Bio Pactsheet ©

Number 32

Viruses made simple

Viruses lack the mitochondria necessary to derive energy and they cannot reproduce on their own. They are dependent on their host
cells and are only classed as living organisms when they infect host cells. After reproducing, viruses inevitably cause their host's
destruction. It is because of these characteristics that viruses are described as obligate intracellular parasites. This Factsheet will
describe the structure of different types of viruses, their life cycles and their pathogenic (disease causing) properties.

Classification of viruses. Replication of viruses in general

Viruses can be classified according to characteristics such as; Viruses identify the cells which they attack by recognising specific cell
surface receptors. For this reason viruses will usually only infect one
(a) The disease they cause e.g. influenza
species. In simple terms, when a virus infects a cell it injects its own
(b) Their tissue target e.g. neuronal
genetic material (either DNA or RNA) into the cell. The genetic material
(c) The vector by which they are transmitted
of the virus then replicates and many new virus particles are assembled.
However, the most widespread classification schemes are based on viral The replicating virus uses the host cell's nutrients and energy sources,
structure, for example; preventing the cell carrying out normal metabolism. Finally, the cell is
destroyed and the virus particles are released and are able to infect new
(a) Their nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) cells. Viruses which infect bacterial cells are called bacteriophages, those
(b) Their size that infect animals and plants are called animal and plant viruses respectively.
(c) Their morphology (shape and structure)
Replication of bacteriophages
Common exam questions Bacteriophages, or phages as they are commonly called, undergo two types
1. Why can viruses be classified as living and non living? of replication; lytic and lysogenic. Fig 1(c) shows the T4 phage, an example
2. Explain why all viruses are considered to be parasites. of a lytic bacteriophage.

Size of viruses (a) Lytic replication e.g. T4 phage

Viruses range in size from the smallest picomaviruses (20 nanometres) to The first stage of lytic replication is the adsorption (attachment) of the
the largest poxviruses (350 nanometres). Note, however that they are phage to the bacterial cell. Following adsorption, the tip of the phage tail
much smaller than bacteria. becomes attached to a specific cell surface receptor. The sheath of the tail
then contracts, puncturing the bacterial cell wall and membrane, thus enabling
the phage genome (DNA) to be injected into the bacterium.
Virus morphology
The virus core consists of nucleic acid, which may be associated with
Following penetration, the DNA of the phage is transcibed (i.e. used as a
accessory proteins such as enzymes. Surrounding the nucleic acid is a
template for mRNA synthesis) and the bacterial DNA is degraded. The
protein coat called a capsid. Before assembly with the nucleic acid and
mRNA is translated by the bacterial cell (i.e. proteins are synthesised
accessory proteins, the empty protein shell is called a procapsid. After the
according to the instructions given by the mRNA template).
components have assembled, the structure is called a mature capsid. Vimses
with no other features are referred to as naked capsid viruses. Alternatively
the capsid may be surrounded by a membrane composed of lipid, proteins Once the structural proteins and nucleic acid have been > the ed the
and glycoproteins, in which case the particle is described as an enveloped phage components are assembled into mature capsids. After approximately
25 minutes some 200 phages are assembled, leading to lysis (disintegration)
of the bacterial host and the release of new viruses, which in turn infect
The morphology of the capsid can be described as follows; other bacteria. The cycle then repeats.

(a) Helical Exam Hint - Some Examination Boards require you to know the
(b) Icosahedral (a icosahedron is a 20 faced solid) difference between the iytic and iysogenic cycies. It is easy to confuse
(c) Composite (having helical and polyhedral components) the names but they are two very different processes.

Examples of such structures are shown in Fig 1.

