UNIT 2

WELDING

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WELDING
 Welding is a materials joining process which
produces joint of materials by heating them to
suitable temperatures with or without the application
of pressure and with or without the use of filler
material.

 Welding is used for making permanent joints.

 It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft
frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works,
tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

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Classification of welding

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Homogeneous welding

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TYPES
 Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding

 Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding

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 Classification of welding processes:
(i). Arc welding
 Carbon arc (iv)Thermit Welding
 Metal arc
 Metal inert gas (v)Solid State Welding
 Tungsten inert gas Friction
 Plasma arc Ultrasonic
 Submerged arc Diffusion
 Electro-slag Explosive
 Atomic Hydrogen Forge
(ii). Gas Welding (vi)Newer Welding
 Oxy-acetylene
 Air-acetylene Electron-beam
 Oxy-hydrogen Laser
(iii). Resistance Welding (vii)Related Process
 Butt Oxy-acetylene cutting
 Spot Arc cutting
 Seam Hard facing
 Projection Brazing
 Percussion Soldering
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Welding Terminology

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Terminologies associated with welding
process
 Base metal – Work pieces to be joined
 Weld bead – Material deposited by the
process of welding
 Puddle – Portion of the base material which
is melted by the heat of welding.
 Weld pass – Movement of welding torch
from one end of the joint to the other.
 Tack weld – Temporary weld done at the
ends of the work pieces.
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 Tack weld
Tack welds are small and temporary welds that hold parts together ready
for final welding. Using tack welds mean that fixtures may not be required
to hold .
Types of Weld joints

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EDGE PREPARATION IN WELDING

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EDGE PREPARATION IN WELDING
 To ensure complete penetration and sound weld ,
edge preparation is essential.

70 to 90 degrees
Root

(a) Square faces (b) Single V

(c) Double V (d) Single U (e) Double U

TYPE OF EDGES
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 GAS WELDING
 Gas welding is called an oxy-fuel gas welding as heat is derives from
combustion of acetylene with oxygen.

 Fuel is generally used is acetylene because of high temperature

generated during the process is i.e 31000c

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GAS WELDING PRINCIPLE
When acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportion in the
welding torch and ignited, the flame is produced which is sufficiently
hot to melt and join the parent metal. A filler rod is generally added
to build up the seam for greater strength. It may be classified as:-

1. High Pressure oxy-acetylene welding:- Acetylene is supplied from

acetylene cylinder in compressed form

2. Low pressure oxy-acetylene welding:- In this acetylene gas is supplied

from generator at low pressure. In the generator calcium carbide is added in
the chamber in which water is already present. Acetylene starts forming and
collected from top of water and used for further welding.

CaC 2 + 2 H 2 O → C 2 H 2 + Ca(OH) 2

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 CHEMISTRY IN GAS WELDING
Stage 1
2C2H2 + 2O2 = 4CO + 2H2
Stage 2
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O
Stage 3

2C2H2 + 5 O2 = 4CO2 + 2H20 (vapour) + 1284.57 k J / mol

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GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT...
1. Oxygen Gas Cylinders- coloured (Black)
2. Acetylene Gas Cylinders- coloured (Maroon)
Pressure
Oxygen – 140 bar
Acetylene – 15 bar
3. Regulators
4. Pressure Gauges
5. Hoses
6. Welding torch
7. Check valve
8. Non return valve
9. Gas lighter
10. Protective clothing

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Oxy-Acetylene welding

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Pressure Regulator & Gauges

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Welding Torch

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Goggles or Eye Protection

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Protective Clothing & Gloves

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 TYPES OF FLAMES

▪ Neutral flame
▪ Oxidizing flame
▪ Carburizing flame

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 Arc welding
 Arc welding is a type of welding process using an
electric arc to create heat to melt and join metals. A
power supply creates an electric arc between a
consumable or non-consumable electrode and the
base material using either direct (DC) or alternating
(AC) currents.
 The welding area is usually protected by some type
of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes
may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated.

