Journal of Sports Sciences, 2007; 25(S1): S5 – S15

Nutrition for the sprinter

KEVIN D. TIPTON1, ASKER E. JEUKENDRUP1, & PETER HESPEL2

1
School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK and 2Research Centre for Exercise and
Health, Faculty of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

(Accepted 2 August 2007)

Abstract
The primary roles for nutrition in sprints are for recovery from training and competition and influencing training
adaptations. Sprint success is determined largely by the power-to-mass ratio, so sprinters aim to increase muscle mass and
power. However, extra mass that does not increase power may be detrimental. Energy and protein intake are important for
increasing muscle mass. If energy balance is maintained, increased mass and strength are possible on a wide range of protein
intakes, so energy intake is crucial. Most sprinters likely consume ample protein. The quantity of energy and protein intake
necessary for optimal training adaptations depends on the individual athlete and training demands; specific recommenda-
tions for all sprinters are, at best, useless, and are potentially harmful. However, if carbohydrate and fat intake are sufficient
to maintain energy levels, then increased protein intake is unlikely to be detrimental. The type and timing of protein intake
and nutrients ingested concurrently must be considered when designing optimal nutritional strategies for increasing muscle
mass and power. On race day, athletes should avoid foods that result in gastrointestinal discomfort, dehydration or
sluggishness. Several supplements potentially influence sprint training or performance. Beta-alanine and bicarbonate may be
useful as buffering agents in longer sprints. Creatine may be efficacious for increasing muscle mass and strength and perhaps
increasing intensity of repeat sprint performance during training.

Keywords: Muscle hypertrophy, training adaptations, net muscle protein balance, creatine, power-to-mass ratio

Introduction
Early work demonstrated that elite sprinters have
The sprint events cover distances from 60 to 400 m. muscles composed predominantly of fast-twitch
These running and hurdle events rely primarily on fibres (Costill et al., 1976). Thus, success requires
the development of power through anaerobic energy, large, powerful muscles. Accordingly, the major role
the phosphocreatine (shorter events, e.g. 100 m and for nutrition may be to modulate muscle hypertrophy
200 m), and glycolytic (longer events, e.g. 400 m) from training. In this review, we focus on the role of
systems for energy. A sprint consists of an all-out nutrition for increasing muscle mass and strength, as
effort for a short period of time; performance is well as the potential for nutritional choices to
determined by the ability to achieve maximal velocity influence competition day performance.
and to limit the loss of power as the sprint progresses. Nutritional support for athletes is often considered
Biomechanical, neuromuscular, and metabolic fac- for two general situations: training and competition.
tors all influence performance. Important considerations for the sprinter are:
Nutritional support for athletic performance is a
popular and widely covered topic. However, most . maintaining energy levels during training;
sports nutrition research has focused on endurance . quick recovery from training;
performance. Relatively little has been written about . optimizing training adaptations with nutrition;
nutrition for sprinting performance. Although the . achieving a high power-to-weight ratio, thus
potential for an effect is arguably somewhat less than maximizing muscle mass and maintaining low
for endurance sports, especially during an event, body fat;
nutritional choices and strategies will contribute to . staying focused, sharp and maintaining concen-
adaptations to training and to performance in tration during competition days;
sprinters. . improved reaction times.

Correspondence: K. D. Tipton, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
E-mail: k.d.tipton@bham.ac.uk
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2007 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/02640410701607205
S6 K. D. Tipton et al.

Ferrando, Phillips, Doyle, & Wolfe, 1999). Thus,

Nutrition for sprint training
consumption of a source of essential amino acids, be
Sprint training is focused on developing lean body it an intact protein or a free amino acid mixture, will
mass capable of generating the power necessary to stimulate uptake of amino acids for synthesis of
carry the athlete as rapidly as possible. Adaptations muscle proteins necessary for muscle growth. The
to training are specific to the mode, intensity, and optimum amount of amino acids has yet to be
duration of the exercise. These adaptations stem determined, but it is clear that a relatively small
primarily from the exercise stimulus on the muscle amount of exogenous amino acids (about 12 g)
fibres, but may be influenced by nutritional factors. results in positive protein balance (Borsheim et al.,
Nutrition most certainly will influence muscle 2002). However, it remains to be seen if chronic
hypertrophy and this aspect of nutrition is usually consumption of a small amount of amino acids
the focus for sprinters. Besides specific sprint capable of stimulating a transient metabolic response
training, weight training with the goal of developing is enough to stimulate muscle hypertrophy in the
muscle mass is the primary form of training long term.
throughout the year. However, it is important to It is clear that the metabolic and thus phenotypic
recognize that optimum mass may not equal max- responses to exercise and thus training adaptations
imum mass for a sprinter. At some point, the power- are mediated by intracellular signalling. Recent
to-mass ratio may begin to decline with extra mass reviews have examined the response of these path-
regardless of composition. Some aspects of the ways to exercise and nutrition in detail (Rennie,
nutritional influence on training adaptations are also 2005; Tipton & Sharp, 2005). Signalling aspects of
covered in other reviews in this issue (Hawley, muscle adaptation to training are also discussed
Gibala, & Bermon, 2007; Houtkooper, Abbot, & elsewhere in this issue (Hawley et al., 2007).
Nimmo, 2007). Both translational (Bolster, Jefferson, & Kimball,
Recent evidence on the molecular and metabolic 2004) and transcriptional (Creer et al., 2005;
levels indicates that training adaptations occur as Psilander, Damsgaard, & Pilegaard, 2003) mechan-
protein levels change due to the response to each isms are stimulated by resistance exercise, but the
bout of exercise (Hawley, Tipton, & Millard- bulk of the increase in muscle protein synthesis is
Stafford, 2006). Muscle mass is determined by translational (Chesley, MacDougall, Tarnopolsky,
changes in protein levels, particularly myofibrillar Atkinson, & Smith, 1992). Rates of muscle protein
proteins. Increased myofibrillar proteins result from synthesis are increased with no increase in total RNA,
net positive balance of myofibrillar synthesis and suggesting that it is the efficiency of translation –
breakdown over a given period. The primary changes that is, an increase in synthesis per molecule of
occur in response to exercise plus nutrition. RNA – that is increased by resistance exercise
The bulk of the response of net muscle protein (Chesley et al., 1992). Resistance exercise increases
balance occurs following, rather than during, ex- phosphorylation of many translation initiation path-
ercise (Durham et al., 2004); increased muscle way components (Coffey et al., 2006; Karlsson et al.,
protein synthesis, rather than decreased breakdown, 2004; Koopman et al., 2006). Adaptations that
is responsible for the increased balance (Tipton & influence muscle growth also stem from transcrip-
Wolfe, 2004). Elevation of muscle protein synthesis tional regulation (Coffey et al., 2006; Williamson,
is delayed after exercise (Pitkanen et al., 2003), Gallagher, Harber, Hollon, & Trappe, 2003); tran-
presumably due to inhibition of translational path- scriptional activity of genes for muscle growth factors
ways due to elevations in AMPK (Bolster et al., and myosin heavy chain is stimulated by resistance
2003; Koopman, Zorenc, Gransier, Cameron- exercise (Psilander et al., 2003; Raue, Slivka, Jemiolo,
Smith, & van Loon, 2006). Once activated, muscle Holon, & Trappe, 2006). At this juncture, it is
protein synthesis and net muscle protein balance somewhat difficult to discern detailed influences of
remain elevated for up to 48 h after the exercise bout these pathways due to differences in study design and
(Phillips, Tipton, Aarsland, Wolf, & Wolfe, 1997); methods among the studies. Much work needs to be
however, protein balance does not become positive done to address the gaps in our knowledge.
without provision of exogenous amino acid sources Nutrition has a clear effect on the signalling
(Biolo, Tipton, Klein, & Wolfe, 1997). pathways related to muscle protein synthesis. Pre-
Consumption of a source of amino acids following vious reviews have detailed the response of intracel-
exercise increases the response of muscle protein lular signalling to exercise and nutrition (Kimball,
synthesis in an additive manner resulting in positive Farrell, & Jefferson, 2002; Tipton & Sharp, 2005).
muscle protein balance (Biolo et al., 1997; Borsheim, The influence of amino acids on muscle protein
Tipton, Wolf, & Wolfe, 2002). The response of net synthesis is primarily through the mTOR signalling
muscle protein balance is due primarily to the pathways (Kimball et al., 2002; Tipton & Sharp,
essential amino acids (Borsheim et al., 2002; Tipton, 2005). Leucine is particularly effective in stimulating
 Nutrition for the sprinter S7

