of thermoplastics
◦ Thermosets can have more precise dimensions
because of its rigidity
Tooling Considerations for
Machining Plastics
 High temperatures may develop at the
cutting point and cause the tools to be
hot
 Carbide tools may be preferred over
high-speed tool steels if high-speed
cutting is performed
 Coolants can be used to keep
temperatures down
◦ Water, soluble oil and water, weak solutions of
sodium silicate
 Lasers may be used for cutting
operations
Finishing and Assembly
Operations
 Printing, hot stamping, vacuum metallizing,
electrolapping, and painting can be used on
plastics
 Thermoplastic polymers can be joined by
heating relevant surfaces
◦ The heat can be applied by a stream of hot gases,
applied through a soldering iron, or generated by
ultrasonic vibrations
 Snap-fits may be used to assemble plastic
components
 Self-tapping screws can also be used
Designing for Fabrication
 Materials should be selected with the
manufacturing processes in mind
 The designer should be aware that
polymers can soften or burn at elevated
temperatures, have poor dimensional
stability, and properties deteriorate
with age
 Many property evaluation tests are
conducted under specific test conditions
◦ Materials should be selected that take these
conditions into account
Designing for Fabrication
 Each process has limitations and design
considerations
◦ Shrinkage in casting
◦ Solidification issues
◦ Part removal and ejection
◦ Surface finish
◦ Section thickness
◦ Thick corners
Inserts
Figure 14-12 Various ways of
anchoring metal inserts in plastic
parts (left to right): bending,
splitting, notching, swaging,
noncircular head, and grooves and
shoulders. Knurling is depicted in
Figure 14-11.
Figure 14-11 Typical metal inserts
used to provide threaded cavities,
holes, and alignment pins in plastic
parts.

 Metal (brass or steel) may be incorporated

into plastic products to enhance performance
◦ Threaded inserts
 May serve as mounting surfaces
 Often used for electrical terminals
Design Factors Related to
Finishing
 Finish and appearance of plastics is
important to consumers
 Decorations or letters can be produced
on the surface of the plastic, but may
increase cost
 Processes should be chosen so that
secondary machining is minimized
 If parting lines will result in flash, the
parting lines should be placed in
geometrically easy locations (i.e. corners
and edges) if possible
Design Factors Related to
Finishing
 Plastics have a low modulus of elasticity,
so flat areas should be avoided
 Flow marks may be apparent, so dimples or
textured surfaces can be used
 Holes should be countersunk

Figure 14-13 Trimming the

flash from a plastic part
ruptures the thin layer of
pure resin along the parting
line and creates a line of
exposed filler.
14.3 Processing of Rubber and
Elastomers
 Dipping
◦ A master form is produced from some type
of metal
◦ This master form is then dipped into a
liquid or compound, then removed and
allowed to dry
◦ Additional dips are done to achieve a desired
thickness
◦ Electrostatic charges may be used to accelerate
the process
Rubber and Elastomer Compounds
 Elastomeric resin, vulcanizers, fillers,
antioxidants, accelerators, and pigments may
be added to the compounds
◦ Typically done in a mixer
◦ Injection, compression, and transfer molding
may be used
◦ Some compounds can be directly cast to shape
 Rubber compounds can be made into sheets
using calenders
 Inner tubes, tubing, etc. can be produced by
extrusion
 Rubber or artificial elastomers can be bonded
to metals using adhesives
Processing of Elastomers and
Rubbers
Figure 14-15 (Left) (a) Three-roll
calender used for producing rubber or
plastic sheet. (b) Schematic diagram
showing the method of making sheets of
rubber with a three-roll calender. [(a)
(Courtesy of Farrel-Birmingham
Company, Inc. Ansonia, CT.)]

Figure 14-16 (Right) Arrangement of the rolls,

fabric, and coating material for coating both
sides of a fabric in a four-roll calender.
14.4 Processing of Ceramics
 Two distinct classes of processing
ceramics
◦ Glasses are manufactured by means of
molten material via viscous flow
◦ Crystalline ceramics are manufactured by
pressing moist aggregates or powder into
shape
◦ The material is then bonded together using one
of several mechanisms
 Chemical reaction
 Vitrification
 Sintering
Fabrication Techniques for Glasses
 Shaped at elevated temperatures
 Sheet and plate glass is formed by
extrusion through a narrow slit and
rolling it through water-cooled rolls
 Glass shapes can be made by pouring molten
material into a mold
◦ Cooling rates may be controlled
 Constant cross section products can be
made through extrusion
◦ Glass fibers are made through an extrusion process
Fabrication Techniques for Glasses

 Viscous masses may be used

instead of molten glass
◦ Female and male die members are
typically used
◦ Processes similar to blow molding are
used to make bottles and containers

Figure 14-17 Viscous glass

can be easily shaped by
mating male and female die
members. Figure 14-18 Thin-walled glass shapes can be produced by a
combination of pressing and blow molding.
Fabrication Techniques for Glasses
 Heat treatments
◦ Forced cooling produces surface
compression and this glass is known as
tempered glass and is stronger and more
fracture resistant.

◦ Annealing operation can be used to relieve

unfavorable residual stresses when they
exist
Fabrication Techniques for Glasses
 Glass Ceramics
◦ A unique class of material with part
crystalline and part glass
◦ Glass material is subjected to a special heat
treatment (devitrification)
 Controls nucleation and growth of crystalline
component
 Dual structure with good strength, toughness,
and low thermal expansion.
 Typical products such as cookware and ceramic
stove tops
Fabrication of Crystalline Ceramics
 Crystalline ceramics are hard, brittle
materials that have high melting points
 Cannot be formed by techniques that
require plasticity or melting
 Processed in the solid state
◦ Dry pressing
◦ Isostatic pressing
 Clay products are ceramics blended with
water and additives
Fabrication of Crystalline Ceramics
Machining of Ceramics
 Most ceramics are hard and brittle, so
machining is difficult
 Machining before firing is called green
machining
 Machining after firing are typically
nonconventional machining processes
◦ Grinding, lapping, polishing, drilling, cutting,
ultrasonic, laser, electron beam, water-jet, and
chemical
Design Considerations
 Joining of Ceramics
◦ Adhesive bonding
◦ Brazing
◦ Diffusion bonding
◦ Threaded assemblies
 Most ceramics are designed to be one piece
structures
 Bending and tensile loading should be
minimized during manufacture
 Sharp corners and edges should be
avoided
 It is costly to achieve precise dimensions and
surface finishing