GENDER

AND
SOCIETY
AUTHORS
HELEN R. BLANQUISCO, MAEd GERALD T. RICAFRENTE, MPA
JESICA T. CATOLOS, LPT., Ph.D. JANSEN S. SAN JUAN, JD
BERNADETTE R. FRANCISCO, MAEd EDEN C. SANTOS, LPT., DBA
WILHELMINA P. MASINSIN, RPm., Ed.D. FLORANTE D. SOLANO, Ph.D.
CRISTINA DC. PEREZ, MAN., DPA ARC VOLTAIRE C. SOMERA, LPT., MAT
PEDRO E. RAHON, RPm., MAINS CARMINA G. TAULE, LPT., RGC., RPm
MARIVIC C. REYES, LPT YOLANDA D. VISTAL, MMDBA ARC
JANG GIANE CARLA G. TAULE, MAEd ARC
 GENDER
AND INTRODUCTION
SOCIETY

To the University of Rizal System Students:

Welcome to Gender and Society. Looking into this module, you will be guided to know what
the course covers, the requirements schedule of assignments, the examination and other
activities that will serve as the bases in getting your grade. This course guide was
collaboratively developed by the following professors of our university.

PROF. MARIVIC C. REYES, a Licensed Professional Teacher,

finished her Master of Art in Education. She is presently teaching
in College of Industrial Technology in Cainta Campus. She is the
co-writer in charge for Lesson 1: Definition and Perspective of
Sex and Gender

PROF. GERALD T. RICAFRENTE is a graduate of Bachelor of

Arts in Political Science and already finished his Master in Public
Administration. He is assigned and presently teaching in Tanay
campus. He is the co-writer in charge for Lesson 2: Sexual
Anatomy and Physiology of Female

PROF. CARMINA G. TAULE, a Licensed Professional Teacher,

a Registered Guidance Counselor and a Registered
Psychometrician, is a BS Psychology graduate with supplemental
units in education. She also finished Master in Management and
Master of Arts in Education major in Guidance and Counseling.
She is pursuing her Doctor in Business Administration in New Era
University. She is assigned in Binangonan campus. She is the
lead writer and in charge for Lesson 3: Sexual Anatomy and
Physiology of Male and Lesson

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DR. JESSICA T. CATOLOS, a Licensed Professional Teacher, is
a graduate of Bachelor in Elementary Education and finished her
Master in Teaching major in Filipino as well as Doctor in
Philosophy major in Educational Management. She is presently
teaching in Tanay campus. She is the co-writer in charge for
Lesson 4 : Biological Theories of Gender

PROF. HELEN R. BLANQUISCO is a graduate of Bachelor in

Human Behavior and finished her Master of Arts in Education
major in Guidance and Counseling. She is pursuing her Doctor of
Philosophy major in Educational Management. She is presently
teaching in Morong campus. She is a co-writer in charged for
Lesson 5: Psychodynamic Theory

PROF. PEDRO E. RAHON, a Registered Psychometrician, is a

graduate of Bachelor of Science in Far Eastern University. He
finished his Master in Inter Asia NGO Studies at Sunkonghoe
University and pursuing his master in Clinical Psychology. He is
presently teaching in Taytay campus. He is the co-writer in
charged for Lesson 6: Foundational Sociological Theories

MS. JANG GIANE CARLA G. TAULE, is a graduate of Bachelor

of Science in Psychology. She completed her academic
requirement presently writing her thesis in Master of Arts in
Education major in Guidance and Counseling in New Era
University. She is the co-writer in charged for Lesson 7: Basic
Categories of Human Activities and Lesson 14: Evolution of
Gender Paradigms and Perspectives (WID, WAD and GAD)

DR. FLORANTE D. SOLANO is a graduate of Bachelor of

Science in English. He finished Master of Arts in Teaching major
in English together with Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistic major
in Applied Linguistic. He is an Associate Professor V assigned in
Tanay campus. He was tasked to be the Gender and Society
group editor and a co-writer in charged for Lesson 8:
Approaches to Understanding Identity Development

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PROF. CRISTINA DC. PEREZ is a graduate of Bachelor of
Science in Nursing with supplemental units in Education. She
finished her Master of Arts in Nursing major in Administration. She
completed her academic requirements in Doctor in Public
Administration. She is assigned to teach in Antipolo Campus. She
is the co-writer in charged for Lesson 9: Stereo typing, Biases
and Discrimination

PROF. YOLANDA D VISTAL is a Cum laude, graduated with the

degree Bachelor in Applied Economics in Polytechnic University
of the Philippines. She finished Master in Management and
presently pursuing her Doctor in Business Administration. She is
assigned to teach in Binangonan campus. She is a co-writer in
charged for Lesson 10: Social Stratification

PROF. BERNADETTE R. FRANCISCO is a graduate of Bachelor

of Science in Psychology with supplemental units in education.
She finished Master of Arts in Education major in Guidance and
Counseling and presently pursuing her Doctor of Education major
in Career Guidance in Technological University of the Philippines.
She is a co-writer in charged for Lesson 11: Sexual Orientation
and It’s Classification

PROF. VOLTAIRE C SOMERA , a Licensed Professional

Teacher, is a graduate of Bachelor of Arts in English. He also
finished his degree in Master of Arts in Teaching major in English.
He is presently assigned in Tanay campus. He is the co-writer in
charged for Lesson 12: Gender Identity

DR. EDEN C. SANTOS, a Licensed Professional Teacher, a

Military Reserved, a Nurse Aide, is a Bachelor of Arts in Behavioral
Science graduate in University of Sto. Tomas. She also finished
her Master in Management and Doctor in Business Administration
in Polytechnic University of the Philippines. She is presently
assigned as the Campus Director in Binangonan Campus. She is
the co-writer in charged for Lesson 13: Gender Expression

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 PROF. JANSEN SAN JUAN is a graduate of Bachelor of Arts in
Speech Communication from the College of Arts and Letters,
University of the Philippines Diliman. A Juris Doctor degree holder
from the UP College of Law, University of the Philippines. He is
teaching Binangonan Campus. He served as a resource person
on numerous GAD seminars especially on GAD-related laws. He
is a certified member of the CALABARZON GAD Resource Pool
under NEDA. He is also a certified member of the National GAD
Resource Pool under the Philippine Commission on Women.He is
the co-writer in charged for Lesson 15: Laws Protecting
Women’s Human Right and Lesson 16: Legal Mandates and
Mechanisms on GAD

DR. WILHELMINA P. MASINSIN, a Registered Psychometrician,

is a graduate of Bachelor of Science in Psychology. She also
finished Master of Arts in Education major in Guidance and
Counseling together with Doctor of Education major in Educational
Management. She is the GAD Director and presently assigned as
the co-writer in charged for Lesson 17: Gender Mainstreaming
Processes, Plan, Commitment and Accountability

Course Description:

The course deals with the sociological and theoretical concept of gender and sexuality.
It will explore the social construction of gender categories both historically and in the present.
The focus is to determine the various theoretical perspective which attempts to explain the
ways in which society has organized “feminine” and “masculine” as the basis for social
inequalities. It will introduce students to gender and sexuality as socially, historically and
culturally contingent concepts and will consider the ways gender socialization perpetuates in
the different agents and how gender intersects with
other aspects of social life such as education, employment, health, media, politics, violence
and others. It further includes the international commitment, national legal mandates to
promote gender equality of different sexes.

Course Objectives:

General:
Analyze the importance of Gender and Development (GAD) as developmental perspective
adopted by the national government to achieve gender equality and women empowerment.
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Apply the knowledge learned by promoting advocacy program and activates that will enhance
general awareness, sensitivity and responsiveness.

Specific:
1. Explain the different meaning of sex, gender and other key words related to gender
2. Describe how gender is interrelated to the socializing agents including different human
aspects and experiences of social life
3. Explore the contemporary gender issues and identify the root cause that serves as
deterrent to human development
4. Evaluate how the intersections of gender, sexuality, race, ethnicity, class and other
characteristics are reflected on gender-based violence
5. Enumerate and discuss the international commitment, national mandates and policies that
help address gender inequality
6. Demonstrate the knowledge learned by formulating program or conduction activity that
promote and support gender advocacy

Student Learning Outcomes Addressed by the Course

1. Provide learning environment for acquiring comprehensive thoughts and understanding on
gender perspective, mandates and policies
2. Keep abreast with the gender issues and root causes that serve as deterrent to human
development
3. Provide sufficient knowledge on how gender is interrelated to the socializing agents and
experiences of social life
4. Establish linkages to other universities and colleges, government agencies, local
government units, non-governmental and private organizations that may help upgrade
Gender and Development (GAD) program
5. Demonstrate skills and competencies in understanding gender perspective and its
application to day to day life experiences, recognition and fulfillment of human rights
6. Work on continuous progress in various aspects of the course which may include faculty,
students, curriculum, research, extension services and physical facilities in order to meet the
PASUC and CHED accreditation requirements.

COURSE STRUCTURE
The course Gender and Society consists of five (5) instructional units divided into seventeen
(17) modules such as:

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Unit I: Introduction to Understanding Sex and Gender
Module Writers
1. Definition and Perspective of Sex and Gender Prof. Marivic Reyes
2. Sexual Anatomy and Physiology of Female Prof. Gerald Ricafrente
3. Sexual Anatomy and Physiology of Male Prof. Carmina G. Taule

Unit II: Theories of Gender Development

Module
4. Biological Theories of Gender Dr. Jesica Catolos
5. Psychodynamic Theory Prof. Helen R. Blanquisco
6. Foundational Sociological Theories Prof. Pedro E. Rahon

Unit III: Gender Roles and Socialization

Module
7. Basic Categories of Human Activities Ms. Jang Giane Carla G. Taule
8. Approaches to Understanding Identity Development Dr. Florante Solano
9. Stereotyping, Biases and Discrimination Prof. Cristina Perez
10. Social Stratification Prof. Yolanda D. Vistal

Unit IV: SOGIE 101

Module
11. Sexual Orientation and Its Classification Prof. Bernadette R. Francisco
12. Gender Identity Prof. Voltaire Somera
13. Gender Expression Dr. Eden C. Santos

Unit V: Gender Paradigm, Mainstreaming Process and How it Works

14. Evolution of Gender Paradigms and Ms. Jang Giane Carla G. Taule
Perspectives (WID, WAD and GAD)
15. Laws Protecting Women’s Human Rights Prof. Jansen San Juan
16. Legal Mandates and Mechanisms on GAD Prof. Jansen San Juan
17. Gender Mainstreaming Processes, Plan, Dr. Wilhelmina P. Masinsin
Commitment and Accountability

COURSE REQUIREMENTS
The following are the necessary requirements that need to be complied by the students:

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1. Each student is required to submit via URS Learning Management System the
accomplished activity or assignment in every session before 12 midnight of the following
day
2. Students are also required to do paper based behavioral simulation activities where
students may conduct series of what they will do questions in situation related to the
discussion of topics in the module
3. Students are required to submit individual or group output/studies where recorded
meeting via videoconferencing platform will be included.