initiation of translation following exercise (Anthony evidence for the efficacy of high protein intakes for
et al., 2000; Gautsch et al., 1998). In humans, the increasing muscle mass is, at best, equivocal, and has
administration of branched-chain amino acids after been extensively debated in the scientific commu-
resistance exercise increased phosphorylation of nity. The reader is referred to previous reviews for
p70s6k 3.5-fold above the increase due to exercise discussions of the merits of increased protein
when measured at 1 and 2 h after exercise (Karlsson requirements in athletes (Phillips, 2006; Rennie,
et al., 2004). However, the time course of signalling Wackerhage, Spangenburg, & Booth, 2004; Tipton &
events relative to muscle protein synthesis has yet to Witard, 2007; Tipton & Wolfe, 2004).
be examined in humans and much has yet to be It is likely that the disparity of opinions regarding
determined. overall protein needs arises primarily from two
Increased insulin levels resulting from carbohy- sources: methodological limitations (nitrogen bal-
drate intake are clearly a major controller of ance and leucine oxidation) and, perhaps more
translation initiation pathways (Kimball et al., fundamentally, a lack of consideration for the
2002). Thus, carbohydrates seem to play a role in principal reason athletes ingest protein (Tipton &
the response of muscle protein synthesis to feeding Witard, 2007). Rather than the attainment of
after exercise. Insulin stimulates these translation sig- nitrogen balance, the amount of protein that
nalling pathways primarily through phosphoinositol- optimizes muscle hypertrophy and maximizes per-
3-kinase (PI3k), Akt, and mTOR (Kimball et al., formance is the most salient factor. Attainment of
2002). Interestingly, post-exercise hyperinsulinaemia nitrogen balance is unlikely to concern sprinters;
only minimally stimulates muscle protein synthesis rather, they endeavour to consume the amount of
above normal post-exercise levels (Biolo, Williams, protein necessary to optimize muscle mass and
Fleming, & Wolfe, 1999). Moreover, Anthony et al. power.
(2000) demonstrated that the response of translation For many, if not most athletes, including sprinters,
initiation to amino acids is mediated by insulin. Taken the point may be inconsequential. Most athletes
together, these results suggest that combining carbo- ingest enough protein to cover even the higher
hydrates and proteins may be the best strategy for estimates of *1.2 – 1.5 g  kg71  day71 (Phillips,
stimulation of anabolic pathways. Indeed, utilization 2006; Tarnopolsky, 2004). Thus, recommending
of ingested amino acids for synthesis of muscle increased protein intake would not be necessary for
proteins is greatest when carbohydrates are ingested the majority of athletes consuming a well-chosen
concurrently with an amino acid source (Tipton & diet that meets energy needs. Moore et al. (2007)
Witard, 2007). Furthermore, leucine has been de- recently demonstrated that increased nitrogen
monstrated to be an effective insulin secretagogue balance and lean body mass result from 12 weeks
(Koopman et al., 2005). of intense resistance training while consuming
Carbohydrate intake may be important for muscle 1.4 g  kg71  day71. Thus, habitually high intakes,
anabolism in other ways as well. Depletion of muscle often greater than 2 g  kg71  day71, appear to be
glycogen is possible, given the multiple sprints unnecessary for muscle hypertrophy and increased
common to a sprint training session (Gaitanos, strength and power. It is likely that protein intake in
Williams, Boobis, & Brooks, 1993). Thus, carbohy- excess of 1.7 g  kg71  day71 is simply oxidized
drate intake should be sufficient to maintain glyco- (Tarnopolsky, 2004). Of course, it should be noted
gen levels, not only to prevent fatigue development that these results come from previously untrained
and maximize training potential, but also perhaps to individuals and it is arguable that years of training
optimize muscle anabolism. Low glycogen availabil- may change these responses.
ity may influence the adaptive response to training On the other hand, a relatively high protein intake
(Churchley et al., 2007; Creer et al., 2005), suggest- is unlikely to be detrimental, even if not entirely
ing that the maximal anabolic response to resistance necessary. Given the high energy intakes necessary to
exercise may not be possible when exercise is support increased muscle mass, habitual protein
initiated with low glycogen levels. Thus, sprinters consumption is likely to ensure maximum muscle
should consume sufficient carbohydrate to maintain accretion. Although protein and amino acid supple-
glycogen during training. ments may be convenient sources of essential amino
Clearly, protein intake is important for muscle acids, no evidence exists to suggest the anabolic
hypertrophy, but the amount of dietary protein response to protein from food sources is inferior to
necessary for a sprint athlete to optimize muscle commercially available supplements (Elliot, Cree,
gains and performance is difficult to determine. A Sanford, Wolfe, & Tipton, 2006; Phillips, 2006).
high protein intake is often thought to be critical for It is not possible to make a broad recommendation
muscle growth, repair, and enhancement of training for a specific amount of protein for all sprinters based
adaptations, and a huge supplement industry has on current scientific evidence. Any such recommen-
been built upon this assumption. The scientific dations are based on the presumption that muscle
S8 K. D. Tipton et al.

