Discrete-Mathematics - UNIT-5

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 26

Algebraic Structures

 Algebraic systems Examples and general


properties
 Semi groups
 Monoids
 Groups
 Sub groups
Algebraic systems

 N = {1,2,3,4,….. } = Set of all natural numbers.


Z = { 0,  1,  2,  3,  4 , ….. } = Set of all integers.
Q = Set of all rational numbers.
R = Set of all real numbers.
 Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said to be a binary
operation (closed operation) on a non empty set A, if
a * b  A for all a, b  A (Closure property).
Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition and multiplication
but not w.r.t subtraction and division.
 Algebraic System: A set ‘A’ with one or more binary(closed)
operations defined on it is called an algebraic system.
Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic systems.
Properties

 Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.


The operation * is said to be commutative in A if
a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
 Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
The operation * is said to be associative in A if
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
 Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to
be an identity element of A if
a * e = e * a = a for all a  A.
 Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is
unique.
 Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be
an element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e
Semi group
 Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
 Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.
 Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.
 Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.

 Monoid: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the


following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
Subsemigroup & submonoid
Subsemigroup : Let (S, * ) be a semigroup and let T be a
subset of S. If T is closed under operation * , then (T, * ) is
called a subsemigroup of (S, * ).
Ex: (N, .) is semigroup and T is set of multiples of positive
integer m then (T,.) is a sub semigroup.

Submonoid : Let (S, * ) be a monoid with identity e, and let T


be a non- empty subset of S. If T is closed under the
operation * and e  T, then (T, * ) is called a submonoid of
(S, * ).
Group

 Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if


the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.

 Abelian group (Commutative group): A group (G, *) is


said to be abelian (or commutative) if
a*b =b*a .
Theorem
 In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good
1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c  b = c (left cancellation law)
a * c = b * c  a = b (Right cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
 In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.

 Order of a group : The number of elements in a group is called order


of the group.

 Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a


finite group.
Ex. Show that set of all non zero real numbers is a group with respect to
multiplication .

 Solution: Let R* = set of all non zero real numbers.


Let a, b, c are any three elements of R* .
1. Closure property : We know that, product of two nonzero real
numbers is again a nonzero real number .
i.e., a . b  R* for all a,b  R* .
2. Associativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c  R* .
3. Identity : We have 1  R* and a .1 = a for all a  R* .
 Identity element exists, and ‘1’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a  R* , we have 1/a  R* such that
a .(1/a) = 1 i.e., Each element in R* has an inverse.
Contd.,
 5.Commutativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
commutative.
i.e., a . b = b . a for all a,b  R*.
Hence, ( R* , . ) is an abelian group.

 Ex: Show that set of all real numbers ‘R’ is not a group with respect
to multiplication.
 Solution: We have 0  R .
The multiplicative inverse of 0 does not exist.
Hence. R is not a group.
Example
 Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set of integers
and the operation * is defined by n * m = maximum of (n, m).
Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Is (Z, *) a monoid ?. Justify your answer.
 Solution: Let a , b and c are any three integers.
Closure property: Now, a * b = maximum of (a, b)  Z for all a,b  Z

Associativity : (a * b) * c = maximum of {a,b,c} = a * (b * c)


 (Z, *) is a semi group.

Identity : There is no integer x such that


a * x = maximum of (a, x) = a for all a  Z
 Identity element does not exist. Hence, (Z, *) is not a monoid.
Ex. Show that the set of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian
group under the composition * defined by
a * b = (ab)/2 .

 Solution: Let A = set of all positive rational numbers.


Let a,b,c be any three elements of A.
1. Closure property: We know that, Product of two positive rational
numbers is again a rational number.
i.e., a *b  A for all a,b  A .
2. Associativity: (a*b)*c = (ab/2) * c = (abc) / 4
a*(b*c) = a * (bc/2) = (abc) / 4
3. Identity : Let e be the identity element.
We have a*e = (a e)/2 …(1) , By the definition of *
again, a*e = a …..(2) , Since e is the identity.
From (1)and (2), (a e)/2 = a  e = 2 and 2  A .
 Identity element exists, and ‘2’ is the identity element in A.
Contd.,

 4. Inverse: Let a  A
let us suppose b is inverse of a.
Now, a * b = (a b)/2 ….(1) (By definition of inverse.)
Again, a * b = e = 2 …..(2) (By definition of inverse)
From (1) and (2), it follows that
(a b)/2 = 2
 b = (4 / a)  A
 (A ,*) is a group.
 Commutativity: a * b = (ab/2) = (ba/2) = b * a
 Hence, (A,*) is an abelian group.
Theorem

 Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the identity element is


unique.
 Proof :
a) Let e1 and e2 are two identity elements in G.
Now, e1 * e2 = e1 …(1) (since e2 is the identity)
Again, e1 * e2 = e2 …(2) (since e1 is the identity)
From (1) and (2), we have e 1 = e2
 Identity element in a group is unique.
Theorem

 Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the inverse of any element is


unique.
 Proof:
 Let a ,b,c G and e is the identity in G.
 Let us suppose, Both b and c are inverse elements of a .
 Now, a * b = e …(1) (Since, b is inverse of a )
 Again, a * c = e …(2) (Since, c is also inverse of a )
 From (1) and (2), we have
 a*b=a*c
  b = c (By left cancellation law)
 In a group, the inverse of any element is unique.
Theorem

 Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that


(a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 for all a,b G.
 Proof :
 Consider,
 (a * b) * ( b-1 * a-1)
 = (a * ( b * b-1 ) * a-1) (By associative property).
 = (a * e * a-1) ( By inverse property)
 = ( a * a-1) ( Since, e is identity)
 = e ( By inverse property)
 Similarly, we can show that
 (b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = e
 Hence, (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 .
Ex. If (G, *) is a group and a  G such that a * a = a ,
then show that a = e , where e is identity element in G.

 Proof: Given that, a * a = a


  a * a = a * e ( Since, e is identity in G)
  a = e ( By left cancellation law)
 Hence, the result follows.
Ex. If every element of a group is its own inverse, then show that
the group must be abelian .

 Proof: Let (G, *) be a group.


 Let a and b are any two elements of G.
 Consider the identity,
 (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
  (a * b ) = b * a ( Since each element of G is its own
 inverse)
 Hence, G is abelian.
Ex. Show that G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under multiplication.

 Solution: The composition table of G is


 . 1 –1 i -i
 1 1 -1 i - i
 -1 -1 1 -i i
 i i -i -1 1
 -i -i i 1 -1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are
the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under
multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know
that multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
Contd.,

 4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse


elements of
1 -1, i, -i are 1, -1, -i, i respectively.
 5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, (G, .) is an abelian group.
Sub groups

 Def. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G,


 if (H, *) is a group.
Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } and (G, * ) are trivial sub groups.
 Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.
H1 = { 1, -1 } is a subgroup of G .
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.
 Ex. ( Z , + ) and (Q , + ) are sub groups of the group (R +).
 Theorem: A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G
iff
 i) a * b  H  a, b  H
 ii) a-1  H aH
Theorem

 Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty


subset H of a group (G, *) to be a sub group is that
a  H, b  H  a * b-1  H.
 Proof: Case1: Let (G, *) be a group and H is a subgroup of G
Let a,b  H  b-1  H ( since H is is a group)
 a * b-1  H. ( By closure property in H)
 Case2: Let H be a non empty set of a group (G, *).
Let a * b-1  H  a, b  H
 Now, a * a-1  H ( Taking b = a )
 e  H i.e., identity exists in H.
 Now, e  H, a  H  e * a-1  H
 a-1  H
Contd.,

  Each element of H has inverse in H.


Further, a  H, b  H  a  H, b-1  H
 a * (b-1)-1  H.
 a * b  H.
 H is closed w.r.t * .
 Finally, Let a,b,c  H
 a,b,c  G ( since H  G )
 (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
 * is associative in H
 Hence, H is a subgroup of G.
Homomorphism and Isomorphism.

 Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, )


A function f : G  G1 is called a homomorphism if
f ( a * b) = f(a)  f (b)

 Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G  G1 is a bijection then f is


called isomorphism between G and G1 .
Then we write G  G1
Cosets
 If H is a sub group of( G, * ) and a  G then the set
Ha = { h * a h  H}is called a right coset of H in G.
Similarly aH = {a * h  h  H}is called a left coset of H is G.
 Note:- 1) Any two left (right) cosets of H in G are either identical or
disjoint.
 2) Let H be a sub group of G. Then the right cosets of H form a
partition of G. i.e., the union of all right cosets of a sub group H is
equal to G.
3) Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group of a finite group
is a divisor of the order of the group.
 4) The order of every element of a finite group is a divisor of the
order of the group.
 5) The converse of the lagrange’s theorem need not be true.
State and prove Lagrange’s Theorem

 Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group H of a finite


group G is a divisor of the order of the group.
 Proof: Since G is finite group, H is finite.
 Therefore, the number of cosets of H in G is finite.
 Let Ha1,Ha2, …,Har be the distinct right cosets of H in G.
 Then, G = Ha1Ha2 …, Har
 So that O(G) = O(Ha1)+O(Ha2) …+ O(Har).
 But, O(Ha1) = O(Ha2) = ….. = O(Har) = O(H)
  O(G) = O(H)+O(H) …+ O(H). (r terms)
 = r . O(H)
 This shows that O(H) divides O(G).
THANK
YOU

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy