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/  Downstream: Refining and Marketing

Oil and Gas Industry: A Research Guide

Introduction
Downstream: Refining and
History of the Industry

Organizations and
Marketing
Cartels
The downstream sector covers
Oil and Gas refining and marketing.
Companies
While refining is a complex
Upstream: Production process, the goal is
and Exploration straightforward: to take crude oil,
which is virtually unusable in its
Midstream: natural state, and transform it
Transportation
into petroleum products used for
Downstream: a variety of purposes such as
Refining and heating homes, fueling vehicles
Marketing and making petrochemical Wolcott, Marion Post. Barnsdall oil refinery.
Wichita, Kansas. 1941. Farm Security
plastics.
Subscription Administration - Office of War Information
Databases A number of processes are Collection. Library of Congress Prints and
involved in refining depending on Photographs Division.
Statistical Data
the wanted end product.
Oil and Gas Pricing Hydrotreating is used to remove unwanted elements, such as sulphur and
nitrogen from hydrocarbons; cracking breaks molecules into smaller
News and Analysis fragments to produce gasoline and other lighter hydrocarbons. The gasses
produced by cracking are used to create other products like synthetic rubber
Laws and and plastics. When making gasoline, refiners need high octane numbers to
Regulations
prevent engine knocking. Despite knowing the dangers of lead, tetraethyl lead
Industry was added to gasoline in the United States in the 1920s in order to increase
Controversies the octane. Since the U.S. government banned lead in vehicle gasoline in 1996
as part of the U.S. Clean Air Act, refineries use alkylation and reforming to
develop high-octane gasoline.1
Refineries are usually located near population centers to facilitate marketing
and distribution of final products.2
Marketing is the wholesale and retail distribution of refined petroleum
products to business industry government and public consumers Generally
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products to business, industry, government, and public consumers. Generally
crude oil and petroleum products flow to the markets that provide the
highest value to the supplier, which usually means the nearest market first
because of lower transportation cost and higher net revenue for the supplier.
In practice, however, the trade flow may not follow this pattern due to other
factors, such as refining configurations, product demand mix, and product
quality specifications.
Gasoline service stations handle the bulk of public consumer sales and oil
companies sell their petroleum products directly to factories, power plants,
and transportation-related industries. Natural gas sales are almost evenly
divided between industrial consumers, electrical providers, and residential
and commercial heating.3
Because gasoline is a commodity that is more or less the same, competition
for customers required creative marketing tactics. Retail gasoline stations
offered free services like maps, car washing, and dinnerware. Oil company
brands offered credit cards starting in the 1950s to ensure customer loyalty.
Radio, billboard, and television ads promoted catchy slogans, additives, and
adjectives like "premium" and "high performance" to attract drivers.4
Advertorials, or sponsored op-eds, were used by Mobil in the New York Times
to publish pro-oil industry commentary. Today, social media gives companies
a platform to promote various energy initiatives and mitigate negative news.5

Print Materials External Websites

The following materials link to fuller bibliographic information in the


Library of Congress Online Catalog. Links to additional online content are
provided when available.

Chemical Week
Call Number: TP1 .C37
Published/Created: Weekly, 1951 to present
Articles cover new technologies in chemical
manufacturing and processes. Volume 164, 2002,
includes a supplemental issue NPRA: A Century of Achievement and
Excellence focusing on the history of the petrochemical and refinery
industries.

The Global Oil and Gas Industry: Management,


Strategy and Finance by Andrew C. Inkpen; Michael H.
Moffett
Call Number: HD62.4 .I515 2011
ISBN: 9781593702397
Published/Created: 2011
A look at the business aspects of the oil and gas
industry, this text has chapters on the market, refining, sales and
marketing, and petrochemicals. It also includes management of the
upstream and midstream markets.

Marketing Big Oil by Mark L. Robinson


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Call Number: HD9560.5 .R57 2014
ISBN: 9781137389169
Published/Created: 2014
Marketing Big Oil begins with an historical perspective
looking at how Big Oil came to be and then analyzes the
marketing and corporate branding programs of these
oil titans to demonstrate what does and does not work, showing us
how even the largest companies sometimes fail to get their message
across.