protein accretion is linear in relation to the amount Protein nutrition is most often the focus of athletes
of protein ingested (Tipton & Witard, 2007). In fact, whose goals include increased muscle mass. How-
much of the evidence casts doubt upon such broad ever, it is clear that energy balance is just as
recommendations. Metabolic studies clearly demon- important, if not much more so, for muscle
strate that the anabolic response to feeding is hypertrophy than is protein intake. It is not possible
dependent on many factors, including, but not to maintain positive nitrogen balance during an
limited to, the amount of protein ingested. The type energy deficit (Todd, Butterfield, & Calloway,
of protein ingested will affect the utilization of the 1984). Up to about one-third of the variability in
amino acids for synthesis of muscle proteins (Wilk- nitrogen balance is likely due to energy intake (Pellett
inson et al., 2007), the anabolic response to protein & Young, 1992). As early as 1907, Chittenden
ingestion will vary with ingestion of other concur- demonstrated that as long as energy intake is
rently ingested nutrients (Borsheim, Aarsland, & sufficient, athletes will gain muscle mass and
Wolfe, 2004a; Elliot et al., 2006), and, finally, the increase strength even during periods of low protein
timing of ingestion of an amino acid source will intake. More recently, positive energy balance has
influence the anabolic response of muscle (Tipton been demonstrated to be more important than the
et al., 2001, 2006). Taken together, it is clear that amount of protein ingested for gains in lean body
ingestion of a given amount of protein may result in a mass during resistance training (Rozenek, Ward,
variable metabolic response depending on several Long, & Garhammer, 2002).
factors other than solely the amount of protein. The arguments rendered above are contingent
Training adaptations may depend less on the amount upon one primary assumption, namely that the
of protein ingested, and more on the type of proteins acute metabolic response of muscle to exercise and
ingested, timing of ingestion, and other nutrients nutrition represents the potential for long-term
ingested in the same meal. muscle gain. Clearly, the ideal study to determine
A risk – benefit approach might offer some in- the effect of various feeding strategies on sprinters
sights for recommendations of protein intake for would be to measure changes in muscle mass,
athletes. If risk is minimal and there is a rationale strength, power, and speed – ultimately sprint
for potential benefit, then there is no reason to performance – during periods with different feed-
recommend against increasing protein intake. ing strategies. Unfortunately, these studies are
Health problems, such as kidney damage and bone virtually impossible to perform, primarily due to
loss, have often been given as reasons for avoiding difficulties in controlling all variables (Tipton &
high protein intakes. Whereas these issues are Witard, 2007; Tipton & Wolfe, 2004). A series of
theoretically associated with high protein intake, to recent investigations suggests that results from
date there is no evidence for kidney damage from acute metabolic studies adequately represent the
high protein in those with no predisposing kidney potential for changes in muscle mass in response to
maladies (Zello, 2006). A major component of bone training and nutrition (Paddon-Jones et al., 2004;
is protein and, in fact, synthesis of bone collagen Tipton, Borsheim, Wolf, Sanford, & Wolfe, 2003;
responds similarly to muscle proteins following Tipton & Witard, 2007). Results from studies at
ingestion of an amino acid source (Babraj et al., the molecular level support this contention (Coffey
2005). Thus, it appears that reasonably high protein et al., 2006; Hawley et al., 2006; Psilander et al.,
intakes offer little in the way of health dangers to 2003).
sprinters and other athletes. The relationship Since the balance between synthesis and break-
between high protein intake and chronic diseases down ultimately determines the amount of each
has not been firmly established, but it should be protein in muscle, a decrease in muscle protein
noted that individuals with pre-existing kidney breakdown rates should contribute to increased
disease should not consume high-protein diets muscle mass. Thus, nutritional strategies aimed at
(Zello, 2006). For many athletes, the primary risk decreasing rates of muscle protein breakdown
of high protein intakes is a necessary reduction in following exercise are often recommended. Amino
carbohydrate intake, which may then affect perfor- acid ingestion following resistance exercise can
mance (Macdermid & Stannard, 2006). Glycogen reduce muscle protein breakdown (Biolo et al.,
depletion is likely during training sessions involving 1997; Tipton et al., 1999). Utilization of amino acids
repeated sprints (Balsom, Gaitanos, Soderlund, & from ingested amino acid sources by muscle has
Ekblom, 1999; Gaitanos et al., 1993) and so been shown to increase when carbohydrates are
sufficient carbohydrate intake to support these ingested simultaneously (Borsheim et al., 2004a,
training sessions is clearly necessary. However, 2004b). The effect of carbohydrates is presumably
sprint athletes habitually consume ample carbohy- due to the associated insulin release. Insulin in-
drate and protein (Burke, Millet, & Tarnopolsky, creases net muscle protein balance following resis-
2007) to support training. tance exercise primarily by blocking the rise in
 Nutrition for the sprinter S9

muscle protein breakdown (Biolo et al., 1999). Thus,

Supplements for the sprinter
it is often recommended to consume protein plus
carbohydrates after exercise to maximize net muscle There are a few supplements that should be
protein balance and increase muscle mass. addressed in relation to sprint performance. We will
Recent data suggest that the role of protein concentrate primarily on supplements for which
breakdown for muscle hypertrophy may not be as there is sufficient evidence of their efficacy. Others
clear. After a resistance exercise bout, rates of that are often considered to be important for aspects
muscle protein breakdown increase and are asso- related to sprint performance (e.g. hydroxymethyl-
ciated with the increased rates of synthesis (Biolo, butyrate, ribose) will not be included in this
Maggi, Williams, Tipton, & Wolfe, 1995; Phillips discussion. The results from studies on most
et al., 1997). Furthermore, transient changes in supplements are equivocal and it is difficult to
gene expression and mRNA levels of both myo- recommend usage by sprinters at this time. More
genic (Psilander et al., 2003) and atrogenic detail on these and other supplements can be found
(Churchley et al., 2007; Jones et al., 2004) genes in another review in this issue by Maughan and
following resistance exercise suggest that increases colleagues (Maughan, Depiesse, & Geyer, 2007) and
in both the synthesis and breakdown of proteins in previous reviews (Hespel, Maughan, & Greenhaff,
are important for changes in protein levels. These 2006; Maughan, King, & Lea, 2004).
data suggest that muscle protein breakdown may When maximal exercise is performed for more
play an important role for accretion of muscle. than 30 s, most of the energy is derived from
Clearly, more research on the effect of nutrient anaerobic glycolysis. These high rates of glycolysis
intake on specific muscle degradative pathways is have been associated with increased muscle acidity
warranted. and this may eventually impair muscle contraction.
Increasing the buffering capacity is theoretically a
way of improving performance in such events (430 s
Nutrition for racing
up to about 7 min; 400-m running may just be long
The acute influence of nutritional intake for sprinting enough to benefit from an increased buffering
is not likely to be as great as for endurance events. capacity).
The length of the race alone prevents a large
influence from acute intakes. Although sprint events
Beta-alanine (b-alanyl-L-histidine)
only last seconds, competition can be rather drawn
out. A typical competition day involves a number of Beta-alanine is a non-essential amino acid that is
heats and finals with variable amounts of waiting common in many foods, especially meats. Beta-
around in between. For example, at the World alanine is believed to be the rate-limiting substrate
Championships in Osaka in 2007, the schedule for for synthesis of carnosine, which is an important
the 100 m is: intracellular buffer (Dunnett & Harris, 1999).
Carnosine is found primarily in type IIa and type
. Day 1, 12:10 h, men’s 100 m heats IIx fibres in skeletal muscle and contributes to
. Day 1, 20:15 h, men’s 100 m quarter-finals intracellular buffering of Hþ. Thus carnosine attenu-
. Day 3, 20:10 h, men’s 100 m semi-finals ates the decrease in intracellular pH associated with
. Day 3, 22:20 h, men’s 100 m final anaerobic metabolism. Interestingly, carnosine con-
centrations in athletes, such as sprinters, appear to be
On day 1, there are 8 h between rounds 1 and 2, but higher than those of marathoners or untrained
on the third day only 2 h between the semi-finals and individuals (Abe, 2000; Tallon, Harris, Boobis,
final! Fallowfield, & Wise, 2005). Furthermore, intense
During the time in between heats, athletes physical training may increase muscle carnosine
should stay hydrated but avoid over-drinking, concentrations (Hill et al., 2007). Four weeks of
maintain blood glucose levels, and avoid beha- beta-alanine supplementation increased muscle car-
viours, including feeding, that may contribute to nosine by 59% and 10 weeks of supplementation
discomfort, particularly gastrointestinal discomfort. increased it by 80% (Hill et al., 2007).
Careful consideration of what not to eat is probably In theory, increasing skeletal muscle carnosine
more important than what to eat. It is likely that levels (via beta-alanine supplementation or intense
there is no common way to achieve these goals in training) should increase buffering capacity, delay
every athlete. There is almost certainly large fatigue, and increase exercise performance. Higher
individual variation and preference in ways to carnosine concentration in muscle was associated
achieve these goals. Experimenting in training is with higher mean power from a 30-s maximal
therefore essential to develop a good routine on sprint on a cycle ergometer (Suzuki, Ito, Mukai,
race day. Takahashi, & Takamatsu, 2002). Beta-alanine
S10 K. D. Tipton et al.