Fig 1. Examples of capsid structures

Viruses made simple Bio Factsheet

(b) Lysogenic replication e.g. Lambda (X.) phages Replication of animal viruses
In addition to lysis, some types of viruses can replicate by incorporating Infection of the host with an animal virus leads to a variety of effects,
their DNA into the host DNA. This type of replication is called lysogeny. including lysis of the host cell, latency (where the virus exists in cells but
A lambda phage is an example of a virus which replicates by lysis and is not replicating) and host cell transformation (a change in the structure
lysogeny. In its incorporated form, the lambda phage genome is called a or properties of the host cell), which together with genetic and environmental
prophage. Subsequently, the phage DNA is transmitted to each bacterial factors, leads to the formation of a tumor. The general life cycle of an
daughter cell as the cells reproduce. During lysogeny the phage also produces animal virus is shown in Fig 3. The virus shown is a naked capsid virus.
a protein which inhibits the lytic cycle but ensures the integration of the
phage DNA into the bacterial DNA. Under certain conditions - such as 1. Recognition and attachment (receptors on the surface of the virus
exposure to UV light - the lytic cycle of the lambda phage is initiated. UV recognise and attach to receptors on the surface of the host cell).
light stimulates the production of a bacterial cell protein which cleaves the
repressor protein produced by the phage. Since the lytic cycle is no longer 2. Penetration of the host by endocytosis.
inhibited, the viral particles are assembled and the bacterial cell lyses. Fig 2
shows a flow diagram to represent both the lytic and lysogenic cycles. 3. Uncoating of the viral genome (DNA genomes are usually transported
to the nucleus and RNA genomes usually remain in the cytoplasm).
Fig 2. The lytic and lysogenic cycles
4. Synthesis of nucleic acid and proteins (using the host cell's endoplasmic
reticulum).

5. Viral assembly.

6. Viral packaging.

7. Release of new viral particles by lysis (naked capsid viruses).

Exam Hint - Remember that DNA is replicated in the nucleus and

RNA is usually replicated in the cytoplasm.

Fig 3. The general life cycle of an animal virus (DNA or RNA).

Viruses made simple Bio Factsheet

Replication of plant viruses Retroviruses

All plant viruses are RNA viruses. Plant viruses enter their hosts through Retroviruses contain RNA and an enzyme called reverse transcriptase
damaged regions of the plant or by insect bites which transport the viruses which catalyses the production of single stranded DNA, called copy DNA
into the host cells. Once the virus has infected the host cell, replication is (cDNA) from the RNA template. The cDNA then acts as a template for a
the same as an animal RNA virus. Firstly, the capsid is removed and then second strand, thereby forming double stranded DNA which is integrated
the RNA is transcribed and replicated to make mRNA and new RNA into the host cell chromosomes. This is referred to as proviral DNA. When
genomes. The viral proteins are then translated from the mRNA. the host cell divides the proviral DNA is transmitted to the daughter cells.

Once the RNA genome and proteins have been synthesised, the protein HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), the virus responsible for the disease
coat surrounds the newly formed nucleic acid in a self-assembly process. AIDS (Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a retrovirus which infects
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) is an example of a plant virus. Within the T-lymphocytes of the immune system (Fig 4). The virus can remain latent
plant, the TMV particles form crystalline structures and infected regions for many years before it is activated to start replicating and destroy its
become yellow (chlorotic) due to the loss of chlorophyll. The leaves of host cell. By reducing the number of T-lymphocytes, HIV weakens the
such infected plants develop characteristic mosaic patterns of chlorosis. body’s ability to fight infection. Eventually, individuals who are carrying
Ultimately, the completely assembled virus particles and any unpacked HIV succumb to a range of opportunistic infections - so called because
viral nucleic acid molecules are released as the plant dies. they usually only affect people whose immune system is weakened. AIDS
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is the name given to this collection
Plant viruses commonly cause symptoms such as leaf mosaic (yellow of unusual, opportunistic diseases.
mottling of leaves), crinkled leaves and stunted growth. The subsequent
reduction in yield is of great economic importance. Some significant examples Thus, AIDS is not a single disease, but a descriptive term for the
are outlined below (Table 1). opportunistic infections. People who develop AIDS often die from
Karposi's sarcoma, a rare cancer itself caused by a virus.
Table 1. Example of plant viruses.
Fig 4. The replication process of the HIV virus.

Disease Symptoms virus Transmission

Tobacco Yellow-brown Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Fungus,

Mosaic mottled leaves Elongated Grafting,
Disease Mechanical
damage

Tobacco Dry, brown, Tobacco Rattle virus. Nematode

Rattie papery leaves Elongated worms
Disease

Tomato Wilting, Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus, Thrips

Spotted spots of Spherical and enveloped
Wiit discolouration

Yellow mottled Turnip Yellow Mosaic Beetle

Yeliow
Mosaic Spherical
Disease

Viruses as pathogenic agents

Many viruses act as pathogenic (disease causing organisms) in humans
(Table 2).

