Chapter 18: Electrical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are electrical conductance and
resistance
characterized
• What ?
are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
• For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, temperature, and
deformation?
• For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected
by impurities (doping) and temperature?

Chapter 18 - 1
 View of an Integrated Circuit
• Scanning electron micrographs of an IC:
Al (d) (a)
(d)

Si
(doped)
45 μm 0.5 mm
• A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):
-- Si shows up as light regions. (b)

• A dot map showing location of Al (a

conductor): (c)
-- Al shows up as light regions.

Fig. (d) from Fig. 12.27(a), Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Figs. (a), (b), (c) from Fig. 18.27, Callister
(Fig. 12.27 is courtesy Nick Gonzales, National
& Rethwisch 8e.
Semiconductor Corp., West Jordan, UT.)
Chapter 18 - 2
 Electrical Conduction
• Ohm's Law: V=IR
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance (Ohms)
C = Coulomb current (amps = C/s)

• Resistivity, ρ:
-- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry surface area
of current flow

current flow
path length
• Conductivity, σ

Chapter 18 - 3
 Electrical Properties
• Which will have the greater resistance?
2
D

2D

• Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

• Resistance depends on sample geometry and
size.

Chapter 18 - 4
 Definitions
Further definitions
J=σε <= another way to state Ohm’s law

J ≡ current density

ε ≡ electric field potential = V/

J = σ (V/ )

Electron flux conductivity voltage gradient

Chapter 18 - 5
 Conductivity: Comparison
• Room temperature values (Ohm-m)-1 = (Ω - m)-1
METAL conductor CERAMIC
7 -1
S
Silve s x
6.8 S
Soda-lime glass -10-1
0 1
rCopper 10 7 10 -
6.0 x Concrete 10
7 9
Iron 10
1.0 x Aluminum oxide -1
3
10 <10

SEMICONDUCTOR POLYMERS
S
Silicon 4x - Polystyrene <10 -1
4 4
-1
Germanium 10
2x 0 Polyethylene 10 -10-1
5 7
GaA 10 10 -
6
s semiconductors insulators
Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 6
 Example: Conductivity Problem
What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that V < 1.5 V?

Cu - I = 2.5 A +
wire
V

100 m
< 1.5 V

2.5 A

6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1

Solve to get D > 1.87 mm

Chapter 18 - 7
Electron Energy Band Structures

Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 8
Band Structure Representation

Adapted from Fig. 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 9
 Conduction & Electron Transport
• Metals (Conductors):
-- for metals empty energy states are adjacent to filled states.
-- thermal energy Partially filled band Overlapping bands
excites electrons
Energ Energ
into empty higher
energy states. y
empty y
band
-- two types of band GA empty
structures for metals band
P
- partially filled band partly
- empty band that filled filled
overlaps filled band band band

states
filled
states
filled
filled filled
band band

Chapter 18 - 10
 Energy Band Structures:
Insulators & Semiconductors
• Insulators: • Semiconductors:
-- wide band gap (> 2 eV) -- narrow band gap (< 2 eV)
-- few electrons excited -- more electrons excited
across band gap across band gap
Energ empty Energ empty
conduction
y band y conduction
? band
GA GA
P P
filled filled
valence valence
band band

states
states

filled
filled

filled filled
band band
Chapter 18 - 11
 Metals: Influence of Temperature and
Impurities on Resistivity
• Presence of imperfections increases
resistivity
These act to scatter
-- grain boundaries electrons so that they
-- dislocations take a less direct path.
-- impurity atoms
-- vacancies
6 Ni
t %
2a
Resistivity, ρ

• Resistivity
(1 - Ohm-m)

5 3 .3 Ni
+ %
Cu 12a t increases
4 u + 1. with:-- temperature
C i
3 rm e d
a t %N -- wt% impurity
defo ρd
+ 1.
1 2
8

Cu -- %CW
2
0

ρi u
e ” C
1
ρt
“P u r ρ = ρthermal
0
-20 -10 0 T (ºC) + ρimpurity
0 Callister0& Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.8
Adapted from Fig. 18.8, + ρdeformation
adapted from J.O. Linde, Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A.
Wert and R.M. Thomson, Physics of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1970.) Chapter 18 - 12
 Estimating Conductivity
• Question:
-- Estimate the electrical conductivity σ of a Cu-Ni Adapted from Fig.
18.9, Callister &
alloy Rethwisch 8e.
Yield strength (MPa)

180that has a yield strength of 125 MPa.