supplementation has been demonstrated to increase solution and thus can be included in sports drinks or
muscle carnosine content and to be associated with gels. On the other hand, creatine monohydrate must
increased performance (Stout et al., 2007). be consumed soon after it is brought into solution.
Future studies need to confirm the limited results The effects of creatine intake on strength and
that are available and examine the combined effect of power, primary determinants of sprint running
beta-alanine supplementation and training on mus- performance, have been investigated extensively since
cle carnosine in highly trained athletes. Harris and co-workers first reported that a few days of
high-dose oral creatine supplementation can increase
muscle creatine content (Harris, Soderlund, &
Sodium bicarbonate
Hultman, 1992). However, to the best of our knowl-
The primary buffers in the muscle are phosphates edge, only two well-controlled studies have looked
and tissue proteins. The most important buffers in specifically at performance in well-trained sprint
the blood are proteins, including haemoglobin, and athletes. Skare et al. (2001) investigated the effect of
bicarbonate. During intense exercise, the intracellu- creatine intake on sprint velocity during a 100-m
lar buffers (including carnosine) are insufficient to sprint followed by 6 6 60-m sprints in locally compe-
buffer all the hydrogen ions formed. The efflux of Hþ titive sprinters. Creatine intake (20 g  day71 for 5
into the circulation increases, and bicarbonate has a days) marginally increased running velocity in the
role in buffering these Hþ ions. Bicarbonate inges- initial 100-m sprint and in five of the 60-m sprints.
tion (in the form of sodium bicarbonate) is the Conversely, performance in sprinters at national level
traditional method of increasing the extracellular was not increased by creatine intake (0.35 g  kg71
buffering capacity, although sodium citrate is often body mass for 7 days) in a 6 6 40-m (2-min rest
used as well. The mechanism by which bicarbonate intervals) intermittent exercise test (Delecluse,
supposedly exerts its action is through this buffering Diels, & Goris, 2003). Other studies utilizing various
of Hþ in the extracellular fluid. This increases the Hþ types of athletes provide equivocal results (Glaister
gradient and increases efflux of Hþ from the muscle. et al., 2006; Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquierdo, &
Reviews of the available literature suggest a dose – Gorostiaga, 2000). Importantly, none of the available
response relationship between the amount of bicar- studies has reported impaired performance.
bonate ingested and the observed performance effect Direct determination of a beneficial effect of
(Horswill, 1995). A dose of 200 mg  kg71 body mass creatine supplementation on sprint performance is
ingested 1 – 2 h before exercise seems to improve difficult. First, the performance benefit of creatine
performance in most studies, but 300 mg  kg71 body intake as a rule is very small, and conceivably within
mass appears to be the optimum dose (with tolerable the limits of day-to-day variability in performance,
side-effects for most athletes). Doses of less than thus the reliability of sprint tests ‘‘in the field’’ may
100 mg  kg71 body mass do not affect performance. be too small to demonstrate a significant effect of
Intakes of more than 300 mg  kg71 body mass tend creatine in a small sample of individuals. Second, the
to result in gastrointestinal problems. Most of these available data pertain predominantly to very short
studies, however, used exercise lasting longer than sprints (15 – 60 m) where start reaction time as well
1 min and in most the exercise intensity and duration as running skill (coordination) are major determi-
were comparable to middle-distance running not nants of performance. Creatine intake is unlikely to
sprints. be beneficial to either of these important factors.
No studies have shown an effect on performance Finally, it is important to emphasize that results from
in high-intensity exercise lasting less than 1 min. well-controlled laboratory studies consistently indi-
Therefore, a window for efficacy of bicarbonate has cate that creatine supplementation can enhance
been identified between approximately 1 and 7 min power output during short maximal exercise
and sprint events are not likely to be affected. (Terjung et al., 2000), in particular during intermit-
Nevertheless, the use of bicarbonate is common in tent series (10 – 30 s) of maximal muscle contractions
400-m running, with anecdotal support for its (Casey, Short, Curtis, & Greenhaff, 1996; Greenhaff
efficacy. et al., 1993) interspersed by 1 – 2 min rest intervals.
Heavy resistance training accounts for an important
fraction of the total training volume in elite sprinters.
Creatine
It has been well documented that creatine supple-
Creatine is a natural guanidine compound that mentation can potentiate the gains in fat-free mass and
occurs in meat and fish in concentrations between muscle force and power output that accompany
3 and 7 g  kg71 (Walker, 1979). Synthetic creatine resistance training (Hespel et al., 2001; Volek et al.,
supplements exist as creatine monohydrate or 1997). Thus, creatine supplementation conceivably
various creatine salts, such as creatine citrate or could contribute to improving sprint performance
creatine pyruvate. The latter are soluble and stable in by enhancing the efficacy of resistance training.
 Nutrition for the sprinter S11

