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Channel Codes Classical and Modern

Article · January 2009

DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511803253

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Channel Codes
Classical and Modern

WILLIAM E. RYAN
University of Arizona

SHU LIN
University of California, Davis

1 CAMBRIDGE
W UNIVERSITY PRESS
Contents

Preface page xiii

Coding and Capacity 1

1.1 Digital Data Communication and Storage 1
1.2 Channel-Coding Overview 3
1.3 Channel-Code Archetype: The (7,4) Hamming Code , 4
1.4 Design Criteria and Performance Measures 7
1.5 Channel-Capacity Formulas for Common Channel Models 10
1.5.1 Capacity for Binary-Input Memoryless Channels 11
1.5.2 Coding Limits for M-ary-Input Memoryless Channels „ 18
1.5.3 Coding Limits for Channels with Memory 21
Problems 24
References 26

Finite Fields, Vector Spaces, Finite Geometries, and Graphs 28

2.1 Sets and Binary Operations 28
2.2 Groups 30
2.2.1 Basic Concepts of Groups 30
2.2.2 Finite Groups 32
2.2.3 Subgroups and Cosets 35
2.3 Fields 38
2.3.1 Definitions and Basic Concepts 38
2.3.2 Finite Fields 41
2.4 Vector Spaces 45
2.4.1 Basic Definitions and Properties 45
2.4.2 Linear Independence and Dimension 46
2.4.3 Finite Vector Spaces over Finite Fields 48
2.4.4 Inner Products and Dual Spaces 50
2.5 Polynomials over Finite Fields 51
2.6 Construction and Properties of Galois Fields 56
2.6.1 Construction of Galois Fields 56
2.6.2 Some Fundamental Properties of Finite Fields 64
2.6.3 Additive and Cyclic Subgroups 69
Contents

2.7 Finite Geometries ' 70

2.7.1 Euclidean Geometries 70
2.7.2 Projective Geometries 76
2.8 Graphs
2.8.1 Basic Concepts
2.8.2 Paths and Cycles
2.8.3 Bipartite Graphs
Problems
References
Appendix A 92

Linear Block Codes 94

3.1 Introduction to Linear Block Codes 94
3.1.1 Generator and Parity-Check Matrices 95
3.1.2 Error Detection with Linear Block Codes
3.1.3 Weight Distribution and Minimum Hamming Distance of a
Linear Block Code
3.1.4 Decoding of Linear Block Codes 102
3.2 Cyclic Codes 1
3.3 BCH Codes 111
3.3.1 Code Construction 111
3.3.2 Decoding 114
3.4 Nonbinary Linear Block Codes and Reed-Solomon Codes 121
3.5 Product, Interleaved, and Concatenated Codes 129
3.5.1 Product Codes 129
3.5.2 Interleaved Codes 130
3.5.3 Concatenated Codes 131
3.6 Quasi-Cyclic Codes 133
3.7 Repetition and Single-Parity-Check Codes 142
Problems 143
References 145

Convolutional Codes 147

4.1 The Convolutional Code Archetype 147
4.2 Algebraic Description of Convolutional Codes 149
4.3 Encoder Realizations and Classifications 152
4.3.1 Choice of Encoder Class 157
4.3.2 Catastrophic Encoders 158
4.3.3 Minimal Encoders 159]
4.3.4 Design of Convolutional Codes 163
4.4 Alternative Convolutional Code Representations 163
4.4.1 Convolutional Codes as Semi-Infinite Linear Codes 164;
4.4.2 Graphical Representations for Convolutional Code Encoders 170 i
 Contents

4.5 Trellis-Based Decoders " 171

4.5.1 MLSD and the Viterbi Algorithm 172
4.5.2 Differential Viterbi Decoding 177
4.5.3 Bit-wise MAP Decoding and the BCJR Algorithm 180
4.6 Performance Estimates for Trellis-Based Decoders 187
4.6.1 ML Decoder Performance for Block Codes 187
4.6.2 Weight Enumerators for Convolutional Codes 189
4.6.3 ML Decoder Performance for Convolutional Codes 193
Problems . 195
References 200

Low-Density Parity-Check Codes 201

5.1 Representations of LDPC Codes 201
5.1.1 Matrix Representation 201
5.1.2 Graphical Representation 202
5.2 Classifications of LDPC Codes 205
5.2.1 Generalized LDPC Codes 207
5.3 Message Passing and the Turbo Principle 208
5.4 The Sum-Product Algorithm 213
5.4.1 Overview 213
5.4.2 Repetition Code MAP Decoder and APP Processor 216
5.4.3 Single-Parity-Check Code MAP Decoder and APP Processor 217
5.4.4 The Gallager SPA Decoder 218
5.4.5 The Box-Plus SPA Decoder 222
5.4.6 Comments on the Performance of the SPA Decoder 225
5.5 Reduced-Complexity SPA Approximations 226
5.5.1 The Min-Sum Decoder 226
5.5.2 The Attenuated and Offset Min-Sum Decoders 229
5.5.3 The Min-Sum-with-Correction Decoder 231
5.5.4 The Approximate Min* Decoder 233
5.5.5 The Richardson/Novichkov Decoder 234
5.5.6 The Reduced-Complexity Box-Plus Decoder 236
5.6 Iterative Decoders for Generalized LDPC Codes 241
5.7 Decoding Algorithms for the BEC and the BSC 243
5.7.1 Iterative Erasure Filling for the BEC 243
5.7.2 ML Decoder for the BEC 244
5.7.3 Gallager's Algorithm A and Algorithm B for the BSC 246
5.7.4 The Bit-Flipping Algorithm for the BSC 247
5.8 Concluding Remarks 248
Problems 248
References 254
Contents

Computer-Based Design of LDPC Codes 25

6.1 The Original LDPC Codes 25
6.1.1 Gallager Codes 25
6.1.2 MacKay Codes 25
6.2 The PEG and ACE Code-Design Algorithms 25
6.2.1 The PEG Algorithm 25
6.2.2 The ACE Algorithm 26
6.3 Protograph LDPC Codes 26
6.3.1. __ Decoding Architectures for Protograph Codes 26
6.4 Multi-Edge-Type L D P C Codes 26
6.5 Single-Accumulator-Based L D P C Codes 26i
6.5.1 Repeat-Accumulate Codes 26'
6.5.2 Irregular R e p e a t - A c c u m u l a t e Codes 26'
6.5.3 Generalized Accumulator L D P C Codes 27'
6.6 Double-Accumulator-Based L D P C Codes 27
6.6.1 Irregular R e p e a t - A c c u m u l a t e - A c c u m u l a t e Codes 271
6.6.2 A c c u m u l a t e - R e p e a t - A c c u m u l a t e Codes 27!
6.7 Accumulator-Based Codes in Standards 28;
6.8 Generalized L D P C Codes 28;
6.8.1 A Rate-1/2 G-LDPC Code 29(
Problems 29!
References 29!

Turbo Codes 29S

7.1 Parallel-Concatenated Convolutional Codes 29S
7 . 1 . 1 Critical Properties of RSC Codes 29S
7.1.2 Critical Properties of the Interleaver 301
7.1.3 T h e Puncturer 30]
7.1.4 Performance Estimate on the BI-AWGNC 30<
7.2 The PCCC Iterative Decoder 30|
7.2.1 Overview of the Iterative Decoder 301
7.2.2 Decoder Details 30|
7.2.3 Summary of the P C C C Iterative Decoder 3l|
7.2.4 Lower-Complexity Approximations 3ll
7.3 Serial-Concatenated Convolutional Codes 32f
7.3.1 Performance Estimate on the BI-AWGNC 32|
7.3.2 T h e SCCC Iterative Decoder 32|
7.3.3 Summary of the SCCC Iterative Decoder 32|
7.4 Turbo Product Codes 32|
7.4.1 Turbo Decoding of Product Codes 33|
Problems 33|
References 331
 Contents

Ensemble Enumerators for Turbo and LDPC Codes 339

8.1 Notation 340
8.2 Ensemble Enumerators for Parallel-Concatenated Codes 343
8.2.1 Preliminaries 343
8.2.2 PCCC Ensemble Enumerators 345
8.3 Ensemble Enumerators for Serial-Concatenated Codes 356
8.3.1 Preliminaries 356
8.3.2 SCCC Ensemble Enumerators 358
8.4 Enumerators for Selected Accumulator-Based Codes 362
8.4.1 Enumerators for Repeat-Accumulate Codes 362
8.4.2 Enumerators for Irregular Repeat-Accumulate Codes 364
8.5 Enumerators for Protograph-Based LDPC Codes 367
8.5.1 Finite-Length Ensemble Weight Enumerators 368
8.5.2 Asymptotic Ensemble Weight Enumerators 371
8.5.3 On the Complexity of Computing Asymptotic
Ensemble Enumerators 376
8.5.4 Ensemble Trapping-Set Enumerators 379
Problems 383
References 386

