I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 4 sem.

I, 2020 , Lectur

Table of Contents
3.4.3. Transitive and intransitive verbs. ................................................................................................................................. 2
Direct, indirect and prepositional objects ............................................................................................................................. 2

3.5. The Indirect Object ....................................................................................................................................................... 6

3.5.1. Definition and properties ............................................................................................................................................. 6
3.5.2. The meanings of the indirect object ............................................................................................................................ 8
3.5.3. Direct objects vs. indirect objects ................................................................................................................................ 8

3.6. The Object Complement ............................................................................................................................................... 9

3.6.1. Definition and properties ............................................................................................................................................. 9
3.6.2. The meanings of the object complement .................................................................................................................. 11

3.7. The Subject Complement ............................................................................................................................................ 11

3.7.1. Definition and properties ........................................................................................................................................... 11
3.7.2. The meanings of the subject complement and object complement.................................................................................. 13
3.7.3. Linking/copular verbs and subject complement ....................................................................................................... 13
3.7.4. Object complement vs. subject complement ............................................................................................................ 14

3.8. The Adverbial.............................................................................................................................................................. 14

3.8.1. Definition and properties ........................................................................................................................................... 14
3.8.2. The Adverbial Complement ....................................................................................................................................... 16

3.9. Verb complementation and clause patterns ................................................................................................................ 17

3.9.1. Verb complementation ............................................................................................................................................... 17
3.9.2. Clause patterns ........................................................................................................................................................... 17

EXERCISES .......................................................................................................................................................................... 18

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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 4 sem. I, 2020 , Lectur

3.4.3. Transitive and intransitive verbs.

Direct, indirect and prepositional objects

As a main verb, a transitive verb requires a direct object to complete the clause. In the two examples below,
the subject of the sentence performs an action that directly affects the person or thing identified as the direct
object (dO).
”New Self, New World” explores the implications of the little-known fact that we have two brains.
(thesunmagazine.org)
Any pressure on the wound can compromise the blood supply. (thesunmagazine.org)
In other words, when used transitively, verbs always occur in SVO patterns 1. Note that all transitive
verbs are action verbs.
Much like in Romanian, in English the direct object can be found by asking the question << Subject +
verbal + what/whom? >>. For example, to identify the direct object in the first example above, we use
the question <<”New Self, New World” explores what? >>. The direct object is thus the noun phrase the
implications of the little-known fact that we have two brains, and explore is a transitive verb.
The direct action of the verb on the direct object is not always obvious. Downing and Locke point to a
small category of verbs that take untypical direct objects. They include verbs such as have (They have
two cars), cost (It cost ten pounds), lack (She lacks confidence), resemble (She resembles her elder sister),
fit (Do these shoes fit you?), suit (That colour doesn’t suit me), weigh (The suitcase weighs twenty kilos),
contain (That box contains explosives) and measure (It measures two metres by three.) All these answer
questions with What? Who? How much/how many?, as is usual with Ods2. These verbs don’t passivise, but
their Ods pass the wh-cleft test: What she lacks is confidence. (Downing & Locke, 2006, p. 51)
Intransitive verbs do not take a direct object. Thus, when applied to the sentence Born in 1953, he grew
up in a suburb of Toronto, Canada, on the fringe of wilderness and farmers’ fields
(thesunmagazine.org), the question << Subject + verbal + what/whom? >> does not identify any direct
object. This makes us label grew up as an intransitive verb.
Nevertheless, depending on the context in which a particular verb is used, the same verb can be recognized as
either transitive or intransitive.
eat
transitive You can also end up eating more than you would have done if you'd served up your own
portions. (http://www.nhs.uk)
intransitive If you're eating at a restaurant or cafe, you can make choices to ensure that your meal is healthy and
balanced. (http://www.nhs.uk)
start

1
Verb/clause patterns will be discussed further on.
2
Downing and Locke use the abbreviation ‘Od’ for direct object.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 4 sem. I, 2020 , Lectur

transitive More recently these organizations have started receiving corporate support.
(thesunmagazine.org)
intransitive Your book starts close to home with the story of Yosemite National Park. (thesunmagazine.org)
The same Downing & Locke argue that “we should talk about transitive or intransitive uses of certain
verbs, as a great many verbs can be used in English both transitively and intransitively [...]. Land is
transitive in The pilot landed the plane safely, but intransitive in The plane landed. Carry is transitive in
They carried backpacks, but it has an intransitive use in His voice carries well (= ‘projects’)” (2006, p.
37).
In Romanian, transitivity is defined as the capacity of a verb to govern a direct object. According to this
feature, verbs are divided into a) transitive verbs (= have or can have a direct object) and b) intransitive
verbs (= do not have and cannot have a direct object). One observation can be especially useful for this
discussion, because it goes in line with Downing and Locke’s suggestion above: the transitive verbs with
no direct object present3 (= with their transitivity valency free) are called tranzitive absolute/ folosite
absolut, as in Am mâncat la ora opt. (Neamțu, 1989, p. 171).
To further highlight the similarities between the approaches to transitivity in the two languages, it can be
useful to translate the examples for eat in the table above into Romanian, and thus to see the comparable
behaviour of the verbs with regard to transitivity.
a mânca
transitive Poți, de altfel, să sfârșești prin a mânca mai mult decât ai fi mâncat...
intransitive Dacă mănânci la un restaurant sau bufet, poți să alegi ....
As I have already pointed out, the valency of the verb decides how many clause elements need to be
present to form a complete clause. In the two examples above, as well as in their English counterparts,
mânca and eat used transitively have a valency of 2 in Poți, de altfel, să sfârșești prin a mânca mai mult
decât ai fi mâncat.../You can also end up eating more than you would have done... Mânca and eat used
intransitively have a valency of 1 in Dacă mănânci la un restaurant sau bufet, poți să alegi ..../If you're
eating at a restaurant or cafe, you can make choices ...
However, if a verb that can be used transitively is used intransitively, then we can say that its valency is
reduced to 1, because in English finite clauses normally require a subject (also see 3.2. and 3.9.).
Depending on their valency, transitive verbs fall into three classes:
1. monotransitive verbs have only one object, a direct object, as in She knows you. and He hurt
himself.

3
Al căror complement direct nu este exprimat.
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2. ditransitive verbs have two objects. There are two main patterns for ditransitive verbs: a. direct
object preceded by indirect object (SViOdO) and b. direct object followed by prepositional object
(SVdOppO).
a. The basic ditransitive pattern contains verbs of transfer (give, lend) and intended transfer (buy, get), as
in I gave her a present and I got her a present. Downing and Locke argue that ”three-place verbs like
give have a subject and two Objects, representing the transfer of goods or information from one person
to another. They also include speech act verbs such as ‘offer’ and ‘promise’” (2006, p. 92).
Other verbs in the give category are: hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, promise, read, send, show, teach,
throw, write.
The get category includes: book, bring, build, buy, cash, cut, fetch, find, leave, spare, keep, make, pour,
save.
The same authors illustrate the existence of a prepositional counterpart for the indirect object, the give
type with to, the get type with for (I gave a present to her. I got/bought a present for her). In the
examples, the PP functions as a prepositional/oblique object, defined by Hasselgård, Lysvåg and
Johansson as
a clause element with a semantic role characteristic of an object (affected, effected or
beneficiary), but realized by a prepositional phrase. An oblique object may occur in the same
clause as a direct object. An oblique object may be a variation on an indirect object, as in I
gave some flowers to my neighbours. (Cf. I gave my neighbours some flowers). Alternatively,
an oblique object may be an element which might have been expressed as a direct object, but
which has lost that status in competition with another phrase, as in He stuffed his mouth with
peanuts. (Cf. He stuffed peanuts into his mouth.) [...]. (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, n.d.)
In simpler terms, three object types are generally acknowledged in mainstream English grammars:
direct objects, indirect objects, and prepositional/oblique objects, all illustrated in the following
table.
type description example
direct object (dO) entity acted upon I gave her a present.
indirect object (iO) entity indirectly affected by the action I gave her a present/I gave a present to her.
prepositional/oblique object (ppO/oO) object introduced by a preposition I was looking for a present for her.

Note that there are iOs that consist of a prepositional phrase, just like the ppO/oO. The difference is that
an indirect object cannot occur without a dO, while a ppO/oO can.
Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 93) also point to the existence of two passives with the give type:
Active: I gave Jo a copy.
Passive 1: Jo was given a copy. (Oi in active clause → S in passive clause)
Passive 2: A copy was given to Jo. (Od in active clause → S in passive clause)

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? A copy was given Jo.4

In Romanian, ditransitive verbs5 have two direct objects. According to Neamțu (1989, p. 177), only few
verbs fall into this category: a asculta, a întreba, a examina, a învăța, a ruga, a trece, a sfătui.
Pe Ion (dO) l-a învățat gramatică (dO) 6
Pe Ionescu (dO) l-am ascultat lecția (dO).
The structure with two direct objects is quite rare in Romanian, and the second direct object is usually
replaced by an indirect object or by another complement or adverbial, as in M- (dO) a întrebat despre
atribut (iO).
However, the structure with direct object and completivă directă (that replaces the second direct object)
is quite common, L-am rugat să-mi împrumute pixul.
3. complex transitive verbs have a direct object and an object complement (see 3.6.).
They painted the table white.
They elected her president.
In both English and Romanian, the large majority of verbs may be used transitively as well as
intransitively, often with the same meaning. Downing and Locke identify the following types:
1 Verbs with an implied Object, such as smoke (cigarettes), drive (a car), park (a car), drink (alcohol),
save (money), wave (one’s hand), as in Do you smoke? and He doesn’t drive.
The authors comment on the valency of such verbs:
Such intransitive uses can be considered as instances of valency reduction, that is the normal
valency of two of these verbs is reduced to one. As these reductions are based on cultural
schemas and tend to have an implication of habituality, they are not extended to other object
referents such as wave a flag, drink milk. With certain verbs such as read, write, eat and teach
the deleted direct object is not specific, and is perhaps unknown, as in He teaches and she
writes. (Downing & Locke, 2006, p. 91)
2 Causatives with an intransitive counterpart, constituting an ergative pair
SVdO SV
He opened the door. The door opened.
She clicked the camera. The camera clicked.
Neamțu (1989, p. 173) describes similar pairs in Romanian:

4
Downing and Locke use ? to indicate divided acceptability.
5
They are called verbe bitranzitive or dublu tranzitive.
6
According to Neamțu, pe Ion = complement direct al persoanei, reluat prin pronumele personal l-; lecția = complement
direct al obiectului, nedublabil.

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tranzitiv intranzitiv
Mi-l amintesc pe Ion. Îmi amintesc de Ion.
3 Verbs with a reflexive meaning: He shaved (himself), She dressed (herself).
4 Verbs with a reciprocal meaning: Tom and Jo met at a concert. (met each other)
There are some verbs that are always intransitive. They are grouped by Downing and Locke (2006, p. 85) in
 verbs of behaviour which is typically involuntary or semi-voluntary: laugh, smile, cry, blink, blush, cough, sneeze,
sigh, tremble, yawn; wait, stay; die, collapse, faint, fall.
They all laughed, someone yawned, one soldier fainted.
 verbs of weather: rain, snow
It’s raining. It’s snowing. The sun rose.
 verbs of occurrence: appear, disappear, go, come, arrive, depart, vanish, fade, happen.
Has everyone arrived?
Hopes of avoiding war are now fading.
 idiomatic intransitive phrasal verbs7.

3.5. The Indirect Object

3.5.1. Definition and properties

A clause may have an indirect object, in addition to a direct object. The indirect object (iO) refers to a
person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence. The person generally receives
something or benefits from something8.
The following example can be used to illustrate that the indirect object will fill the function of the direct
object if the latter is omitted, and that such an omission changes the meaning of the whole clause. In Bob
is cooking his girlfriend a meal, his girlfriend is the indirect object (representing the person who
benefits from the action) and a meal is the direct object. If a meal is omitted, his girlfriend no longer
benefits from the subject’s action and becomes the part that is directly affected, with Bob at the same
time becoming a cannibal!
Formal and functional criteria can be applied to identify the indirect object.
Property Property Description Example
Form Although both objects usually occur either as Bob is cooking his girlfriend a meal. [NP]
noun phrases or as clauses in form, the indirect I sent whoever wants it copies of a receipt.

7
You can find some examples at https://www.espressoenglish.net/intransitive-phrasal-verbs-in-english/.
8
In Romanian, the indirect object is defined very similarly.
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object is restricted to the relative clause form. [relative-Cl]

Position The indirect object can occur only when the Bob is cooking his girlfriend (iO) a meal (dO).
direct object is also represented in the clause. *Bob is cooking his girlfriend (iO).
The indirect object occurs between the verb and Bob is cooking his girlfriend (iO) a meal (dO).
the direct object. *Bob is cooking a meal (dO) his girlfriend (iO).
For a different position, the indirect object must Bob is cooking a meal (dO) for his girlfriend
be realized by a prepositional phrase, beginning (iO).
with either to or for. The choice of the
preposition is governed by the main verb of the
clause.
The indirect object can be omitted without Bob is cooking a meal (dO).
affecting the semantic relationships of the
remaining elements of the clause.
Pronoun If the subject and the indirect object of a clause Bob (S) is cooking himself (iO) a meal.
s refer to the same entity, then the indirect object
will be in the form of a reflexive pronoun. The
reflexive pronoun will agree with the subject in
number, person, and gender, where relevant.
All other pronouns assuming object function Bob (S) is cooking her (iO) a meal.
will take the objective form (me, him, her, us,
them – not I, she, we, they)
Voice There is also a systematic relationship between The board offered Jane (iO) a scholarship.
the indirect object of an active voice clause and [active voice]
the subject of a passive voice clause. The Jane (S) was offered a scholarship.[passive
indirect object of the active voice clause may voice]
become the subject in the passive voice
equivalent.
If the direct object becomes the subject, the A scholarship was offered to Jane (iO). [passive
indirect object (if retained) generally consists of voice]
a prepositional phrase introduced by to or for:

Note that the indirect object consisting of a prepositional phrase normally comes after the direct object;
consequently, there are two possible variants of a SVOO clause, I will give Jane my umbrella. (SViOdO)
and I will give my umbrella to Jane. (SVdOiO). The two structures differ to some extent in their use,
because of the general tendency for the more important information to come at the end. For example, if
Jane has already been mentioned, but not the umbrella, we would expect the first to be used rather than
the second, though in speech the focus can be indicated by giving it prominence in the intonation
pattern.
In line with Kies, Downing and Locke (2006, p. 56) identify the following realisations of the indirect object
and illustrate them with examples:

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a. typically, NPs (see examples in the table above)

b. less typically, wh-nominal relative clauses, which occur more usually as a prepositional alternative:
You can lend the dictionary to whoever needs it. (recipient as nominal relative Cl.)
Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the show. (beneficiary as NP)
c. marginally, a non-finite -ing clause or a PP. These options are only open to a recipient iO.
I’m giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing cl)
Let’s give before lunch-time priority. (PpP)

3.5.2. The meanings of the indirect object

Greenbaum and Nelson identify the recipient role of the indirect object as the entity that is indirectly
affected by the action, generally the person receiving something or intended to receive something, or
benefiting in some way (2002, p. 36)
Bob was cooking her a meal.
Downing and Locke (2006, p. 55) distinguish between two different meanings (they call them semantic
roles): recipient (the one who receives the goods or information), and beneficiary (‘intended recipient’)
and argue that the differences between them are reflected in the syntax. The authors propose the
following examples:
Recipient Oi Beneficiary Oi
She has lent me a few CDs. I’ll buy you a drink.
The doctor gave the injured man oxygen. He got us the tickets.
Sammy Karanja is teaching the students maths She left him a note.
Thus, in passive counterparts iO as recipient corresponds to the subject, while most beneficiary iOs do
not easily become subject in a passive clause, although this restriction is not absolute.
Recipient as Subject Beneficiary as Subject
I have been lent a few CDs. You’ll be bought a drink.
The injured man was given oxygen. We were got the tickets.
The students are being taught maths by Sammy Karanja. He was left a note.
With both its recipient and beneficiary roles, indirect objects have an optional prepositional paraphrase.
For the recipient, the preposition is to, for the beneficiary it is for. (see 3.4.2.)

3.5.3. Direct objects vs. indirect objects

Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing direct objects from indirect objects are:
 An action verb affects a direct object directly (there is no preposition between them).
 Before looking for the indirect object, look for the direct object. A direct object is possible only if the direct
object is present in the clause.

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 An indirect object is normally a person who receives something, such as a gift or a favour, or who
beneficiates from an activity performed by the subject.
 The direct object answers the question << subject + verbal + what/whom? >>.
I told the children a story. I told what? A story (dO).
 The indirect object answers the question << subject + verbal + to/for/from whom? >>.
 I told the children a story./ I told a story to the children. I told to whom? The children (indirect
object).
 If the direct object is omitted, the meaning of the sentence will alter or no longer make sense.
I told the children a story.
I baked my daughter a cake.
 If you remove the indirect object, the sentence will make sense but will be less clear, as the
recipient/beneficiary remains unknown.
I told the children a story.
I baked my daughter a cake.

3.6. The Object Complement

3.6.1. Definition and properties

Etymologically, the term complement was attested during late 14c., and meant "that which completes,"
from Old French compliement "accomplishment, fulfilment", from Latin complementum "that which fills
up or completes,"). Originally, it also had senses which were taken up c. 1650-1725 by compliment
(www.etymonline.com). In linguistics, complement broadly means a word, phrase or clause that is
necessary to complete the meaning of a certain structure.
One type of complement is called object complement, defined by Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson9
as a syntactic function in the clause, occurring (as we have seen in 3.4.2.), after a complex transitive
verb and a direct object. (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, n.d.)
The object complement is a type of complement because it completes the object in that it describes what
the object refers to:
At the time, she thought him a quiet, gentle man. (thesunmagazine.org)
In the example above, a quiet, gentle man is the object complement, and him is the object. The object
complement refers to a property or the identity of the direct object, but has a link to the verbal at the
same time (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, n.d.). The relation between the object and the object
complement is representable by the verb be: an implied meaning of the above sentence is that ‘in her
view, he was a quiet, gentle man’. The object complement can be realised by a noun phrase - as in the
example above - or by an adjective phrase, as in She has dyed her hair red. Here the implied meaning is
that ‘her hair has become red as a result of dying.”

9
These authors, as well as others, call the object complement object predicative.
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Much on the same line, in Kies’ view, the object complement completes a reference and/or an
implication suggested by the object of the clause. The object complement is recognizable by a
combination of the following formal and functional properties.
property property description example
form Object complements are most usually NPs They appointed Jane the new manager. [NP]
or AdjPs, although gerund and PpPs, as They found her very accomplished. [AdjP]
well as nominal clauses may assume this
My supervisor considers his least favorite duty
function on occasion. (the last three
dealing with customers.[gerund-Cl]
examples are from suite101.com)
Students declare the best time of year during the
summer. [PpP]
I declare the problem that you do not want to
learn about grammar. [nominal-Cl]
position Object complements only occur if there is They appointed Jane the new manager.
an object in the clause and they occur They appointed the new manager.
normally after that object.
They appointed the new manager Jane.
Unlike objects themselves, object The new manager was appointed Jane by them.
complements do not have any passive
voice corresponding clauses, in which the
complement appears in the subject position.
refer- Object complements complete a reference They appointed Jane (O) the new manager (oC).
ence to the object of the clause. There is in effect {They performed an action directed at Jane.}
a copular relation that exists between the {Jane is the new manager.} SVC
object and its complement, in that the
object and its complement can be
paraphrased by an SVC structure.
agree- Object complements usually agree with the They appointed Jane (O) the new manager (oC).
ment object in number (singular or plural). They appointed them (O) the new managers (oC).
The set of verbs which permit an object complement is not large and includes to keep, declare, leave,
call, like, want, consider, find, think, get, make, send, turn, elect, appoint, vote.
In order to make the recognition of this clause element easier for the Romanian speaker of English, I
suggest a correlation between it and the element predicativ suplimentar (EPS), because they share a
number of features.
Property Property description Example
Form EPSs are most usually participles, gerunds, AdjPs or NP s Îi vedem grăbiți. [participle]
(examples belong to Bulgăr, 1995). Îi vedem grăbindu-se.[gerund]
De la gârlă […] zgomotoși copiii vin.
[AdjP]

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Position EPSs normally occur after the predicate, but other See above.
positions are possible.
When EPS consists in an AdjP, the presence of the dO is De la gârlă […] zgomotoși copiii vin.
not compulsory. [AdjP]
Le-am văzut vesele. [AdjP]
When EPS consists in a NP, either the dO or the agent El este socotit de revoluționari ca specialist.
is present. [NP]
I-am găsit directori. [NP]
Refer- EPSs may complete references to the object, the I-am găsit directori.
ence subject and the predicate. There is in effect a copular {I performed an action directed at them.}
relation that exists between the object or subject and {Ei sunt directori.} SVC
the EPS, in that the object or subject and EPS can be
paraphrased by an SVC structure. Another relation is
between the predicate and EPS, in that the action or
state of the verb is described by the EPS (especially
when it consists of an AdjP).
Agree- EPSs agree with the object in gender (feminine, Le credeau studente.[fem., pl.]
ment neuter or masculine) and number (singular or plural). Îi credeau studenți. [masc. pl]
If the object is not present, then EPSs agree with the
Copiii vin voioși. [masc., pl.]
subject.
Fata vine voiasă. [fem., sg.]
In both Romanian and English, the EPS and the oC can be quite easily taken for adverbials of manner,
so extra attention should be paid to their basic features and behaviour.

3.6.2. The meanings of the object complement

The meanings of the subject complement will be treated in the following section, together with the
meanings of the subject complement.

3.7. The Subject Complement

3.7.1. Definition and properties

The subject complement is the element of the clause which typically follows the verb be, and which consists
either of a noun phrase or an adjective phrase:
Jane was the new manager.
She was very accomplished.
This type of complement is called a subject complement, because it typically identifies or characterizes
the person or thing denoted by the subject. From the two examples above we find out who Jane is (the
new manager) and how she is (very accomplished).

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Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson define the subject complement as the clause element that comes in
addition to a subject and a link/copular (two-place) verb, normally placed after the verb and realised by a
noun phrase and an adjective phrase (as shown above), or by a nominal subordinate clause, as in The
problem is finding the right person (n.d.). Their definition brings about the issue of valency which has
already been discussed in 2.2. and 3.4.2., and will be reiterated in 3.9.
Because the subject complement is primarily a complement, its basic function is to complete something.
Similar to the oC’s behaviour towards the object, the sC completes a reference or an implication related
to the subject. It both shares some of the features of the oC and has properties unique to itself.

property property description example

form Subject complements are most usually NPs or She is the new manager. [NP]
AdjPs, although gerund and prepositional phrases, She is very accomplished. [AdjP]
as well as nominal clauses may assume this
His least favorite duty is dealing with customers.
function on occasion.
[gerund-Cl]
The new rug is out of place. [PpP]
His hobby is to work in the garden. [nominal-Cl]
position The subject complement always occurs after a See above.
copular verb in the SVC clause pattern.
Exceptionally, the sC can occur at the beginning of a A good man he was, indeed!
clause, in front of both the S and the V but
exclusively in contexts marked by emphasis.
sCs do not have any passive voice corresponding
clauses, due to the stative nature of the linking
verbs. This also excludes the possibility of the
objects of any kind.
refer- sCs complete a reference to the S of the clause. Jane is the new manager.
ence
agree- sCs usually agree with the S in number (singular or Jane is the new manager.
ment plural) They are the new managers. (oC).
The behaviour of the Romanian counterpart of the sC is very similar with the features listed above, with
the observation that traditional approaches include the nume predicativ in the structure of the predicat
nominal. In both languages, the relation created in the clause by the linking verb is representable by the
‘=’ sign, and can be diagrammed as follows:
Jane = the new manager.
Jane = very accomplished.

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3.7.2. The meanings of the subject complement and object complement10

The complement typically has the role of attribute11. It attributes an identification or characterization to the
subject – if it is a subject complement (sC) – or to the direct object – if it is an object complement (oC):
subject complement object complement
Jane is my boss. They have made Jane my boss.
The girls were happy. The news made the girls happy.

3.7.3. Linking/copular verbs and subject complement

If a verbal requires a subject complement (sC) to complete the clause, then the verbal is realised by a
linking/copular verb. The most common linking verb is be, but the category also includes appear, become,
seem, feel, get, look, sound, etc. The linking verbs link the subject and the subject complement in a clause.
Downing and Locke (2006, pp. 87-88) distinguish between a. verbs of being, b. verbs of becoming and c. other
linking verbs.
a. verbs of being are stative and introduce current or existing attributes:
The reason is simple.
Lloyd George was a man of principle but he was also intensely pragmatic.
We have to remain optimistic about the future.
b. verbs of becoming are dynamic and introduce resulting attributes. In addition, grow suggests
gradual change, while go is used to indicate drastic changes:
Her latest novel has become a best-seller.
We began to grow uneasy when the skin-diver didn’t appear.
His face went white.
c. other linking verbs can function as copulas with specific adjectives as sC:
The child fell flat on its face.
The soldiers all fell asleep/ fell ill.
The label has come unstuck.
d. a verb phrase can also function as copular verb, if it indicates some kind of identity of the subject and the
subject complement, according to Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson, as in She is called Susan. and She has been
voted 'woman of the year'.

10
The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English Grammar,
Longman, 2002
11
Note that the meaning of the term attribute in English grammar is different from the meaning of atribut in Romanian.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 4 sem. I, 2020 , Lectur

As be links the subject not only to a characteristic (sC realized by AdjP) or a status (sC realized by NP) but also to
a circumstance of position, place or time (Your mother is on the phone.). The complement, underlined in the
example, is then identified as adverbial complement, as described in 3.8.2.

3.7.4. Object complement vs. subject complement

Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing object complements from subject complements are:
 An object complement follows a complex transitive verb and says something about the direct
object of the verb.
 If there is no direct object in the clause, do not look for the object complement; it cannot be
present.
 A subject complement follows a linking/copular verb and says something about the subject
(what/ how it is).
 Examples like the two clauses below show that structures with sC and oC can be quite similar.
She| has been elected| president|. (subject + linking verb + sC)
They| have elected| her| president|. (subject + transitive verb + dO + oC)
 To check if a verb is a copular verb (followed by a sC) or a transitive verb (followed by an
object) you can try to replace it by a form of to be, possibly accompanied by 'I think', as in He
seems nervous = he is nervous, I think. (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, n.d.)

3.8. The Adverbial

3.8.1. Definition and properties

Leech (1992, pp. 10-11) sees adverbials as the most peripheral of the clause elements which make up the
structure of a clause, possibly for reasons regarding both their position and their relevance. He defines the
adverbial as the (normally) optional element of the clause which adds extra meaning about the event or state
of affair expressed by the verbal.
According to the function of adverbial in the clause, Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson (n.d.)
distinguish three classes: a. adjuncts, b. conjuncts, and c. disjuncts12.
a. Adjuncts indicate the circumstances of the action. They express relations such as time, place,
manner, reason, condition, etc. They are usually optional, but in certain situations are obligatory.
Downing and Locke call this class circumstantial adjuncts and this can be a way for the Romanian
learner to see more clearly the analogy with the Romanian complemente circumstanțiale and their
corresponding propoziții completive circumstanțiale. (see 2.5.2. and 3.1.)

12
For reasons of clarity, during analysis and discussion, the term adverbial will commonly refer to adjuncts.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 4 sem. I, 2020 , Lectur

Exactly like their Romanian counterparts, adjuncts answer the questions where, when, how, why etc. and
are named accordingly.
Because of that (adjunct of reason), he took a job in a store (place adjunct) last year (time adjunct).
Another characteristic the two languages have in common at clause level is that more than one adjunct
can occur in a clause (see the example above). This is not true about the other elements of the clause, as
only one subject, verbal, or direct object can occur in the same clause.
b. Conjuncts are adverbials that connect and express relations between independent clauses or
sentences. They are realised by conjunctive/coordinating adverbs that can occur
- at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of the two clauses in a compound
sentence.
- at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of two related sentences.
The table below provides examples of conjuncts and the most common types of relation they express.
conjuncts of
time afterward, at one moment...at the next, henceforth, later, meanwhile, now...then, sometimes...sometimes, soon
, then, etc.
addition also, besides, then too, for one thing ...for another (thing), furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover,
partly...partly, etc.
similarity likewise, similarly, etc.
concession/ exactly the opposite , however, instead, nevertheless, on (the) one hand...on the other hand, on the contrary,
contrast rather, still, etc.
result accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, then, therefore, thus, etc.
condition otherwise (= if not)
Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson describe conjuncts as “text organizers, in that they guide the
hearer/reader through the text, showing how the different pieces hang together, and where they belong in
the text” (n.d.).
c. Disjuncts are adverbials that are always optional in the clause. According to Hasselgård, Lysvåg and
Johansson, they are evaluative and express
a. the speaker's judgement of the truth of the utterance (modal disjuncts, e.g. probably, certainly, maybe)
b. the speaker's evaluation of a fact (fact-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. fortunately, actually, to my surprise)
c. the speaker's comment on his/her own wording of the sentence (e.g. briefly, in other words, to
tell you the truth)
d. the speaker’s comment on the subject referent (subject-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. Wisely, she
spent the money = 'she was wise to spend the money')
The table below provides further explanations and examples regarding the form, position, meaning and
reference of the adverbial (A).
Property Property description Example
Form The adverbial is normally an AdvP, a PpP, or a clause. She quickly put her gloves on. [AdvP]
Occasionally, a NP can function as adverbial. She put her gloves in her purse. [PpP]

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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 4 sem. I, 2020 , Lectur

She put her gloves on as soon as she

could.[Adv-Cl]
Last week she put her gloves away. [PpP]
Position The adverbial is described by grammars as mobile, that is, it Quickly, she put her gloves on. [initial]
can occur in many different positions within a clause: at the She quickly put her gloves on. [medial]
beginning (clause-initial), in the middle (clause-medial), or at She put quickly her gloves on. [medial]
the end (clause-final). Additional examples are provided in She put her gloves quickly on. [medial]
the table of conjuncts above. She put her gloves on quickly. [final]
Though the mobility of the adverbials is greater than that 1. Only13 I ate an egg.
of any other clause element, actual usage rules limits the 2. I only ate an egg.
number of position choices. Besides, the examples show 3. I ate only an egg.
how, in the case of only, changes in position produce 4. I ate the only14 egg.
alterations of meaning and even ambiguity. 5. I ate an egg only.
Unlike the other clause elements, adverbials are normally She left suddenly. [SV]
optional. Their omission does not change the relations of
meaning and structure in the rest of the clause. She left. [SV]
Meaning The adverbial conveys a wide-ranging set of meanings, I’m leaving now. [time]
among which the most common are: time, duration, I’ll stay for a while.[duration]
frequency, place, manner, means, instrument, degree, I often sing. [frequency]
purpose. In many cases, these categories can be I’ll stay here. [place]
distinguished as answering different questions: when, I sing well. [manner]
where, how, why, how long, how often, how much, how If raining, I’ll stay in. [condition]
far, etc. I’ll cut it with a knife. [instrument]
I worked much. [degree]
I'll stay to finish the book. [purpose]
Refer- Adverbials refer to the verbal of the clause. I sing well.
ence
 Notice: In spite of their name, adverbials do not necessarily contain adverbs. Adverbials can be
realized by adverbs, AdvPs, PpPs, NPs, or subordinate clauses (see table above).
3.8.2. The Adverbial Complement
Though adverbials are normally optional, some elements that convey the same information as
adverbials, are obligatory because the main verb is not complete without them. Such adverbials are
called adverbial complements (aC). Typically, adverbial complements refer to space, that is, location or
direction.

13
In such contexts, only is a ‘focusing adverb’ that point to one part of a clause, in this example to the subject I. When only
focuses on the subject, it usually comes before it. Other focusing adverbs are: also, either, even, just, mainly, mostly,
neither, nor, etc.
14
In such context, only is an adjective meaning either ‘having no equal or rival for excellence or desirability’ or ‘being the
one or ones of a class with no other members’ (only adjective)
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 4 sem. I, 2020 , Lectur

adverbial adverbial complement

Your mother is talking on the phone. Your mother is on the phone.
The sentence is complete without the adverbial. The sentence is not complete without the adverbial
complement.
Because the most common verbal in the SVcA structure is be, we should note that it can be quite
difficult to distinguish between an adverbial complement and certain varieties of subject complement.
This is due to the complex nature of be, recognized by some grammars to have a copular nature even in
contexts where the location of the subject is expressed, i.e. They were in the garden. One possible
argument would be that the part that follows be refers to the subject, by giving information about its
location, as in the example above, and this makes be copular. However, for the Romanian speaker it is
more convenient to adopt the view that recognizes be as a lexical verb expressing the existence or
location of the subject, in line with the Romanian grammar, and label adverbial complements expressing
location/existence as obligatory adverbials.

3.9. Verb complementation and clause patterns

3.9.1. Verb complementation

The element(s) required after the verb to complete its meaning is/are called the complementation of the
Verb and should be seen in relation to valency.
Thus, as we saw in 3.8., in an example like She left suddenly, the omission of the adverbial produces no
effect on the verb meaning and on the clause structure (SV both with and without the optional adjunct).
If we omit any of the other elements of the clause, as in Left suddenly or She suddenly, we will no longer
have a complete meaningful clause.
Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson suggest that “the complementation of a verb thus consists in supplying all the
elements that are necessary for that verb to function as verbal in a clause” (n.d.). This means that the great
majority of clauses in English contain a subject and a verbal, as well as other elements whose presence is
determined by the verb or, put differently, by its valency, as we saw in 3.4.3.

3.9.2. Clause patterns

According to Leech (2006), a clause pattern15 is a pattern which contains a main verb and whatever
elements have to follow that verb to complete its meaning grammatically.
Downing and Locke (2006, p. 83) identify and illustrate three main types of complementation: intransitive,
copular and transitive.
type of complementation structural pattern illustration comment
intransitive S-V Ted| laughed. verb used intransitively
copular S-V-C The idea| is| crazy linking verb

15
Also called verb pattern.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 4 sem. I, 2020 , Lectur

Transitive
monotransitive S-V-O He| bought| a video verb used transitively
ditransitive S-V-O-O He| gave| Jo| the video pattern with iO
complex-transitive S-V-O-C I| find| the idea| crazy pattern with oC
The pattern with obligatory adverbial can be added as another type of complementation.
intransitive S-V-A Your mother| is| on the phone. pattern with obligatory A
Each pattern specifies what is required for completeness, in other words, all the elements that are sufficient and
necessary for meaningful complete clauses. However, optional adverbials can always be added, but this does
not affect the description of the basic pattern. For instance, if we add an adverbial to a SVO clause pattern, as in
The man/ is writing/ a poem/ right now, the verb pattern will still be recognized as SVO.
In Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson’s view,
a verb with a valency of one (=a one-place verb) needs only a subject in order to build a
complete sentence. A verb with a valency of two (=a two-place verb) needs two other clause
elements (subject + direct object, subject + subject predicative, or subject + adverbial). A verb
with a valency of three (=a three-place verb) needs three other clause elements (subject+
indirect object + direct object, subject+ direct object + object predicative, or subject + direct
object + adverbial). No English verb has a valency of more than three (n.d.).
There are many verbs in English that admit more than one type of complementation and thus have
different valencies in different patterns. They are mostly verbs of general meaning, such as get, turn and
make, as well as some of the sense verbs (smell, see, etc.). As Downing and Locke’s examples show,
make is a verb that admits all but intransitive patterns:
I|’ll make| some tea. SVdO
I|’ll make| you| a pizza. SViOdO
He| made| the coffee| too strong. SVdOoC
They| make| a good couple. SVsC
It| makes| for good relations. SVpO
To summarize, in English there are one-place verbs, which require a subject only (SV), two-place verbs
which involve a subject and one other element (SVO, SVC and SVA) and three-place verbs, with a
subject and two other elements (SVOO and SVOC).

EXERCISES

Exercise 3.1 Subject, predicate, verbal

In each sentence below, underline the subject and circle the verbal.
1. Since September, the airline industry has suffered its greatest ever slump in business.

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2. Analysts predict several years of diminished business.

3. Several thousand airline workers lost their jobs.
4. The general public is still nervous about flying.
5. People prefer to travel by train.
Exercise 3.2 Operator; Do, have, be
Use the contracted form n’t to make each sentence below negative.
1. Protesters were in the streets.
2. The party was at war with itself.
3. The tide of revolution toppled one European government after another.
4. The changes had been foreseen.
5. The party could be humbled soon.
Exercise 3.3 Operator; Do, have, be
Turn each sentence below into a question that can be answered by yes or no, and underline the operator
in the question.
1. Brain bulk is related to brain ability.
2. This correlation applies across species.
3. Within the human species, brain bulk is unimportant.
4. The largest human brains are those of idiots.
5. Humans are able to lose substantial portions of the brain without undue suffering.
6. The main part of the human brain is divided into two hemispheres.
7. Messages from one hemisphere can reach the other.
Exercise 3.4 Subject and verbal
Identify the subject in each of the questions or exclamations below and underline it. Circle the operator
and (if relevant) the rest of the verb phrase.
1. How should I know?
2. How much does all this matter?
3. How we long to be home again!
4. Have you found any advantages in the present arrangements?
5. Can the roots of the decline in the standard of English cricket be traced back
a long way?
6. What a fuss they made!
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 4 sem. I, 2020 , Lectur