A classical creatine loading regimen consists of an resistance training are unclear. Creatine intake may
initial loading phase (15 – 20 g  day71 for 4 – 7 days) increase the stimulation of satellite cell proliferation
followed by a maintenance dose (2 – 5 g  day71) (Olsen et al., 2006) or intracellular signalling path-
(Terjung et al., 2000). However, individual responses ways (Deldicque et al., 2005; Louis, Van, Dehoux,
vary and there are indications that a positive effect on Thissen, & Francaux, 2004). However, direct
muscle mass may diminish after 8 – 10 weeks evidence that creatine can stimulate net protein
(Derave, Eijnde, & Hespel, 2003). Although solid synthesis in human muscle is lacking (Louis et al.,
data are lacking, it may be advisable to add wash-out 2003; Parise, Mihic, MacLennan, Yarasheski, &
periods to periods of creatine supplementation for Tarnopolsky, 2001). Alternatively, changes in mus-
optimum impact. Individuals with a low initial cle protein accretion can occur as a consequence of
muscle creatine content, such as vegetarians (Burke individuals performing more work during high-
et al., 2003), respond better to creatine supplementa- intensity training programmes while consuming
tion than others with high a natural muscle creatine creatine (Kreider et al., 1998).
content. Therefore, creatine intake probably is an
adequate adjuvant to a vegetarian diet in sprinters.
Caffeine
Furthermore, ingesting creatine in conjunction with
training sessions can stimulate muscle creatine Caffeine is a popular stimulant used by most
uptake, as exercise is known to facilitate the disposal individuals, including athletes. Caffeine is con-
of ingested creatine into the musculature (Harris tained in coffee, tea, chocolate, and many other
et al., 1992). It is probably also worthwhile consider- caffeinated food sources like cola and so-called
ing the possibility of ingesting creatine supplements ‘‘energy-booster’’ drinks. The primary mechanism
in combination with post-exercise carbohydrate – of action by which caffeine can beneficially affect
amino acid – protein supplements in order to enhance performance probably is by enhancing central drive
muscle creatine retention due to increased insulin and/or improving muscle fibre recruitment
concentrations (Steenge, Simpson, & Greenhaff, (Graham, 2001). It is well known that small doses
2000). Creatine is not on the doping list and its of caffeine (1 – 2 mg  kg71 body mass) can bene-
intake is generally found to be safe in healthy adults ficially influence mental alertness and thereby
provided the aforementioned guidelines are followed shorten reaction time (Haskell, Kennedy, Wesnes, &
(Terjung et al., 2000). Creatine intake does result in Scholey, 2005), which is obviously crucial to sprint
increased body mass from intracellular water accu- success. However, care must be taken to determine
mulation. Increased water content may be proble- the optimum dose during training because
matic for some athletes, particularly sprinters desiring overdosing will have a negative effect on reaction
optimal power-to-mass ratios. time. Because sprinters typically compete on an empty
The physiological mechanisms underlying the stomach, caffeine will be very rapidly absorbed, and
effects of creatine supplementation are only partly if ingested during the pre-competition warm-up
understood. Some indicate that an increased muscle period, the potential performance benefits may be
creatine content can facilitate flux through the reduced during the competition to follow (Bell &
creatine kinase reaction and thereby prevent net McLellan, 2002). Caffeine should be ingested in an
ATP degradation during high-intensity muscle con- isolated formulation (capsules or tablets) rather than
tractions (Casey et al., 1996). This flux could also in the form of strong coffee because the latter is more
explain the shortening of muscle relaxation time seen likely to cause gastrointestinal distress (Tarnopolsky,
after creatine loading (Van, Vandenberghe, & 1994).
Hespel, 1999) possibly contributing to increased Responses to caffeine intake and withdrawal vary
stride frequency during sprinting with creatine intake greatly among individuals depending on the degree of
(Schedel, Terrier, & Schutz, 2000). Given that the habituation (Bell & McLellan, 2002; Magkos &
importance of phosphocreatine to energy production Kavouras, 2004). Therefore, individual tuning of
(relative to muscle glycogen) increases as the the dosage in the context of training is very important.
duration of a sprint is shortened, the ergogenic effect Frequent high-dose caffeine intake results in rapid
of creatine may be more important in the 60- and desensitization and will require the use of an even
100-m sprints than in the longer sprint events (200 – higher dose.
400 m). Furthermore, stimulation of muscle phos- The common use of caffeine as a ‘‘social stimu-
phocreatine resynthesis may contribute to enhanced lant’’ probably proves that low-dose caffeine intake
recovery between intermittent sprint bouts (Casey should be considered to be safe. However, high-dose
et al., 1996; Greenhaff, Bodin, Soderlund, & caffeine intake is well known to be associated with
Hultman, 1994), thus enhancing sprint training. adverse health effects, in particular at the level of the
The mechanisms underlying the potential of cardiovascular system (Tarnopolsky, 1994). In 2004,
creatine to stimulate muscle anabolism during the World Anti Doping Agency (WADA) removed
S12 K. D. Tipton et al.

caffeine from the list of banned substances and its . Efficacy of beta-alanine for increasing muscle
use is currently being monitored. carnosine in well-trained sprinters.
. Efficacy of bicarbonate in sprinters.