Table 2. Examples of animal viruses & their symptoms

Disease Symptoms Virus Transmission

AIDS Weight loss, Human Immunodeliciency Sexual intercourse,

Diarrhoea, Virus (HIV), RNA Blood transfusion,
Dementia, containing retrovirus. Sharing needles,
Spherical and enveloped Transplacental
Common Runny nose. RNA containing Droplet infection
Cold Sneezing, rhinovirus (of which there
Coughing are many strains),
Icosahedral and enveloped

Genital Genital ulcers. Herpes Simplex type 2, Across urogenital

Herpes DNA containing,
Swollen glands Icosahedral and enveloped contact
German Rash, Rubella Virus, Droplet infection
Measles Malaise, RNA containing,
(Rubella) Foetal Icosahedral and enveloped
abnormalities
Viruses made simple Bio Factsheet

Treatment of viral infections Practice Questions

Treatment of viral infections is difficult because the infections take place
inside cells where it is difficult to reach. It is also difficult to find a drug 1. Fig 1. shows a diagram of a bacteriophage
which specifically targets the virus and not the host cells, since the virus
uses the host cell’s nutrients and energy to replicate. Unfortunately, treatment
which successfully inhibits the replication of the virus often inhibits and
damages the infected cells.

However, in recent years many drugs have been developed which are
selectively activated in infected cells because the viral particles convert the
drug from an inactive form to an active form. Different viruses possess
different enzymes which can activate drugs. Aciclivor - the active ingredient
in Zovirax, the cold sore cream - is a good example. The general principle Label structures a, b and c. (3 marks)
is that different viruses possess different enzymes which can activate
drugs. Thus, selectivity towards different viruses is also possible. 2. Name two features which are characteristic of all viruses. (2 marks)

3. Animal viruses can be grown by inoculating them into cells of mature

Vaccines
animals. Name two other methods for growing animal viruses.
The antigenic components of viruses (those recognised as foreign by
(2 marks)
host cells), such as their cell surface receptors, can provide protective
immunity for the host. The host’s immune system produces antibodies
4. Tobacco rattle virus is a pathogen affecting tomato plants and is
which recognise the viral antigens, thus enabling the host to selectively
transmitted by nematode worms.
destroy any similar particles. This is the basis of vaccines, which usually
consist of attenuated (weakened) antigens, which are injected or ingested
(a) Suggest why the tobacco rattle virus cannot penetrate leaf cells
into the host. The host’s immune system produces antibodies against this
without the aid of nematode worms. (1 mark)
antigen and the host is immunised, usually without suffering any symptoms.

However, vaccinations impose a selective pressure on viral antigens. This (b) Suggest why the virus does not replicate in the nematode worm.
leads to changes in their structure and inevitably, the formation of new viral (1 mark)
strains. New strains are also formed by mutation (a change in the structure
of the genome). Viruses such as HIV mutate and change structure very Answers
quickly and cannot therefore be treated by vaccines. Semicolons indicate marking points.

1. a - capsid/protein head;
Using viruses in the laboratory
b - helical tail;
The two most common reasons for producing a virus in large numbers
are to investigate its pathogenic (disease causing) properties or to
c - tail fibres;
study its structure closely. Most viruses are pathogenic and therefore
special conditions are needed for their use in the laboratory. Viral
2. Enclosed in capsid;
work is performed in purpose built cabinets, similar to fume cupboards,
contains nucleic acid;
and protective clothing such as safety gloves and lab coats are worn.
reproduces in other cells/host cells/parasites;
Viral culture is usually carried out by inoculating (infecting) cells kept
alive in a nutrient rich solution,usually fertile eggs or embryos. After
3. Inoculating: fertile eggs or embryo;
inoculation, the infected cells or tissues are incubated, whilst the virus
tissue cultures;
reproduces.

Equipment can be disinfected by using liquids e.g. 4. (a) Unable to penetrate cell wall/cuticle;
no enzymes;
(i) Alcohols
(ii) Phenolic compounds (b) Viruses are very specific;

Equipment can be decontaminated by sterilisation using:

(i) Heat e.g. autoclaving in steam under pressure at 121°C

(ii) Liquids e.g. hydrogen peroxide or formaldehyde

Viruses are stored at temperatures between -20°C to -TO^C.

Acknowledgements;
This Factsheet was researched and written by Nirinder Hunjan
Curriculum Press, Unit 305B, The Big Peg,
120 Vyse Street, Birmingham. B18 6NF
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