PHYSICs

earning Objectives:

lo explain elementary particles and antiparticles

Toclasify the particles with examples
To name different uarks with their charges and symbols
To write qu and baryons particles
rite quark combination offew mesons

lodescribe leptons with examples

Pan Big Bang and Hubble's law and justify the expansion of the universe
riefly describe dark matter, black hole and gravitational wave
 namely electron, protön and pibw KIlown. 1ne
By the year 1932, only three elementary particles These elementary particles are the
1932 raised their number to four.
discover of neutron by Chadwick in such rest mass, electric charge and
characteristic properties as
building blocks of matter and they have discovered so far, form a long list of around 200
intrinsic angular momentum. The elementary particles
sense that they are structureless.
To understand the evolution off
These particles are elementary in the
should be explored.
universe, these particles at high energies
and their classification will be explained with examples. Finally we
In this chapter, elementary particles
will discuss about origin and evolution of universe.

26.1 Elementary Particles

not regarded as made up of some other
The particles which are structureless and indivisible and are blocks or constituents of matter.
particles are called elementary particles. These particles are the building were considered to be the
By the time only electron and proton were discovered, these two particles not other only
elementary particles. At that time, people might have thought that there are elementary particles
which make up the matter in addition to the electron and the proton. Even by 1960, the elementary
list was a small in order with a few number of elementary particles but it leads to the discovery of
particle
some hundreds elementary particles. As the elementary particles grew in a large number so that they
could not be counted on hands, scientist classified them according to their mass, charge, spin,
interactions, life time.
Classification of Elementary Particles: The elementary particles discovered so far are classified
according to the following chart:
Elemenatary Particles

Lepton Hadron Mediator

guon photon graviton | w , z boson

Meson | Baryon

Kaon Nucleon
Pion Hyperona a

D Omega
ep
vit
arr

gn
n
Fig. 26.1 Classification ofelementaryparticles

Integrated Physics X I
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 Ils. 1hese
theAInmon
nclude the el Acco inte
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ated neutrinos(i.e. electron neutrino, el ding nteger

to the spin
mas ron ne he standpin 1/2) th
that does not
and distinct on n e e muo
harge
a
ereas their
eas their and Tau p model, there are
wrth
of 0.00511
masS

heaviest)have asis of
a Gev, nuetrinos
while muons have
and tau bles, as
neutrino). Leptons havewell as their
1.777 Gev. Each have a massa neutral charge.
of the six of negativ
ative
0.1066 GevElectrons are the lightest,
Hadron
particles has distinct and Tau
family and baryo
esons
yon family are antiparticle. particles (the
bosons
Baryonscollectively
article. Meson are and
are called Hadron.
made ofquark.
pade fermions. Each hadronThey are
strongly interacting
Note: )
Mesons consist of one quark and one has
antiparticle. Hadrons are
a Meson termediate Mass Particle) anti-quark (ii) Baryons consist
Tn narticle physics, a meson of three
quarks
is an
Loth weak and strong elementary particle of integer spin
antiguark. They are partinteractions. Mesons are bosons. Mesons consist(spin 0, 1) that
of one quark undergo
of hadron
(anti meson). All mesons are particle family. Each meson has a and one
unstable. Charged corresponding
Uncharged mesons may decay to mesons decay to form antiparticle
D)Baryon (Heavy elementary particles) photons. electrons and neutrinos.
In particle
physics, a baryon is an
undergo strong interactions. Baryonselementary particle of half-integer spin (spin 1/2) that
are fermions.
baryon has a corresponding
antiparticle (anti-baryon).Baryons consist of three quarks. Each
number of1. Their
antiparticles, called antibaryons, haveBaryons
a
are characterized

baryon number
by a baryon
They are further divided into two of-1.
Mediator
groups (i) Nucleons (i) Hyperons
In quantum field
theory, force carriers or mediator are particles that give rise to forces between other
particles. These particles are bundles of energy (quanta) of a particular kind of field. For
uclear force is mediated
by gluons, example
electro-magnetic
force is mediated by photon etc.
2 Particles and Antiparticles
tiparticles
aniparticle of a particle is another particle which has the same mass and opposite charge and spin to
0T the particle. Normally, for charge particles, the particle antiparticles are distinguished from their
e mass and opposite charges. However, there are neutral and massless particles as well. For neutral
particle antiparticle are distinguished with the help.of mass and spin. For example if a particle
anticlockwise spin. For a massless and
OCkWise spin, its antiparticle has the same mass and For example, the neutrino has
particle, the spin determines whether it is particle antiparticle.
or
5ESS
kwise spin while the tineutrino has anticlockwise spin.

afion: pI is denoted by giving a bar over it as p. For example if n

is a particle its antiparticle
antineutron. However, sometimes, particles are represented by symbols
s neutron, n represents
on its upper rignt corner
in order to indicate the charge it
app
Iopriate plus (+) or minus (-) sign
les. For example, a ß particle)
is as ($) and a moun is represented us
epresented e
example, the electron (or
T
The can also be by the same symbol with opposite
represented
of such charged particles
antiparticles or eieciron called position, and a' represents antiparticles
For
hCxmple, et represents the antiparticle
On called antimuon and so on.