7. Did Britain recognize the Argentine at that time?

*Exercise 3.5 Subject and verbal
In each sentence below, underline the subject or subjects and circle the verbal or verbals. If a sentence
contains more than one clause, it may have more than one verbal. For example in the following sentence
there are three subjects and four verbals:
1. If you hold a strong man down for a long time, his first instinct may be to clobber you when he
climbs to his feet.
1. If the European Union is not built on democratic foundations, the whole edifice will never be
stable.
2. Even the most extreme Euro-zealots must acknowledge that fact.
3. On the other hand, the process of enlargement cannot be held up by one or two member states.
Exercise 3.7 Subject
What evidence do you find in the sentence below to show that the implied subject of a subjectless
imperative sentence is you?
Help yourself to another piece of cake.
Can you think of any other evidence that points in the same direction?
Exercise 3.8 Transitive verbs and direct object
The direct object is underlined in each declarative sentence below. Turn the sentence into a question
introduced by who or what, as indicated in brackets. Use one of these interrogative words to replace the
direct object. Position the operator and the subject after who or what:
1. She introduced the school head to her parents. (Who)
2. Norma’s parents met her English and Biology teachers at the Open Day. (Who)
3. Caroline submitted a poem about her dog to the school magazine. (What)
4. All the members of staff considered Janet the best student in the Upper Sixth. (Who)
5. The school head recommended a careers advice test. (What)
6. Marilyn chose Sussex as her first preference on her application form for university entrance.
(What)
*Exercise 3.9 Transitive verbs and direct object
In each sentence below, underline the direct objects. If a sentence contains more than one clause, it may
have more than one direct object. For example, in the following sentence there are two direct objects:
The president has offered substantial concessions, but he should not expect much gratitude.
1. The president promised the end of racial discrimination, but he rejected the black demand for one
man, one vote.

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2. That sort of democracy would mean rule by a black majority, which might feel an understandable urge
for retribution for past oppressions.
3. Whites, equally understandably, want safeguards for white rights, but you cannot ensure safeguards
once you surrender your power.
Exercise 3.11 Linking verbs and subject complement
Underline the subject complement in each sentence below.
1. Outside, the company sign seems modest.
2. Inside, the atmosphere is one of rush and ferment.
3. The company is a genetic engineering firm.
4. It has become a leader of a brand-new industry.
5. The focus of the project is DNA recombination.
Exercise 3.12 Intransitive verbs and adverbials
Underline the adverbials in the sentences below. Some sentences may have more than one adverbial.
1. Opossums frequently appear to be dead.
2. Sometimes they merely pretend to be dead.
3. In that way they avoid attacks by predators.
4. Often they simply are dead.
5. Few opossums remain alive far into the second year.
*Exercise 3.13 Adverbial complement
Complete these sentences by adding an adverbial complement.
1. My parents live __________
2. Unfortunately, nobody is __________
3. Everybody behaved __________
4. You can get __________
5. The soldiers are keeping __________
Exercise 3.14 Direct object and indirect object
Underline the indirect objects in the sentences below. Some sentences do not have an indirect object.
1. Can you tell me the time, please?
2. Who taught you how to do that?
3. Paul’s parents promised him a bicycle for his twelfth birthday.
4. You can save yourself the bother.

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5. The college provides accommodation for all first-year students.

6. I owe my parents several hundred pounds.
*Exercise 3.15 Direct object and indirect object
Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object and an indirect object.
1. pay 6. make 3. leave 8. spare 5. find 10. charge
2. bring 7. cook 4. read 9. ask
Exercise 3.16 Direct object and object complement
In each of the following sentences, state whether the underlined phrase is an object complement (oC) or
an adverbial complement (aC).
1. Jack has put his coat and hat in my bedroom.
2. The noise is driving me mad.
3. They keep their house too warm.
4. I can see you home.
5. She made me her assistant.
*Exercise 3.17 Direct object and object complement
Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object and an object complement.
1. like 3. find 5. appoint
2. consider 4. call 6. declare
*Exercise 3.18 Direct object and object complement
Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object and an adverbial
complement.
1. place 3. wish
2. keep 4. get
Exercise 3.19 The basic sentence structures
Identify each sentence element by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it:
S (subject) sC (subject complement) V (verbal) oC (object complement) dO (direct object) aC
(adverbial complement) iO (indirect object) A (adverbial).
1. Salt ( ) was ( ) the first food seasoning ( ).
2. Many people ( ) consider ( ) the accidental spilling of salt ( ) bad luck ( ).
3. The Romans ( ) gave ( ) their soldiers ( ) special allowances for salt ( ).
4. They ( ) called ( ) the allowance ( ) salarium ( ).

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5. That ( ) is ( ) the original of our word ‘salary’ ( ).

*Exercise 3.20 The basic sentence structures
The sentences below are ambiguous. For each meaning, state the structure (the set of sentence elements)
and give a paraphrase of the corresponding meaning. For example:
They are baking potatoes.
S + V + SC – ‘They are potatoes for baking’.
S + V + dO – ‘They have put potatoes in the oven to bake’.
1. You will make a good model.
2. I’ll call you my secretary.
3. Your men are revolting.
4. They left him a wreck.
5. You should find me an honest worker.
Identify the type of phrase (NP, VP, AP, AdvP).
1) anti-terrorist laws; 7) a student of Physics;
2) quite hot; 8) very kind to Mary;
3) pretty soon; 9) rather carelessly;
4) the urban young;
10) before the war;
5) in a hurry; 11) every bridge over the river;
6) a small black bag;
12) so efficient in his work

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