1.

Wind load on structues

Wind forces are variable loads which act directly on the internal and external surface of
structures. The intensity of wind load on a structure is related to the square of the wind
velocity and the dimensions of the members that are resisting the wind (frontal area).
Wind velocity is dependent on geographical location, the height of the structure, the
topography of the area and the roughness of the surrounding terrain.

The response of a structure to the variable action of wind can be separated in to two
components, a background component and a resonant component. The background
component involves static deflection of the structure under the wind pressure. The
resonant component, on the other hand, involves dynamic vibration of the structure in
response to changes in wind pressure. In most structures the resonant component is
relatively small and structural response to wind forces is treated using static methods of
analysis alone. However, for tall or otherwise flexible structures, the resonant
component of wind should be calculated using dynamic methods of analysis. Such
structures are not considered further here.

Static effects of wind load on buildings

Reference wind velocity

The reference wind velocity for a locality is defined as the mean wind velocity at 10m
above farmland averaged over a period of 10 minutes with a return period of 50 years. It
is calculated using.
Vref = CDIRCTEMCALTVref, 0
Where Vref,0 is the basic reference wind velocity 10m above sea level and CDIR, CTEM
and CALT are factors relating to direction, seasonal variations in temporary structures and
altitude respectively.

The factors CDIR, CTEM and CALT will be specified for local conditions by individual
countries. For each of these factors, a value of unity may be assumed unless otherwise

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specified for a particular region. The direction factor, CDIR. Allows for the orientation of
the structure in relation to the direction of the prevailing wind. The seasonal variation
factor, CTEM, may be applied to structures of a temporary nature which are exposed to
wind for only part of a given year. It reflects the fact that storm winds are less likely in
the summer months in most European countries. (Temporary structures are subjected to
a reduced risk of exposure to strong winds simply by virtue of their reduced design life.
This phenomenon can be allowed for by means of a separate adjustment to the wind
reference velocity.) The altitude factor, CALT, allows for the altitude of the site on which
the structure is located. Wind speeds tend to be greater in sites located at high altitudes.

Exposure coefficient

Wind velocity tends to decease near ground level owing to frictional forces between the
wind and the ground. If the terrain is rugged, the decrease in velocity can be quite
substantial. The exposure coefficient takes account of the variation from the reference
wind velocity due to the roughness around the structure, the local topography and the
height of the structure above ground level. EBCS1 defines the exposure coefficient at
height z meters, using the relationship:
 7kT 
C e ( z )  C r2 ( z )C t2 ( z ) 1  
 C r ( z )C t ( z ) 

Where Cr and Ct are roughness and topography coefficients respectively and kT is a

terrain factor. The terrain factor is a function of the nature of the terrain and is given in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Ground roughness categories and parameter values (from EBCS-1,1995)
Z0 zmin
Category Terrain description kr
(m) (m)
Rough open sae. Lakeshore with  5 km
1 fetch upwind and smooth flat country 0.17 0.01 2
without obstacles
Farmland with boundary hedges,
2 occasional small farm structures, houses 0.19 0.05 4
or trees
Suburban or industrial areas and
3 0.22 0.3 8
permanent forests
Urban areas in which  15% of the
4 surface is covered with buildings and 0.24 1 16
their average height exceeds 15m
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The topography coefficient, Ct, accounts for the increase in mean wind speed over
isolated hills and escarpments. Details for its calculation in such cases are given in
EBCS-1.1995 (Figure 3.6 and 3.7). For all other situations, Ct may be taken as unity.

(EBCS provisions)

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The roughness coefficient, Cr(z), accounts for the variability of mean wind velocity due
to the height of the structure above ground level and the roughness of the terrain. It is
defined by the logarithmic relationship:
Cr(z) = kr Ln(z z0) for z  zmin
Cr(z) = Cr(zmin) for z  zmin

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Where z0 is the roughness length and zmin is the minimum height. Both z0 and zmin are
dependent on the ground roughness and are given in Table 1.1.

External wind pressure

The wind pressure acting on the external surface of a structure is function of the
reference wind pressure which is given by:
1
q ref 
2
2

 ref N / m2 
Where  = air density (kg/m3)
ref = reference wind velocity (m/s)

Fig. 1.1 Reference height, Ze depending on h and b.

The density of air varies with temperature, elevation and the expected atmospheric
pressure in the region during a storm. EBCS1 gives a recommended design value of  at
200 C for different altitudes.