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 Power supplies
 To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc
welding processes, a number of different power
supplies can be used.
 The most common classification is
constant current power supplies and
constant voltage power supplies.
 In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the
length of the arc, and the current is related to the
amount of heat input.

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 Constant current power supplies are most often used for
manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc
welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they
maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage
varies.
 This is important because in manual welding, it can be
difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a
result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate.
 Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage
constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most
often used for automated welding processes such as gas
metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and
submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is
kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance
between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified
by a large change in current.
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Metal Arc welding
 Equipments:
 A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)
 Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
 Electrode holder
 Electrode
 Protective shield
 Gloves
 Wire brush
 Chipping hammer
 Goggles

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Electrodes
▪ Filler rods are used in arc welding are called electrodes.
▪ Metallic wires having same composition as the metal to be weld.
▪ Coated uniformly with a protective coating called flux. e.g
titanium oxide, potassium oxide, cellulose, iron or manganese,
Ferro silicates, carbonates, gums, clays, asbestos etc…

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Types of Fluxes
▪Gas forming- Isolating welding zone from ambient air. e.g
organic matter like wood pulp

▪Slag forming- china clay, felspar, manganese, & titanium

ores

▪Reducing- ferro silicon,ferro titanium,ferro manganese

reduces oxides

▪Stabilizing- Ionized the zone b/w electrode and part to be

weld and ensuring stable burning.

▪Binding- so that covering should have proper binding with

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ARC WELDING PROCESS

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): “Stick welding”
• Arc temperature is nearly 5500°C
• The electrode is also the filler rod
• Only for steel
• Strong welds if done properly (but often not)
• Very high heat input: good for thick parts, bad for grain growth and
distortion

Kalpakjian

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Welding Tool Equipments

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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW): “MIG” (Metal-Inert-Gas)
• Complex mechanism but simple to perform and easy to
automate
• The consumable electrode is used and fed continuously from
a spool. It melts in the arc.
• For steel or aluminum
• Low skill level can achieve good weld
• Medium heat input: distortion and grain growth are significant
•DCRP is used
•Inert gas (He, Ar, CO2) is used
•E.g used for Domestic cylinder part joining

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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW): “MIG” (Metal-Inert-Gas)

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MIG Welding

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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW): “MIG” (Metal-Inert-Gas)
Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):

•Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions);

•High level of operators skill is not required;
•Oxide form on the surface cleaned automatically;

Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):

•Expensive and non-portable equipment is required;

•Outdoor application are limited because of effect of wind,
dispersing the shielding gas.

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): “TIG” (Tungsten-Inert-
Gas)
• The electrode is tungsten (not consumed)
• The filler rod is separate and fed manually
• High skill level required to achieve good weld
• Difficult to automate
•He and Ar are used as inert gas
• Low heat input and small weld bead: distortion and grain growth are minimized
•AC power supply is used for welding of Al, Mg and its alloys in which half of the
cycle more heat is produced on the work-piece and remaining half of the cycle
cleaning of oxides take place.
•DCSP is used for all materials to be welded except Al, Mg and its alloys

Kalpakjian
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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): “TIG” (Tungsten-Inert-
Gas)

Kalpakjian
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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): “TIG” (Tungsten-Inert-Gas)

ADVANTAGES:-

• Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal;

• High quality weld structure
• Slag removal is not required (no slag);

DIS-ADVANTAGES:-

• Low welding rate;

• Relatively expensive;
• Requires high level of operators skill.

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CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW)
• A process in which heat is generated by
an electric arc struck between an carbon
electrode and the work piece. The arc heats
and melts the work pieces edges, forming a
joint.

Carbon arc welding is the oldest welding

process.

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CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW)
ADVANTAGES:-

• Low cost of equipment and welding operation;

• High level of operator skill is not required;
• The process is easily automated;
• Low distortion of work piece.

DIS-ADVANTAGES:-

• Unstable quality of the weld (porosity);

• Carbon electrode contaminates weld material with
carbides.

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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (CAW)
• Submerged Arc Welding is a welding process, which utilizes a bare
consumable metallic electrode producing an arc between itself and the
work piece within a granular shielding flux applied around the weld.
•
Since the electrode is submerged into the flux, the arc is invisible. The
flux is partially melts and forms a slag protecting the weld pool from
oxidation and other atmospheric contaminations.

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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (CAW)
ADVANTAGES:-

•Very high welding rate;

•The process is suitable for automation;
•High quality weld structure

DIS-ADVANTAGES:-

•Weld may contain slag inclusions;

•Limited applications of the process - mostly for welding
horizontally located plates.

APPLICATIONS:-
• Ship building, longitudinal pipe welding, circumferential
welding in wind tower fabrication
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 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW): “SPOT WELDING”

• Based on the equation H=I^2RT

• Used for joining sheet metals

• No filler rod: high electrical current
is passed through metal for short
interval of time under pressure
• Easy to automate
• Low skill level required
• Low heat input and no weld bead
• Distortion and grain growth are
minimized

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW): “SPOT WELDING”

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW): “SPOT WELDING”
ADVANTAGES:-

• Low Cost
• Less skilled worker required
• Higher productivity

Disadvantages:-
Leak proof joint cannot be made

APPLICATIONS:-

• Automobiles and aircraft industries

• Utensils and container
• Used for the welding of HSS, Low carbon steel, Cu, Ni
& Ni alloys
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Resistance SEAM Welding (RSW): “SEAM WELDING”
• Seam welding is similar to spot welding except that the components to be
joined are gripped between revolving, circular copper rollers.
• The welding current is applied in a series of pulses resulting in a
corresponding series of overlapping spot welds being made along the seam.
• Also known as lap seam welding.

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Resistance SEAM Welding (RSW): “SEAM WELDING”

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Resistance SEAM Welding (RSW): “SEAM WELDING”
ADVANTAGES:-

• Produce gas or liquid tight joints.

• Several parallel seams can be produced.
• The process can be fully automated.

DIS-ADVANTAGES:-

• Cost of equipments is high.

• Welding can be done only along straight line.
• Difficult to weld thickness greater than 3mm.
• Due to the speed of the roller, a highly skilled operator
may be required to ensure the quality of the weld.

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Resistance Welding (RSW): “PROJECTION WELDING”
• In this process the electrodes act as
locations for holding the parts to be
joined and are, therefore, job-specific.

• The joint is so designed that projections

are preformed on one of the parts to be
joined.

• Projection welding enables the welding

pressure and the heated weld zone to be
localized at predetermined points.

• This technique is largely used for small,

precision components that need to be
accurately located.

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Resistance Welding (RSW): “PROJECTION WELDING”

ADVANTAGES:-

• It is possible to weld more than one spot at a given time.

• Life of electrode is much longer than spot welding electrode.
• The uniformity and appearance of weld is better as compared to spot welding

DIS-ADVANTAGES:-

• Making of projections is an extra operation.

• All projection should be of same height.
• Metal which cannot support projection, cannot be weld.
• Leak proof joint cannot be obtained.

APPLICATIONS:-

• Used for welding refrigerator condensor

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Resistance Welding (RSW): “BUTT OR UPSET WELDING”

• The two ends of the rods are

brought together with just
sufficient force to ensure the
current can flow without arcing.
• The resistance of the joint
interface ensures that local
heating will take place on the
passage of a heavy electric
current at low voltage.

• When the metal in the joint zone

has reached its welding
temperature, the current is
switched off and the axial force on
the joint is increased to complete
the weld.

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Resistance Welding (RSW): “BUTT OR UPSET WELDING”

APPLICATIONS:-

• In wire drawing
Industries
• For producing butt
joint in tubes, pipes
& rods etc.

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Wire Drawing

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Resistance Welding (RSW): “FLASH BUTT WELDING”

Flash butt welding is similar to

upset butt welding except that
the heat required for melting is
obtained by means of an arc
rather than the simple resistance
welding.