Summary of nutritional guidelines for sprinters

References
Consensus for:
Abe, H. (2000). Role of histidine-related compounds as intracel-
. Carbohydrate intake should be sufficient lular proton buffering constituents in vertebrate muscle.
(*5 g  kg71 body mass) to maintain glycogen Biochemistry (Moscow), 65, 757 – 765.
Anthony, J. C., Yoshizawa, F., Anthony, T. G., Vary, T. C.,
stores during training. Jefferson, L. S., & Kimball, S. R. (2000). Leucine stimulates
. Energy intake should be carefully considered: if translation initiation in skeletal muscle of postabsorptive rats via
increased muscle mass is desired, energy intake a rapamycin-sensitive pathway. Journal of Nutrition, 130, 2413 –
should be increased; if muscle mass is optimal, 2419.
energy intake should be maintained and perhaps Babraj, J. A., Smith, K., Cuthbertson, D. J., Rickhuss, P., Dorling,
J. S., & Rennie, M. J. (2005). Human bone collagen synthesis is
monitored. a rapid, nutritionally modulated process. Journal of Bone
. Protein intake is likely adequate for the majority Mineral Research, 20, 930 – 937.
of sprinters, but if energy intake is increased a Balsom, P. D., Gaitanos, G. C., Soderlund, K., & Ekblom, B.
portion of this increase could, and perhaps (1999). High-intensity exercise and muscle glycogen
should, be protein. availability in humans. Acta Physiologica Scandanavica, 165,
337 – 345.
. Type of protein and timing of protein ingestion Bell, D. G., & McLellan, T. M. (2002). Exercise endurance 1, 3,
should be considered if increased muscle mass and 6 h after caffeine ingestion in caffeine users and nonusers.
is the goal. Journal of Applied Physiology, 93, 1227 – 1234.
. Race day nutrition should be developed indivi- Biolo, G., Maggi, S. P., Williams, B. D., Tipton, K. D., &
Wolfe, R. R. (1995). Increased rates of muscle protein turnover
dually with the goal of avoiding gastrointestinal
and amino acid transport after resistance exercise in humans.
distress and dehydration. American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism,
. Creatine supplementation may enhance in- 268, E514 – E520.
creases in muscle mass and strength, but Biolo, G., Tipton, K. D., Klein, S., & Wolfe, R. R. (1997). An
sprinters must consider the extra weight gain abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect
associated with creatine use. of exercise on muscle protein. American Journal of Physiology:
Endocrinology and Metabolism, 273, E122 – E129.
Biolo, G., Williams, B. D., Fleming, R. Y., & Wolfe, R. R. (1999).
Consensus against: Insulin action on muscle protein kinetics and amino acid
transport during recovery after resistance exercise. Diabetes, 48,
. A single broad recommendation for protein 949 – 957.
intake for all sprint athletes is non-sensical. Bolster, D. R., Jefferson, L. S., & Kimball, S. R. (2004). Regulation
of protein synthesis associated with skeletal muscle hypertrophy
. Since power/mass is the most critical element of by insulin-, amino acid- and exercise-induced signalling.
sprinting success, automatically assuming stra- Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 63, 351 – 356.
tegies that may increase muscle mass are Bolster, D. R., Kubica, N., Crozier, S. J., Williamso, D. L.,
desirable could be a mistake if increased mass Farrell, P. A., Kimball, S. R. et al. (2003). Immediate response
of mTOR-mediated signaling following acute resistance ex-
decreases the power-to-mass ratio.
ercise in rat skeletal muscle. Journal of Physiology, 553 (Pt. 1),
. Use of supplements as sources of protein and 213 – 220.
amino acids in the belief that they provide Borsheim, E., Aarsland, A., & Wolfe, R. R. (2004a). Effect of an
superior quality to foods. amino acid, protein, and carbohydrate mixture on net muscle
. There is insufficient evidence to recommend other protein balance after resistance exercise. International Journal of
supplements (e.g. ribose, hydroxymethylbutyrate, Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 14, 255 – 271.
Borsheim, E., Cree, M. G., Tipton, K. D., Elliott, T. A.,
vanadyl sulphate) to sprinters at this time. Aarsland, A., & Wolfe, R. R. (2004b). Effect of carbohydrate
intake on net muscle protein synthesis during recovery
from resistance exercise. Journal Applied Physiology, 96, 674 –
Issues that are equivocal: 678.
. Relationship of type of protein and timing of Borsheim, E., Tipton, K. D., Wolf, S. E., & Wolfe, R. R. (2002).
Essential amino acids and muscle protein recovery from
ingestion of proteins for muscle anabolism. resistance exercise. American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology
. The role of muscle degradative pathways for and Metabolism, 283, E648 – E657.
adaptation to training. Burke, D. G., Chilibeck, P. D., Parise, G., Candow, D. G.,
. The impact of nutrition on muscle degradative Mahoney, D., & Tarnopolsky, M. (2003). Effect of creatine
pathways for training adaptations. and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in
vegetarians. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35, 1946 –
. Effect of nutrients and the interaction with 1955.
training on signalling pathways and gene Burke, L. M., Millet, G., & Tarnopolsky, M. A. (2007). Nutrition
expression in muscle. for distance events. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, S29 – S38.
 Nutrition for the sprinter S13