Petroleum Progress and Profits: A History of Process


Innovation by John Lawrence Enos
Call Number: TP690.4 .E5
Published/Created: 1962
This book covers innovations in oil refining from the
first half of the 20th century. Six chapters are devoted
to six different techniques: Burton Process, Dubbs
Process, Tube and Tank Process, Houndry Process, TCC and Houdriflow
Processes, and the Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process. Each section
includes costs or returns. At the end, appendix tables cover output and
capacity by process, and historical wage, construction and equipment
costs, and fuel and crude oil prices from 1913-1957.

Petroleum Refining by James H. Gary; Mark J. Kaiser;


Glenn E. Handwerk
Call Number: TP690 .G33 2007
ISBN: 9780849370380
Published/Created: 2007
A useful publication that systematically examines the
basic aspects of current petroleum-refining technology
and economics. Intended to be used as a ready reference source for
technical managers, engineers, university faculty, graduate and senior
level undergraduate students. Also available as an ebook through
Taylor and Francis eBooks database.

World Oil Trade


Call Number: HD9560.1 .W67
Published/Created: 1979 [?] to present
Published annually, World Oil Trade shows trading
relationships through a matrix of countries. It also
features an overview of trade in individual countries and analysis of
regional trends.

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DOWNSTREAM INDUSTRY CODES

The North American Industry Classification System is the standard used by


Federal statistical agencies in classifying business establishments for the
purpose of collecting, analyzing, and publishing statistical data related to the
U.S. business economy. Codes start with two-digits at the broadest industry
level, and become more specific at the six-digit level. Mexico, Canada and
United States data is comparable at the five-digit code level. Other region,
country, and organization-specific industry codes exist for data tracking
purposes. Knowing how a particular industry or a company within an industry
is classified can help when researching, since information is often organized
within these codes.

3241 Petroleum and Coal Products Manufacturing

324110 Petroleum Refineries

324121 Asphalt Paving Mixture and Block Manufacturing

324122 Asphalt Shingle and Coating Materials Manufacturing

324191 Petroleum Lubricating Oil and Grease Manufacturing

324199 All Other Petroleum and Coal Products Manufacturing

424710 Petroleum Bulk Stations and Terminals

424720 Petroleum and Petroleum Products Merchant Wholesalers


(except Bulk Stations and Terminals)

425120 Wholesale Trade Agents and Brokers (Petroleum brokers)

454310 Fuel Dealers

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG SEARCHES

Additional works on oil and gas transportation and storage in the Library of
Congress may be identified by searching the Library of Congress Online
Catalog under appropriate subject headings. Choose the topics you wish to
search from the following list of Library of Congress subject headings to link
directly to the Catalog and automatically execute a search for the subject
selected. For assistance in locating the many other subject headings which
relate to this subject, please consult a reference librarian.

Gas distribution.
Natural gas--Marketing.
Petroleum--Refining.
Petroleum products--Marketing.
Petroleum products distribution equipment industry.
Petroleum refineries.

NOTES

1. Jia Man Neoh and Shang Yang Chuah, Oil & Gas: Europe Industry
Surveys, (New York: CFRA, 2019).; Charles F. Conaway, The Petroleum
Industry: A Nontechnical Guide, (Tulsa, OK: PennWell, 1999), 236; Kat
Eschner, “Leaded Gas Was a Known Poison the Day it was Invented,”
Smithsonian Magazine, , (Dec. 9, 2014). Back to text
2. Conaway, The Petroleum Industry: A Nontechnical Guide, 245. Back to
text
3. Michael D. Tusiani and Gordon Shearer, LNG: A Nontechnical Guide
(Tulsa, OK: PennWell Corp, 2007), 74. Back to text
4. Daniel Yergin The Prize (New York: Free Press, 2008), 531. Back to text
5. Mark L. Robinson, Marketing Big Oil, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2014), 89. Back to text

Subjects: Business and Management, Company and Industry Information, Economics, Energy
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Library of Congress /  Research Guides /  Business /  Oil and Gas Industry: A Research Guide /  Midstream: Transportation

Oil and Gas Industry: A Research Guide

Introduction
Midstream: Transportation
History of the Industry
The midstream sector covers
Organizations and transportation, storage, and
Cartels
trading of crude oil, natural gas,
Oil and Gas and refined products. In its
Companies unrefined state, crude oil is
transported by two primary
Upstream: Production modes: tankers, which travel
and Exploration
interregional water routes, and
Midstream: pipelines, which most of the oil
Transportation moves through for at least part of
the route. Once the oil has been Penn Oil & Truck. ca. 1920. Library of
Modes of extracted and separated from Congress Prints and Photographs Division.
Transportation
natural gas, pipelines transport
Storage the products to another carrier or directly to a refinery. Petroleum products
then travel from the refinery to market by tanker, truck, railroad car, or more
Downstream: Refining pipelines. Tankers deliver petroleum by transporting oil and refined products
and Marketing from other countries to the U.S. to make up the difference between domestic
products and demand. Tankers also transport oil along the Gulf coast. The
Subscription
Databases Merchant Marine Act of 1920, also known as the Jones Act, heavily impacts
the transportation industry, as it requires vessels that transport cargo from
Statistical Data one U.S. port to another U.S. port must be built in the United States, and
majority owned and operated by United States citizens or permanent
Oil and Gas Pricing residents. 
News and Analysis See more information and resources on Modes of Transportation and
Storage in this guide.
Laws and
Regulations

Industry
Controversies

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MIDSTREAM INDUSTRY CODES

The North American Industry Classification System is the standard used by


Federal statistical agencies in classifying business establishments for the
purpose of collecting, analyzing, and publishing statistical data related to the
U.S. business economy. Codes start with two-digits at the broadest industry
level, and become more specific at the six-digit level. Mexico, Canada and
United States data is comparable at the five-digit code level. Other region,
country, and organization-specific industry codes exist for data tracking
purposes. Knowing how a particular industry or a company within an industry
is classified can help when researching, since information is often organized
within these codes.

2212 Natural Gas Distribution

221210 Natural Gas Distribution

237120 Oil and Gas Pipeline and Related Structures Construction

484220 Specialized Freight (except Used Goods) Trucking, Local

484230 Specialized Freight (except Used Goods) Trucking, Long-Distance

486 Pipeline Transportation

4861 Pipeline Transportation of Crude Oil

486110 Pipeline Transportation of Crude Oil

4862 Pipeline Transportation of Natural Gas

486210 Pipeline Transportation of Natural Gas

4869 Other Pipeline Transportation

486910 Pipeline Transportation of Refined Petroleum Products

486990 All Other Pipeline Transportation

493190 Other Warehousing and Storage (bulk petroleum storage)


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493190 Other Warehousing and Storage (bulk petroleum storage)

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG SEARCHES

Additional works on oil and gas transportation and storage in the Library of
Congress may be identified by searching the Library of Congress Online
Catalog under appropriate subject headings. Choose the topics you wish to
search from the following list of Library of Congress subject headings to link
directly to the Catalog and automatically execute a search for the subject
selected. For assistance in locating the many other subject headings which
relate to this subject, please consult a reference librarian.

Petroleum--Storage.
Petroleum--Transportation.
Natural gas--Storage.
Natural gas--Transportation.
Natural gas pipelines.
Petroleum pipeline industry.
Petroleum pipelines.
Tank cars.
Tankers.
Petroleum reserves.

Subjects: Business and Management, Company and Industry Information, Economics, Energy

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Library of Congress /  Research Guides /  Business /  Oil and Gas Industry: A Research Guide
/  Upstream: Production and Exploration

Oil and Gas Industry: A Research Guide

Introduction
Upstream: Production and
History of the Industry

Organizations and
Exploration
Cartels
The upstream segment of the oil and gas industry contains exploration
Oil and Gas activities, which include creating geological surveys and obtaining land rights,
Companies and production activities, which include onshore and offshore drilling.

Upstream: Crude oil is categorized using two qualities: Density and sulfur content. 
Production and
Exploration Density is measured by API gravity, and ranges from light (high API
gravity/low density) to heavy (low API gravity/high density).
Midstream: Sulfur content ranges from sweet (low sulfur content) to sour (high
Transportation sulfur content).
Downstream: Refining Light and sweet crude oil is usually priced higher, and therefore more sought-
and Marketing after, because it is easier to refine to make gasoline than heavy and sour
crude oil.1 Oil volume is measured in barrels (bbl), which equals 42 gallons.2
Subscription
Databases Natural gas is found in both associated formations, meaning it is formed and
produced with oil, and non-associated reservoirs. Gas can either be dry (pure
Statistical Data
methane), or wet (exists with other hydrocarbons like butane). Although wet
Oil and Gas Pricing gas must be treated to remove the other hydrocarbons and other
condensates before it can be transported, it can increase producers'
News and Analysis revenues because they can sell those removed products.3

Laws and The advent of shale gas in the United States is one of the biggest
Regulations breakthroughs in the history of the energy industry. Prior to its development,
the United States was viewed as a growing natural gas importer. But,
Industry production from shale gas has catapulted the United States into being the
Controversies
world's largest producer of natural gas and a fast-growing exporter. The two
primary technological advances that made production from shale and other
tight formations economically possible were horizontal drilling and hydraulic
fracturing.

 Back to top

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EXPLORATION

Oil and gas exploration encompasses the processes and methods involved in
locating potential sites for oil and gas drilling and extraction. Early oil and gas
explorers relied upon surface signs like natural oil seeps, but developments in
science and technology have made oil and gas exploration more efficient.
Geological surveys are conducted using various means from testing subsoil
for onshore exploration to using seismic imaging for offshore exploration.
Energy companies compete for access to mineral rights granted by
governments by either entering a concession agreement, meaning any
discovered oil and gas are the property of the producers, or a production-
sharing agreement, where the government retains ownership and
participation rights.4 Exploration is high risk and expensive, involving
primarily corporate funds.5 The cost of an unsuccessful exploration, such as
one that consisted of seismic studies and drilling a dry well, can cost $5
million to $20 million per exploration site, and in some cases, much more.
However, when an exploration site is successful and oil and gas extraction is
productive, exploration costs are recovered and are significantly less in
comparison to other production costs.6
Proven reserves measure the extent to which a company thinks it can
produce economically recoverable oil and gas in place, as of a certain point in
time, using existing technology.7 The estimates for proven reserves are
updated over the life of a lease, based on regular reassessments.8 Technology
can impact the estimates: For example, the advances in hydraulic fracturing
and horizontal drilling caused the U.S. Geological Survey to increase its
proven reserves estimate for the Marcellus Shale by 40 times the original
value.9 In addition to technology, prices and existing infrastructure influence
reserves estimates.

 Back to top

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PRODUCTION

Oil and gas production is one of


the most capital intensive
industries: It requires expensive
equipment and highly skilled
labors.11 Once a company
identifies where oil or gas is
located, plans begin for drilling.
Many oil and gas companies
contract with specialized drilling
firms and pay for the labor crew
and rig dayrates.12 Drilling depths, Arthur Rothstein, photographer. Oil wells,
Marion County, Illinois. 1940. Farm Security
rock hardness, weather Administration - Office of War Information
conditions and distance of the site Collection. Library of Congress Prints and
can all affect the drilling Photographs Division.
13
duration. Tracking data using
smart technologies can help with drilling efficiency and well performance by
providing real-time information and trends.14 While every drilling rig has the
same essential components, the drilling methods vary depending on the type
of oil or gas and the geology of the location.15
Onshore
In onshore drilling facilities, the wells are grouped together in a field, ranging
from a half acre per well for heavy crude oil to 80 acres per well for natural
gas.16 The group of wells are connected by carbon steel tubes which sends
the oil and gas to a production and processing facility where the oil and gas
are treated through a chemical and heating process.17 Onshore production
companies can turn on and off rigs more easily than offshore rigs to respond
to market conditions.18
Offshore
Offshore drilling uses a single platform that is either fixed (bottom supported)
or mobile (floating secured with anchors).19 Offshore drilling is more
expensive than onshore drilling, and fixed rigs are more expensive than
 Back to top
20
mobile rigs. Most production facilities are located on coastal shores near
ff h
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offshore rigs.
Hydraulic Fracturing
Fracking, or hydraulic fracturing, is a technique using a high pressure liquid to
extract oil or gas from geologic formations. While the technology has existed
since the 1940s, it became more economical in the late 1990s when George
Mitchell's Mitchell Energy & Development Corporation patented slick water
fracturing.21 The use of fracking has led to recovering gas, followed by oil,
from previously inaccessible parts of drilled wells in addition to extractions
from coalbed wells, tight sand formations and shale formations. Fracking is
now used in 90% of new U.S. oil wells, especially as the number of
conventional reservoirs has decreased.22

RESOURCES

Print Materials External Websites & Databases

The following materials link to fuller bibliographic information in the


Library of Congress Online Catalog. Links to additional online content are
provided when available.

