Module C7.

Viscous Dissipation Term in

Energy Equations
H. H. Winter
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts.

for a fluid with suspended particles is equated to the vis-

OBJECTIVES cous dissipation in a pure Newtonian fluid, both being in
After completing this module, the student should the same flow (same macroscopic velocity gradient).
be able to:
1. Calculate the rate of viscous dissipation for a RATE OF VISCOUS DISSIPATION
given flow.
2. Calculate the rate of viscous dissipation in a The rate at which work is being done on a volume ele-
macroscopic energy balance. ment for changing its volume and its shape is defined as
3. Calculate dissipation in a slip layer. (for derivation, see Appendix)
4. Use the dissipation function as a criterion to
distinguish between a viscous and an elastic u: Vv= -pV · v+~ (1)
material. rate of work
rate of
5. Calculate dimensionless groups to estimate
work for for shape
the magnitude of viscous dissipation.
volume change at
PREREQUISITE MATHEMATICAL SKILLS change constant volume
1. First year college calculus. The stress,·
PREREQUISITE ENGINEERING AND u= -pl+r (2)
SCIENCE SKILLS
1. First year college physics. with
2. Macroscopic balances. 1
p= --trace u
3
INTRODUCTION is divided into the pressure, p, and the extra stress, r.
V · v and Vv are the divergence of the velocity vector and
Deformation and flow of materials require energy. the velocity gradient. The second term in Equation 1 is,
This mechanical energy is dissipated, i.e. during the flow called the "dissipation function,"
it is converted into internal energy (heat) of the material.
This phenomenon can be demonstrated by performing a c/>=r: Vv (3)
simple experiment with a metal paper clip: bend the clip
wide open and close it repeatedly until the clip breaks. since most (not necessarily all) of the work is irreversibly
Now, touch the metal near the region of the break and converted into heat. The dissipation function for flows of
feel the high temperature. The mechanical energy for Newtonian fluids is given in component form; see Table
bending the metal has been converted into internal en- 1.
ergy. The increase of internal energy expresses itself in a
temperature rise. VISCOUS DISSIPATION IN PIPE FLOW
Viscous dissipation is of interest for many applications:
The steady flow in a pipe of constant cross section (ra-
significant temperature rises are observed in polymer
dius R) will be used in the following for explaining vis-
processing flows such as injection molding or extrusion
cous dissipation in bulk and at a slip boundary.
at high rates. Aerodynamic heating in the thin boundary
layer around high speed aircraft raises the temperature of Macroscopic Balance
the skin. In a completely different application, the dissi-
pation function is used to define the viscosity of dilute Flow of a fluid in a pipe requires mechanical energy
suspensions (Einstein, 1906, 1911): Viscous dissipation which is supplied by a pump· or by the hydrostatic pres-

Modular Instruction Series 27

 Table 1. Components of the dissipation function of a Newtonian fluid with viscosity I'·

Cartesian
+" [ -av,ax+avx] av, avy] 2 [ avx av,] 2
2
Coordinates ay- +J.I [ -ay+az- +J.I -az+ax-

..
+ (1- -+-
av, v,) 2+ (av,) 2--1(.V . v) 2]
[( -av,)2
ar r ae r -
az 3

Cylindrical
Coordinates

I a 1 av, av,
V · v=--(rv,)+--+-
r ar r ae az

( 1 av, v,)2 + ( - -1 -av~+ -v, +v, -cot-8) 2--I(V . v) 2]

[( -av,)2
ar + --+-
r ae r r sin r r(J a~ 3

Spherical
Coordinates

+J.I [ - -1 av, a ( v~)]

r sin -(J aq,
+r-
ar -r
2

1 a I a . 1 av~
V · v=--(r 2v,)+-.--(v8 sin8)+-.--
r2 fJr r Sin (J a0 r Sin (J fJcp

sure of a reservoir (potentiai energy). Consider a pipe corrkol volume

segment as shown in Figure 1 and a control volume be-
tween cross-sections 1 and 2. L
The rate of work done for tlow of a fluid through a
pipe is calculated by integrating the rate of work per unit
surface area, n ·a· v, over the entire surface of the con-
trol volume. See also the Appendix Equation 46. Note
that the surface along the pipe wall does not contribute, '(
since its velocity is zero. The work on cross-sections 1
and 2 can be calculated by assuming uniform pressures L
p 1 and p 2 and by neglecting the small influence of the Figure 1. Straight pipe section of length L, diameter D. The con·
extra stress T. The rate of work done on the volume of trot volume includes a thin layer of the stationary wall material.
fluid becomes