Casey, A., Short, A. H., Curtis, S., & Greenhaff, P. L. (1996). The Greenhaff, P. L., Casey, A., Short, A. H., Harris, R., Soderlund, K., &
effect of glycogen availability on power output and the Hultman, E. (1993). Influence of oral creatine supplementation
metabolic response to repeated bouts of maximal, isokinetic on muscle torque during repeated bouts of maximal voluntary
exercise in man. European Journal of Applied Physiology and exercise in man. Clinical Science, 84, 565 – 571.
Occupational Physiology, 72, 249 – 255. Harris, R. C., Soderlund, K., & Hultman, E. (1992). Elevation
Chesley, A., MacDougall, J. D., Tarnopolsky, M. A., Atkinson, S. of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal
A., & Smith, K. (1992). Changes in human muscle protein subjects by creatine supplementation. Clinical Science, 83,
synthesis after resistance exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 367 – 374.
73, 1383 – 1388. Haskell, C. F., Kennedy, D. O., Wesnes, K. A., & Scholey, A. B.
Chittenden, R. H. (1907). The nutrition of man. London: Heinemann. (2005). Cognitive and mood improvements of caffeine in
Churchley, E. G., Coffey, V. G., Pedersen, D. J., Shield, A., habitual consumers and habitual non-consumers of caffeine.
Carey, K. A., Cameron-Smith, D. et al. (2007). Influence of Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 179, 813 – 825.
pre-exercise muscle glycogen content on transcriptional activity Hawley, J. A., Gibala, M. J., & Bermon, S. (2007). Innovations in
of metabolic and myogenic genes in well-trained humans. athletic preparation: Role of substrate availability to modify
Journal of Applied Physiology, 102, 1604 – 1611. training afaptation and performance. Journal of Sports Sciences,
Coffey, V. G., Zhong, Z., Shield, A., Canny, B. J., Chibalin, A. V., 25, S115 – S124.
Zierath, J. R. et al. (2006). Early signaling responses to Hawley, J. A., Tipton, K. D., & Millard-Stafford, M. L. (2006).
divergent exercise stimuli in skeletal muscle from well-trained Promoting training adaptations through nutritional interven-
humans. FASEB Journal, 20, 190 – 192. tions. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 1 – 13.
Costill, D. L., Daniels, J., Evans, W., Fink, W., Krahenbuhl, G., & Hespel, P., Maughan, R. J., & Greenhaff, P. L. (2006). Dietary
Saltin, B. (1976). Skeletal muscle enzymes and fiber composi- supplements for football. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 749 –
tion in male and female track athletes. Journal of Applied 761.
Physiology, 40, 149 – 154. Hespel, P., Op’t, E. B., Van, L. M., Urso, B., Greenhaff, P. L.,
Creer, A., Gallagher, P., Slivka, D., Jemiolo, B., Fink, W., & Labarque, V. et al. (2001). Oral creatine supplementation
Trappe, S. (2005). Influence of muscle glycogen availability facilitates the rehabilitation of disuse atrophy and alters the
on ERK1/2 and Akt signaling after resistance exercise in human expression of muscle myogenic factors in humans. Journal of
skeletal muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology, 99, 950 – 956. Physiology, 536, 625 – 633.
Deldicque, L., Louis, M., Theisen, D., Nielens, H., Dehoux, M., Hill, C. A., Harris, R. C., Kim, H. J., Harris, B. D., Sale, C.,
Thissen, J. P. et al. (2005). Increased IGF mRNA in human Boobis, L. H. et al. (2007). Influence of beta-alanine
skeletal muscle after creatine supplementation. Medicine and supplementation on skeletal muscle carnosine concentrations
Science in Sports and Exercise, 37, 731 – 736. and high intensity cycling capacity. Amino Acids, 32, 225 –
Delecluse, C., Diels, R., & Goris, M. (2003). Effect of creatine 233.
supplementation on intermittent sprint running performance in Horswill, C. A. (1995). Effects of bicarbonate, citrate, and
highly trained athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning phosphate loading on performance. International Journal of
Research, 17, 446 – 454. Sport Nutrition, 5 (suppl.), S111 – S119.
Derave, W., Eijnde, B. O., & Hespel, P. (2003). Creatine Houtkooper, L., Abbot, J. M., & Nimmo, M. (2007). Nutrition for
supplementation in health and disease: What is the evidence throwers, jumpers and combined events athletes. Journal of
for long-term efficacy? Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 244, Sports Sciences, 25, S39 – S47.
49 – 55. Jones, S. W., Hill, R. J., Krasney, P. A., O’Conner, B., Peirce, N., &
Dunnett, M., & Harris, R. C. (1999). Influence of oral beta- Greenhaff, P. L. (2004). Disuse atrophy and exercise rehabili-
alanine and L-histidine supplementation on the carnosine tation in humans profoundly affects the expression of genes
content of the gluteus medius. Equine Veterinary Journal associated with the regulation of skeletal muscle mass. FASEB
Supplement, 30, 499 – 504. Journal, 18, 1025 – 1027.
Durham, W. J., Miller, S. L., Yeckel, C. W., Chinkes, D. L., Tipton, Karlsson, H. K., Nilsson, P. A., Nilsson, J., Chibalin, A. V.,
K. D., Rasmussen, B. B. et al. (2004). Leg glucose and protein Zierath, J. R., & Blomstrand, E. (2004). Branched-chain amino
metabolism during an acute bout of resistance exercise in acids increase p70S6k phosphorylation in human skeletal
humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 97, 1379 – 1386. muscle after resistance exercise. American Journal of Physiology:
Elliot, T. A., Cree, M. G., Sanford, A. P., Wolfe, R. R., & Endocrinology and Metabolism, 287, E1 – E7.
Tipton, K. D. (2006). Milk ingestion stimulates net muscle Kimball, S. R., Farrell, P. A., & Jefferson, L. S. (2002). Invited
protein synthesis following resistance exercise. Medicine and review: Role of insulin in translational control of protein
Science in Sports and Exercise, 38, 667 – 674. synthesis in skeletal muscle by amino acids or exercise. Journal
Gaitanos, G. C., Williams, C., Boobis, L. H., & Brooks, S. (1993). of Applied Physiology, 93, 1168 – 1180.
Human muscle metabolism during intermittent maximal Koopman, R., Wagenmakers, A. J., Manders, R. J., Zorenc, A. H.,
exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 75, 712 – 719. Senden, J. M., Gorselink, M. et al. (2005). Combined ingestion
Gautsch, T. A., Anthony, J. C., Kimball, S. R., Paul, G. L., Layman, of protein and free leucine with carbohydrate increases
D. K., & Jefferson, L. S. (1998). Availability of eIF4E regulates postexercise muscle protein synthesis in vivo in male subjects.
skeletal muscle protein synthesis during recovery from exercise. American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism,
American Journal of Physiology: Cell Physiology, 274, C406 – C414. 288, E645 – E653.
Glaister, M., Lockey, R. A., Abraham, C. S., Staerck, A., Koopman, R., Zorenc, A. H., Gransier, R. J., Cameron-
Goodwin, J. E., & McInnes, G. (2006). Creatine supplementa- Smith, D., & van Loon, L. J. (2006). Increase in S6K1
tion and multiple sprint running performance. Journal of phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle following resistance
Strength and Conditioning Research, 20, 273 – 277. exercise occurs mainly in type II muscle fibers. American Journal
Graham, T. E. (2001). Caffeine and exercise: Metabolism, of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism, 290, E1245 –
endurance and performance. Sports Medicine, 31, 785 – 807. E1252.
Greenhaff, P. L., Bodin, K., Soderlund, K., & Hultman, E. Kreider, R. B., Ferreira, M., Wilson, M., Grindstaff, P., Plisk, S.,
(1994). Effect of oral creatine supplementation on skeletal Reinardy, J. et al. (1998). Effects of creatine supplementation
muscle phosphocreatine resynthesis. American Journal of Phy- on body composition, strength, and sprint performance.
siology: Endocrinology and Metabolism, 266, E725 – E730. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 73 – 82.
S14 K. D. Tipton et al.

Louis, M., Poortmans, J. R., Francaux, M., Berre, J., Rennie, M. J. (2005). Body maintenance and repair – how food
Boisseau, N., Brassine, E. et al. (2003). No effect of creatine and exercise keeps the musculoskeletal system in good shape.
supplementation on human myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic Experimental Physiology, 90, 427 – 436.
protein synthesis after resistance exercise. American Journal Rennie, M. J., Wackerhage, H., Spangenburg, E. E., & Booth, F.
of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism, 285, E1089 – E1094. W. (2004). Control of the size of the human muscle mass.
Louis, M., Van, B. R., Dehoux, M., Thissen, J. P., & Annual Review of Physiology, 66, 799 – 828.
Francaux, M. (2004). Creatine increases IGF-I and myogenic Rozenek, R., Ward, P., Long, S., & Garhammer, J. (2002). Effects
regulatory factor mRNA in C(2)C(12) cells. FEBS Letters, 557, of high-calorie supplements on body composition and muscular
243 – 247. strength following resistance training. Journal of Sports Medicine
Macdermid, P. W., & Stannard, S. R. (2006). A whey- and Physical Fitness, 42, 340 – 347.
supplemented, high-protein diet versus a high-carbohydrate Schedel, J. M., Terrier, P., & Schutz, Y. (2000). The biomechanic
diet: Effects on endurance cycling performance. International origin of sprint performance enhancement after one-week
Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 16, 65 – 77. creatine supplementation. Japanese Journal of Physiology, 50,
Magkos, F., & Kavouras, S. A. (2004). Caffeine and ephedrine: 273 – 276.
Physiological, metabolic and performance-enhancing effects. Skare, O. C., Skadberg, O., Wisnes, A. R. (2001) Creatine
Sports Medicine, 34, 871 – 889. supplementation improves sprint performance in male sprin-
Maughan, R. J., Depiesse, F., & Geyer, H. (2007). The use of ters. Scandanavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 11,
dietary supplements by athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, 96 – 102.
S103 – S113. Steenge, G. R., Simpson, E. J., & Greenhaff, P. L. (2000).
Maughan, R. J., King, D. S., & Lea, T. (2004). Dietary Protein- and carbohydrate-induced augmentation of whole
supplements. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, 95 – 113. body creatine retention in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology,
Moore, D. R., Del Bel, N. C., Nizi, K. I., Hartman, J. W., Tang, J. 89, 1165 – 1171.
E., Armstrong, D., & Phillips, S. M. (2007). Resistance training Stout, J. R., Cramer, J. T., Zoeller, R. F., Torok, D., Costa, P.,
reduces fasted- and fed-state leucine turnover and increases Hoffman, J. R. et al. (2007). Effects of beta-alanine supple-
dietry nitrogen retention in previously untrained young men. mentation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue and ventilatory
Journal of Nutrition, 137, 985 – 991. threshold in women. Amino Acids, 32, 381 – 386.
Mujika, I., Padilla, S., Ibanez, J., Izquierdo, M., & Gorostiaga, E. Suzuki, Y., Ito, O., Mukai, N., Takahashi, H., & Takamatsu, K.
(2000). Creatine supplementation and sprint performance in (2002). High level of skeletal muscle carnosine contributes to
soccer players. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, the latter half of exercise performance during 30-s maximal
518 – 525. cycle ergometer sprinting. Japanese Journal of Physiology, 52,
Olsen, S., Aagaard, P., Kadi, F., Tufekovic, G., Verney, J., 199 – 205.
Olesen, J. L. et al. (2006). Creatine supplementation augments Tallon, M. J., Harris, R. C., Boobis, L. H., Fallowfield, J. L., &
the increase in satellite cell and myonuclei number in human Wise, J. A. (2005). The carnosine content of vastus lateralis is
skeletal muscle induced by strength training. Journal of elevated in resistance-trained bodybuilders. Journal of Strength
Physiology, 573, 525 – 534. and Conditioning Research, 19, 725 – 729.
Paddon-Jones, D., Sheffield-Moore, M., Urban, R. J., Sanford, A. Tarnopolsky, M. A. (1994). Caffeine and endurance performance.
P., Aarsland, A., Wolfe, R. R. et al. (2004). Essential amino Sports Medicine, 18, 109 – 125.
acid and carbohydrate supplementation ameliorates muscle Tarnopolsky, M. (2004). Protein requirements for endurance
protein loss in humans during 28 days bedrest. Journal of athletes. Nutrition, 20, 662 – 668.
Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 89, 4351 – 4358. Terjung, R. L., Clarkson, P., Eichner, E. R., Greenhaff, P. L.,
Parise, G., Mihic, S., MacLennan, D., Yarasheski, K. E., & Hespel, P. J., Israel, R. G. et al. (2000). American College of
Tarnopolsky, M. A. (2001). Effects of acute creatine mono- Sports Medicine roundtable: The physiological and health
hydrate supplementation on leucine kinetics and mixed-muscle effects of oral creatine supplementation. Medicine and Science in
protein synthesis. Journal of Applied Physiology, 91, 1041 – 1047. Sports and Exercise, 32, 706 – 717.
Pellett, P. L., & Young, V. R. (1992). The effects of different levels Tipton, K. D., Borsheim, E., Wolf, S. E., Sanford, A. P., &
of energy intake on protein metabolism and of different levels of Wolfe, R. R. (2003). Acute response of net muscle protein
protein intake on energy metabolism: A statistical evaluation balance reflects 24-h balance after exercise and amino acid
from the published literature. In N. S. Scrimshaw & B. Schurch ingestion. American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and
(Eds.), Protein – Energy Interactions (pp. 81 – 121). Lausanne: Metabolism, 284, E76 – E89.
IDEGG, Nestlé Foundation. Tipton, K. D., Elliott, T. A., Cree, M. G., Aarsland, A. A.,
Phillips, S. M. (2006). Dietary protein for athletes: From Sanford, A. P., & Wolfe, R. R. (2006). Stimulation of net
requirements to metabolic advantage. Applied Physiology, muscle protein synthesis by whey protein ingestion before and
Nutrition and Metabolism, 31, 647 – 654. after exercise. American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and
Phillips, S. M., Tipton, K. D., Aarsland, A., Wolf, S. E., & Metabolism, 292, E71 – 76.
Wolfe, R. R. (1997). Mixed muscle protein synthesis and break- Tipton, K. D., Ferrando, A. A., Phillips, S. M., Doyle, D., Jr., &
down following resistance exercise in humans. American Journal Wolfe, R. R. (1999). Postexercise net protein synthesis in
of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism, 273, E99 – E107. human muscle from orally administered amino acids. American
Pitkanen, H. T., Nykanen, T., Knuutinen, J., Lahti, K., Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism, 276, E628 –
Keinanen, O., Alen, M. et al. (2003). Free amino acid pool E634.
and muscle protein balance after resistance exercise. Medicine Tipton, K. D., Rasmussen, B. B., Miller, S. L., Wolf, S. E.,
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35, 784 – 792. Owens-Stovall, S. K., Petrini, B. E. et al. (2001). Timing of
Psilander, N., Damsgaard, R., & Pilegaard, H. (2003). Resistance amino acid – carbohydrate ingestion alters anabolic response of
exercise alters MRF and IGF-I mRNA content in human muscle to resistance exercise. American Journal of Physiology:
skeletal muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology, 95, 1038 – 1044. Endocrinology and Metabolism, 281, E197 – E206.
Raue, U., Slivka, D., Jemiolo, B., Hollon, C., & Trappe, S. Tipton, K. D., & Sharp, C. P. (2005). The response of
(2006). Myogenic gene expression at rest and after a bout of intracellular signaling and muscle protein metabolism to
resistance exercise in young (18 – 30 yr) and old (80 – 89 yr) nutrition and exercise. European Journal of Sports Science, 5,
women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 101, 53 – 59. 107 – 121.
 Nutrition for the sprinter S15

Tipton, K. D., & Witard, O. C. (2007). Protein requirements and Walker, J. B. (1979). Creatine: Biosynthesis, regulation, and
recommendations for athletes: Relevance of ivory tower function. Advances in Enzymology and Related Areas of Molecular
arguments for practical recommendations. Clinics in Sports Biology, 50, 177 – 242.
Medicine, 26, 17 – 36. Wilkinson, S. B., Tarnopolsky, M. A., Macdonald, M. J.,
Tipton, K. D., & Wolfe, R. R. (2004). Protein and amino acids for MacDonald, J. R., Armstrong, D., & Phillips, S. M. (2007).
athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, 65 – 79. Consumption of fluid skim milk promotes greater muscle
Todd, K. S., Butterfield, G. E., & Calloway, D. H. (1984). protein accretion after resistance exercise than does consump-
Nitrogen balance in men with adequate and deficient energy tion of an isonitrogenous and isoenergetic soy-protein beverage.
intake at three levels of work. Journal of Nutrition, 114, 2107 – American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85, 1031 – 1040.
2118. Williamson, D., Gallagher, P., Harber, M., Hollon, C., &
Van, L. M., Vandenberghe, K., & Hespel, P. (1999). Shortening Trappe, S. (2003). Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)
of muscle relaxation time after creatine loading. Journal of pathway activation: Effects of age and acute exercise on human
Applied Physiology, 86, 840 – 844. skeletal muscle. Journal of Physiology, 547, 977 – 987.
Volek, J. S., Kraemer, W. J., Bush, J. A., Boetes, M., Incledon, T., Zello, G. A. (2006). Dietary reference intakes for the macronu-
Clark, K. L. et al. (1997). Creatine supplementation enhances trients and energy: considerations for physical activity. Applied
muscular performance during high-intensity resistance exercise. Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, 31, 74 – 79.
Journal of the American Dietetics Association, 97, 765 – 770.