Handbook on Oil Production Research by Jacquelyn


Ambrosio (Editor)
Call Number: TN864 .H36 2014
ISBN: 9781633218567
Published/Created: 2014
It is a well-known fact that since the start of industrial
crude oil extraction, some 150 years ago, the United
States has consistently been the nation that consumes a greater
proportion of the global production of that precious liquid fuel. What
may be less obvious for many, nowadays, is that for most of that
period the US was also the country with higher crude oil production.
This handbook provides recent research on oil production.

Producing Oil and Natural Gas from Shale by Joelle


Bolton
Call Number: HD9539.A2 P756 2015
ISBN: 9781634821261
Published/Created: 2015
Recent advances in combining two drilling techniques,
hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling, have
allowed access to large deposits of shale resources — that is, crude oil
and natural gas trapped in shale and certain other dense rock
formations. As a result, the cost of that "tight oil" and "shale gas" has
become competitive with the cost of oil and gas extracted from other
sources. Virtually non-existent a decade ago, the development of shale
resources has boomed in the United States. This book discusses the
economic and budgetary effects of producing oil and natural gas from
shale. It also examines the production, infrastructure, and market
 Back to top
issues in U.S. shale gas development; and potential budgetary effects
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of immediately opening most federal lands to oil and gas leasing.

Oil and Gas Exploration and Production


Call Number: HD9560.5 R34313 2004
ISBN: 2710808404
Published/Created: 2004
"This book provides a complete overview to the stakes
and challenges involved in oil and gas exploration and
production. Following a historical review and a survey of
the markets, the technical phases are covered, as are the evaluation of
reserves, the estimation of investments and costs, the decision-making
and control processes, and the accounting, legal and contractual
environment for these activities. The book concludes with a discussion
of the role of safety, and of environmental and ethical issues." "This
work, which is designed for readers concerned with the various aspects
of the oil and gas upstream sector is accessible to all." —From
publisher’s description.

The Frackers by Gregory Zuckerman


Call Number: HD9569.8 .Z83 2013
ISBN: 9781591846451
Published/Created: 2013
"Things looked grim for American energy in 2006. Oil
production was in steep decline and natural gas was
hard to find. The Iraq War threatened the nation's
already tenuous relations with the Middle East. China was rapidly
industrializing and competing for resources. Major oil companies had
just about given up on new discoveries on U.S. soil, and a new energy
crisis seemed likely. But a handful of men believed everything was
about to change. Far from the limelight, Aubrey McClendon, Harold
Hamm, Mark Papa, and other wildcatters were determined to tap
massive deposits of oil and gas that Exxon, Chevron, and other giants
had dismissed as a waste of time. By experimenting with hydraulic
fracturing through extremely dense shale--a process now known as
fracking--the wildcatters started a revolution. In just a few years, they
solved America's dependence on imported energy, triggered a global
environmental controversy--and made and lost astonishing fortunes.
Award-winning Wall Street Journal reporter Gregory Zuckerman
chronicles the untold story of how they transformed the nation and the
world. The Frackers tells the story of the angry opposition unleashed by
this revolution and explores just how dangerous fracking really is." —
From publisher’s description.

E & P by Hart Energy Publishing


Call Number: TN860 .H34
Published/Created: 2004 to present
This oil and gas industry periodical focuses specifically
on the exploration and production (E & P) activities.
Articles cover new technological developments, industry forecasts,
 Back to top
regional highlights, and equipment costs and safety.
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UPSTREAM INDUSTRY CODES

The North American Industry Classification System is the standard used by


Federal statistical agencies in classifying business establishments for the
purpose of collecting, analyzing, and publishing statistical data related to the
U.S. business economy. Codes start with two-digits at the broadest industry
level, and become more specific at the six-digit level. Mexico, Canada and
United States data is comparable at the five-digit code level. Other region,
country, and organization-specific industry codes exist for data tracking
purposes. Knowing how a particular industry or a company within an industry
is classified can help when researching, since information is often organized
within these codes.