for deforming, for accelerating, and for elevating the

(4) fluid. In a horizontal pipe of uniform cross-section (Fig-
ure 1), the mechanical energy for the pipe flow is com-
The volume flow rate is the same in both cross sections pletely dissipated, since the kinetic energy (no accelera-
(assuming constant density) tion) and the potential energy (no change in altitude) of
the fluid do not change between cross-sections 1 and 2.
Note that the macroscopic energy balance gives the total
(5) qissipated energy ("friction loss"), however, no informa-
tion is given on whether the dissipation is uniform
where p = const. This gives a total rate of work throughout the volume or whether there are regions of
large viscous dissipation and other regions of negligible
(6) dissipation. An interesting situation arises when the. fluid

28 American Institute of Chemical Engineers

slips at the wall (see Example 3): one part of the energy pressure drop was found to be A.p = 2.34 X 10 5 Pa.
for flow through the pipe is dissipated at the slip surface Calculate the temperature increase between inlet and out-
and the remaining part is dissipated in the volume of the let by assuming no conduction through the wall. The rel-
deforming fluid. evant properties are:

Example 1: Pipe Flow in Polymer Processing density p = 1000 kg m- 3

Polymer melt is forced through a pipe of L = 0.04 m heat capacity Cp=4.2x 10 3 J kg-1 K-1
and D = 0.002 m (runner channel to fill the mold of in-
jection molding machine). A pressure drop P1 - p 2 = 8 The average temperature increase for adiabatic pipe flow
X 10 7 Pa was typically found to give a volume flow rate is calculated as
Q = 6 X I0- 6 m 3/s. Calculate the average temperature
increase in the polymer between inlet and outlet. Assume t:..p 2.34x 10 5
adiabatic walls, negligible density changes, and a steady t:..(T)=- 5.6x10- 2 K (11)
peP 10 3 (4.2 x 10 3 )
temperature field in the pipe.
Typical values for the physical properties of a polymer
Viscous dissipation does not significantly alter the tem-
are:
perature of the water. However, it is still important,
density p = 10 3 kg/m 3 since it determines the power requirement of a pipe line
system, i.e. viscous dissipation determines the size of the
heat capacity c= 1.4x 10 3 J kg- 1 K- 1 pumps for a pipe system and the energy costs of pump-
ing.
The dissipated energy is calculated from Equation 6:

E= Q(p1- P2) = (6 X 10- 6) (8 X 10 7) =4.8 X 10 2 J/s Example 3: Pipe Flow With Slip at Wall
(7)
Consider a fluid which flows through a straight pipe
For a steady temperature field in a pipe with adiabatic section as shown in Figure 1. The fluid is found to slip at
walls, the entire energy is transported convectively with the wall at a velocity VR. Examples of slipping fluids are
the fluid. The convective energy flow through a pipe highly filled suspensions, linear polyethylene, polybuta-
cross section is diene, and polyvinylchloride in the molten state. Deter-
mine how much energy is dissipated in the slip region.
pc(T)Q=27r [ pcT(r)v(r)r dr (8) A control volume for a macroscopic energy balance is
chosen around the fluid volume in the pipe section. The
main point is that the control volume does not contain a
The difference between energy convection into the pipe
layer of stationary wall material, but that the outer sur-
and out of the pipe is equal to the generation of internal
face moves with the finite slip velocity uR. The rate of
energy due to viscous dissipation
work done on the control volume of fluid is again c.alcu-
(9) lated by integrating the rate of work per unit surface,
n · u · v, over the entire surface.
The average adiabatic temperature increase between inlet
and outlet is calculated as
(12)
P1-P2
A.(T) = (T)'L- (T)l=~
The first part is the rate of work done for flow through
the pipe (see Equation 6) and the second part is (minus)
8x 10 7
= 57 K (10) the rate of work for slip along the pipe wall. The shear
10 3 (1.4 X 10 3 ) stress at the wall can be expressed in terms of the axial
pressure gradient in the pipe,
Local temperatures might by far exceed this average
value. An average temperature increase of 57 K is very
large. Some of the assumptions in the beginning of this (13)
example will have to be reconsidered: the thermal and
the rheological properties can be expected to change sig-
nificantly between entrance and exit; the high tempera- In case of a uniform slip velocity uR and a uniform pres-
tures of the fluid give rise to a substantial radial tempera- sure gradient, ap!az = (P2- p 1)/L, the integral can be
ture gradient, i.e. the heat flux into the wall cannot be simplified. The rate of work for slip along the wall be-
neglected anymore. comes

Example 2: Friction Loss in Pipe Flow of Water

(14)
Water at 20oC is flowing through a pipe (L = 30.5
m, D = 0.05 m) at an average velocity of 6.2 m/s. The The rate of work for deforming the fluid (subscript d) in

Modular Instruction Series 29

the flow through the pipe remains as
r/R.
Ed= Q(pl-P2)-Es -Na=l
--No= 10
=(PI-P2)Q (
l 1-::!._)
(v)
(15)
Z=O.OI
( v) is the average velocity. The limiting case of plug (I)
flow, vR = (v), obviously requires no energy for the de-
formation. The other limiting case of no slip, VR -c (v),
T-To
requires all the energy to be dissipated in the deforming
fluid. f ...-To

DISTRIBUTION OF THE DISSIPATION FUNCTION Figure 2. Developing temperature profiles' In a pipe with isother-
mal wall 174). ·Parameters are the Nahnie number, Na, and the
dimensionless distance from the entrance Z = kll peP { v) R 2 ).
Most flows are inhomogeneous, i.e. the stress and the The viscosity is described by a power law with n = 0.4.
rate of deformation are functions of position. Again,
steady pipe flow is used for demonstrating inhomoge-
neity. 21 into the dissipation function cp, Equation 16, gives
In pipe flow, the viscous dissipation is not uniform in
the cross-section (see Table 1) 1
cp(r)=TJ 0 ( -+3
)n+l((vz))2(r)l+l!n
- - (22)
(16) n R R

The shear stress is given by the stress equation of mo- where

tion,

rdp
T =-- (17)
rz 2 dz
The dissipation function is zero at the center line and has
where its maximum value at the wall.
Developing temperature fields in pipe flow demon-
strates the non-uniformity of the viscous dissipation; see
-dp = ax1'al pressure grad'1ent Figure 2. Large radial temperature differences are gener-
dz
ated in a fluid which started out being of uniform temper-
The shear rate is equal to the radial velocity gradient ature. These radial temperature differences give rise to
conduction of heat towards the wall. A fully developed
. dVz temperature is reached when the heat flow into the wall
'Yrz=- (18) balances the viscous heat generation. A method of calcu-
iJr
lating developing temperatures in many different shear
which depends on the type of fluid: flow geometries and a review of the literature are given
by Winter (15).
ll.r
JVeW
t oman
. fl Ul'd: 'Yrz=-
. 4
--
r (vz) (19)
R R DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS

Power law fluid: i'rz=- (

1 ) (vz) (
;;+ 3 R R r) lin
(20)
The calculation of temperature fields requires the solu-
tion of the equation of energy. The equation of energy is
conveniently rewritten in dimensionless form. Order of
magnitude arguments allow the elimination of small
The power law viscosity is here defined by terms, as compared to the important terms. This proce-
dure also applies for the viscous dissipation term in the
energy equation. One has to define a dimensionless
in group, the generation number Non• which indicates the
importance of viscous dissipation as compared to convec-
(21) tion, conduction, and compression.
The generation number Non can be defined with the
with a reference viscosity of TJ = TJ{i' ) at a reference
0 0
equation of energy in a most simple form:
shear rate "( 0 in the shear thinning region of the viscosity
plot.
(23)
Now, let us determine the distribution of the dissipa-
tion function for the power law fluid, keeping in mind
that the solution will include the Newtonian fluid as a The fluid is assumed to be purely viscous and of constant
special case (with n = 1). Introducing Equations 20 and viscosity. The thermal properties p, Cp, k are assumed to

30 American Institute of Chemical Engineers

be constant [an equivalent discussion for the compressible Flow With a Transverse Temperature Difference
fluid can be found in Schlichting (13)]. The stress in the
viscous dissipation term is already replaced by There are many flows with a given temperature differ-
ence, t:. Tprocess• between the fluid and a wall,
r=rry with i=Vv+(Vv)T (24)
A Tprocess = T1- T w (28)
The viscosity has to be specified as a function of temper-
ature and deformation rate. D!Dt is a substantial time or between the boundaries of the flow,
derivative. (29)
DT oT Then this temperature difference is chosen to be the char-
- = - + v · VT (25)
Dt at acteristic temperature difference, t:. T 0 ' with which the
temperature changes can be scaled:
The equation of energy is made dimensionless by scal-
ing it with the factor H 2/kAP. Equation 23 becomes A T 0 =A Tprocess (30)