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 Some particle Antiparticle Pairs
of the electron (or anti electron), Tho
Electron Electron is particle and positron is antiparticle
positron The elcctron has charge c
-

but oppsite charge.

electron and the antielectron have the same mass and spin
1.6 x 10" C and the positron has charge +1.6 x 10 C. The electron
=
is
represented by e and- the
positron is represented by e'.
Proton antiproton: The antiproton is the antiparticle of the proton. Both of them have the same mass.
and
10"C while that of antiproton is
spin but opPposite charge. The charge of a proton is q=+ 1.6 x

x 107 C. Proton is represented by p and the antiproton is represented by p.

Neutron antineutron: Antineutron is antiparticle of neutron having the same mass. Since both of them
are charge less particles, they differ from each other in other quantum number like the baryon number
The neutron has baryon number Np =+1 and the antineutron has the baryon number Ng=-1.
Neutrino antineutrino: The neutrinos are changeless and massless particles having spin 1/2. The
antineutrino is antiparticle of the neutrino. The neutrino and antineutrino differ from each other in the
direction of their spin. The neutrino has anticlockwise (left handed) spin while the antineutrino has
clockwise (right handed) spin.

26.3 Four fundamental forces

Four fundamental forces or interaction in order of decreasing strength are:
i) The Strong Interaction: The strong interaction is responsible for the nuclear force and also for the
production of pions and several other particles in high-energy collision. At the most fundamental
level, the mediating particle for the strong interaction is called a gluon. Its range is very small about
in the order of 10 m. It is responsible for the stability of nucleus.
i) The electromagnetic interaction: Electromagnetic interactions transferred between
arecharged
particles through the exchange of massless, force carrying bosons called protons. It is mediated by
photon having spin 1. It is about 10 times weaker than strong force. It is infinite range force. Iti
responsible for the stability of atoms, binding atoms in matter and chemical reaction.
) The weak interaction: Weak interaction is responsible for beta
decay, such as the conversion o
neutron into a proton, an electron and an anti neutrino. It is also
unstable particles (pions into muons, muons into electrons and so
responsible for the decay of many
on). Its mediating particles are the)
short lived particles, w, w and z". It is stronger than gravitational force but weaker that
electromagnetic and strong force.
iv) The gravitational interaction: This interaction acts between the
particles having mass. It is alway
attractive in nature. It is infinite range force. It is the weakest force of
nature. It is about 10 time
weaker than strong interaction. It is mediated by graviton having spin 2.

26.4 Quarks
Out of the particles classified above, leptons were found to be
structureless and hence fundamental. 1n
is they are not found to be composite in character and are not
further divisible. However, the
were not found to be truly
fundamental. They were found to be composite in character. In otherhadron
wo a
the hadrons were found to be decayed into other hadrons. For
electron and an antineutrino according to the example, a neutron
decays into aprol
following reaction: B
npte +Ue
Similarly, proton is found
a to decay into a neutron, a positron and
reaction: a neutrino according to the
to
ch
P>nte"+Ue +1
The above facts suggests that the hadrons are not cl
truly fundamental, Rather.
which are made up of some other particles which are they are composite pa No-
more fundamental
than the hadrons. Wh
B
636 Integrated Physics - XI
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Development

prova
 hadrons were found to be of
hen.
ggestedthat the hadrons are made up of more composite character,
proposedthat h hadron Gell-Mar
They have
is a
combinationfundamental
of three constituents of matter eorge
quarks called Zweing in1964,
fractional electronic namely u (up) quark, d quarks. Initially
charge. The u quark (down) quark and
electron), the d quark carries carries charge +e (e
arge of
an
charge-e and the s quark carries 1
bring the
Jarkis
associate
with an antiquark. Thus, the charge- Moreover, each
hese antiquarks carry the same mass but antiquarks of
quarku, d and s are u, d and s
opposite charge as those
Ee, d carries
caries-e, carries +
+e e and
and ss
of their
corresponding respectively.
quarks.
carries+ze. Similarly, the baryon number (B) for That is
1nd that for each of the each of the
quarks
antiquarks is -3 This is known as
hetthree quarks named, charm quark model. Letter there were found
(c) bottom (b) and top
ccording to quark model; (t). Each of these has their
antiquark.
A baryon is a three quark
system. That is Baryon=
For example, the proton is a qqq where stands
baryon which contains two u q and a for any of the quarks.
(P)=uud. quarks down quark. That is
proton
A meson is a
quark antiquark system. That is Meson
qq where q stands for any
=

and q stands for any of the of the quarks

antiquarks.
For example, t (pi
plus)
meson is a combination of one up quark and one d-
antiquark, That is
ud.

uark Composition of some Hadron

) Proton (p): A proton is a nonflavored baryon. Hence, for this, s = c
b t 0. Also, charge q = +1, baryonic number B = +1. Since
proton is nonflavored, it contains only u and d quarks.
Now, for the proton, the combination of u and d quarks is such that
when three quarks are combined, they give rise to charge q= te, and