ACADEMIC INTEGRITY
The University of Rizal System continues to deliver quality education amidst the
challenges posed by the Covid – 19 Pandemic. Since the university is utilizing the
online[/offline modalities of instruction, everyone is expected to observe high level of integrity
at all times. Students must accomplished all assignments, activities/exercise, term papers
and examination. The university penalizes plagiarism and other forms .

SCHEDULE DATE
Registration August 24, 2020
Class Orientation
Giving of tasks and assignments

Study Session Module 1 August 31, 2020

Study Session Module 2

And submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 1 September 7, 2020

Study Session Module 3 September 14, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 2

Study Session Module 4 September 21, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 3

Study Session Module 5 September 23, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 4

Study Session Module 6 September 28, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 5

PRELIMINARY EXAM September 30, 2020

Study Session Module 7 October 5, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 6

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Study Session Module 8 October 12, 2020
and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 7

Study Session Module 9 October 19, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 8

Study Session Module 10 October 26,2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 9

Study Session Module 11 October 28, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 10

Study Session Module 12 November 4, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 11

MIDTERM EXAMINATION November 9, 2020

Study Session Module 13 November 11, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 12

Study Session Module 14 November 16, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 13

Study Session Module 15 November 23, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 14

Study Session Module 16 November 25, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 15

Study Session Module 17 December 2, 2020

and submission of Assignments/ Tasks/ Activities for Module 16

Final Examination December 7, 2020

Completion of all final requirements December 9, 2020

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 MODULE Unit I: UNDERSTANDING SEX AND GENDER
1 Definition and Perspective of Sex, Gender and
Sexuality

Intended Learning Outcome

At the end of the lesson, the students shall be able to:

1. Define and differentiate sex and gender
2. Critically assess the implications of sex and gender differences on sexuality
3. Contemplate on the perspectives between sex and Gender

Introduction

Traditionally, the terms “sex” and “gender” have been used interchangeably, but their
uses are becoming increasingly distinct and it is important to understand the differences
between the two. During the early years, the terms sex and gender have not always been
differentiated by the society. By the end of the twenty-first century, expanding the proper
usage of the term gender to everyday language became more challenging.
In today’s setting, when filling out a document such as a job application or school
registration form you are often asked to provide your name, address, phone number, birth
date, and sex or gender. Like most people, you may not have realized that sex and gender
are not the same. However, sociologists and most other social scientists view them as
conceptually distinct. Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males and
females, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary
characteristics such as height and muscularity. Gender is a person’s deeply held internal
perception of his or her gender. This lesson will look at the meaning of “sex” and “gender,”
perceptions given by researchers, doctors and experts.

Lesson Proper

Although the terms sex and gender are sometimes used interchangeably and do in
fact complement each other, they nonetheless refer to different aspects of what it means to
be a woman or man in any society. First thing you need to understand is the complexities of
defining and differentiating sex and gender. Having a clear grasp of these concepts is crucial

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since we will be using these terms over and over again. Furthermore, we intend to foster
understanding of the diversity on how human experience and express their sexuality.
Sex is the biological dimension of your gender and sexuality. It is also referred to as
biological sex or physical sex. This refers to the anatomical and other biological differences
between females and males that are determined at the moment of conception and develop in
the womb and throughout childhood and adolescence. It generally pertains to your identity
depending on your sexual anatomy and physiology. The parts of your body that is relevant to
reproduction and the function of these parts.
Sex is typically Females, of course when it contains two X chromosomes, while males
have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.

Sex Determination
Sex chromosomes determine the sex of an organism. A human somatic cell has two
sex chromosomes: XY in male and XX in female. A human germ cell has one sex
chromosome: X or Y in a sperm and X in an egg. When an X-sperm is combined with an egg,
the resulting zygote (fertilized egg) will contain two X chromosomes. A person developed
from the XX-zygote will have the characteristics of a female. Combination of a Y-sperm and
an egg will produce a male.
Normally, a woman has two X chromosomes (XX) and a man has one X and one Y
(XY). However, both male and female characteristics can sometimes be found in one
individual, and it is possible to have XY women and XX men. Analysis of such individuals has
revealed some of the genes involved in sex determination, including one called sex-
determining region Y gene (SRY), which is important for testis formation.
Mutations in the SRY gene give rise to XY women with gonadal dysgenesis (Swyer
syndrome); translocation of part of the Y chromosome containing this gene to the X
chromosome causes XX male syndrome.

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 From this basic genetic difference spring other biological differences. The first to
appear are the different genitals that boys and girls develop in the womb and that the doctor
(or midwife) and parents look for when a baby is born (assuming the baby’s sex is not already
known from ultrasound or other techniques) so that the momentous announcement, “It’s a
boy!” or “It’s a girl!” can be made.
The genitalia are called primary sex characteristics, while the other differences that
develop during puberty are called secondary sex characteristics and stem from hormonal
differences between the two sexes. For better or worse, these basic biological differences
between the sexes affect many people’s perceptions of what it means to be female or male
and this will be discussed on the next Chapters.

Gender
If sex is a biological concept, then gender is a social concept. It refers to the social and
cultural differences a society assigns to people based on their (biological) sex. A related
concept, gender roles, refers to a society’s expectations of people’s behavior and attitudes
based on whether they are females or males. Understood in this way, gender, like race, is
a social construction.
How we think and behave as females and males is not etched in stone by our biology
but rather is a result of how society expects us to think and behave based on what sex we
are. As we grow up, we learn these expectations as we develop our gender identity, or our
beliefs about ourselves as females or males.
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender as:
“Gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and men, such as
norms, roles, and relationships of and between groups of women and men. It varies from
society to society and can be changed.”
In today’s generation, gender roles in some societies are more rigid than those in
others. In many societies, men are increasingly taking on roles traditionally seen as belonging
to women, and women are playing the parts previously assigned mostly to men. Gender roles
and gender stereotypes are highly fluid and can shift substantially over time.

Pink for a girl and blue for a boy?

In many countries, pink is seen as a suitable color for a girl to wear, while boys are
dressed in blue. However, infants were dressed in white until colored garments for babies
were introduced in the middle of the 19th century. “The generally accepted rule is pink for the
boys and blue for the girls. The reason is that pink, being a more decided and stronger color,
is more suitable for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and dainty, is prettier for the

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girl.” Move forward 100 years and it is rare to find a baby boy dressed in pink in many
countries.

Who wears lipstick?

For instance, putting lipstick or lip gloss, which is commonly used by female can now be used
by male (for chap lips) and even the use of translucent powder (baby powder). Over time, the
perception of these products gradually became seen to both male and female. Social norms
have made it so. A person’s sex, as determined by his or her biology, does not always
correspond with his or her gender. Therefore, the terms sex and gender are not
interchangeable. A baby boy who is born with male genitalia will be identified as male. As
he grows, however, he may identify with the feminine aspects of his culture. Since the
term sex refers to biological or physical distinctions, characteristics of sex will not vary
significantly between different human societies. Generally, persons of the female sex,
regardless of culture, will eventually menstruate and develop breasts that can lactate.
Characteristics of gender, on the other
hand, may vary greatly between different
societies. For example, in the Philippines,
traditionally it is considered feminine (or a trait
of the female gender) to wear a dress or skirt
however, other ethnic tribes/groups worn skirts
for male (malong) in special occasions (seen in
the picture: during the Pagana Feast: Maranao).
In many Middle Eastern, Asian, and African
cultures, dresses or skirts (often referred to as
sarongs, robes, or gowns) are considered
masculine. The kilt worn by a Scottish male does not make him appear feminine in his culture.
In summing up, we can therefore say that :
Sex is: Gender is:
1. Biological Characteristics of being 1. Sociologically constructed;
Male or a Female;
2. Changing, time and place bound;
2. Physical attributes pertaining to a
person’s body contours, features, 3. Present in both women and men;
hormones, genes, chromosomes 4. Categorize as feminine (pagkababae)
and reproductive organs (genitals); and masculine (pagkalalaki); and
3. Generally permanent and 5. Attributes (katangian) are marked by
universal; and inequality (hindi pagkakapareho).
4. Attributes are equally valued.

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 Learning Activities

One of the most important tasks in a Gender and Society course is dismantling the
misconceptions that men and women are opposites, with instantly recognizable differences
in personality traits, interests, and activities.

Direction: Identify the sex/gender (Male or Female) of the people below, basing your
judgment purely on information supplied: occupation, relationship status, hobbies, tastes, and
interests. Defend your answer.
You can write your answers in a one whole sheet of paper and clearly screenshot
it or you can also use a word – doc and submit it through email:_________________
1. College student, age twenty, majoring in chemistry. Plans to become a doctor; single.
Favorite movie: “50 shades of Grey”. Is that a Male or a Female? Why do you think so?
2. Architect, thirty-two years old, married with two children. Likes biking and spends
occasional weekends mountain trekking. Read extensively about UFO abductions and
psychic phenomena. Is that a Male or a Female? Why do you think so?
3. College student, a twenty-three year old senior majoring in philosophy and planning to go
to law school and involved in an ongoing relationship with the same sex. Is on the college
debate team, likes dancing and watching old movies, works out at the gym. Is that a Male or
a Female? Why do you think so?
4. Sixty-eight year old elementary school English teacher, retired, married with three children
and five grandchildren. Like gardening, Shakespeare and Broadway musicals. Favorite
music: Beethoven. Is that a Male or a Female? Why do you think so?
5. Fifty-one year old real estate agent, divorced with one child. Actively dating but has no
steady relationship. Likes to travel and goes to Boracay every year. Favorite TV show is Eat
Bulaga. Is that a Male or a Female? Why do you think so?
6. High school basketball coach, age twenty-six. Married, no children. Played basketball in
high school and college, majored in physical education. Also likes to play the piano and paint.
Is that a Male or a Female? Why do you think so?
7. An eight years old and in the third grade. Want to be an archaeologist. Take drawing
lessons on weekends and favorite to watch news and documentary channels. Is that a Male
or a Female? Why do you think so?
8. Accountant, age thirty-four. No steady relationship. Like hunting, fishing and rock climbing.
Like science fiction movies. Is that a Male or a Female? Why do you think so?

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9. Auto mechanic, age twenty-two, no steady relationship and was on the track team during
high school days. Favorite movie is Cinderella and Frozen. Is that a Male or a Female? Why
do you think so?
10. An eighteen year old BS Education college student and plans to become a teacher. Not
sexually active. Doesn’t smoke or drink. Favorite TV show is Miss Universe and other Beauty
Pageant shows. Is that a Male or a Female? Why do you think so?

Other Questions:
1. Which individual is easiest to identify, and which is hardest?
2. Which clues are most significant?
3. Which clues could be changed to make the person easier to identify.
4. Would additional clues help?

Rubrics on how you are being graded:

5 points 3 points 1 point

Explanation of Issue/problem to be Issues/ problem to be Issue/problem to be
Issues considered critically is considered critically is stated considered critically is
stated clearly and but description leaves some stated without clarification
described terms undefined, ambiguities or description
comprehensively, unexplored, boundaries
delivering all relevant undetermined, and/or
information necessary for backgrounds unknown.
full understanding
Student's position Specific position Specific position Specific position
(perspective) (perspective, is (perspective) acknowledges (perspective) is stated, but
imaginative, taking into different sides of an issue. is simplistic and obvious.
account the complexities of
an issue.
Influence of context Thoroughly (systematically Questions some Shows an emerging
and assumptions and methodically) analyzes assumptions. Identifies awareness of present
own and others' several relevant contexts assumptions Begins to
assumptions and carefully when presenting a position. identify some contexts
evaluates the relevance of May be more aware of when presenting a
contexts when presenting a others' assumptions than position.
position one's own (or vice versa)
Conclusions and Conclusions and related Conclusion is logically tied to Conclusion is
related outcomes outcomes are logical and information (because inconsistently tied to some
(consequences and reflect student’s informed information is chosen to fit of the information
implications) evaluation and ability to the desired conclusion); discussed; related
place evidence and some related outcomes are outcomes are
perspectives discussed in identified clearly oversimplified.
priority order

Assessment:

Directions: Identify the following. You can write your answers in a ½ sheet of paper and
clearly screenshot it or you can also use a word – doc and submit it through email
Based on our summing up, answer the following queries.

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1 – 3. Give three definition of Sex
4 – 5. How was Gender defined? Give at least 2

ASAQ:

Answer for the following numbers, in any order;

For 1-3:
1. Biological Characteristics of being Male or a Female;
2. Physical attributes pertaining to a person’s body contours, features, hormones, genes,
chromosomes and reproductive organs (genitals);
3. Generally permanent and universal; and
4. Attributes are equally valued.
For 4-5:
1. sociologically constructed;
2. changing, time and place bound;
3. present in both women and men;
4. categorize as feminine (pagkababae) and masculine (pagkalalaki); and
5. attributes (katangian) are marked by inequality (hindi pagkakapareho

References

Online Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_and_gender_distinction

https://open.lib.umn.edu/sociology/chapter/11-1-understanding-sex-and-gender/

https://library.pcw.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Sex%20and%20gender%20in%20the%20Philippine%20
Society%20a%20discussion%20of%20issues%20.pdf

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 MODULE Unit I: UNDERSTANDING SEX AND GENDER
2 Sexual Anatomy and Physiology of Female

Intended Learning Outcome

At the end of the lesson, the students shall be able to:

1. Correctly identify and describe the functions of the internal and external sexual organs of
female reproductive organs.
2. Identify the changes that usually occur during puberty, and describe the changes that
typically happen in body’s assigned female at birth.
3. Describe the three phases of menstrual cycle.

Introduction

Humans experience various physical and emotional changes from childhood to

adulthood. These changes are gradual and progress at different ages and speed in different
people. These stages are based on human growth and development from childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
This Lesson focuses on the adolescent stage of human development, which is
characterized by dynamic changes in physical and behavioral traits. Despite differences in
physical appearance, the sexual organs of men and women arise from the same structures
and fulfill similar functions. Each person has a pair of gonads: ovaries are female gonads;
testes are the male gonads. The gonads produce germ cells and sex hormones. The female
germ cells are ova (egg). Ova and sperm are the basic units of reproduction; their union can
lead to the creation of a new life.

Reflective Questions
1. What are the female internal and external reproductive structures and its functions?
2. What are the physical changes that occur in female during puberty?
3. What are the three phases of Menstrual Cycle?

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 Lesson Proper

The Biological Female

The female sexual anatomy is designed for the production and fertilization of ovum, as
well as carrying and delivering infant offspring. Puberty signals the final development of
primary and accessory organs that support reproduction.
The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex
organs that function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive
system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to
produce gametes, and to carry a fetus to full term.
The internal sex organs are the uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The uterus or
womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the fetus. The uterus also
produces vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of sperm to the Fallopian
tubes. The ovaries produce the ova (egg cells).
The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of
the vulva including the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening. The vagina is connected to the
uterus at the cervix.[1]

Internal Female Sex Organs

The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and
ovaries.

Vagina. The vagina is a fibromuscular (made up of fibrous and muscular tissue) canal leading
from the outside of the body to the cervix of the uterus or worm. It is also referred to as the
birth canal in the context of pregnancy. The vagina accommodates the male penis during
sexual intercourse. Semen containing spermatozoa is ejaculated from the male orgasm, into
vagina potentially enabling fertilization of the egg cell (ovum) to take place.
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Cervix. The cervix is the neck of the uterus, the lower, narrow portion where it joins with the
upper part of the vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper
anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is visible, the remainder lies above the
vagina beyond view. The vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where the
fetus emerges during delivery.
Uterus. The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ. The strongest muscle in
the female body. A pear-shaped muscular organ. Its major function is to accept a fertilized
ovum which becomes implanted into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood
vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo,
develops into a fetus and gestates until childbirth. If the egg does not embed in the wall of the
uterus, a female begins menstruation.
Fallopian Tubes. The two tubes leading from the ovaries into the uterus. On maturity of an
ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and enter the
Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of cilia on the
inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is fertilized while in the
Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which
signals the beginning of pregnancy.
Ovaries. The ovaries are small, paired organs located near the lateral walls of the pelvic
cavity. These organs are responsible for the production of the egg cells (ova) and the
secretion of hormones. The process by which the egg cell (ovum) is released is
called ovulation. The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to the length of
a menstrual cycle.

The External Female Sex Organs

The external genitalia are the accessory structures of the female reproductive system
that are external to the vagina. They are also referred to as the vulva or pudendum. The
external genitalia include the labia majora, mons pubis, labia minora, clitoris, and glands
within the vestibule.
Vulva. The vulva is the outer part of the female genitals. The vulva includes the opening of
the vagina (sometimes called the vestibule), the labia majora (outer lips), the labia minora
(inner lips), and the clitoris
Mons Veneris. The fatty cushion of flesh in human females situated over the junction of the
pubic bones. During puberty, it becomes covered with hair. The mons pubis contains oil-
secreting (sebaceous) glands that release substances that are involved in sexual attraction
(pheromones).

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Labia Majora. The labia majora are prominent hair‐bearing folds of skin that represent the
lateral boundaries of the vulva and meet to form the anterior boundary of the vulva at
the mons pubis. The outer lips surrounding all the other structures.
Prepuse. Clitoral hood (foreskin above and covering clitoris).
Clitoris. Glans (head), shaft and crura (root), the clitoris is particularly sensitive to stimulation.
This is a gland that is highly sensitive and is made out of erectile tissue that can become erect
during arousal
Labia Minora. Inner lips surrounding the vestibule where sweat and oil glands, extensive
blood vessels, and nerve endings are located;
Vestibule. Area surrounding the urethral opening and vagina. Which is highly sensitive with
extensive blood vessels and nerve endings.
Urethral Opening. End of tube connecting to bladder and used for urination;
Vaginal Opening. Also called the vaginal vestibule or introitus. The opening into the vagina.
It's located between the urethra and the anus.
Perineum. Area of skin separating the genitalia from the anus; distance is less in females
than males.

Stage of Puberty
The menstrual cycle marks the beginning of puberty in females. The first episode
occurs between 11 to 15 years of age referred to as menarche. In generation of today, others
are already having their menstrual period even at the age of nine or ten years old.
Menarche is a female’s first menstrual cycle, marked by her first episode of menstrual
bleeding. Menarche occurs during puberty preceded by breast growth, axillary and pubic hair
growth, and a growth spurt.

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 Menstruation pertains to the sloughing off of the uterine lining if conception has not
occurred. It may last within two to six days which follows a cycle ranging from 24 to 42 days.
Regardless of the length of the cycle, menstruation begins about 14 day: after ovulation (plus
or minus one to two days). The overall cycle is governed by the hypothalamus as it monitors
hormone levels in the bloodstream.
It involves changes in the endometrium in response to the fluctuating blood levels of
ovarian hormones. These are three phases as described and shown in the figure below.

The Menstrual Phase

This occurs if the ovum is not fertilized and does not implant itself into the uterine lining.
The continued high levels of estrogen and progesterone causes the pituitary to stop releasing
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Estrogen and progesterone
levels decrease causing the endometrium to be sloughed off, and bleeding ensues. It is during
this time that ovarian hormones are at their lowest levels.
1. Proliferative Phase
It occurs when the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release FSH that
stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen and causes ova to mature in the ovarian follicles.
Endometrium is repaired, thickens, and becomes well-vascularized in response to increasing
levels of estrogens.
2. Secretory Phase
It occurs when the pituitary gland releases LH that causes the to release a mature
ovum and causes the remaining portion of the follicle to develop into the corpus luteum. The
corpus luteum then, produces progesterone. Endometrial glands begin to secrete nutrients,
and lining becomes more vascular in response to increasing level of progesterone.

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 Problems associated with menstruation include premenstrual syndrome (PMS) (80-
95% of women experience), dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation caused by overproduction
of prostaglandins, causing the uterine muscles to contract), and amenorrhea (disruption or
absence of menstruation). All of these involve the fluctuation of hormone. levels associated
with menstruation. At menopause (usually around age 45-50). A woman stops menstruating
as ova are no longer brought to maturity. During the three to four year. of this transition women
may experience hot flashes, night sweats, sleep disturbance. (resulting in fatigue, irritability,
short-term memory loss, difiicult concentrating), headaches, anxiety, depression, and
difficulty of becoming sexually aroused

Female secondary sexual characteristics emerge after puberty:

1. Widening of hips and pelvis accommodates giving birth, but also results in downward shift
in center of gravity.
2. Enlargement of breasts at puberty, both the glandular and fatty tissues of the breasts
develop considerably. Differences in breast size between women are primarily due to
differences in the amount of fatty tissue. It is also not uncommon for one of a woman’s breasts
to be slightly larger than the other.

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 Assessment

I. Direction: Identify the female external organs. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. ________________________ 6. ___________________________
2. ________________________ 7. ___________________________
3. ________________________ 8. ___________________________
4. ________________________ 9. ___________________________
5. ________________________ 10, ___________________________

II. What are some changes that female assigned bodies go through during puberty?
1.____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2.____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3.____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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 ASAQ

Assessment I
1. Clitoris 6. Ovary
2. Labia Majora 7. Vagina
3. Urethral Opening 8. Ovary
4. Labia Minora 9. Fallopian Tubes
5. Vagina 10. Cervix

Assessment II
1. Their hips become more rounded and they get a more defined waist.
2. The vulva, vagina and nipples get bigger and the breasts begin to develop.
3. Armpit and pubic hair will start to grow

References

Books/ Offline Source:

Atty. Eric Paul D. Peralta, Nepthaly Joel B. Botor, Dr. Teri Marie P. Laude. A Course Module
for Gender and Society: A Human Ecological Approach. Rex Bookstore

Physiology, Female Reproduction. Julie Rosner; Tijana Samardzic; Manbeer S.

Online Source:

Sarao Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537132

Female Reproductive System https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/female-repro.

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 Module
Sexual Anatomy and Physiology of Male
3

Intended Learning Outcome

At the end of the session the students should:

1. Be able to identify the major external and internal male sex structures and the
function they serve
2. Determine what physiological processes cause an erection
3. Recognize how psychological and physiological factors interact to influence erections
4. Know the importance of conducting regular genital self-exams
5. Be aware of the issues associated with their sexuality

Introduction

Studies on different aspects of manhood were made even before the coming of the
21st Century. Several studies arose although there is a clear dominance of men over global
economic and political power from the early course of life.
Large numbers of men now acknowledge that their position is under challenge, that
what they once took for granted must be thought about, making men’s studies and masculinity
became popular.
This part of the lesson will give us an understanding of different ideas as stated above
on its objectives with an inclusion on how male may be differ from its counterpart gender, the
female.

Lesson Proper

A critical event for the development of reproductive organs takes place about one
month before birth wherein the male testes formed in the abdominal cavity at approximately
the same location as the female ovaries, descend to enter the scrotum. If this normal event
fails, it may lead to cryptorchidism. A condition which usually occurs

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in young males and causes sterility that is why surgery is usually performed during childhood
to solve this problem.
During the early stages of human development, the embryonic reproductive structures
of males and females are alike and are said to be in the indifferent stage. When the primary
reproductive structures are formed, development of the accessory structures and external
genitalia begins. The formation of male or female structures depends on the presence of
testosterone. Usually, once formed, The embryonic testes release Testosterone and the
formation of the duct system and external genitalia follows. In the case of female embryos
that form ovaries, it will cause the development of the female ducts and external genitalia
since testosterone hormone is not produced.
Any intervention with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo
results in strange abnormalities. For instance, a genetic male develops the female accessory
structures and external genitalia if the embryonic testes fail to produce testosterone. On the
other hand, if a genetic female is exposed to testosterone, the embryo has ovaries but may
develop male accessory ducts and glands as well as male reproductive organ and an empty
scrotum. As a result, pseudohermaphrodites are formed. They are the individuals having
accessory reproductive structures that do not match their gonads. On the other hand,
hermaphrodites are those individuals who possess both ovarian and testicular tissues, a
condition which is rare in nature. Now a days many pseudohermaphrodites undergo sex
change operation to have their outer selves or the external genital fir their inner selves or their
gonads.
An abnormal separation of chromosomes during the period of meiosis can lead to
congenital defects of the reproductive system. For instance, males who possess extra female
sex chromosomes have normal male accessory structures but atrophy of their testes cause
them to be sterile. Other abnormalities result when a child has only one sex chromosome.
An X_ female appears normal but lack ovaries. Y_ males die during development. Other
much less serious conditions also affect males primarily such as phimosis, which is due to a
narrowing of the foreskin of the male reproductive structure and misplaced urethral openings.

Generally, between the ages of 10 and 15 years old the reproductive organs grow to
their adult size during puberty period and become functional under the influence of rising
levels of gonadal hormones. After this time, reproductive capability continues until old age in
males and menopause in females.
The changes that occur during puberty is similar in sequence in all individuals but the
age which they occur differs among individuals. In males, as they reach the age of 13, puberty
is characterized by the increase in the size of the reproductive organs followed by the
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appearance of hair in the pubic area, axillary and face. The reproductive organs continue to
grow for two years until sexual maturation marked by the presence of mature semen and
testes.
In female, the budding of their breast usually occurring at the age of 11 signals their
puberty stage. Menarche is the first menstrual period of females which happen two years
after the start of puberty where hormones play an important role in the regulation of ovulation
and fertility of the male counterpart, the females.

A Cross-Section Side View Of The Male Reproductive Organs

For additional information you may click the link below:

https://www.webmd.com/men/picture-of-the-penis#1

Naming the Parts of Male Sexual Anatomy and their Brief Description:

The Penis – A male sexual organ consisting of the internal root and the external shaft and
glans
Root – The portion of the penis that extends internally into the pelvic cavity
Shaft – the lenght of the penis between the glans and the body
Glans – The head of the penis which is richly endowed with nerve endings
Cavernous body – the structures in the shaft of the penis that engorge with blood during
sexual arousal
Spongy body – a cylinder that forms a bulb at the base of the penis, extends up into the
penile shaft and forms the penile glans
Scrotum – the pouch of skin of the external male genitals that encloses the testes
Testis – male gonad inside the scrotum that produces sperm and sex hormones

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Spermatic cord – a cord attached to the testis that contains the vas deferens, blood vessels,
nerves and cremasteric muscle fibers
Seminiferous tubules – thin, coiled structures in the testes in which sperm are produced
Interstitial cells – cells located between the seminiferous tubules that are the major source
of androgen in males
Epididymis – the structure along the back of each testis in which sperm maturation occurs
Vans deferens – a sperm-carrying tube that begins at the testis and ends at the urethra
Urethra – the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to the outside of the body
Seminal vesicles - small glands adjacent to the terminals of the vas deferens that secrete
an alkaline fluid (conducive to sperm motility) that constitutes the greatest portion of the
volume of seminal fluid released during ejaculation
Prostate gland – a gland located at the base of the bladder that produces about 30% of the
seminal fluid released during ejaculation

Cowper’s glands – two pea-sized glands located along side the base of the urethra in the
male that secrete an alkaline fluid during sexual arousal
Semen or seminal fluid – a viscous fluid ejaculated through the penis that contains sperm
and fluids from the prostate, seminal vesicles and Cowper’s glands

For additional information please click the link below:

https://www.webmd.com/men/picture-of-the-penis#3

The Interior Structure of the Penis

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a. View from above
It consists of nerves, blood vessels, fibrous tissue and parallel cylinders of spongy
tissue. It does not contain a bone or an abundance of muscular tissue, contrary to some
people’s belief. However, an extensive network of muscles is present at the base of the penis.
These muscles help eject both semen and urine through the urethra

b. Cross section of the penis

The underside of the uncircumcised penis, showing the location of the corona and
frenulum – two areas on the penis that harbor a high concentration of sensitive nerve ending

Foreskin or prepuce - A covering of the skin over the penile glans

Corona – the rim of the penile glans

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Frenelum – A highly sensitive thin strip of skin that connects the glans to the shaft on the
underside of the penis

ACTIVITY

Direction: Make further studies and research on the following before having your ideas:
1. Is being circumcised affects a man’s sexual response and pleasure?
2. If you have a new born son, will you have him circumcised?

Rubrics on how you will be rated

5 points 3 points 1 point

Explanation of Issue/problem to be Issues/ problem to be Issue/problem to be
Issues considered critically is considered critically are considered critically is
stated clearly and stated but description leaves stated without clarification
described some terms undefined, or description
comprehensively, ambiguities unexplored,
delivering all relevant boundaries undetermined,
information necessary for and/or backgrounds
full understanding unknown.
Student's position Specific position Specific position Specific position
(perspective) (perspective, is (perspective) acknowledges (perspective) is stated, but
imaginative, taking into different sides of an issue. is simplistic and obvious.
account the complexities of
an issue.
Influence of context Thoroughly (systematically Questions some Shows an emerging
and assumptions and methodically) analyzes assumptions. Identifies awareness of present
own and others' several relevant contexts assumptions Begins to
assumptions and carefully when presenting a position. identify some contexts
evaluates the relevance of May be more aware of when presenting a
contexts when presenting a others' assumptions than position.
position one's own (or vice versa)
Conclusions and Conclusions and related Conclusion is logically tied to Conclusion is
related outcomes outcomes are logical and information (because inconsistently tied to some
(consequences and reflect student’s informed information is chosen to fit of the information
implications) evaluation and ability to the desired conclusion); discussed; related
place evidence and some related outcomes are outcomes are
perspectives discussed in identified clearly oversimplified.
priority order

Male Sexual Functions

We have looked at the various parts of the male sexual system and now we will
describe their process of functioning :
A. Erection – the process by which the penis or clitoris engorges with blood and increases in
size
B. Ejaculation – the process by which semen is expelled from the body through the penis
The penis, the male organ of copulation, is partly inside and partly outside the body.
The inner part, attached to the bony margins of the pubic arch (that part of the pelvis directly
in front and at the base of the trunk), is called the root of the penis. The second, or outer,
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portion is free, pendulous, and enveloped all over in skin; it is termed the body of the penis.
The organ is composed chiefly of cavernous or erectile tissue that becomes engorged with
blood to produce considerable enlargement and erection. The penis is traversed by a tube,
the urethra, which serves as a passage both for urine and for semen.
The body of the penis, sometimes referred to as the shaft, is cylindrical in shape when
flaccid but when erect is somewhat triangular in cross section, with the angles rounded. This
condition arises because the right corpus cavernosum and the left corpus cavernosum, the
masses of erectile tissue, lie close together in the dorsal part of the penis, while a single body,
the corpus spongiosum, which contains the urethra, lies in a midline groove on the
undersurface of the corpora cavernosa. The dorsal surface of the penis is that which faces
upward and backward during erection.
The slender corpus spongiosum reaches beyond the extremities of the erectile corpora
cavernosa and at its outer end is enlarged considerably to form a soft, conical, sensitive
structure called the glans penis. The base of the glans has a projecting margin, the corona,
and the groove where the corona overhangs the corpora cavernosa
is referred to as the neck of the penis. The glans is traversed by the urethra, which ends in a
vertical, slitlike, external opening. The skin over the penis is thin and loosely adherent and at
the neck is folded forward over the glans for a variable distance to form the prepuce
or foreskin. A median fold, the frenulum of the prepuce, passes to the undersurface of the
glans to reach a point just behind the urethral opening. The prepuce can usually be readily
drawn back to expose the glans.
The root of the penis comprises two crura, or projections, and the bulb of the penis.
The crura and the bulb are attached respectively to the edges of the pubic arch and to the
perineal membrane (the fibrous membrane that forms a floor of the trunk). Each crus is an
elongated structure covered by the ischiocavernosus muscle, and each extends forward,
converging toward the other, to become continuous with one of the corpora cavernosa. The
oval bulb of the penis lies between the two crura and is covered by the bulbospongiosus
muscle. It is continuous with the corpus spongiosum. The urethra enters it on the flattened
deep aspect that lies against the perineal membrane, traverses its substances, and continues
into the corpus spongiosum.
The two corpora cavernosa are close to one another, separated only by a partition in
the fibrous sheath that encloses them. The erectile tissue of the corpora is divided by
numerous small fibrous bands into many cavernous spaces, relatively empty when the penis
is flaccid but engorged with blood during erection. The structure of the tissue of the corpus
spongiosum is similar to that of the corpora cavernosa, but there is more smooth muscle and

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elastic tissue. A deep fascia or sheet of connective tissue, surrounding the structures in the
body of the penis is prolonged to form the suspensory ligament, which anchors the penis to
the pelvic bones at the midpoint of the pubic arch.
The penis has a rich blood supply from the internal pudendal artery, a branch of the
internal iliac artery, which supplies blood to the pelvic structures and organs, the buttocks,
and the inside of the thighs. Erection is brought about by distension of the cavernous spaces
with blood, which is prevented from draining away by compression of the veins in the area.
The penis is amply supplied with sensory and autonomic (involuntary) nerves. Of the
autonomic nerve fibres the sympathetic fibres cause constriction of blood vessels, and the
parasympathetic fibres cause their dilation. It is usually stated that ejaculation is brought
about by the sympathetic system, which at the same time inhibits the desire to urinate and
also prevents the semen from entering the bladder.
The scrotum is a pouch of skin lying below the pubic symphysis and just in front of the
upper parts of the thighs. It contains the testes and lowest parts of the spermatic cord. A
scrotal septum or partition divides the pouch into two compartments and arises from a ridge,
or raphe, visible on the outside of the scrotum. The raphe turns forward onto the undersurface
of the penis and is continued back onto the perineum (the area between the legs and as far
back as the anus). This arrangement indicates the bilateral origin of the scrotum from two
genital swellings that lie one on each side of the base of the phallus, the precursor of the
penis or clitoris in the embryo. The swellings are also referred to as the labioscrotal swellings,
because in females they remain separate to form the labia majora and in males they unite to
form the scrotum.
The skin of the scrotum is thin, pigmented, devoid of fatty tissue, and more or less
folded and wrinkled. There are some scattered hairs and sebaceous glands on its surface.
Below the skin is a layer of involuntary muscle, the dartos, which can alter the appearance of
the scrotum. On exposure of the scrotum to cold air or cold water, the dartos contracts and
gives the scrotum a shortened, corrugated appearance; warmth causes the scrotum to
become smoother, flaccid, and less closely tucked in around the testes. Beneath the dartos
muscle are layers of fascia continuous with those forming the coverings of each of the two
spermatic cords, which suspend the testes within the scrotum and contain each ductus
deferens, the testicular blood and lymph vessels, the
artery to the cremaster muscle (which draws the testes upward), the artery to each ductus
deferens, the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve, and the testicular
network of nerves.

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 The scrotum is supplied with blood by the external pudendal branches of the femoral
artery, which is the chief artery of the thigh, and by the scrotal branches of the internal
pudendal artery. The veins follow the arteries. The lymphatic drainage is to
the lymph nodes in the groin.
The two testes, or testicles, which usually complete their descent into the scrotum from
their point of origin on the back wall of the abdomen in the seventh month after conception,
are suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic cords. Each testis is 4 to 5 cm (about 1.5 to
2 inches) long and is enclosed in a fibrous sac, the tunica albuginea. This sac is lined
internally by the tunica vasculosa, containing a network of blood vessels, and is covered by
the tunica vaginalis, which is a continuation of the membrane that lines the abdomen and
pelvis. The tunica albuginea has extensions into each testis that act as partial partitions to
divide the testis into approximately 250 compartments,
Each lobule contains one or more convoluted tubules, or narrow tubes,
where sperm are formed. The tubules, if straightened, would extend about 70 cm (about 28
inches). The multistage process of sperm formation, which takes about 60 days, goes on in
the lining of the tubules, starting with the spermatogonia, or primitive sperm cells, in the
outermost layer of the lining. Spermatozoa (sperm) leaving the tubules are not capable of
independent motion, but they undergo a further maturation process in the ducts of the male
reproductive tract; the process may be continued when, after ejaculation, they pass through
the female tract. Maturation of the sperm in the female tract is called capacitation.
Each spermatozoon is a slender elongated structure with a head, a neck, a middle
piece, and a tail. The head contains the cell nucleus. When the spermatozoon is fully mature,
it is propelled by the lashing movements of the tail.
Illustration showing the Male Erection Period

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 Penis size does not significantly influence the ability to give or receive pleasure during
penile – vaginal intercourse. Nor is it correlated with other physical variables, such as body,
shape or height. Furthermore, Phalloplasty, or penis augmentation, which involves
lengthening the penis, increasing its girth or a combination of both can be
disfiguring and/or dangerous . This are only some of the concerns about sexual functioning.

For further reading please click the link below:

https://www.britannica.com/science/human-reproductive-system/The-testes

Two Stages of Ejaculation

1. Emission phase – or the first stage where the prostate, seminal vesicles and ampulla
undergo contractions. These contractions force various secretions into the ejaculatory ducts
and prostatic urethra. Both internal and external urethral sphincters

close, tapping seminal fluid in the urethral bulb. It then expands like a balloon. A man typically
experiences this first stage as a subjective sense that orgasm is inevitable, the “point of no
return” or “ejaculatory inevitability”
2. Expulsion phase – or the second stage of male orgasm. It’s the moment where the semen
is expelled from the penis by muscular contraction along the entire urethral route. The external
urethral sphincter relaxes, allowing fluid to pass through, while the internal sphincter remains
contracted to prevent the escape of urine. Tthe first two or three muscle contraction around
the base of the penis are quite strong and occur at close interval. Most of the seminal fluid is
expelled in spurts corresponding to these contractions. Several more muscle responses
typically occur, with a gradual diminishing of intensity and lengthening of time interval between
contractions where the entire expulsion stage usually occurs in 3 to 10 seconds.

Brief Comparison of a Male and Female

SOCIAL ROLE FATHER MOTHER
Sex Male Female

Gender Masculine Feminine

Sex Chromosomes XY XX

Sex Hormones Testosterone/ Androgen Estrogen/ Progesterone

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 Sex Cell Sperm Cell Egg Cell
Spermatozoon/ Spermatozoa Ovum/ Ova

Gonadal Sex Testes/ Testis Ovaries/ Ovary

(Gonads)

Symbol Use

Organ Responsible Penis Clitoris

for Sexual Orgasm

The Male and Female Reproductive System

ASSESSMENT

Matching Type: Macth Column A with that of column B. Write your answer on the space
provided before the number.
Column A Column B
_____1. The male gonads a. Corona
_____2. The rim of the penile glans b. Cowper’s glands
_____3. A male sexual organ c. Erection
_____4. Glands that secrete an alkaline fluid during d. Expulsion phase
sexual arousal e. Prostate gland
_____5. A sperm-carrying tube that begins at the f. Semen
testis and ends at the urethra g. Testis
_____6. The second stage of male orgasm h. The Penis
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_____7. The process by which the penis or clitoris i. Urethra
engorges with blood and increases in size j. Vans deferens
_____8. A viscous fluid ejaculated through the penis
that contains sperm
_____9. The tube through which urine passes from the
bladder to the outside of the body
____10. A gland that produces the seminal fluid released
during ejaculation

ASAQ

1. Testis 6. Expulsion phase

2. Corona 7. Erection
3. The Penis 8. Semen
4. Cowper’s glands 9. Urethra
5. Vans deferens 10. Prostate gland

REFERENCES

Book/ Offline Source:

Lalumiere, M., Blanchard, R., & Zucker, K (2000). Sexual Orientation and
Handedness in Men and Women: A meta-analysis, Psychological Bulletin

Online Source:
https://www.webmd.com/men/picture-of-the-penis#1
https://www.webmd.com/men/picture-of-the-penis#3
https://www.britannica.com/science/human-reproductive-system/The-testes

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 MODULE Unit II: THEORIES OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT
4 Biological Theories of Gender

Intended Learning Outcome

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Know how chromosomes, hormones, and evolution are theorized to influence gender
development
2. Discuss the role of chromosomes and Hormones in Gender Development

Introduction

Biological theories are the earliest approaches in explaining the physical and
behavioral development of a man and a woman. According to this theory, gender
development is inconsistent; the theory still provides interesting insights on the possible effect
of genes and hormones on one’s femininity and masculinity.
People often get confused between the terms sex and gender. Sex refers to biological
differences between males and females. For example, chromosomes (female XX, male XY),
reproductive organs (ovaries, testes), hormones (estrogen, testosterone).
Gender refers to the cultural differences expected (by society / culture) of men and women
according to their sex. A person’s sex does not change from birth, but their gender can.
In the past people tend to have very clear ideas about what was appropriate to each
sex and anyone behaving differently was regarded as deviant.
Today we accept a lot more diversity and see gender as a continuum (i.e. scale) rather
than two categories. So men are free to show their “feminine side” and women are free to
show their “masculine traits”.
The biological approach suggests there is no distinction between sex & gender, thus
biological sex creates gendered behavior. Gender is determined by two biological factors:
hormones and chromosomes.

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 Lesson Proper

THE ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES IN GENDER DEVELOPMENT

The human body has 46 chromosomes typically arranged in 23 pairs wherein the 23rd
pair determines the biological sex as either female (XX chromosomes) or male (XY
chromosomes)
The biological approach in gender development hold that the XY chromosome
contains genes responsible for masculine traits such as aggressiveness, competitive, risk
takers among others(McLeod,2014).These genes were also attributed as contributors to the
high mortality rate among men. Additionally, biological views assert that the XY chromosome
is not as stable as the XX; and that Y chromosome fragile while t is he X chromosome is
sturdy. Thus, aside from the behaviors that would cause high mortality rate in men, they also
tend to have more health problems. Women, on the other hand, have different chromosomal
structures and these are said to be responsible for feminine traits such as being caring and
nurturing. Moreover, having traits that are “homey” rather than physical and aggressive,
women are said to enjoy better health than men.
Biological theory posited that masculine and feminine traits are already coded in the
chromosomes. These coded traits manifest in a person’s look and behavior that explain the
physical and psychological differences between males and females

TYPICAL SEX CHROMOSOMES

However, there are instances when chromosomes deviate from the usual XX/XY
pairing. This condition is called typical sex chromosomes. Having an a typical sex
chromosomes means the person’s body and behavior looks like a typical male or female, but
these chromosomes do not align to their birth sex.People with typical sex chromosome also
have distinct physical and psychological manifestations.
SWYER SYNDROME is a condition that affects sexual development. Sexual development is
usually determined by an individual's chromosomes; however, in Swyer syndrome, sexual
development does not match the affected individual's chromosomal makeup. People usually
have 46 chromosomes in each cell.
1. The sex-determining Region Y gene (SRY gene) in the Y chromosome carries

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 the gene that causes the embryo to develop testes. If the embryo does not have a Y
chromosome, it will not have the SRY gene and the embryo would develop
an ovary.
2. Swyer syndrome is a condition when the Y chromosome does not carry the SRY
gene or that the SRY gene does not activate.
3. This condition affects 1 in 80,000 people
4. People with Swyer syndrome have a typical female reproductive system but the
gonads are underdeveloped. They are typically raised as females, and based on physical
appearance their community would identify them as females. However, clinically, their
chromosomes are X’i.

KLINEFELTER SYNDROME -is a genetic condition that results when a boy is born with
an extra copy of the X chromosome. Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic condition affecting
males, and it often isn't diagnosed until adulthood
1. This condition affects 1 in 500 to 1000 men
2. The person is biologically male and has the physical appearance of a male.
3. However, this person carries an extra X chromosome in his chromosomal pairing,
hence, XX’/.
4. Although physical appearance is male, the extra X chromosome causes less body hair,
underdeveloped genitals, and shows breast development.
5. As babies and all the way to adulthood, men with XX’/chromosomes are described as
having a mild temperament, passive, and cooperative. Researchers assert that these
characteristics in XX’/ males suggest that aggression level has a biological component.

THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN GENDER DEVELOPMENT

Hormones help regulate many bodily processes, such as appetite, sleep, and growth.
Sex hormones are those that play an essential role in sexual development and
reproduction. The main glands that produce sex hormones are the adrenal glands and the
gonads, which include the ovaries in females and testes in males.
Biologically theory claims that hormones determine how girls and boys behave. For
example, in most common cultures, males are more aggressive in their behavior than
females. This phenomenon, according to biological views, is explained by studies linking
aggressive behavior to androgen in males.
Androgen is a hormone present in both men and women. However, androgen is typically
assigned as a male hormone because it is present in much higher levels in men and

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significantly factor in male traits such as aggression, competitiveness, spatila ability, and
higher sexual drive.
Some clinical findings also claimed that a female child exposed to high levels of
androgen while in her mother's womb tend to be as physically active as boys (Hines&
Spencer, 2015) another study claimed that a girl whose twin is a boy tends to be more
physically active and adventurous than a girl whose twin is also a girl (Butikofer, et al., 2019)
The researchers attributed this difference in behavior to prenatal exposure on higher
presence of androgen
Hormones believe to highly influence gender development are testosterone and
estrogen.

TESTOSTERONE
Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and anabolic steroid. In male
humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such
as testes and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as
increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair.
1. A major androgen hormone in males
2. Produced predominantly by males(females produce it but at much lower levels than
males)
3. Controls the development of male sex organs.
4. Claimed to influence specific areas in brain development associated with masculine
behavior such as competitiveness, spatial skills, and aggressiveness among others.
5. Some studies claimed that when XX chromosome was exposed to high levels of
prenatal testosterone, the female child prevalently developed into a female adult who
generally did not identify with the female gender and whose sexual orientation was
towards other females. The researchers found these results significant as it
demonstrated the impact of testosterone level on a person’s behavior and that
testosterone has a key role in gender development.(Meyer-Bahlburg,et al.,2008)

ESTROGEN
Estrogen is a hormone that plays various roles in the body. In females, it helps develop
and maintain both the reproductive system and female characteristics, such as breasts and
pubic hair. Estrogen contributes to cognitive health, bone health, the function of
the cardiovascular system, and other essential bodily processes.

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 1. Primarily a female hormone(males produce it too but at a much lower level than
females)
2. Determines female sexual characteristics.
3. Linked in the development of feminine body shapes and facial features.
4. Found to enhance feelings of intimacy, attachment and the desire to have more
children.
A study found that women with higher estrogen levels desired having more children.
These same women who wanted to have more children were also described as having very
many features. The study concluded that strong maternal tendencies are related to having a
more feminine physique, and in effect reflects the influence of the hormone estrogen on this
typically feminine trait (Smith, et al., 2012)

EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION
Chromosomes and hormones influence gender development. These traits were
passed on from our parents to us, and will also be passed on to our children. But how did
these traits get into our genes in the first place?
The evolutionary explanation to gender development is a biological approach. The
focal argument of the evolutionary approach is that the human brain learned .Through
learning, the brain evolved and gradually gained abilities that increased survival chances.
Prehistoric human species that possessed adaptive traits had higher chances of survival and
better chances of procreating, thus passing their genes to successive generations, who
further evolved to not only survive but also thrive (Zosuls, et al;2011)
The core basic assumptions of evolutionary theory are the following:
1. All living species struggle for existence
2. Variations in heredity traits exist within species.
3. The result of the first two assumptions is natural selection
Natural Selection is the process by which organisms that can adapt to the environment
tend to survive and produce offspring (Zirkle, 1941) in prehistoric times, reproduction was part
of survival and evolutionary explanation asserts that even in these times, the two sexes
recognized they have different social roles but both need each other to survive. Therefore,
the two sexes developed strategies in relation to their social role to ensure the survival of their
species. Thus, the evolution of the prehistoric male’s brain and the prehistoric female’s brain
favored different adaptive traits that could explain why men and women in general look, think
and behave differently.

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 The evolutionary approach argues that gender development started as an adaptive
trait based on social role.

Activity

Answer the following questions

1. How is a baby’s sex determined?
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What does the Y-chromosome carry and what does it do?
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the roles of Hormones?
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Assessment

Identify the following

__________________1.These is strands of DNA found in the nucleus of living cells that
carry information in the form of genes.
__________________2. A hormone from the androgen group that's produced mainly in
the mail testes (and in small amounts in the female ovaries)
__________________3. It is the process by which organisms that can adapt to the
environment tend to survive and produce offspring.
__________________4.In females, it helps develop and maintain both the reproductive
system and female characteristics, such as breasts and pubic hair.
___________________5. A hormone present in both men and women
___________________6. Refers to biological differences between males and females.
___________________7. Refers to the cultural differences expected (by society /
culture) of men and women according to their sex.
___________________8. A condition that affects sexual development
___________________9. It is a genetic condition that results when a boy is born with
an extra copy of the X chromosome.
___________________10. A condition when chromosomes deviate from the usual
XX/XY pairing.