pcpVH H DT* The generation number in this case is called the

------ Brinkman number (4),
k L Dt*
v2.,o
Graetz number, N az NB,=----
kATprocess
1 V271o
= V*T* +- - - 71*(1'* : 'Y*) or the product of the Prandtl number, Np, and the Eck-
2 kAP
ert number, NEe (13),
Generation number, Nan (26)
V2 Cp'T/0
The scaling factors, NEe · Np,= · --=NBr
Cp!:. Tprocess k
V = reference velocity
Both definitions are equivalent. The name, "Brinkman
H = characteristic length in direction of velocity gra- number,'' seems to be preferred in studies on developing
dient (pipe radius or slit width, for instance)
temperatures in channel flow and the name, "Eckert
L = characteristic length in flow direction (pipe
number,'' is preferably used in studies on viscous dissi-
length in pipe flow)
pation in thermal boundary layers.
A T0 reference temperature difference
T0 reference temperature
Flow Without Imposed Temperature Difference
71 ° = reference viscosity, 71( VI H, T0 )
Scaling of the temperature changes due to viscous dis~
make the variables dimensionless:
sipation becomes more difficult when there is no given
T* = (T - T0 ) /t:.T0 temperature difference t:. Tprocess. This situation always
t* = tLIV occurs when isothermal flow conditions are attempted
V* = HV (which is quite common in polymer processing). Viscous
71* = 71/'T/o dissipation would disturb these isothermal conditions and
i* = iHIV its extent has to be estimated in modeling efforts.
The most common choice of scaling factor for temper-
The definition of the generation number is ature changes in nearly isothermal processes is
v.,o
Nan= kt:.To
'" (27)
t:. ro = t:. Trheol = - ( a.,;aT) To,-yo (33)

and its relation to the equation of energy is known. A

large generation number implies that viscous dissipation The temperature changes are of interest since they affect
cannot be neglected in comparison with heat conduction. the viscosity and hence, affect the flow pattern. A viscos-
Note that the product 71*i*:i* might locally adopt very ity with a temperature dependence of the Arrhenius type,
large values ( > 1). Therefore, the viscous dissipation .,=aebiT (34)
might locally influence the temperature even if the gener-
ation number is smaller than one. A safe value for ne- where T =absolute temperature
glecting the effects of viscous dissipation seems to be
gives a characteristic rheological temperature difference,
Nan -< 0.1.
The generation number has been defined several ways
and accordingly, has different names in the literature.
n
!::.. Trheol = b
This module will discuss two of the most common cases.
The other dimensionless group, the Graetz number, com- where T0 =absolute reference temperature
pares the magnitude of convection and conduction. It will
not be discussed here. For molten polymers, t:.Trheol = 30-70 K
Modular Instruction Series 31
 The temperature differences are then scaled as (T - /

T0 ) /~ Trheol and the generation number is called the

I
Nahme number (11).
h
(36)

In nearly isothermal processes, the Nahme number is a Figure 3. Sandwich device for shearing a material.
measure of how much viscous dissipation affects the tem-
perature dependent viscosity. Large values of NNa indi-
iment, Equation 38:
cate that isothermal conditions cannot be maintained.
Note that the temperature change and the generation
. OUx OUy U0
number cannot be scaled with a temperature level T0 • 'Yxy=-+-=- COS (wt) (40)
For scaling, one always has to use a temperature differ- iJy ax h
ence. A quantity (T - T0 )/T0 ) would be dimensionless;
however, it would adopt different values in different tem- The stress in the Hookean material. is proportional to the
perature scales (Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin). shear strain,

Txy= G')'xy (41)

ENERGY DISSIPATION AND STORAGE
The dissipation function becomes
The work done for deforming a viscous material is ir-
reversibly converted into internal energy, i.e. it is dissi-
pated. The work done for deforming an elastic material,
. . G
Txy'Yxy = G')'xy'Yxy = w
(uh )2 . 0
sm (wt) cos (wt)
however, is stored as potential energy, which can be re-
covered mechanically. An example is a. rubber band in
the stretched state. It can perform work when contracting =G
-
2w
(uh )2 .
-
0
sm (2wt) (42)
to its original length. The dissipation function, T:Vv, is
applicable to both cases. It gives the rate of work done
One cycle requires work
for deforming a material, independent of whether this
material is viscous, elastic, or viscoelastic. The dissipa-
tion function is always positive when applied to viscous h/w . G ( u0 ) 2 j27r/w sm. (2wt) dt
materials. It adopts positive or negative values with elas-
W= jo Txy'Yxy dt=-
2w
-
h o
tic and with viscoelastic materials. The name "dissipation
function'' is actually misleading when describing storage
and recovery phenomena in deforming elastic materials.
=-
2w
G(v )2 ( -1)
-
h
0
-
2w
cos (2wt)jh
' 0
1w=0
(43)

Example 4: Oscillatory Strain of a Hookean Material As expected for the elastic material, the work per cycle
is equal to zero. The work done in one half of a cycle is
An elastic material is placed between two extensive recovered in the other half.
parallel plates, as shown in Figure 3. The lower plate is The same experiment, however, with a Newtonian
stationary and the upper plate moves with velocity. fluid, would be described by a dissipation function:

(~ )
2
(37) 2
Txy"(xy=JJ.("(xy) 2 =JJ. COS (wt) (44)
aty = h
and work per cycle
A momentum balance gives the velocity in between the
plates. For uniform properties, it has the simple form
W=
r2r/w
Jo JJ.
(
hU)2 cos 2 (wt) dt
0

y
ux(y)=h U0 cos (wt) (38)
U)2
0
=JJ. ( h 7r (45)
Calculate the rate of work done in order to deform the
material. Integrate to find the total work for one cycle. The work is dissipated in the material.
Compare the result to the behavior of a Newtonian fluid
in the same experiment. APPENDIX: DERIVATION OF THE
The rate of work done is given by the dissipation func- DISSIPATION TERM
tion,
Consider a small volume element (volume V, surface
T : Vv = Txy"Yxy (39) S) of a material which is deformed by a stress a on the
surface. The rate of work done on the surface of the ma-
The shear rate is given by the velocity field of the exper- terial element is calculated by integrating (n ·a· v)s over

32 American Institute of Chemical Engineers

the entire surface, LITERATURE CITED

E= H(n · u · v)s dS
s
(46) 1. Armstrong, R. C., and H. H. Winter, "Heat Transfer for Non-
Newtonian Fluids," in "Heat Exchanges Design and Data Book,"
Section 2.5.12, E. U. Schliinder Ed., Hemisphere Pub!. London
n is the outward unit normal on the surface and (n · u)s is (1982).
2. Astarita, G., and G. Marrucci, "Principles of Non-Newtonian
the force per unit area of surface. Multiplication with the Fluid Mechanics," McGraw Hill, London (1974).
surface velocity gives the rate of work per unit surface. 3. Bird, R. B., Stewart, W. E., and E. N. Lightfoot, "Transport
The work done on the surface is used for deforming Phenomena," Wiley, New York (1960).
the material element (change of shape and volume), ac- 4. Brinkman, H. C., Appl. Sci. Research, A2, 120-124 (1951).
5. Cox, H. W., and C. W. Macosko, A/ChE J., 20, 785-795
celerating it, and increasing its potential energy. This· is (1974).
shown in the following. It will lead to an expression for 6. Dinh, S. M., and R. C. Armstrong, A/ChE J, 28, 294-301
the rate at which work is being done for deforming the (1982). . .
volume element. 7. Eckert, E. R. G., and R. M. Dilike, "Analysis of Heat Trans-
The surface integral of Equation 46 is replaced by a fer," McGraw Hill, London (1972).
8. Ei.nstein, A., Ann. Phys., 19, 286 (1906); Ann. Phys., 34, 591
volume integral (using the Gauss theorem): (1911).

H
s
(n · u · v)s dS= Hj
v
V · u · v dV (47)
9.

10.
Gavis, J., and R. L. Laurence, Ind. Eng. Chern. Fund., 7, 525-
527 (1%8).
Landau, L. D., and E. M. Lifshitz, "Fluid Mechanics," Perga-
mon Press, Oxford, (1959).
11. Nahme, R., Ing-Archiv, JJ, 191-209 (1940).
and the kernel in volume integral is replaced by the iden- 12. Pearson, J. R. A., Polym. Eng. Sci., 18, 222-229 (1978).
tity 13. Schlichting, H., and J. Kestin, "Boundary Layer Theory," Mc-
Graw Hill, London (1955).
V·u·v=u:Vv+v·V·u (48) 14. Winter, H. H., Polym. Eng. Sci., 15, 84-89 (1975).
15. Winter, H. H., Adv. Heat Transfer, 13, 205-267 (1977).
The physical meaning of the product v · V · u can be ex-
plained from the stress equation of motion. Scalar multi- REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING
plication of the local velocity v with the stress equation
of motion (3), Equation of Energy:
Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot, 1960
pD Astarita and Marrucci, 1974
- - u 2 =v · V · u+pv · g (49)
2Dt Eckert and Drake, 1972
Dimensionless Groups:
gives an expression for v·V·u. D!Dt is the substantial Armstrong and Winter, 1982
time derivative. The last two equations are introduced
Pearson, 1978
into the volume integral, Equation 47. The result of the Schlichting and Kestin, 1955
derivation is
Eckert and Drake, 1972
ij (n · u · v)s dS Winter, 1977
s Polymer Processing:
Winter 1977, 1975

v
[ u: Vv+~ D
2Dt
u2 -pv · g] dV (50) Pearson, 1978
Cox and Macosko, 1974
Gavis and Laurence, 1968

L
Rate of change of Dinh and Armstrong, 1982
potential energy Thermal Boundary Layer:
per unit volume. EckertandDrake, 1972
Schlichting and Kestin, 1955
Rate of change of
kinetic energy per Heat Transfer Coefficient for FLOW WITH VIS-
unit volume. COUS DISSIPATION:
Eckert and Drake, 1972
,__-------Rate of work for Winter, 1977
changing the volume Suspension Viscosity Defined with DISSIPATION
and shape, per unit FUNCTION:
volume (see Eq. 1). Einstein, 1906, 1911
Landau and Lifshitz, 1959
u: Vv is the dissipation term in the equation of energy.
For many applications in polymer processing, the STUDY PROBLEMS
changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligibly
small; all the work done on the surface is practically used 1. Calculate the dimensionless temperature (T - T0 )/T0
for deforming the volume elem~nt. in degrees Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin. Use T =

Modular Instruction Series 33

 with fluid I (viscosity p.1) and the upper half with fluid
n (viscosity P.n). The viscosities differ by a factor of
10: p.1 = lOp.n. Where is the rate of viscous dissipa-
tion higher, in the viscous fluid I or in the less vis-
cous fluid ll?

HOMEWORK PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the Nahme number for pipe flow of Exam-
Figure 4. Shear flow of two Immiscible fluids In a gap between ple 1. Use ATrheol = 50 K and k = 0.2 W/mK.
parallel plates.
2. Use slip data from the literature to determine viscous
dissipation in the slip layer.
180°C and T0 = 150°C. Discuss how a dimension- Ref.: L. L. Blyler and A. C. Hart, "Capillary Flow
less temperature can depend on the choice of tempera- Instability of Ethylene Polymer Melts,'' Polym. Eng.
ture scale. HINT: Each temperature scale refers to a Sci., 10, 193-203 (1970).
different temperature as zero temperature. 3. Extend Example 4 to a linear viscoelastic material
2. State the system of equations for the velocity, the with a shear stress
temperature, and the viscosity for flow in a pipe with
isothermal walls. How are the equations coupled with
each other?
3. When is the dissipation function positive and when is
it negative? Hint: Determine the time dependent shear stress Txy(t)
first.
4. Consider shear flow of two immiscible Newtonian flu-
ids in a narrow gap between two parallel plates, see 4. Calculate the rate of viscous dissipation cf>(r, 8) in a
Figure 4. The flow is due to the parallel movement of Newtonian fluid which flows around a single sphere
the upper plate. The lower half of the gap is filled (see Reference 3, p. 133).

34 American Institute of Chemical Engineers

 Series C:
TRANSPORT
Volume 7:
Calculation and
Measurement Techniques
for Momentum, Energy and
Mass Transfer