21 Mining, Quarrying, and Oil and Gas Extraction

2111 Oil and Gas Extraction

211120 Crude Petroleum Extraction

211130 Natural Gas Extraction

333131 Mining Machinery and Equipment Manufacturing

333132 Oil and Gas Field Machinery and Equipment Manufacturing

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG SEARCHES

Additional works on production and exploration in the oil and gas industries
in the Library of Congress may be identified by searching the Library of
Congress Online Catalog under appropriate subject headings. Choose the
topics you wish to search from the following list of Library of Congress subject
headings to link directly to the Catalog and automatically execute a search for
the subject selected. For assistance in locating the many other subject
headings which relate to this subject, please consult a reference librarian.
 Back to top

Petroleum industry and trade


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Petroleum industry and trade.
Petroleum industry and trade and exploration.
Petroleum industry and trade and production.
Petroleum industry and trade--Economic aspects.
Prospecting--Geophysical methods and petroleum.
Petroleum products.

NOTES

1. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Crude Oils Have Different


Quality Characteristics,” Today in Energy, (July 16, 2012). Back to text
2. Steven M. Gorelick, Oil Panic and the Global Crisis (Oxford, UK: Wiley-
Blackwell, 2010), 20. The abbreviation bbl originates with the Standard
Oil Company who provided the barrels (bl) with the company's
trademark blue paint, resulting in a blue barrel or bbl. Back to text
3. Michael D. Tusiani and Gordon Shearer, LNG: A Nontechnical Guide
(Tulsa, OK: PennWell Corp, 2007), 70. Back to text
4. Tusiani and Shearer, LNG: A Nontechnical Guide, 70.; Martin S.
Raymond and William L. Leffler, Oil & Gas Production in Nontechnical
Language, 2nd ed., (Tulsa, OK: PennWell, 2017), 329.Back to text
5. Tusiani and Shearer, LNG: A Nontechnical Guide, 70.Back to text
6. Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: Reserves, Costs, Contracts.
(Paris: Centre for Economic Management, Institut Français du Pétrole,
c2004), 66. Back to text
7. Stewart Glickman and Shang Yang Chuah, Oil, Gas & Consumable Fuels
Industry Surveys (New York: CFRA, 2019). Back to text
8. Tusiani and Shearer, LNG: A Nontechnical Guide, 89. Back to text
9. Ron Gecan, Natalie Tawil and Mark Lasky, “The Economic and
Budgetary Effects of Producing Oil and Natural Gas from Shale,” in
Producing Oil and Natural Gas from Shale, ed. Joelle Bolton (Nova
Science Publishers, 2015), 20. Back to text
10. Tusiani and Shearer, LNG: A Nontechnical Guide, 89. Back to text
11. Darshan Kalyani, Oil Drilling & Gas Extraction in the US, (IBISWorld
Industry Report, 2018). Back to text
12. Morgan Downey, Oil 101 (Wooden Table Press, 2009), 103. Back to text
13. Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: Reserves, Costs, Contracts.
(Paris: Centre for Economic Management, Institut Français du Pétrole,
c2004); Kalyani, Oil Drilling & Gas Extraction in the US. Back to text
14. Martin S. Raymond and William L. Leffler, Oil & Gas Production in
Nontechnical Language, 2nd ed., (Tulsa, OK: PennWell, 2017), 325. Back
to text
15. Charles F. Conaway, The Petroleum Industry: A Nontechnical Guide,
(Tulsa, OK: PennWell, 1999), 121. Back to text
16. Conaway, The Petroleum Industry: A Nontechnical Guide, 173. Back to
text
17. Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: Reserves, Costs, Contracts.
(Paris: Centre for Economic Management, Institut Français du Pétrole,
 Back to top
c2004). Back to text
18 Travis Hoium “Offshore vs Onshore Drilling: Which is a Better
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18. Travis Hoium, Offshore vs. Onshore Drilling: Which is a Better
Investment?” The Motley Fool , (Jan. 29, 2013). Back to text
19. Conaway, The Petroleum Industry: A Nontechnical Guide, 177. Back to
text
20. Kalyani, Oil Drilling & Gas Extraction in the US. Back to text
21. "Unlocking the Potential of Unconventional Gas," Pipeline & Gas Journal
240, no. 3 (Mar 2013): 26-30,32-34. Back to text
22. Mary Tiemann and Adam Van, Hydraulic Fracturing and Safe Drinking
Water Act Regulatory Issues, R41760,, (Congressional Research Service,
July 13, 2015)  Back to text

Subjects: Business and Management, Company and Industry Information, Economics, Energy

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