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 ASAQ
Key to Correction
1. Chromosomes 6. Sex
2. Hormones 7.gender
3. Natural Selection 8. SWYER syndrome
4. Estrogen 9.KLINEFELTER Syndrome
5. Androgen 10.Typical Sex Chromosome

Rubrics on how you will be graded

5 points 3 points 1 point

Explanation of Issue/problem to be Issues/ problem to be Issue/problem to be
Issues considered critically is considered critically are considered critically is
stated clearly and stated but description leaves stated without clarification
described some terms undefined, or description
comprehensively, ambiguities unexplored,
delivering all relevant boundaries undetermined,
information necessary for and/or backgrounds
full understanding unknown.
Student's position Specific position Specific position Specific position
(perspective) (perspective, is (perspective) acknowledges (perspective) is stated, but
imaginative, taking into different sides of an issue. is simplistic and obvious.
account the complexities of
an issue.
Influence of context Thoroughly (systematically Questions some Shows an emerging
and assumptions and methodically) analyzes assumptions. Identifies awareness of present
own and others' several relevant contexts assumptions Begins to
assumptions and carefully when presenting a position. identify some contexts
evaluates the relevance of May be more aware of when presenting a
contexts when presenting a others' assumptions than position.
position one's own (or vice versa)
Conclusions and Conclusions and related Conclusion is logically tied to Conclusion is
related outcomes outcomes are logical and information (because inconsistently tied to some
(consequences and reflect student’s informed information is chosen to fit of the information
implications) evaluation and ability to the desired conclusion); discussed; related
place evidence and some related outcomes are outcomes are
perspectives discussed in identified clearly oversimplified.
priority order

References

Online Source:

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/biogender-130319054423-phpapp02/95/biological-
theories-of-gender-1-638.jpg?cb=1363677766

https://www.simplypsychology.org/gender-biology.html

https://youtu.be/N9pu2ivjANA
https://www.google.com/search?q=swyer+syndrome&sxsrf=ALeKk02hvwZLzG11EQIuN4Lq
6OQ-
HJic_g:1595118717371&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=AY9SkmbTOmwOoM%252CkHZ
42| P a g e
_R8E2J9II1M%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-kTdxLa0-UR4mKjKFvTGjZE-
ZX36Ow&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiuyZekiNjqAhUSyYsBHS2PAn4Q_h0wA3oECAoQCg#imgr
c=AY9SkmbTOmwOoM
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/klinefelter-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-
20353949#:~:text=Klinefelter%20syndrome%20is%20a%20genetic,isn't%20diagnosed%20
until%20adulthood.
https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/the-role-of-chromosomes-and-hormones-
6336352/packs/9733245

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 MODULE Unit II: THEORIES OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT
5 Psychodynamic Theory

Intended Learning Outcome

At the end of the lesson the student should be able to:

1. Describe the assumption of the psychodynamic perspective on personality
development.
2. Define and describe the psychosexual stages of personality development.
3. Define and describe the nature and function of the id, ego, and superego
4. Define and recognize the following defense mechanisms:

Introduction

“In human beings pure masculinity or femininity is not to be found either

in a psychological sense.”
-Sigmund Freud

Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, who created an
entirely new approach to the understanding of the human personality. He is regarded as one
of the most influential and controversial minds of the 20 th century. Freud’s view
psychodynamic theory is actually a collection of psychological theories which emphasize the
importance of drives and other forces in human functioning, especially unconscious drives.
The approach holds that childhood experience is the basis for adult personality and
relationships.

Lesson Proper

Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind

According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he
proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego.
Conflicts among these three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of
them “desires,” determines how we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike
in any given situation determines how we will resolve the conflict
two overarching behavioral tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking
drives vs. our socialized internal control over those drives.

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Id. Operate by the pleasure principle by seeking immediate gratification of instinctual
needs.
Ego. The executive of the personality. The goal of the rational ego is served by the
reality principle, it finds realistic ways of gratifying the instinct.
Superego. The judicial branch of the personality. It is the person’ moral arbiter. The
superego is linked to conscience because it exerts influence on what pne considers
right and wrong.

Level of Consciousness
To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared
the mind to an iceberg. He said that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious, and the
rest of our mind is unconscious. Our unconscious refers to that mental activity of which we
are unaware and are unable to access. According to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires
are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression.

Freud Psychosexual Stages

Stage Stage range Type of personality
1. Oral Birth to 18 months Oral receptive and oral aggressive
2. Anal 18 months- 3yrs old Anal retentive and anal expulsive
3. Phallic 3 to 6 years old Oedipus Complex and Electra Complex
4. Latency 6 to puberty Children spend more time and interact
mostly with same sex peers
5. Genital Puberty onward Individual are attracted to opposite sex
peers

Freud believed that every child goes through a sequence of developmental stages and
that the child’s experiences during these stages determine adult personality
characteristics. Each stage has an erogenous zone associated with it which is the greatest
source of stimulation and pleasure. This may be the mouth, anus and the genital. Fixation
result from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual stage.

Defense Mechanism
Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to
protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.
1. Repression is an unconscious defense mechanism employed by the ego to keep
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disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious.
2. Regression is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of
unacceptable thoughts or impulses
3. Denial is the refusal to accept reality or fact, acting as if a painful event, thought or
feeling did not exist.
4. Projection is the misattribution of a person’s undesired thoughts, feelings, or
impulses onto another person who does not have those thoughts, feelings or impulses.
5. Reaction Formation is the converting of unwanted or dangerous thoughts, feelings or
impulses into their opposites.
6. Displacement is the redirecting of thoughts feelings and impulses directed at one person
or object, but taken out upon another person or object.
7. Rationalization is putting something into a different light or offering a different explanation
for one’s perceptions or behaviors in the face of a changing reality.
8. Sublimation is simply the channeling of unacceptable impulses, thoughts and emotions into
more acceptable ones.
9. Compensation is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by
emphasizing strength in other arenas. By emphasizing and focusing on one’s strengths, a
person is recognizing they cannot be strong at all things and in all areas in their lives.
10. Regression. Is a mechanism in which a person returns to an earlier stage of development
when he or she experiences stress.

ACTIVITY

1. Give three (3) examples of behavior that is influenced by the id, behavior that is
influenced by the ego, and behavior that is influenced by the superego. Explain.
2. Where might defense mechanisms have particular survival value? Where might
they be most problematic?
3. Which defense mechanisms strike you as most mature? Which seem the most
primitive? Explain.

Assessment

I. Identify the following items.

___________ 1. The unconscious love and sexual desire of male children for their mother.
___________ 2. Which stage of Freud’s psychosexual theory involve’s repressing sexual
urges and devoting the time to other activities.

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___________3. It comprise mental processes but that influence judgments,
feelings, or behavior.
___________4. What Freud’s structure of mind, which operates when Simon
lends his robot to his friend Bren who was crying for it?
___________5. A hungry baby cried until he was fed. What structure of the mind
is being asked?
II. Complete the table below
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Stage Erogenous Zone Fixation
1. Oral
2. Anal
3. Phallic
4. Latency
5. Genital

ASAQ I:

I.
1. Oedipus complex
2. Latency stage
3. Unconscious mind
4. Superego
5. Id
II.
1. Oral - mouth - smoking , nail biting
2. Anal – anus – bowel
3. Phallic – sex organ - penis/ penis envy( girl)
4. Latency –calm
5. Genital – sex organ – relation to opposite sex

References

Book/ Offline Source

Corpuz, B. (2010), Child and Adolescenct Development. Quezon City. Lorimar
Publishing, Inc.

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Online Source:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/psychodynamic-
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wsu-sandbox/chapter/freud-and-the-psychodynamic-
perspective/#Figure_11_02_Iceberg date retrieved July 2020
https://psychcentral.com/lib/15-common-defense-mechanisms/date retrieved July2020
https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/freud-psychosexual-development/date retrieved
July 2020
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-bhcc-intropsych/chapter/freud-and-the-
psychodynamic-perspective/date retrieved July 2020

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 MODULE Unit II: THEORIES OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT
6 Foundational Sociological Theory

Intended Learning Outcome

At the en of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. To be familiarized with the different sociological theories on Women, Gender, and
Development
2. To apply and contextualize sociological theories in understanding Filipina women
issues

Introduction

It is equally important to look into the sociological theories in Gender and Development
having learned about its biological and psychological counterparts. Since gender is a social
construct, an idea or concept created and accepted by members of the society. So it is also
important to learn the sociological underpinnings of gender and development given the role
played by the field of sociology in pioneering gender study.
Despite the numerous studies and sociological theories produced in the West by
academic scholars the criticism for it being “WEIRD” where participants of these studies are
overwhelming Western, educated, and from industrialized, rich, and democratic countries are
more emphasized than ever before. Their experiences may not necessarily reflect and should
not be generalized with those experiences of their counterparts from the East and “non-
WEIRD” context. A particular gender theory that will be discussed is intersectionality a
critique to existing gender theories proposed by black women and women of color.
So this module will also provide an overview of the “buhay na karanasan ng mga
kababaihang Pilipina”. There’s a need to also highlight the initiatives of various Filipino
women and their movement that gave rise to the awareness and recognition for the respect
of rights and contribution of women to nation building. From the Katipunera’s struggles from
liberation from colonizers as counterpart of the Katipuneros,

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to the present day social media advocacy of #Hija Ako not to be told how to dress and get
raped, there are a lot of women issues that needs to be addressed in a patriarchal society.
So through this course and this module you will be provided with an overview on
applying and using theories to provide you of a framework or paradigm to develop your own
question, provide an understanding of issues and interpret those data and information relating
to gender and development. As student you are encouraged to challenge and rethink your
understanding of women and gender rights, respect and support effort for women’s
empowerment and equality in order to realize a better and just humane society.

Lesson Proper

Structural Functionalism1
The Functionalist Perspective: A broad social theory that sees society as a complex
system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
The functionalist perspective sees society as a complex system whose parts work
together to promote solidarity and stability. This approach looks at society through a macro-
level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole,
and looks at both social structure and social functions.
Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent
elements, namely: norms, customs, traditions, and institutions. A common analogy,
popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as “organs” that work toward
the proper functioning of the “body” as a whole.
The functionalist perspective of gender inequality was most robustly articulated in the
1940s and 1950s, and largely developed by Talcott Parsons’ model of the nuclear family. This
theory suggests that gender inequalities exist as an efficient way to create a division of labor,
or as a social system in which particular segments are clearly responsible for certain,
respective acts of labor. The division of labor works to maximize resources and efficiency. A
structural functionalist view of gender inequality applies the division of labor to view
predefined gender roles as complementary: women take care of the home while men provide
for the family. Thus gender, like other social institutions, contributes to the stability of society
as a whole.
In sociological research, functional prerequisites are the basic needs (food, shelter,
clothing, and money) that an individual requires to live above the poverty line. Functional
prerequisites may also refer to the factors that allow a society to maintain social order.

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According to structural functionalists, gender serves to maintain social order by providing and
ensuring the stability of such functional prerequisites.
This view has been criticized for reifying, rather than reflecting, gender roles. While
gender roles, according to the functionalist perspective, are beneficial in that they contribute
to stable social relations, many argue that gender roles are discriminatory and should not be
upheld. The feminist movement, which was on the rise at the same time that functionalism
began to decline, takes the position that functionalism neglects the suppression of women
within the family structure.