Table 1.2 Values of air density

Site altitude (m) above sea level  (kg/m3)
0 1.20
500 1.12
1000 1.06
1500 1.00
2000 0.94

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In order to determine the contact pressure on the outside of a structure or part of a
structure, the reference pressure, qref. of the wind must be multiplied by an external
pressure coefficient. cpe, and an exposure coefficient. Thus the external pressure is:
We = ce(ze)cpeqref
Where ce(ze) is the exposure coefficient evaluated at a reference height, ze. Reference
heights for the calculation of external pressure coefficients depend on the breadth to
height ration of the structure. For rectangular buildings whose breadth, b, is less than
their height, h, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1(a), the reference height equals the actual height.
When h exceeds b but is less than 2b, the building is considered in the two parts
illustrated in Fig. 1.1(b). When h exceeds 2b, the building is considered in multiple
parts. A lower part extends upwards from the ground a distance b. An upper part
extends downwards from the top a distance b. the rest of the building can be divided in
to any number of parts. With the reference height in each case calculated as the distance
from the ground to the top of the part.

The external pressure coefficient, Cpe, accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure on
different zones of the structure due to its geometry, area and proximity to other
structures. For instance, the wind acting on the structure in Fig. 1.2 is slowed down by
the windward face and generates a pressure on that face. The wind is then forced around
the sides and over the top of the structure, causing suction on the sides and on all
leeward faces. Suction can also be generated on the windward slope of a pitched roof if
the pitch is sufficiently small.

(b)
(a)
Fig. 1.2 Wind flow past a rectangular building. (a) plan; (b)end elevation

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With reference to Fig. 1.3, the external pressure coefficients for the various zones of the
walls of a rectangular building are given in Table 1.3. Similar tables are given in EC1
for other building shapes. The values in Table 1.3 are valid for surface areas in excess of
10m2 only. Values for lesser surface areas are given in the Euro code. External pressure
coefficients for the roof zones in a flat-roofed building are given in Table 1.4. Other
values are specified for areas less than 10m2, or when parapets are present, or when the
eaves are curved. Pressure coefficients are considered positive when the pressure is
action on to the surface of the structure and negative when the pressure is acting away
from that surface. Thus, the external pressure coefficient is positive when acting
inwards.

I
C

0.5e H B
0.1e F G F
0.8e d
A
h 0.25e 0.25e
D
0.2e

b
E

0.5e B*
H
0.1e F G F
d
A
h 0.25e 0.25e
D
0.2e

b
Fig. 1.3 External pressure coefficient zones (e = lesser of b and 2h): (a) de; (b) de

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The external pressure coefficient cpe for buildings and individual parts of buildings
depend on the size of the loaded area A. They are given for loaded areas A of 1m3 and
10 m3 in the relevant tables for the appropriate building configurations as cpe,1 and cpe,10
respectively. For other loaded areas the variation of the values may be obtained from
Fig. 1.4.

Figure1.4 Variation of external pressure coefficient for buildings with

size of the loaded area A

The figure is based on the following:

cpe = cpe,1 A  1m2

cpe = cpe,1 + (cpe,10 - cpe,1) log10A 1m2 < A < 10m2
cpe = cpe,10 A  10m2

Internal wind pressure

Internal pressure arises due to openings, such as windows, doors and vents, in the
cladding. In general, if the windward pane has a greater proportion of opening than the
leeward panel, then the interior of the structure is subjected to positive (outward)
pressure as illustrated in Fig.1.5 (a). Conversely, if the leeward face has more openings,
then the interior is subjected to a negative (inward) pressure as illustrated in Fig. 1.5(b).
Like external pressure internal pressure is considered positive when acting on to the
surface of the structure. Thus, internal pressure is positive when the pressure acts
outward.

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Table 1.3 External pressure coefficients for the walls of a rectangular building (from
EC1, part 2.3)

Zone (Fig.3.13) d/h1 1 d/h4 d/h 4

A -1 -1 -1
B,B* -0.8 -0.8 -0.8
C -0.5 -0.5 -0.5
D +0.8 0.8-0.067(d/h-1) +0.6
E -0.3 -0.3 -0.3

Table 1.3 External pressure coefficient for a flat roof (from EC1, part 2.3)

Zone (Fig. 3.13) Coefficient

F -1.8
G -1.2
H -0.7
I 0.2

net positive net negative

pressure pressure (suction)

Inflow outflow Inflow outflow

Fig. 1.5 Internal pressures in structures

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Internal pressure on a building or panel is given by:
wi =ce(zi)cpiqref

Where zi is the reference height for internal pressure equal to the mean height of the
openings and cpi depends on the distribution of openings around the building. The
values recommended by EBCS-1,1995 are given in Fig 1.6 for a building without
internal partitions. In such a building, internal pressure is assumed to act uniformly over
the total area of the building. For buildings with internal partitions the extreme values,
cpi = 0.8 and cpi = -0.5, may be used.

Fig. 1.6 Internal pressure coefficients, cpi, in buildings with openings (from EBCS-1,1995)

Wind force on structures

The total wind force action on individual zones of clad structures is proportional to the
difference in pressure between the external and internal faces. That is:
Fw = (we – wi) Aref
Where Fw is the total inward force and Aref is the reference area, generally equal to the
projected area of the zone normal to the wind direction. When calculating the total force
on (all zones of) a building, the forces on each zone can be calculated using the above

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equation and summed. Alternatively, the total force on an entire structure (or an
exposed individual member) can be expressed as:

Fw = ce(ze)cf qref Aref

Where cf is a force coefficient. While, strictly speaking, the force coefficient is
approximately equal to the algebraic sum of the external pressure coefficients on the
windward and leeward faces, they are in fact slightly different owing to frictional effects
on the side walls. EC1 provides tables of force coefficients for common forms of
structures and sections used in structural frames.

Example 1.1 wind loads

The structure illustrated in Fig. below is to be located in the centre of Paris on a site
surrounded by buildings of similar height. It is an apartment building with internal
partitions.

N
20 E

10
12

Fig. Building of example 1.1

Wind from the east and west is transmitted from clad faces to the north and south
masonry walls. Each external panel has opening windows equal in area to one tenth of
the total wall area.
(a) Determine the total moment due to wind at the base of the north and
south masonry walls.
(b) Calculate the maximum pressure on the east masonry wall.

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Solution
The reference pressure and exposure coefficient are first calculated.
Reference pressure
The basic reference wind velocity for Paris can be taken from the map and is 26m/s .

Assuming values of unity for cDIR, cTEM and cALT, the reference wind velocity is also
26 m/s. Hence the reference wind pressure is,
1 2
Qref = v ref
2
1
= (1.25)(26)2
2
= 423 Nm2

Exposure coefficient
As the height exceeds the breadth but is less than twice its value, the building is
considered in two parts, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1(b). The reference heights for external
pressure are thus:
ze = h = 20m
and
ze = b = 12m
As the building is located in an area of Roughness Category 4 (refer to Table 1.1),
kT = 0.24, z0 = 1m and smin = 16m. Equation of roughness coefficient gives:
cr(20) = kTLn(20/z0)
= 0.24 Ln(20/1)
= 0.719
cr(12) = cr(zmin)
= 0.24 Ln(16/1)
= 0.666
Taking a topography coefficient of unity, the exposure coefficients become:
 7kT 
ce(20) = c 2r (20) c t2 (20) 1  
 c r (20)ct (20) 

 7  0.24 
= (0.719)2(1)2 1 0.7191
 
= 1.725
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  7kT 
ce(12) = c 2r (12) c t2 (12) 1  
 c r (12)ct (12) 
 7  0.24 
= (0.666)2(1)2 1  0.666  1
 

= 1.563
External pressure
It can be seen from Fig. 1.3 that only zones D and E are of interest in this example. The
ratio d/h is 10/20 = 0.5. Hence from Table 1.3:
cpe(Zone D) = +0.8
cpe(Zone E) = -0.3
At the reference height of 20m, the external pressure on zone D is

we = ce(20)cpeqref
= 1.7250.80.423
= 0.584kN/m2
The corresponding force on the upper part of zone D is 0.584(128) = 56kN.
At the reference height of 12m, the external pressure on zone D is
we = ce(12)cpeqref
= 1.5630.80.423
= 0.529 kN/m2
and the corresponding force is 0.529(1212) = 76kN. The corresponding force for zone
E are -21kNand -29kN for the upper and lower parts respectively. These forces are
illustrated in Fig. below.

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 21

W
8
56 N
E
20 29
16
12
76
6
10

12

Fig. Forces due to east wind

(a) Internal pressure within a structure is self-equilibrating. Thus, while it can cause
significant pressures on individual wall panels it results in no net force on the structure
overall. Accordingly, the overturning moment at the base of the north and south walls
due to wind is unaffected by internal pressure and is given by:
Moment = (56+21)16 + (76+29)6
= 1862 kNm
Of this, half will apply at the base of each of the two walls.
(b) To determine the total pressure on the east wall, it is necessary to calculate the
internal as well as the external pressure. As there are internal partitions, the worst value
for cpi is assumed, that is , cpi = -0.5. The maximum pressure will occur in the upper part
of zone D. In this part of the building the mean height of the windows will be assumed
to equal the mean height of the part. Hence:
Zi = 16m
The exposure coefficient at this height is calculated as before and is 0.666. Thus:
wi = ce(zi)cpiqref
= 0.666(-0.5)(0.423)
= -0.141
The net pressure on the upper part of zone D is the difference between the external and
the internal pressures, that is:
we – wi = 0.584 –(-0.141) = 0.725 kN/m2
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