R. J. Gordon, Series Editor

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS

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 INTRODUCTION

In 1975 a new venture in education by and for the chemical engineering community was
initiated. Prepared by the CACHE Corporation (Computer Aids for Chemical Engineering
Education) and under the sponsorship of the National Science Foundation (Grant HES 75-
03911), a series of small self-study fundamental concept modules for various areas of
chemical engineering were commissioned, Chemical Engineering Modular Instruction,
CHEMI.
It has been found in recent studies that modular study is more effective than traditional
instruction in both university and continuing education settings. This is due in large mea-
sure to the discrete focus of each module, which allows the student to tailor the speed and
order of his or her study. In addition, since the modules have different authors, each writing
in his or her area of special expertise, they can be produced more quickly, and students may
be asured of timely information. Finally, these modules have been tested in the classroom
prior to their publication.
The educational effect of modular study is to reduce, in general, the number of hours
required to teach a given subject; it is expected that the decreased time and expense in-
volved in engineering education, when aided by modular instruction, will attract a larger
number of students to engineering, including those who have not traditionally chosen engi-
neering. For the practicing engineer, the modules are intended to enhance or broaden the
skills he or she has already acquired, and to make available new fields of expertise.
The modules were designed with a variety of applications in mind; They may be pursued
in a number of contexts: as outside study, special projects, entire university courses (credit
or non-credit), review courses, or correspondence courses; and they may be studied in a
variety of modes: as supplements to course work, as independent study, in continuing
education programs, and in the traditional student/teacher mode.
A module was defined as a self-contained set ofleaming materials tat covers one or more
topics. It should be sufficiently detailed that im outside evaluation could identify its educa-
tional objectives and determine a student's achievement of these objectives. A module
should have the educational equivalent of a one to three hour lecture.
The CHEMI Project Staff included:
E. J. Henley, University of Houston, Director
W. Heenan, Texas A & I University, Assistant Director
Steering Committee:
L. B. Evans, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
G. J. Powers, Carnegie-Mellon University
E. J. Henley, University ofHouston
D. M. Himmelblau, University of Texas at Austin
D. A. Mellichamp, University of California at Santa Barbara
R. E. C. Weaver, Tulane University
Editors:
Process Control: T. F. Edgar, University of Texas at Austin
Stagewise and Mass Transfer Operations: E. J. Henley, University of
Houston, J. M. Calo, Brown University
Transport: R. J. Gordon, University of Flordia
Thermodynamics: B. M. Goodwin, Northeastern University
Kinetics: B. L. Crynes, Oklahoma State University
H. S. Fogler, University of Michigan
Material and Energy Balances: D. M. Himmelblau, University of Texas
at Austin

iv American Institute of Chemical Engineers

 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

C7. 1 CONVERTING THE EQUATION OF MOTION TO DIMENSIONLESS

FORM ........................................... W. F.. Beckwith 1

C7 .2 NEWTONIAN FLOW THROUGH FITTINGS, BENDS, CONTRACTIONS,

EXPANSIONS AND NON-CIRCULAR DUCTS ........... K. A. Solen 6

C7.3 VISCOSITIES OF NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS ..... Leon Y. Sadler, Ill 19

C7.4 VISCOUS DISSIPATION TERM IN ENERGY EQUATIONS

................................................... H. H. Winter 27

C7.5 GENERAL ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE DIFFUSION

PROBLEMS ...................................... Charles E. Glatz 35

C7 .6 COUPLED TRANSPORT ....... Dorothy Lozowski and Pieter Stroeve 41

C7. 7 APPLICATION OF ELECTROCHEMICAL LIMITING CURRENT

TECHNIQUE TO THE STUDY OF INTERFACIAL MASS
TRANSFER -INTRODUCTION AND THEORY
............. Robert F. Savinell, Frank W. Klink ,and John R. Sauter 47

C7 .8 APPLICATION OF ELECTROCHEMICAL LIMITING CURRENT

TECHNIQUE TO THE STUDY OF INTERFACIAL MASS
TRANSFER- EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS
............................ Robert F. Savinell and Frank W. Klink 55

APPENDIX: SOLUTIONS TO THE STUDY PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Solutions to the Homework Problems are available as a separate reprint

from the AIChE Educational Services Dept., 345 East 46th St., New York,
NY 10017. The cost is $5.00.
 Curriculum Analysis: E. J. Henley, University of Houston
The second phase of the project, designed to fill in gaps as well as develop new modules,
is under the direction of D. M. Himmelblau, University of Texas at Austin.
Steering Committee:
B. Carnahan, University of Michigan
D. E. Griffith, Oklahoma State University
L. Harrisberger, University of Alabama
D. M. Himmelblau, University of Texas at Austin
V. Slamecka, Georgia Institute of Technology
R. Tinker, Technology Education Research Center
Editors(* indicates a new task force head):
Process Control: T. F. Edgar, University of Texas at Austin
Stagewise and Mass Transfer Operations: J. M. Calo, Brown University
E. J. Henley, University of Houston
Transport: R. J. Gordon, University of Florida
Thermodynamics: G. A. Mansoori*, University ofllinois at Chicago Circle
Kinetics: B. L. Crynes, Oklahoma State University
H. S. Fogler, University of Michigan
Material and Energy Balances: E. H. Snider*, University of Tulsa
Design of Equipment: J. R. Beckman, Arizona State University
Volume 1 of each series will appear in 1980; Volume 2 in 1981; and so forth. A tentative
outline of all volumes to be produced in this series follows:

SERIES C: TRANSPORT

Volume 1. Momentum Transport'and Fluid Flow

Cl.l Simplified One-Dimensional Momentum Transport Problems G. K. Patterson
Cl.2 Friction Factor R. J. Gordon and N. H. Chen
Cl.3 Applications of the Steady-State Mechanical Energy Balance D. W. Hubbard
C 1.4 Flow Meters W. F. Beckwith
Cl.S Packed Beds and Fluidization W. J. Hatcher, Jr.
Cl.6 Multi-Phase Flow R. A. Greenkorn and D. P. Kessler

Volume 2. Momentum Transport, VIscoelasticity and Turbulence

C2.1 Non-Newtonian Flow !-Characterization of Fluid Behavior D. V. Boger and A. L. Halmos
C2.2 Non-Newtonian Flow li-Fully Developed Tube Flow D. V. Boger and A. L. Halmos
C2.3 Viscoelastic Fluid Flow Phenomena D. V. Boger and R. I. Tanner
C2.4 Turbulence: General Aspects Illustrated by Channel or Pipe Flow N. S. Berman
C2.5 Turbulent Drag Reduction G. K. Patterson

Volume 3. Equation of Motion, Boundary Layer Theory and Measurement Techniques

C3.1 Measurements of Local Fluid Velocities N. S. Berman and H. Usui
C3.2 Equation of Motion G. K. Patterson
C3.3 Navier Stokes Equation for Steady One-Directional Flow G. C. April
C3.4 Boundary Layer Theory · R. J. Gordon
C3.5 Boundary Layer Theory: Approximate Solution Techniques R. L. Cerro
C3.6 Diffusivity Measurement Techniques in Liquids V. L. Vilker

Volume 4. Mathematical Techniques and Energy Transport

C4.1 Mathematical Techniques !-Separation of Variables R. S. Subramanian
C4.2 Mathematical Techniques ll-Combination of Variables R. S. Subramanian
C4.3 Elementary Steady-State Heat Conduction W. J. Hatcher

Modular Instruction Series v

C4.4 Natural Convection R. D. Noble
C4.S Unsteady-State Heat Conduction K. 1. Hayakawa
C4.6 Differential Energy Balance R. D. Noble

CS.I Unsteady-State Diffusion S. Uchida

CS.2 Mass Transfer in Laminar Flow S. H. Ibrahim
CS.3 Turbulent Mass Transfer S. H. Ibrahim

Volume 6. Transport Phenomena-Special Topics

C6.1 Bubble Dynamics: An Illustration of Dynamically Coupled Rate Processes T. G. Theofanous
C6.2 Miscible Dispersion R. S. Subramanian
C6.3 Biomedical Examples of Transport Phenomena 1-Coupled Diffusion Effects R. H. Notter
C6.4 Biomedical Examples of Transport Phenomena 11-Facilitated Diffusion R. H. Notter
C6.S Mass Transfer in Heterogeneous Media P. Stroeve
C6.6 Advancing Front Theory R. Srinivasan and P. Stroeve

Volume 7. Calculation and Measurement Techniques for Momentum, Energy and Mass Transfer

C7.l Converting the Equation of Motion to Dimensionless Form W. F. Beckwith

C7.2 Newtonian Flow Through Fittings, Bends, Contractions, Expansions and Non-Circular Ducts K. A. Solen
C7.3 Viscosities of Non-Newtonian Fluids L. Y. Sadler, ill
C7.4 Viscous Dissipation Term in Energy Equations H. H. Winter
C7.5 General One-Dimensional Steady-State Diffusion Problems C. E. Gratz
C7.6 Coupled Transport D. Lozowski and P. Stroeve
C7.7 Application of Electrochemical Limiting Current Technique to the Study of Interfacial R. F. Savinell, F. W. Klink
Mass Transfer-Introduction and Theory and J. R. Sauter·
C7.8 Application of Electrochemical Limiting Current Technique to the Study of Interfacial
Mass Transfe~-Examples Q( Applications R. F. Savinell and F. W. Klink

Publication and dissemination of these modules is under the direction of Harold I. Abramson, Staff Director, Educational
Activities, AIChE. Technical Editor is Lori S. Roth. Chemical engineers in industry or academia who are interested in
submitting modules for publication should direct them to H. I. Abramson, Staff Director, Educational Activities, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017.

vi American Institute of Chemical Engineers