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Resistance Welding (RSW): “BUTT OR UPSET WELDING”

ADVANTAGES:-

• It consumes less welding

current

• Process is cheap.

• Process is fast.

• It offers 100% strength

factor.

• Preparation of weld
surface is not required.
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 Soldering
 It is a low temperature joining process in which
fusible alloy or metal is introduced in a liquid state
between work piece to be joined.
 It is performed at temperatures below 450ºC for
joining. The filler metal is called SOLDER
 Soldering is used for,
 Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans
 Electrical Connections
 Joining thermally sensitive components
 Joining dissimilar metals

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 Types of Solder & Fluxes
 Soft solder- Lead 37% and Tin 63%
 Medium solder- Lead & Tin each 50%
 Electrician solder- Lead 58% and Tin 42%
 Plumber solder- Lead 70% and Tin 30%

Flux available in the form of powder, liquid or in paste

form.
 Inorganic flux(Corrosive flux)- It consist of zinc &
ammonium chloride
 Organic flux(Mild flux)- Lactic acid, stearic acid, benzoic
acid etc
 Rosin(Non corrosive flux)- gum extruded from pine trees
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Soldering Method
1. Soldering Iron Method 2. Torch Method
3. Spray Method 4. Induction Method
5. Dip & Wave Method 6. Resistance Method
7. Ultrasonic Method 8. Condensation Method

APPLICATIONS:-
 Connection in radios & T.V sets etc
 Radiator brass tubes for motor cars
 Sometime used for repairing utensils
 Wiring joint in electrical connections, battery and other
terminals

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 Brazing
 It is a joining process of two metal piece in which
a filler metal is introduced in a liquid state between
work piece to be joined It is performed at
temperatures above 450ºC for joining.
 The filler metal is distributed by capillary action.
 The capillary action between base metal and filler
metal is higher than that between base metal and
flux.
 Application of flux is by spraying, brushing
 It forms stronger joint than soldering method.
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 Brazing
FILLER METAS
•Aluminium silicon
•Copper zinc
•Magnesium
•Nickel
•Copper Phosphorus

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Brazing
APPLICATIONS:-

 Used for fastening of pipes fittings, tanks,

carbide tip on tools, radiators, heat exchangers
etc.
 It can join cast metal to wrought metal and
dissimilar metals.

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Brazing
ADVANTAGES:-

 Dissimilar metals which can not be welded can be joined by brazing

 Very thin metals can be joined
 Metals with different thickness can be joined easily

DISADVANTAGES:-

 Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding

 Joint preparation cost is more

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Welding Positions

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 Atomic Hydrogen Welding

• Atomic Hydrogen Welding ( AHW ) is a welding

process in which welding is done using the arc
produced between two tungsten electrodes and
hydrogen gas provided by a hydrogen gas
cylinder.

• It is named atomic hydrogen welding because the

arc disassociates the hydrogen into atomic
form. This process is also known as atomic arc
welding.

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• A filler rod is optional in this welding process, it
may or may not be used.
• In this welding process, a high temperature of 3400
to 4000°C is obtained by using electric arc and
hydrogen gas.
• Tungsten and most of the refractory metal can
be weld using the high temperature of this welding
process.
• Hydrogen gas has two functions in this welding
process, the first one is to provide a heating effect.
• Also, the molten metal produced while welding is
surrounded by a shield produced by hydrogen gas,
and in this way, hydrogen gas acts as a shielding
gas for the molten metal. Hydrogen gas has a very
vital role in this welding process.
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• In the MIG and TIG welding process the arc is
formed between the electrode and base metal
while in the AHW the arc is formed between two
electrodes.
• 300 V AC power supply machine with a
controller is required in this process.
• AC is preferred over DC because equal heat is
needed at both the electrodes
• If atmospheric gas like oxygen comes near the
welding process it combines with hydrogen to form
water and quickly evaporates due to the heat of
the welding process and prevents the formation of
metal oxide.

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Advantages Of Atomic Hydrogen Welding:
1) Welding is faster in this welding process.
2) Since hydrogen itself act as shielding gas, separate shielding
gas is not required.
3) There is very little distortion of the flame as the intense flame
is obtained which can be concentrated at the joints.
4) The electrodes remain cool as the hydrogen gas flow by the
electrodes in the holder which also increases the electrodes life.
5) The flow of hydrogen gas and the arc can be easily controlled
by the operator and hence the heat produced can also be
controlled. So, heat can be adjusted for welding different
materials using this welding process.
6) Alloys can be melted without fluxes and without surface
oxidation due to the powerful reducing action of the atomic
hydrogen.

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Disadvantages Of Atomic Hydrogen Welding:
1) This process is more costly as compared to
other welding processes.
2) A skilled operator is required to operate this
welding process.
3) Large quantities of metal cannot be
deposited using this welding process.
4) This welding can be done on flat positions
only.
5) This welding process is riskier as hydrogen is
a highly inflammable gas.

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Applications of Atomic Hydrogen Welding:
1) It is mainly used where rapid welding is required like in
the case of stainless steel and other special alloys.

2) It can be used for welding most of the ferrous and non-

ferrous metals.

3) It is also used for welding thin sheets of metal and small

diameter alloys.

4) This process is also used in repairing dies and tools,

hard surfacing, and joining parts.

5) It can also be used for very precision welding like

correcting machining errors.

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“WELDING DEFECTS”
1. Lack of Penetration
It is the failure of the filler metal to penetrate into
the joint. It is due to
(a) Incorrect edge penetration
(b) Incorrect welding technique.

2. Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to
fuse with the parent metal. It is due to
(a) Too fast travel
(b) Incorrect welding technique
(c) Insufficient heat

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 “WELDING DEFECTS”
3. Undercuts
These are grooves or slots along the
edges of the weld caused by
(a). If the arc voltage is very high
then this defect may occur.
(b). If we use the wrong electrode or
if the angle of the electrode is wrong,
then also the defect may form.
(c) . Using a large electrode is also
not advisable.
(d). High electrode speed is also one
of the reasons for this defect

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4. Cracking
It is the formation of cracks either in the
weld metal or in the parent metal. It is due
to
(a) Poor ductility of the given base metal.
(b) The presence of residual stress can
cause a crack on the weld metal.
(c) The rigidity of the joint which makes it
difficult to expand or contract the metals.
(d) If there is high content on sulphur and
carbon then also the cracks may appear.
(e) Using hydrogen as a shielding gas
while welding ferrous materials.

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5. Porosity
Porosity in the condition in which the gas or small
bubbles gets trapped in the welded zone.
Causes of Porosity:
1. It occurs when the electrode is not coated
properly.
2. Using a longer arc may also increase its chances.
3. Increased welding currents.
4. Rust or oil on the welding surface.

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POROSITY & BLOW HOLES:
Porosity is a cavity-like
discontinuity and occurs due to
the entrapment of gases in the
molten weld pool.
Porosity is basically a small pore
or void, whereas,
blowholes are comparatively
larger hole or cavity.
Porosity may be present on the
surface or inside the weld metal.

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6. Slag Inclusion
f there is any slag in the weld, then it affects the
toughness and metal weldability of the given
material. This decreases the structural
performance of the weld material. Slag is formed
on the surface of the weld or between the
welding turns.
Causes Of Slag:
1. Slag is formed if the welding current density is
very small, as it does not provide the required
amount of heat for melting the metal surface.
2. If the welding speed is too fast then also slag
may occur.
3. If the edge of the weld surface is not cleaned
properly then also slag may form.
4. Improper welding angle and travel rate of
welding rod.

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7. Weld Spatter

When some metal drops are expelled from the

weld and remain stuck to the surface, then this
defect is known as Spatter.
Causes Of Spatter:
1. High Welding current can cause this defect.
2. The longer the arc the more chances of
getting this defect.
3. Incorrect polarity.
4. Improper gas shielded may also cause this
defect

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