B +1. Since the charge of u = +/e and that ofd=-je, this is

That is proton contains two

posSible only with uud. u quarks and one d
dquark. Thus with uud model, we have Fig: Proton

ChargeC)-ee-ze-- te, and

Baryon number (B)- -+1.

and a down quark. u

1ence, proton contains two up quarks
a
which has zero
A is a nonflavored baryon
Neutron (n): neutron
=0 and B=
S C - B T = 0, q
=
=

Cnarge. Therefore, for a neutron,

*1. This contains only u and d quarks. (90
is such that
combination of u and d quarks
NOW, for the neutron, the 0, and
=

wen three quarks are combined, they give rise to charge q

d d
and that of d is e , thisis
B + 1 . Since the charge of u is +e and
Fig: Neutron
a neutron
contains two d quarks
poSsible only with udd. That is
e 637
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 one u quarks. Thus, with udd, we have

-e-e-~*-0 andB-i -1.

Hence, neutron contains one up quarks and two down quarks.

(c) Antiproton (p ): An antiproton is a nonflavorbaryon and has q=
e, B - I and s = b = c = t = 0. This contains only nonflavored

antiquarks. The antiup quark (u) has q - e and the antidown

(4
quark has q=+e. Hence, the quark combination of antiproton isu

u d.
d
With this combination, we have
Fig: Anti proton
9-e-e+je-ei and

(d) Anti neutron ( n ): Anti neutron is a non flavor baryon and has q=
0, B-1l and s = b =c=t=0. This contains only non flavored anti
2 and antidown
quarks. The antiup quark ( u ) has q=-e quark has
e. Hence, the quark combination of anti neutron is
u d d.
d
With this combination, we have
Fig: Anti neutron
q-e+eze=0amd B----1
(e) Sigma (): The sigma bayron are of three kinds
we describe
", " and 2. Here,
quark combination of . This is flavored S
has charge q=te. This in fact is called strange baryon.baryon which
That is it has
at least a
strange quark (6). Since charge of is
s -e, this is possible
only with quark combination uus. That is " uus. =
2
With this combination, have
we
charge
-e-ze u

Fig: 2 Hyperor
S=0+0-1 =-1 and

B-z-
Hence, 2 has two u quark and one s
( Pi meson: The meson quark.
pi are of three
kinds: n", t" and T. Here, we describe quark combina
T Meson: A meson is
theyhave s=c=b=t=0.quark-antiquark
a
system. The n
Or they contain only u and d mesons are nonflavored meson
quark and antiquarks.
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 The t has charge q - and B =0. This is
possible only with du That is, .
a n meson contains
down (d) quark and an anti-up-quark a
(u ). With this combination, we have
9---e

d u
Beauty meson (B): The beauty mesons
R, A beauty mesons has at least a are of three kind: B°, B', and Fig: f Meson
beauty quark (b). Here, we
discuss the quark combination of B° only.
B' meson: This is flavored meson. It has
charge q =
0 and B =
0. The possible quark combination
forthis is db. With this combination, we have
-ete0 and B -

Hence, the beauty meson (B") contains a down quark (d) and an
d
antibeauty quark b . Fig: B° Meson

6.5 Cosmic Rays

cOSmic ray is high-speed particle either an atomic nucleus or an electron that travels
Hlky Way Galaxy, including the solar system. Some of these throughout the
ome from sources outside the solar system and are known as particles originate from thesun, but most
9at arive at the top of the earth's atmosphere are termed as galactic cosmic rays (GCR,). Cosmic rays
tmospheric nuclei give rise to secondary cosmic rays. primary cosmic rays and their collisions with
bout 85 percent of the GCR, are protons (nuclei of hydrogen atoms), with approximately 12
onsisting of alpha particles (Helium nuclei). The remainder are electrons and nuclei of heavier percent
atoms.
ecause most primary cosmic rays are strongly influenced by the earth's magnetic field and the
Merplanetary magnetic field, most of those detected near the earth have kinetic energy in excess of about
Gev (gigaelectron volt).
collisions between primary cosmic rays and interstellar hydrogen, charged mesons (mostly pions) are
duced. These pions have half-lives of about two hundred-millionths of a second and decay through
lons to produce electrons and neutrinos.

g6.6 Universe
e universe is all of space and time and their contents including planets, stars, galaxies and all other
ms of matter and energy.

on portant Constituents of the Universe

system: It is the name given to the family of the sun and is a part of universe in which we
the
Solar
ve. The sun is the centre of the solar system around which nine heavenly bodies (called planets,
of the sun on them controls
asteroid and comets) revolve in elliptical orbits. The gravitationally pull
their motion. The planets of the sun are, mercury, Venus, earth mass, Jupiter, Satum, Uranus,
Neptune and Pluto. There are many other heavenly bodies which revolve around the planets called
of the
Satellites (or moons) the size of the solar system is equal to the radius of the orbit of
planet
nation
Pluto and is about 5.6 x 10km.
The
temperature of the star is very high and it emits
s.That Stars: A star is fiery luminous heavenly body.stars that
Our sun is one of the nearest
lght of its own. we can see. Its light reaches the earth in 8.3
minutes. Some of the stars are extremely large that they are equivalent to many suns put together.

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