Ensemble Decoding Thresholds for LDPC and Turbo Codes 388

9.1 Density Evolution for Regular LDPC Codes 388
9.2 Density Evolution for Irregular LDPC Codes 394
9.3 Quantized Density Evolution 399
9.4 The Gaussian Approximation 402
9.4.1 GA for Regular LDPC Codes 403
9.4.2 GA for Irregular LDPC Codes 404
9.5 On the Universality of LDPC Codes 407
9.6 EXIT Charts for LDPC Codes 412
9.6.1 EXIT Charts for Regular LDPC Codes 414
9.6.2 EXIT Charts for Irregular LDPC Codes 416
9.6.3 EXIT Technique for Protograph-Based Codes 417
9.7 EXIT Charts for Turbo Codes 420
9.8 The Area Property for EXIT Charts 424
9.8.1 Serial-Concatenated Codes 424
9.8.2 LDPC Codes 425
Problems 426
References 428

Finite-Geometry LDPC Codes 430

10.1 Construction of LDPC Codes Based on Lines of Euclidean Geometries 430
10.1.1 A Class of Cyclic EG-LDPC Codes 432
10.1.2 A Class of Quasi-Cyclic EG-LDPC Codes 434
 Contents

10.2 Construction of LDPC Codes Based on the Parallel Bundles of Lines

in Euclidean Geometries
10.3 Construction of LDPC Codes Based on Decomposition of
Euclidean Geometries
10.4 Construction of EG-LDPC Codes by Masking
10.4.1 Masking
10.4.2 Regular Masking
10.4.3 Irregular Masking
10.5 Construction of QC-EG-LDPC Codes by Circulant Decomposition
10.6 Construction of Cyclic and QC-LDPC Codes Based on
Projective Geometries
10.6.1 Cyclic PG-LDPC Codes
10.6.2 Quasi-Cyclic PG-LDPC Codes
10.7 One-Step Majority-Logic and Bit-Flipping Decoding Algorithms
for FG-LDPC Codes
10.7.1 The OSMLG Decoding Algorithm for LDPC Codes over the BSC
10.7.2 The BF Algorithm for Decoding LDPC Codes over the BSC
10.8 Weighted BF Decoding: Algorithm 1
10.9 Weighted BF Decoding: Algorithms 2 and 3
10.10 Concluding Remarks
Problems
References

11 Constructions of LDPC Codes Based on Finite Fields

11.1 Matrix Dispersions of Elements of a Finite Field
11.2 A General Construction of QC-LDPC Codes Based on Finite Fields
11.3 Construction of QC-LDPC Codes Based on the Minimum-Weight
Codewords of an RS Code with Two Information Symbols
11.4 Construction of QC-LDPC Codes Based on the Universal Parity-Check
Matrices qi a Special Subclass of RS Codes
11.5 Construction of QC-LDPC Codes Based on Subgroups of a Finite Field
11.5.1 Construction of QC-LDPC Codes Based on Subgroups of the
Additive Group of a Finite Field
11.5.2 Construction of QC-LDPC Codes Based on Subgroups of the
Multiplicative Group of a Finite Field
11.6 Construction of QC-LDPC Code Based on the Additive Group
of a Prime Field
11.7 Construction of QC-LDPC Codes Based on Primitive Elements of a Field
11.8 Construction of QC-LDPC Codes Based on the Intersecting Bundles
of Lines of Euclidean Geometries
11.9 A Class of Structured RS-Based LDPC Codes
Problems
References
 Contents

LDPC Codes Based on Combinatorial Designs, Graphs, and Superposition 523

12.1 Balanced Incomplete Block Designs and LDPC Codes 523
12.2 Class-I Bose BIBDs and QC-LDPC Codes 524
12.2.1 Class-I Bose BIBDs 525
12.2.2 Type-I Class-I Bose BIBD-LDPC Codes 525
12.2.3 Type-II Class-I Bose BIBD-LDPC Codes 527
12.3 Class-II Bose BIBDs and QC-LDPC Codes 530
12.3.1 Class-II Bose BIBDs 531
1*2.3.2 Type-I Class-II Bose BIBD-LDPC Codes 531
12.3.3 Type-II Class-II QC-BIBD-LDPC Codes 533
12.4 Construction of Type-II Bose BIBD-LDPC Codes by Dispersion 536
12.5 A Trellis-Based Construction of LDPC Codes 537
12.5.1 A Trellis-Based Method for Removing Short Cycles
from a Bipartite Graph 538
12.5.2 Code Construction 540
12.6 Construction of LDPC Codes Based on Progressive
Edge-Growth Tanner Graphs 542
12.7 Construction of LDPC Codes by Superposition 546
12.7.1 A General Superposition Construction of LDPC Codes 546
12.7.2 Construction of Base and Constituent Matrices 548
12.7.3 Superposition Construction of Product LDPC Codes 552
12.8 Two Classes of LDPC Codes with Girth 8 554
Problems 557
References 559

LDPC Codes for Binary Erasure Channels 561

13.1 Iterative Decoding of LDPC Codes for the BEC 561
13.2 Random-Erasure-Correction Capability 563
13.3 Good LDPC Codes for the BEC 565
, 13.4 Correction of Erasure-Bursts 570
13.5 Erasure-Burst-Correction Capabilities of Cyclic Finite-Geometry
and Superposition LDPC Codes 573
13.5.1 Erasure-Burst-Correction with Cyclic Finite-Geometry LDPC Codes 573
13.5.2 Erasure-Burst-Correction with Superposition LDPC Codes 574
13.6 Asymptotically Optimal Erasure-Burst-Correction QC-LDPC Codes 575
13.7 Construction of QC-LDPC Codes by Array Dispersion 580
13.8 Cyclic Codes for Correcting Bursts of Erasures 586
Problems 589
References 590

Nonbinary LDPC Codes 592

14.1 Definitions 592
14.2 Decoding of Nonbinary LDPC Codes 593
14.2.1 The QSPA 593
14.2.2 The FFT-QSPA 598
xii Contents

14.3 Construction of Nonbinary LDPC Codes Based on Finite Geometries

14.3.1 A Class of gm-ary Cyclic EG-LDPC Codes
14.3.2 A Class of Nonbinary Quasi-Cyclic EG-LDPC Codes
14.3.3 A Class of Nonbinary Regular EG-LDPC Codes
14.3.4 Nonbinary LDPC Code Constructions Based on
Projective Geometries
14.4 Constructions of Nonbinary QC-LDPC Codes Based on Finite Fields
14.4.1 Dispersion of Field Elements into Nonbinary Circulant
Permutation Matrices
14.4.2 Construction of Nonbinary QC-LDPC Codes Based on Finite Fields
14.4.3 Construction of Nonbinary QC-LDPC Codes by Masking
14.4.4 Construction of Nonbinary QC-LDPC Codes by Array Dispersion
14.5 Construction of QC-EG-LDPC Codes Based on Parallel Flats in
Euclidean Geometries and Matrix Dispersion
14.6 Construction of Nonbinary QC-EG-LDPC Codes Based on
Intersecting Flats in Euclidean Geometries and Matrix Dispersion
14.7 Superposition-Dispersion Construction of Nonbinary QC-LDPC Codes
Problems
References

15 LDPC Code Applications and Advanced Topics

15.1 LDPC-Coded Modulation
15.1.1 Design Based on EXIT Charts
15.2 Turbo Equalization and LDPC Code Design for ISI Channels
15.2.1 Turbo Equalization
15.2.2 LDPC Code Design for ISI Channels
15.3 Estimation of LDPC Error Floors
15.3.1 The Error-Floor Phenomenon and Trapping Sets
15.3.2 Error-Floor Estimation
15.4 LDPC Decoder Design for Low Error Floors
15.4.1 Codes Under Study
15.4.2 The Bi-Mode Decoder
15.4.3 Concatenation and Bit-Pinning
/
15.4.4 Generalized-LDPC Decoder
15.4.5 Remarks
15.5 LDPC Convolutional Codes
15.6 Fountain Codes
15.6.1 Tornado Codes
15.6.2 Luby Transform Codes
15.6.3 Raptor Codes
Problems
References

Index

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