Conflict Theory2
According to conflict theory, society is defined by a struggle for dominance among
social groups that compete for scarce resources. In the context of gender, conflict theory
argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to
the detriment of women. Therefore, men can be seen as the dominant group and women as
the subordinate group. While certain gender roles may have been appropriate in a hunter-
gatherer society, conflict theorists argue that the only reason these roles persist is because
the dominant group naturally works to maintain their power and status. According to conflict
theory, social problems are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate
groups. Therefore, their approach is normative in that it prescribes changes to the power
structure, advocating a balance of power between genders.
In most cultures, men have historically held most of the world’s resources. Until
relatively recently, women in Western cultures could not vote or hold property, making them
entirely dependent on men. Men, like any other group with a power or wealth

advantage, fought to maintain their control over resources (in this case, political and economic
power). Conflict between the two groups caused things like the Women’s Suffrage Movement
and was responsible for social change.
Friedrich Engels, a German sociologist, studied family structure and gender roles from
a Marxist perspective. Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the
labor force could also be seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the
proletariat. This was due to women’s dependence on men for the attainment of wages.
Contemporary conflict theorists suggest that when women become wage earners, they gain
power in the family structure and create more democratic arrangements in the home, although
they may still carry the majority of the domestic burden.

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Symbolic interactionism3
Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical
role of symbols in human interaction. This is certainly relevant to the discussion of masculinity
and femininity, because the characteristics and practices of both are socially constructed,
reproduced, and reinforced through daily interactions. Imagine, for example, that you walk
into a bank, hoping to get a small loan for school, a home, or a small business venture. If you
meet with a male loan officer, you might state your case logically, listing all of the hard
numbers that make you a qualified applicant for the loan.
This type of approach would appeal to the analytical characteristics typically
associated with masculinity. If you meet with a female loan officer, on the other hand, you
might make an emotional appeal, by stating your positive social intentions. This type of
approach would appeal to the sensitive and relational characteristics typically associated with
femininity.

Gender as Performance
The meanings attached to symbols are socially created and fluid, instead of natural and static.
Because of this, we act and react to symbols based on their current assigned meanings. Both
masculinity and feminity are performed gender identities, in the sense that gender is
something we do or perform, not something we are. In response to this

phenomena, the sociologist Charles H. Cooley’s developed the theory of the “looking-glass
self” (1902). In this theory, Cooley argued that an individual’s perception of himself or herself
is based primarily how society views him or her. In the context of gender, if society perceives
a man as masculine, that man will consider himself as masculine. Thus, when people perform
tasks or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them, they are said to
be doing gender (rather than “being” gender), a notion first coined by West and Zimmerman
(1987). West & Zimmerman emphasized that gender is maintained through accountability.
Men and women are expected to perform their gender to the point that it is naturalized, and
thus, their status depends on their performance.

Feminist theory4
In sociology, social stratification occurs when differences lead to greater status, power,
or privilege for some groups over others. Simply put, it is a system by which society ranks
categories of people in a hierarchy. Members of society are socially stratified on many levels,

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including socio-economic status, race, class, ethnicity, religion, ability status, and gender.
Gender stratification occurs when gender differences give men greater privilege and power
over women, transgender, and gender-non-conforming people.
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical discourse.
It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality, and examines women’s social roles,
experiences, and interests. While generally providing a critique of social relations, much of
feminist theory also focuses on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of women’s
interests.
Feminist theory uses the conflict approach to examine the reinforcement of gender
roles and inequalities. Conflict theory posits that stratification is dysfunctional and harmful in
society, with inequality perpetuated because it benefits the rich and powerful at the expense
of the poor. Radical feminism, in particular, evaluates the role of the patriarchy in perpetuating
male dominance. In patriarchal societies, the male’s perspective and contributions are
considered more valuable, resulting in the silencing

and marginalization of the woman. Feminism focuses on the theory of patriarchy as a system
of power that organizes society into a complex of relationships based on the assertion of male
supremacy.

Intersectionality5
The feminist perspective of gender stratification more recently takes into account
intersectionality, a feminist sociological theory first highlighted by feminist-sociologist
Kimberlé Crenshaw. Intersectionality suggests that various biological, social and cultural
categories, including gender, race, class and ethnicity, interact and contribute towards
systematic social inequality. Therefore, various forms of oppression, such as racism or
sexism, do not act independently of one another; instead these forms of oppression are
interrelated, forming a system of oppression that reflects the “intersection” of multiple forms
of discrimination. In light of this theory, the oppression and marginalization of women is thus
shaped not only by gender, but by other factors such as race and class.
Mary Ann Weathers demonstrates intersectionality in action in “An Argument for Black
Women’s Liberation as a Revolutionary Force.” In this publication, Weathers reveals that in
the twentieth century, working-class women of color embodied the notion of intersectionality.
The first and second waves of the feminist movement were primarily driven by white women,
who did not adequately represent the feminist movement as a whole. It was– and continues
to be– important to recognize that white women faced a different form of discrimination than

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working class women of color, who not only had to deal with sexism, but also fought against
racism and class oppression.

Filipina women’s issues

Despite the well-known Filipina bravery from the time of the Katipuneras who defended
the Philippines from Spanish colonizers side by side with their Katipunero counterparts like
Gabriela Silang; women soldiers like of commander Liwayway of HukBaLaHap, and social
worker Josefa Llanes Escoda who fought against Japanese and other equally brave and
courageous women who dedicated their life against autocratic and dictatorial rule during the
Martial Law in the 70’s; and having two women presidents in the country, yet the full realization
and recognition of equal rights for women remains elusive.
Philippine society remains patriarchal, sexist and misogynistic. These are manifested
in all aspects of life whether it is at home, community, society, workplace, online or social
media. Despite existing laws that promotes, protects and recognizes the rights of women but
still they continue to be at the disadvantaged in many spheres of life.
Violence Against Women continue to remain unabated. According to the 2008 National
Demographic and Health Survey conducted by the National Statistics Office, one in five
Filipino women age 15-49 has experienced physical violence since age 15. Republic Act 9262
(Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004) states VAW as "any act or a
series of acts committed by any person against a woman who is his wife, former wife, or
against a woman with whom the person has or had a sexual or dating relationship, or with
whom he has a common child, or against her child whether legitimate or illegitimate, within or
without the family abode, which result in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological
harm or suffering, or economic abuse including threats of such acts, battery, assault,
coercion, harassment or arbitrary deprivation of liberty.
It was reported that during the 2020 pandemic several cases of rape were reported
and documented by the police including trafficking of girl children who become victims of
online pedophile rings since even their own family members become accomplice to such
criminal act. The #HijaAko trended in the social media because of a media personality
exchange with Frankie Pangilinan on the issue of rape. It was started by post on Facebook
(which was later erased) by the Lucban Municipal Police Station, "Kayo naman mga ghErlsz
(sic), wag kayo magsuot ng pagkaikli-ikling damit at pag naman nabastos ay magsusumbong
din sa amin. Isipin 'nyo rin!" The post earned the ire of many women including Frankie. It is
considered a sexist and misogynistic remark that put the blame on the women because of
their clothes they can be target of sexual assaults. And in another high-profile case, two

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policemen in Ilocos Sur are accused of raping and killing a 15-year-old girl. Rape is one of
the many issues that women continue to confront in the society.
Multiple burden is a term used to describe the situation of women who perform paid
work outside the domestic sphere as well as homemaking and child-care work inside the
home. Most women perform numerous tasks at home after coming from their day job outside
home. Women are expected to do their household tasks of serving members of the family,
husband, and children. Women are burdened because there is no equal sharing of household
chores because of the patriarchal notion of women’s role at home perpetuating the
structuralist perspective.
Glass ceiling is a metaphor that represents an invisible barrier that keeps a given
demographic (typically applied to minorities) from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy
(Wiley, 2012). Most women are left behind in promotion and advancement of their career.
The sexist attitude of the “Boys Club” that by-passed qualified women to a higher post
because of the belief that they will not be able to do the job better as compared to their male
counterpart.
These are just few of the issues confronted by Filipina women. So their struggle for
equality continue to be as recent as it used to be like in the past. Despite some headway in
legislations, many women continue to be marginalized and remain to be empowered
politically, socially, economically so their true potential as partner and agent for change and
development is realized.

Activity

I. 1. Observe the daily routine in your home. If you have both mother and father (if single
parent still take note of the daily routine of your parent or guardian) check the time they
go to bed and the time they wake up. List down the activities of each parent using time
and time spent on those activities. Compare and make an analysis.

2. Using the sociological theories discussed in this module, which theory or theories best
describe what is considered to be the “multiple burdens” experienced by women in the
family?

II. Fill in the blanks.

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1) Perspective that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability is ___________________________
2) Society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for
scarce resources, the perspective referred to is ___________________
3) The idea of gender is an act, or performance, is called ________________
4) It aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human
interaction, this perspective is called _________________
5) It posits that various biological, social and cultural categories, including gender, race, class
and ethnicity, interact and contribute towards systematic social inequality, this perspective is
called ___________________.

ASAQ:

1) Perspective that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability is ___________________________
Answer - The functionalist perspective
2) Society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for
scarce resources, the perspective referred to is ___________________
Answer - conflict theory
3) The idea of gender is an act, or performance, is called ________________
Answer - Gender performativity
4) It aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human
interaction, this perspective is called _________________
Answer - Symbolic interactionism
5) It posits that various biological, social and cultural categories, including gender, race, class
and ethnicity, interact and contribute towards systematic social inequality, this perspective is
called ___________________.
Answer - Intersectionality

References

Online Source:
1https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_%28Boundless%29/11%3A_Gen
der_Stratification_and_Inequality/11.03%3A_Sociological_Perspectives_on_Gender_Stratification/11.3A%3A_
The_Functionalist_Perspective

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2https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/11%3A_Gender_Str
atification_and_Inequality/11.03%3A_Sociological_Perspectives_on_Gender_Stratification/11.3B%3A_The_C
onflict_Perspective

3https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/11%3A_Gender_Str
atification_and_Inequality/11.03%3A_Sociological_Perspectives_on_Gender_Stratification/11.3C%3A_The_In
teractionist_Perspective

4https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/11%3A_Gender_Str
atification_and_Inequality/11.03%3A_Sociological_Perspectives_on_Gender_Stratification/11.3D%3A_The_F
eminist_Perspective

5https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/11%3A_Gender_Str
atification_and_Inequality/11.03%3A_Sociological_Perspectives_on_Gender_Stratification/11.3D%3A_The_F
eminist_Perspective

Book/ Offline Source

Wiley, John (2012). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies. Vol. 5. John Wiley
and Sons.

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