(1 - Ohm-m)
50

Resistivity, ρ
160
140 40
125 30
120

0 8
100 20
21 wt% Ni 10
80
60 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt% Ni, (Concentration C) wt% Ni, (Concentration C)
Adapted from Fig. 7.16(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

From step 1:

CNi = 21 wt%
Ni
Chapter 18 - 13
Charge Carriers in Insulators and
Semiconductors
Adapted from Fig. 18.6(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Two types of electronic charge
carriers:
Free Electron
– negative charge
– in conduction band

Hole
– positive charge
– vacant electron state in
the valence band

Move at different speeds - drift velocities

Chapter 18 - 14
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon &
germanium
– Group IVA materials
• Compound semiconductors
– III-V compounds
• Ex: GaAs & InSb
– II-VI compounds
• Ex: CdS & ZnTe
– The wider the electronegativity difference between
the elements the wider the energy gap.

Chapter 18 - 15
 Intrinsic Semiconduction in Terms of
Electron and Hole Migration

• Concept of electrons and

valence
holes: electro hol electro hol
electro Si
pair
n e pair
n e
n atom
creation migration

- + - +

no applied applied applied

electric electric electric
field field field from Fig. 18.11,
Adapted
• Electrical Conductivity given by: Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

# holes/m3

hole mobility
# electrons/m3 electron mobility
Chapter 18 - 16
 Number of Charge Carriers
Intrinsic Conductivity

• for intrinsic semiconductor n = p = ni

∴ σ = ni|e|(μe + μh)

• Ex: GaAs

For GaAs ni = 4.8 x 1024 m-3

For Si ni = 1.3 x 1016 m-3
Chapter 18 - 17
 Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Conductivity vs T
• Data for Pure
Silicon:
-- σ increases with T
-- opposite to metals

material band gap (eV)

Si 1.11
Ge 0.67
GaP 2.25
CdS 2.40
Selected values from Table 18.3,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Adapted from Fig. 18.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 18 - 18
 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
• Intrinsic:
-- case for pure Si
-- # electrons = # holes (n = p)
• Extrinsic:
-- electrical behavior is determined by presence of impurities
that introduce excess electrons or holes
-- n ≠ p
• n-type Extrinsic: (n >> • p-type Extrinsic: (p >>
p) Phosphorus atom
n) Boron
hol atom
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ e
conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
electro
4+ 5 4+ 4+ 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+
n
+ valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electro 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
no applied n Si no applied
Adapted from Figs. 18.12(a)
& 18.14(a), Callister & electric atom electric
Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 18 - 19
field field
 Extrinsic Semiconductors: Conductivity
vs. Temperature
• Data for Doped Silicon:
-- σ increases doping doped

-- reason: imperfection sites undope

d
lower the activation energy to 3

concentration (1021/m3)
produce mobile electrons.

Conduction electron
2

freeze-ou

intrinsic
extrinsi
• Comparison: intrinsic vs
extrinsic conduction...

c
1

t
-- extrinsic doping level:
1021/m3 of a n-type donor
impurity (such as P). 0
-- for T < 100 K: "freeze-out“, 0 200 400 600 T (K)
thermal energy insufficient to
excite electrons. Adapted from Fig. 18.17, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 18.17 from S.M. Sze, Semiconductor
-- for 150 K < T < 450 K: "extrinsic" Devices, Physics, and Technology, Bell
-- for T >> 450 K: "intrinsic" Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1985.)

Chapter 18 - 20
 p-n Rectifying Junction
• Allows flow of electrons in one direction only (e.g., useful
to convert alternating current to direct current).
• Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped crystal.

-- No applied potential: + p-type

+ +
n-type
- - Adapted from
Fig. 18.21
no net current flow. + + - - - Callister &
Rethwisch
8e.
-- Forward bias: carriers
flow through p-type and p-type + - n-type
+ + -
n-type regions; holes and ++- - -
electrons recombine at + -
p-n junction; current flows.

-- Reverse bias: carriers n-type -

+ p-type
flow away from p-n junction; - + + - - +
junction region depleted of + + - -
carriers; little current flow.
Chapter 18 - 21
 Properties of Rectifying Junction

Fig. 18.22, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Fig. 18.23, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 18 - 22
Junction Transistor

Fig. 18.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 23
 MOSFET Transistor
Integrated Circuit Device

Fig. 18.26, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.

• MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor)

• Integrated circuits - state of the art ca. 50 nm line width
– ~ 1,000,000,000 components on chip
– chips formed one layer at a time

Chapter 18 - 24
 Ferroelectric Ceramics
• Experience spontaneous polarization

BaTiO3 -- ferroelectric below

its Curie temperature (120ºC)

Fig. 18.35, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 18 - 25
 Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity
– application of stress induces voltage
– application of voltage induces dimensional change

stress-free with applied

stress
Adapted from Fig. 18.36, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.36 from Van Vlack, Lawrence H., Elements of
Materials Science and Engineering, 1989, p.482, Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.)
Chapter 18 - 26
 Summary
• Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters
-- geometry independent
• Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
-- differ in range of conductivity values
-- differ in availability of electron excitation states
• For metals, resistivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- addition of imperfections
-- plastic deformation
• For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- doping [e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type)]
• Other electrical characteristics
-- ferroelectricity
-- piezoelectricity
Chapter 18 - 27
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 18 - 28