Biomolecules Fructose

- chemical formula: C6H12O6, but diff.

- carbon(C), hydrogen(H), oxygen(O) and
structure
nitrogen(N).
- found in fruits
- polymers (poly, many; mer, unit):
molecules built from one or a few kinds of
Galactose
smaller molecules called monomers
- chemical formula: C6H12O6, but diff.
(mono, one). Thus, monomers are the
structure
building blocks of polymers.

1. Carbohydrates
- organic compounds made up of carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O)
atoms.
- The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1
- chemical formula of carbohydrates:
Cx(H2O)y, where x and y can be equal.

a. Monosaccharides (simple sugars)

- the simplest type of carbohydrates
- crystalline solids which can dissolve in
water to give sweet solutions b. Disaccharides
- have reducing power - formed by combining two molecules of
- when in solution, they may reduce other monosaccharides through a process
chemicals called condensation’ where single
- sometimes called reducing sugars. molecule of water is removed.
- readily absorbed in the alimentary canals - disaccharides are water-soluble and
of animals and transported in blood most of them taste sweet.
because of their small size - many disaccharides are reducing sugars
- are broken down in the body cells during with some exceptions, such as sucrose.
respiration to provide energy for various - Disaccharide formation, the process of
body activities. condensation are reversible.
- disaccharide molecule can be broken
down into two monosaccharide
Examples molecules during hydrolysis.
Glucose
- best known monosaccharide Examples
- chemical formula: C6H12O6
- present in energy drinks to quickly Maltose (malt sugar), sucrose (sugar cane) and
replenish energy for the body lactose (milk sugar)
- since glucose molecules are small and
easily absorbed by body cells, they c. Polysaccharides
provide a readily available source of - complex carbohydrates formed by
energy for the body. condensation of a large number of
monosaccharide molecules.
- polysaccharides are insoluble in water.
 Examples
Triglyceride
Glycogen
- is formed when a glycerol molecules
- all made up of glucose molecules joined combines with three fatty acids.
together in different pattern
Phospholipids
- is a storage form of carbohydrates in
animals - main component of cell membranes
- In humans, glycogen is mainly found in - lipids with similar structures as
the liver cells and skeletal muscle cells. triglycerides, but with a phosphate group
- glycogen is broken down into glucose for replacing one of the fatty acids
respiration. molecules.

Starch Steroids

- stored in plants as an energy reverse - cholesterol (Despite its reputation as

‘bad’ lipid, cholesterol is an essential
Cellulose
component of the cell membrane. It is
- main component of plant cell walls also used as the raw material to make
steroid hormones, such as the male and
female sex hormones.)

Two main groups of fatty acids

Saturated (stearic) fatty acid
- Single bonds connect all carbons and
each carbon has two hydrogens.
- contains all the hydrogen it possibly can.
The more C-H bonds means more
energy or calories
- straight and are tightly packed against
2. Lipids each other
- mostly come from bacon fat and butter.
- lipids
are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and
- diet low in saturated fats because it may
oxygen. increase the risk of cardiovascular
- lipid molecules have a hydrogen-oxygen diseases such as atherosclerosis,
ration much greater than 2:1 (clogging up of arteries).

- Lipids are insoluble in water, but soluble in

organic solvents such as alcohol and ether. Unsaturated fatty acid

- best known lipids are fats and oil (energy - it has a double bond between carbon
stores in organisms) atoms, as it now has fewer hydrogen
bonds.
(In humans, fats are stored as adipose tissues - Since it has less C-H bonds, it has less
under the skin or around internal organs.) energy or calories.
- Lipids also include waxes and steroids, - one double bond: monounsaturated or
known because of their everyday use or oleic acid
relation to health. - multiple double bonds: polyunsaturated
or linoleic acid.
 - liquid in room temperature Foods that contain all nine essential amino
- fats primarily come from plants like corn acids are considered complete protein,
oil, olive oil, coconut oils and palm-kernel such as eggs, meat, and fish whereas
oils incomplete protein foods are missing one
or more essential amino acids.

3. Proteins
- large molecules containing carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and
sometimes phosphorus
- The basic units of proteins are amino
acids.
- 20 different amino acids; each has a
central carbon atoms, an amino group (-
NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a
specific side chain known as R group.
The R group varies with each types of
amino acids.
- Dipeptide: When two amino acids are
joined by condensation Protein Folding and Structure
- Polypeptide: When many amino acids
Most proteins do not exist as long chains
are joined together, a chain of amino inside the cells. The shape of a protein is very
acids important to its function. Polypeptide chain folds
- Proteins are found in your body, muscles, into a unique three-dimensional structure
bones, skin, hair, finger, etc.; involved in determined by the order and kinds of amino
nearly all body functions. acids. Biologists describe the conformation of a
- New cells cannot be formed without protein at four levels.
proteins, so proteins are necessary for
body growth and repair. They also act as
enzyme and antibody. Primary (1’) structure
- simplest level of protein structure
For example, hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying - is basically the sequence of amino acids
protein in red blood cells, is made up of four in a polypeptide chain
polypeptides. - the pancreatic hormone insulin has two
polypeptide chains, A and B
Essential amino acids (9) Secondary (2’) structure
- cannot be made by the body. As a - local folding of the polypeptide in certain
result, they must come from food. regions
- The α helix and the β pleated sheet are
Non-essential amino acids (11)
the most common forms of secondary
- can be made in our body, so we do not structure.
need to consume them
 - . They are held in shape by hydrogen Denaturation of Proteins
bonds, which form between the carbonyl - Proteins are vulnerable to external
O of one amino acid and the amino H of
conditions that alter their shapes. Heat,
another. excessive salt or wrong pH level can
- Example: keratin, a protein that is found denature a protein, changing its shape
in our hair, skin and nails. Collagen, a so that it can no longer carry out its
vital component of the connective tissue function.
found in tendons and ligaments.

Nucleic Acids
Tertiary (3’) structure - that act as coded instructions for cells to
- overall three-dimensional form, after all synthesize proteins.
of the elements of the secondary - These molecules have roles in the
structure have folded together. control of cells, and govern the
- Inside a cell, water molecules surround inheritance of characteristics in
each polypeptide. organism.
- The hydrophobic R groups move away - All nucleic acids are built up from similar
from water toward the protein’s interior. repeating subunits called nucleotides.
- Hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds form - Nucleotides combine to form nucleic
between the peptide backbone and some acid by condensation. The phosphate
R groups. group of each nucleotide molecule
- Example: antibodies; destroys any combines with the five carbon sugar of
foreign agents that enters the body such another. Many nucleotides join up in this
as virus and bacteria. way to form a polynucleotide.
Quaternary (4’) structure
Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
- shape arising from interactions between - Each DNA nucleotides consist of three
multiple polypeptide subunits of the parts: a five carbon sugar called
same protein deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and
- example: Hemoglobin; carries oxygen one of the four bases, either adenine (A),
in the blood and is made up of four thymine (T), guanine (G) or cytosine (C).
subunits, two each of the α and β types. - DNA consist of two polynucleotide
strands. The two strands wrap around
each other to form a double helix.
-
Ribonucleic acids (RNA)
- its sugar is ribose rather than
deoxyribose.
- that instead of the base thymine, RNA
has different base called uracil (U).
- RNA polynucleotide is identical to a
DNA polynucleotide
- RNA only exists in a single-stranded
form, while DNA forms a double helix.
Carbohydrates are inorganic compounds that
contains three elements: carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen. Simple carbohydrates are as sugars
and can be made up of a single unit known as
a monosaccharide e.g. glucose or two units,
known as disaccharides e.g sucrose. Complex
carbohydrates, consisting of many repeating
units are known as polysaccharide e.g.
glycogen.

1. SUCROSE = GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE

2. MALTOSE = GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE
3. LACTOSE = GALACTOSE + GLUCOSE